Acoustic Emission Testing and

P. R. Blackburn
Structural Evaluation of Seamless,
Steel Tubes in Compressed Gas
M. D. Rana
Consultants,
Service
Linde Division, Tube trailers are used in the distribution of industrial gases. The tubes, which are
Union Carbide Corporation, seamless steel, measure 22-in. diameter, about 1/2-in. wall, and 34ft long. The U. S.
Tonawanda, N.Y. 14151 Department of Transportation mandates periodic re-tests of tubes every 5 yr.
Acoustic emission re-tests have been substituted for hydrostatic re-tests. This paper
presents an analysis of flaws using fracture mechanics methods and establishes a
maximum allowable flaw depth. It describes the acoustic emission test method and
presents some typical results. Also, some discussion of the hydrostatic re-test is
included.

Introduction
Seamless steel tubes are used in the distribution of industrial closed and filled with water; and the tube is pressurized.
gases. Often they are mounted on truck trailers for over the Typical test pressure is about 4000 psi (27.5 MPa). During
road transportation (Fig. I). The work described in this paper pressurization the tube expands; the expansion is observed by
pertains to two types of tubes: U. S. Department of Transpor- measuring the water displaced from the jacket with a buret
tation (DOT) specification 3AAX tubes and specification 3T tube.
tubes [1]. These seamless tubes are fabricated from quenched A tube will fail the hydrostatic test if nominal wall stress, as
and tempered, modified AISI 4130 (3AAX) and 4140 (3T) determined from measured elastic expansion, exceeds
type steels. The chemistry, heat treatment, and typical prescribed limits [1]. The relationship between wall stress limit
mechanical properties of the tubes are listed in Table 1. and elastic expansion is [2]
Typical dimensions are 22 in. (55.8 cm) o.d. with minimum 1.7 EE
wall thicknesses of 0.536 and 00415 in. (1.36 and 1.05 cm) for a=----OAp (I)
3AAX and 3T tubes, respectively. Usually they are about 34 ft VoK
(10.3 m) long. Service pressure is typically 2640 psi (18.1 where
MPa). Normally such tubes are hydrostatically re-tested every EE = elastic expansion, cm 3
five years at 1.67 times rated pressure. V o = internal volume (139,000 in. 3 )
Since early 1983, acoustic emission testing has been used, by K = factor (1.296 x 10- 7 )
Linde, in lieu of hydrostatic testing to meet DOT mandated re- (J = wall stress (87,000 psi)
test requirements. This change in re-test method has provided p = test pressure (4100 psi)
much more information, which relates to the structural in-
tegrity of tubes, than did the hydrostatic method. Also, a
substantial reduction in operating cost is realized with the
acoustic emission re-test method.
The method of acoustic emission testing, some results
(which include flaw qualification by ultrasonic inspection),
and structural evaluation of the flawed tubes are presented in
this paper.

Hydrostatic Re-Test
Hydrostatic testing is performed in a water jacket. The
trailer is disassembled; individual tubes are filled with water;
they are placed in the water jacket (usually with the
longitudinal axis in a vertical orientation); the water jacket is
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received by the
Pressure Vessels and Piping Division, February 26, 1985; revised manuscript
received May 9, 1985. Fig. 1 Tube trailer

2341 Vol. 108, MAY 1986 Transactions of the ASM E

Copyright © 1986 by ASME
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 Table 1 Chemistry, heat treatment and mechanical properties of 3AAX and 3T tubes
Chemistry (percent by weight)

C Mn P(max) S(max) Si Cr Mo
3AAX 0.25/0.35 0.40/0.90 0.04 0.05 0.20/0.35 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
3T 0.35/0.50 0.75/1.05 0.035 0.04 0.15/0.35 0.80/1. I5 0.15/0.25
Heat treatment
3AAX Quenched in oil or other suitable medium and tempered at greater than or equal to 1000°F.
3T Quenched in oil or other suitable medium and tempered at greater than or equal to 1050°F.
Mechanical properties

Ultimate Elongation
Yield tensile in 2-in.
strength, strength, gage length,
ksi ksi percent
3AAX 90/106 105/125 20
3T 115/130 135/155 16

Some typical values for a DOT specification 3T tube are

shown, in parentheses, after the foregoing definitions.
The total expansion of a tube consists of an elastic compo-
nent and a permanent component. Usually when the tube is
hydrostatically tested to 1.67 times service pressure, there is
permanent deformation. The total expansion and the perma-
nent expansion are measured.
A second way that a tube can fail the hydrostatic test is if
the permanent expansion exceeds ten percent of the measured
total expansion.
A third way in which a tube can fail the hydrostatic test is
shown in Fig. 2. This DOT specification 3T tube was in diving
mixture service (helium-oxygen mixtures); it had passed
several previous hydrostatic re-tests. In addition, it had
cleared the original manufacturer's inspection which included
ultrasonic examination. The failure contained a fold (or lap)
at the inside surface. This flaw had grown during service; and,
at the time of failure, it produced approximately 30 percent
reduction in wall thickness. This experience causes concern
that a flawed tube could enter service, pass a hydrostatic re-
test, and grow in service (due to fatigue) until failure occurred.
Acoustic Emission Testing
When a structure is loaded, strain occurs and energy is
stored in the structure. If flaws in the structure grow, some of
this stored energy is released (as work is done on the structure)
at the flaws. A small fraction of this energy is released in the
form of stress waves which propagate through the structure.
By placing a sensor on the structure, passage of a wave packet
can be detected. Consequently, increments of flaw growth can
be detected. Moreover, by using a proper signal processor,
with multiple sensors, (based on measured time of arrival at
the sensors) flaw location can be determined.
The technology of Acoustic Emission (AE) testing has
developed over the past fifteen years to a point where it has
great utility [3]. Also, portable, reliable, "user friendly,"
multi-channel acoustic emission testing equipment is commer-
cially available.
Some preliminary acoustic emission testing of tube trailers
was done beginning in 1981. Detection and location of flaws
was accomplished. The technique proved to be quite sensitive
and able to detect flaws so small that they had no significant
effect on tube strength. Based on this preliminary work, it was
concluded that serious flaws are also detectable with acoustic
emission testing.
With the ability to detect flaws, there is a need to establish
some standard for what size flaw is allowable in service. The
determination of allowable flaw size is described in the next
section.
Fracture Analysis of Tubes and Allowable Flaw Size
The structural integrity of 3AAX and 3T tubes which con-
Fig. 2 DOT 3T tube which failed during hydrostatic re·test
tain flaws is evaluated here by using well-established analytical
techniques of fracture mechanics. From fatigue-crack-growth
analyses and fracture critical surface-flaw analyses, a size limit
of acceptable initial flaw in the tube has been established.
Analyses here are for DOT Specification tubes made of
3AAX-4130X 125 ksi UTS (ultimate tensile strength) steel and
3T, 155 ksi UTS steel.
By DOT rules, the 3AAX tube can be used for hydrogen gas
service while the 3T tube cannot. Literature data indicate that
the 3AAX-4130X steel at approximately 105-125 ksi UTS is
mildly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. Therefore, the
3AAX tubes have been analyzed taking hydrogen embrittle-
ment into account since this will be the worst condition. The
3T tubes have been analyzed using fracture properties where
the contents have no effect on the fracture toughness and
fatigue-crack-growth-rate properties.
DOT 3AAX-4130X Tubes-Surface Flaw Analysis
Figure 3 attached, shows the hoop stress versus fracture
critical flaw depth (i.e., crack propagation will occur) for a
typical 22 in. (55.8 em) o.d., x 0.536 in. (1.36 em) thick wall
3AAX tube in presence of high pressure (2640 psig or 18.2
MPa) hydrogen gas. The calculations were made using an
ASME Code stress-intensity equation [4] which is described in
the forthcoming. The threshold stress intensity - K 1H of 80 ksi
.Jlil. (88 MPa vrn)
is used in the analysis. This value was ob-
tained from reference [5].
An elliptical surface crack shape with a length to depth ratio
of 4: I was used in the analysis, since this shape represents ex-
pected typical crack shape by fatigue loading [6].
K, =Mmum V7raIQ+Mbub V7raIQ (2)
where

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0.2 0.3
CRITICAL FLAW DEPTH, a, INCH
Fig. 3 Stress versus fracture critical flaw depth, 3AAX tube in
hydrogen service
NUMBER OF YEARS FOR H2 GAS
10 15
'-CRITICAL F L A W ' /
SIZE a c - .44" / - »i = . 1 2 5 " /
FOR H2 GAS A '
^ =i = .06"
£-— S| = .03"
, ksi (966 MPa) UTS steel [9], which has higher strength than
1,000 1,600
NUMBER OF CYCLES, N, FOR H2 GAS
Fig. 4 Fatigue crack growth versus pressure cycles, 3AAX tube in
hydrogen service
Kt=Km = threshold stress intensity, ksi Vm.
am = membrane stress = hoop stress, ksi
ab = bending stresses = 0
Mm = correcting factor for membrane stress (Fig. A-2203-2
of ASME Section XI, Div. 1)
Mb = correcting factor for bending stress (not needed for
this analysis)
a = surface flaw depth, in.
<2 = flaw shape parameter (Fig. A-2203-1 of ASME Sec-
tion XI, Div. 1)
As can be seen from Fig. 3, the fracture critical-flaw-depth
at the DOT specified maximum allowable service stress of 44.2
ksi (304.8 MPa) is 0.44 in. (1.12 cm) which is close to the
thickness of the tube. Most of the flaws encountered in actual
service conditions are much smaller than 0.44 in. (1.12 cm).
These subcritical flaws do not compromise the structural in-
tegrity of the tube. This is one of the reasons why DOT 3AA
cylinders and 3AAX tubes have an excellent record in all ser-
vices, including hydrogen.
DOT 3AAX-4130X Tubes Fatigue Analysis
The fatigue life of a tube in the presence of a flaw consists
of two phases; the first phase is crack initiation (A7,), and the
second phase is the crack propagation to failure (N/). For a
given flaw geometry and applied cyclic stress-intensity (AK),
crack initiation depends on the sharpness of the flaw tip.
236/Vol. 108, MAY 1986
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Work done by various investigators (references [7 and 8]) con-
clude that the AAT/Vp parameter correlates well with the initia-
tion life where p is the flaw tip radius. In this analysis it is con-
servatively assumed that p is very small; and, that crack pro-
pagation has initiated (it is assumed that Nt = 0).
The fatigue-crack-growth-rate (FCGR) behavior in air at-
mosphere is represented by the following equation:
da
KO^xlO-8)^,)2 at7? = 0 (3)
dN
where
R = AKmin'/K
Ti
- max
Kml„ = minimum and maximum stress intensity at
crack tip, ksi Vim
AK, cyclic stress intensity factor, ksi
/in.
0.4 0.5 a =crack depth, in.
N = number of fatigue cycles
Equation (3), taken from reference [7], is applicable to
martensitic steels with yield strength ranging form 80 to 300
ksi (552 to 2069 MPa) and can be used in evaluating
3AAX-4130X and 3T steels.
20
It is known that hydrogen gas accelerates the fatigue-crack-
growth-rate of 4130X steel by a considerable amount; but, ex-
act parameters for 4130X are not available. Work done by M.
Kesten and K. F. Windgassen [9] indicates that the fatigue life
(which is defined as number of cycles to produce a through-
wall crack) of hydrogen cylinders is reduced by a factor of six.
This applies to tubes containing high pressure (2850 psig or
a, = INITIAL /
3132 MPa) hydrogen, compared to tubes pressurized with oil.
CRACK DEPTH / Using this information, equation (3) can be modified for
yC—— a i - . 0 1 " hydrogen assisted FCGR as follows:
da
a = (0.66X10-8)(6)(AA:1)2-25 (4)
dN
I I—I—I This modification is based on test work done on European 140
2,000
the DOT 4130X steel used in 3AAX tubes. Therefore, the in-
crease in the FCGR by a factor of six may be a conservative
modification.
Using equations (2) and (4), fatigue crack growth calcula-
tions were made for a typical 3AAX tube subjected to cyclic
stress of 44.2 ksi in presence of 0.01 in. (0.25 mm), 0.03 in.,
(0.75 mm), 0.06 in. (1.52 mm) and 0.125 in. (3.18 mm) deep
initial flaws. Results are presented graphically in Fig. 4. In
developing Fig. 4, average values of the stress-intensity correc-
tion factor Mm and flaw-shape factor Q were used for the en-
tire range of the crack depth to wall thickness (a/t) ratios. The
values used were Mm = 1.5 and Q = 1.0.
DOT 3T Tubes Surface Flaw and Fatigue Analysis
The maximum strength of 3T tubes is restricted to 155 ksi by
the DOT Specification. Based on experimental work, at
Linde, on high-strength quenched and tempered modified
AISI 4130 and 4140 steels, the estimated plane-strain Klc frac-
ture toughness of typical 3T, 155 ksi UTS (130 ksi yield
strength) level steel is 80 ksi Vim (89 MPa Vm) in the
transverse orientation at room temperature. According to
ASTM E-399 Standard [10], a tube wall thickness of 0.412 in.
(1.05 cm) with Klc of 80 ksi Vim (88 MPa vm) and yield
strength of 130 ksi (897 MPa) is in the plane-stress fracture
state. The corresponding plane-stress fracture toughness (Kc)
value for the 3T tube wall thickness, yield strength and plane-
strain Klc parameters is approximately 120 ksi Vim (132 MPa
Vm). The foregoing stated Klc—Kc conversion was obtained
using equation (5) [11].
W>-£(£)7 (5)
Transactions of the ASME
 TO SIGNAL PROCESSOR

Fig. 8 Instrumented trailer tube

where
/ = wall thickness, in.
oy = yield strength, ksi
Using the toughness value of 120 ksi Vrru (132 MPa Vm) and
equation (2), the critical-flaw-size calculations were made and
results are presented in Fig. 5. As can be seen from Fig. 5, the
0.2 0.3
fracture critical-flaw-depth is close to the through thickness at
CRITICAL FLAW DEPTH, a, INCH the DOT specified, maximum allowable service stress of 57.4
Fig. 5 Stress versus fracture critical flaw depth, 3T tube ksi, (396 MPa), thus indicating leak-before-break per-
formance characteristic of this tube.
Figure 6 shows the fatigue-crack-growth response of a
CRITICAL FLAW SIZE typical 3T tube in the presence of various initial flaws at cyclic
r a°=-41" / stresses of 57.4 ksi, (396 MPa). Equations (2) and (3) were
-Bi-.125"/
/ a,, INITIAL CRACK / used in the fatigue-crack-growth calculations.
/ DEPTH /
0.3- *i - .06" .
— a i = .03" /
Acceptable Flaw Size Determination
0.2 H j£— =i = .oi"
As presented in Figs. 3 and 5, the critical-flaw-sizes of the
3AAX and 3T tubes are fairly large (almost through
0.1-
thickness). Therefore, relatively small flaws do not com-
• ^ ^ .
promise the tubes structural integrity. However, because of
the cyclic pressurization of these tubes, small flaws could grow
1
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
1
5,000 6,000
i i
7,000
i
8,000 3,000
i
10,000
(Figs. 4 and 6) to a critical size. Therefore, it is necessary to
NUMBER OF CYCLES, N establish a limit on the flaw size, so that the flaw will not grow
I 1 , , , , 1 1 1 , 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 to a critical size within the 5-yr re-test period. These tubes are
NUMBER OF YEARS typically subjected to 100 pressure cycles per year in the Linde
Fig. 6 Fatigue crack growth versus pressure cycles, 3T tube distribution network.
Use of a safety factor in structural integrity assessment of
pressure vessels via a fracture control program is not uncom-
mon. In this analysis, a safety factor of two has been assigned
to the calculated fracture critical-flaw-sizes of the 3AAX and
3T tubes. Using Figs. 4 and 6 data, the number of fatigue
cycles to reach critical flaw size (for different initial flaw sizes)
are presented in Fig. 7.
As shown in Fig. 7, the 3AAX tube, in hydrogen service, is
the limiting case; and, for the proposed 5-yr re-test period, the
initial acceptable flaw size (measured during AE re-test) is less
than or equal to 0.106 in. (2.7 mm). Although flaws larger
than 0.106 in. (2.7 mm) could be tolerated in 3T tubes, the
same rejection limit is used by Linde for both 3AAX and 3T
tubes.
Thus, based on the foregoing fracture analyses, 3AAX or
3T tubes with flaws greater than 0.10 in. deep, (as detected by
the AE test method and measured by ultrasonic inspection) are
removed from service.

A E Test Method
With AE re-testing, the trailer can be tested while it is filled
with product, at a production facility. It need not be removed
from service.
Immediately prior to a re-test, each tube is instrumented; a
piezoelectric sensor is placed at each end (Fig. 8). Sensors are
attached with silicone adhesive; they are acoustically coupled
to the tubes with silicone grease. Sensors are resonant at
140-150 KHz. Signals are filtered with 100-350 KHz bandpass
INITIAL FLAW SIZE a,, INCH filters, and processed with a multi-channel system. System
Fig. 7 Years to reach fracture critical flaw depth versus initial flaw threshold is 40 dB (referenced to 1 microvolt at the sensing ele-
depth for 3AAX and 3T tubes ment). The 40 dB threshold is obtained by using 40 dB of

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 LOG CUM EVENTS
(PWRS OF 10)
-5

i i i i i 1
6 in. (15.2 cm)

4
H ~|
Z
UJ .

ILL
2

J_L
9 10 11 12
01234567 0.00 X A X I A L LOCATION - INCHES
FILTER: LOCATION FOR ARRAYS
FILE: UC1846A. 10/19/83 11:26:11 5 Y R RETEST TRLRS/N Fig. 10 Flaw depth and event count versus axial location
Fig. 9(a) Acoustic emission event count versus axial location

/ \

OQ

A
fe
A
I t I
I I

05
1.25 in.
" (3.2 cm) ~
\- 1.5 in. -| -J I- L-0.8 in J

661 662 663 664

A X I A L LOCATION - INCHES A X I A L LOCATION - INCHES

Fig. 9(b) Flaw depth and event count versus axial location Fig. 11 Flaw depth and event count versus axial location

preamplification, with 40 dB of post amplification, together
with a 1-V threshold at the analog to digital converter. More
recently, sensors with integral preamplifiers were used. Trailer
pressure is measured with a transducer on the trailer manifold,
and is recorded by the AE system.
The trailer is filled to 110 percent of normal fill pressure
(whereas, in a hydrostatic test the pressure is 167 percent of
rated pressure). This permits re-testing at a pressure above
that which occurred during the previous 5 yr of service.
Following the re-test, the excess product is bled to a receiver;
and the trailer returns to service at normal fill pressure.
If sufficient AE events are detected from a specific location,
that location is noted; and, ultrasonic inspection of that loca-
tion is performed (with a shear wave angle beam). Flaws at
that location are measured (with UT); and, if they are less than
0.10 in. (2.54 mm) deep, the tubes pass the re-test (i.e., they
are returned to service for another 5 yr).
A E Test Results
An exemption from the requirement to perform hydrostatic
re-testing was granted by the U. S. Department of Transporta-
tion in March 1983. Since that time hundreds of tubes have
been tested. Results from these tests are being incorporated in-
to a data base. Some examples are discussed in the
forthcoming.
A plot of AE events versus axial location (a location
distribution) is shown in Fig. 9(a). This type of display is nor-
mally monitored during re-tests. Units of the horizontal axis
are inches. Inspection of Fig. 9(a) shows that one location had
produced 4 events. This location was subjected to ultrasonic
inspection; and a lap, on the outside surface, 1.25 in. (3.2 cm)
long was found.
Figure 9(b) shows a plot of the depth profile (as determined
with UT) and immediatgely below a magnified location
distribution. Depth is plotted as percent of the "distance
amplitude correlation value" (DAC). Actual depth of 0.10 in.
corresponds to 100 percent DAC. When the depth is less than
0.10 in. (100 percent) we have a relative (or approximate)
depth measurement; but, we do not have a good quantitative
depth measurement. The AE location distribution cor-
responds extremely well with the ultrasonic result in that the
deepest portion of the flaw produced the most AE events.
Figure 10 shows the depth profile and location distribution
for a crack (on the inside surface) 6 in. (15 cm) long in a tube
which was in oxygen service. Again the deepest portion of the
crack produced the most AE events.
Figure 11 shows similar plots for a tube which was in
hydrogen service. Here within a section of tube, 9 in. (23 cm)
long, there were 6 AE events; and, ultrasonic inspection
showed three small flaws on the inside surface. These flaws
were separated from one another by about 11 in. in the cir-
cumferential direction. Here, it is not completely obvious
which events are associated with which flaws. However, emis-
sion was observed; and, ultrasonic inspection of the area

238/Vol. 108, MAY 1986

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on 06/29/2019 Terms of Use: http://www.asme.org/about-asme/terms-of-use of the ASME
 2 C h , A-Dumpis OFF 1963 H E L I U M T U B E T R A I L E R 09/10/84 09:08:42
i i i
CH 1 & 2 T U B E 1 10

CH2&4TUBE 2

CH5&6TUBE3
i±=i±S=i±2=± wij9mm»»iJlmmAm

CH 7 & 8 T U B E 4
iiii|iiMnWM|algB •
' CZZZ3C IE=E
E V E N T S = 179
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MESSAGES = 10

GRAPH 05 OF 20 Miii^J&im~~*i&&mmwmt*mmJLIm—mArB^Brm-pm£b„
•^^^^miniiiMiiiiMui^^^^BOTaMBmmiiMiinmM nuJff MWW^^MM

.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00

LOCATION ( % o f distance between sensors)
A E E V E N T S versus L O C A T I O N

Fig. 12 Acoustic emission event count versus axial location for four tubes

2 C h , A - D u m p is O F F 196 i HELIUM TUBE TRAILER 0 9 / 1 0 / 8 4 0 9 : 0 3 : 48

10-
CH 1 & 2 T U B E 1 2 " X .02" -,

NON-CUMULATIVE 08- 8"X .12"-.

I N T E R V A L SUM

EVENTS

FIRST A R R I V A L
06.

04-
SURFACE
ROUGHNESS -i

\ 1 " X .02' 5 X ,01"-i

.75" X .015"-,

\|
I 1

Iill ll
A "
E V E N T S = 179
02-
V
MESSAGES-10
I \
1 111 11 1 J^l II
G R A P H 0 1 O F 20
1, 1 1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Location (% o f distance between sensors)
A E E V E N T S versus LOCATION

Fig. 13 Acoustic emission event count versus axial location for one tube. Some results of ultrasonic in-
spection are indicated.

Table 2
6,000 Cumulative
Maximum threshold Distance from
4,000
depth crossing No. of sensors
(Percent DAC) counts AE events in. (m)

1 — —— 0.05 in. 50 1886 1 61.5 (1.6)

30 476 1 89 (2.3)
25 209 4 28 (0.7)

r
j 1 distribution for tube 1 (this distribution is also shown on the
top portion of Fig. 12).

f r Parameters other than event count relate to flaw severity

(e.g., threshold crossing counts, peak amplitude, event dura-

r~ iJj
! i
tion). Table 2 shows data produced by three different, 3/4 in.
(1.9 cm) long, flaws, all in 3AAX tubes. These data were ob-
tained while the tubes were pressurized from 1800 psi (12.4
MPa) to 2900 psi (20 MPa), with hydrogen. The AE system
N OBMAL SERVICE i threshold was 40 dB (referenced to 1 mv at the sensor).
I1
PRESS URE
1 r The number of counts is directly proportional to the flaw
1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000
PRESSURE-PSI
depth. These numbers are not corrected for attenuation
(which increases with distance from the sensor). The number
Fig. 14 Threshold crossing counts versus pressure, 3/4 in. long flaws,
in 3AAX tubes, in hydrogen service
of counts produced by a wave packet will vary with distance
between the source and the sensor. This occurs because the
wave will convolve and will be attenuated.
which had produced emission showed that notable flaws were Data from Table 2 is plotted in Fig. 14 as counts versus
present. pressure. The smallest flaw had produced four events; and,
Figure 12 shows location distributions from four tubes. This two of these events had occurred at pressures which are below
plot is equivalent to Fig. 9(a), but was obtained with a dif- normal service pressure. This is typical for data obtained from
ferent, signal processor. Here, AE events are plotted versus ax- these tubes. Usually significant emission occurs at relatively
ial location for four tubes. The distribution at the top (tube 1) low pressure. Measurable emission, from flaws in these tubes,
shows many events; a large flaw was present near one end (at can originate from crack propagation, from rubbing at crack
97 percent of the distance between sensors). Some ultrasonic surfaces, or from fracture of (or rubbing of) oxide scale con-
inspection was performed on these tubes and results are noted tained within a flaw.
on Fig. 13. Figure 13 is an enlarged plot of the location Figure 15 shows a magnifield cross section from a large flaw

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MAY 1986, Vol. 108/239

Fig. 15 Section through flaw In 3T tube. Maximum depth (normal to
surface) In this secllon Is 0.056 In.
in a 3T tube. Solid oxides (apparently mill scale) fill the in-
terior of this fold, which was located on the outside surface.
There was substantial emission from this flaw. The section
shown in Fig. 15 shows no crack growth. The measured emis-
sion was apparently from the oxides contained within the
flaw.
The re-test method described herein is based upon event
count only. Association of flaw characteristics (e.g., length
and depth) with other AE parameters is possible only if wave
attentuation and convolution (which depend upon distance
from the sensor) are taken into account; and, if consistant
coupling of the sensors to the tubes is maintained. Coupling is
affected by paint on the tube (thickness and adhesion), by
coupling medium (and variation of its characteristics with am-
bient temperature), and by the force with which the sensor is
attached to the tube (coupling medium thickness).
It is pointed out that the aspect (length to depth) ratios of
the flaws shown in Figs. 9(b), 10 and 11 are higher than that
used in the analysis. However, because the ratio of flaw depth
to wall thickness is small, the large aspect ratios do not affect
the crack tip stress-intensity, and hence, the crack growth rate.
It is also expected that crack growth by fatigue will initiate
from a weak point within such long defects; and, the active
flaw, at failure, will probably have, nominally, four to one
aspect ratio. Thus, the detected sub-critical defects with large
aspect ratio do not affect the specified fracture critical-flaw-
size rejection limit.
Conclusions
The work described in this paper has shown that substitu-
tion of acoustic emission testing for hydrostatic testing has
been very beneficial, both technically and economically
beneficial.
240 I Vol. 108, MAY 1986
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Specific information about tube condition is obtained. Flaw
locations, dimensions, and orientation are included in the re-
test results when the AE method is used. With hydrostatic re-
testing volumetric expansion is recorded, and the tube sustains
re-test pressure.
This AE re-test method is appropriately conservative. Pro-
perly conducted, it assures compliance with current industry
safety standards.
There is considerable cost saving associated with the AE re-
test method. Trailers are not removed from service so re-
testing can be performed. Disassembly of trailers for
ultrasonic inspection has thus far not been necessary. With
hydrostatic testing, the trailers were completely disassembled
so that the tubes could be pressurized in a water jacket.
Acknowledgments
This project benefited from contributions of many people
within Union Carbide Corporation. Particularly noteworthy
are: Mr. R. O. Tribolet for management support, Mr. S.
Hoffman for liaison with regulatory agencies, and Mr. B. H.
Clark for the ultrasonic inspection technique. Also, the
Dunegan Corporation provided field test service and other
support. And, without the cooperation of the Research and
Special Programs Administration, U. S. Department of
Transportation we could not have so rapidly implemented this
application of AE testing.
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