Chapter 6 Magnetic Fields in Matter

6.1 Magnetization 6.1.2. Torques and Forces on Magnetic Dipoles

6.1.1 Diamagnets, Paramagnets, Ferromagnets A magnetic dipole experiences a torque in a magnetic field,
All the magnetic phenomena are due to electric charges in just as an electric dipole does in an electric field.
motion: Any current loop could be built up from infinitesimal
Electrons orbiting around nuclei rectangles, with all the “internal” side canceling. There is
magnetic dipoles
Electrons spinning about their axes no actual loss of generality in using the shape.
When a magnetic field is applied, a net alignment of these
magnetic dipoles occurs, and the medium becomes
magnetically polarized, or magnetized.
The magnetic polarization M, unlike electrical polarization
P, might be parallel to B (paramagnets) or opposite to B
(diamagnets).
Let’s calculate the torque on a rectangular current loop in
A few substances (ferromagnets) retain their magnetization
a uniform magnetic field.
even after the external field has been removed. 1 2

Torques and Forces on Magnetic Dipoles Torques and Dipole Moment

Center the loop at the origin, and tilt it an angle  from the N  IabB sin xˆ  mB sin xˆ  m  B
z axis towards the y axis. Let B point in the z direction. where m  Iab is the magnetic dipole moment of the
loop.

This equation is identical in form to the electrical analogy.

Np
E
Sloping sides: the forces cancel.
The torque is again in such a direction as to line the dipole
Horizontal sides: the forces cancel but they generate a
up parallel to the field (paramagnetism).
torque. N  L  F  aF sin QM: The Pauli exclusion principle dictates that the
xˆ electrons within a given atom lock together in pairs with
The magnitude of the force on each of these segments is: opposite spins, and this effectively neutralizes the torque
F  IbB on the combination.
3 4
 Forces in Nonuniform Magnetic Forces on an Infinitesimal Current Loop and Model
Field
In a uniform field, the net force on a current loop is F  ∇(m ⋅ ( −∇U , where U  −(m ⋅ B))
zero:
=0 B)
F  I ∫ (dl  B)  I ∫ (dl)  B  0
Identical to the electrical formula F  ∇(p ⋅ E)
In a nonuniform field this is no longer the case, because
the magnetic field B could not come outside the integral. Does the magnetic dipole consist of a pair of
opposite magnetic monopoles just like an electric
dipole?
Fringing field effect F  2IRB cos 
:

5 6

6.1.3. Effect of a Magnetic Field on Atomic Electron Speeds Up or Slows Down

Orbits
2
Electrons not only spin; they also revolve around the nucleus. 1 e v2
 m without the magnetic field.
4 0 R 2
e
Let’s assume the orbit is a circle of radius R. The R
current looks like steady (really?) The centripetal force comes from two sources:
the electric force and the magnetic force.
e e ev
Current I   2 R 
T 2R The negative charge
v of the electron 1 e2 v′ 2

m ev′B 
4 0 R′2
e
evR R′
Orbital dipole moment m  − (m  IR 2

zˆ )
2 Assume R′ ≅ R 8
2 2
m (v′ − v ) m (v′  v)(v′ − v)
 ev′B  e
 e

R R
eRB
∴ ∆v  (v′ − v) ≈ When B is turn on, the electron speeds
7 2me up.

The Dipole Moment and The 6.1.4 Magnetization

Diamagnetism
In the present of a magnetic field, matter becomes
A change in the orbital speed means a change in magnetized. Upon microscopic examination, it contains many
the dipole moment. tiny dipoles,
1 e R
2 2
∆m  − e∆vR  − with a net alignment along some direction.
B
2
2me Two mechanisms account for this magnetic polarization:
1.Paramagnetism: the dipoles associated with the spins of
The change in m is opposite to the direction of B.
unpaired electrons experience a torque tending to line them
In the presence of a magnetic field, each atom picks up a up parallel to the field.
little “extra” dipole moment, and the increments are all
2. Diamagnetism: the orbital speed of the electrons is
antiparallel to the field. This is the mechanism
altered in such a way as to change the orbital dipole
responsible for diamagnetism.
moment in the direction opposite to the field.
This is a universal phenomenon, affecting all atoms, but it
We describe the state of magnetic polarization by the
is typically much weaker than paramagnetism.
vector quantity:
9
M ≡ magnetic dipole moment per unit volume. 10

6.2 The Field of a Magnetized Vector potential and Bound Currents

Object
Can the equation be expressed in a more illuminating
6.2.1 Bound form, as in the electrical case? Yes!
Currents
Suppose we have a piece of magnetized
material (i.e. M is given). What field By exploiting the
does ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
identity,
this object (xˆ ′  yˆ ′  zˆ ′
produce? ∂ ∂ ′)
2 2 2

1 rˆ ′ ∂ ′ ′() x − x ′) ( y − y  ( z − z ′)
∇′  x y z
The vector potential of a single dipole m xˆ ′( x −x′) yˆ ′( y −y′) zˆ ′( z −z′) rˆ
r2 r  
is
 2 2 2 3/2 2
(( x − x′)  ( y − y′)  ( z − z ′) ) r
0 m 0 1
rˆ 
A(r)
4 r 2 The vector potential A(r)  M(r′)  (∇′ )d ′
is 4 ∫ r
In the magnetized object, each volume element carries Using the product rule ∇  ( fA)  ∇f  A  f (∇  A)
a
dipole moment Md’, so the total vector potential and integrating by part, we have
is
A(r)   0 [∇  M(r )] ∇ [ M (r′) ]
 1− 
′ d′ d ′
 ∫
′
0 M (r′) 4  r ∫′
A(r)  ∫ d ′ r 
rˆ
4
r2
0  1   1 how? Prob. 1.60
 ∫ [∇′  M(r′)]d ′  0 [M(r′)  nˆ ′]da′
11 4  ∫  4 r 12

r
 Vector potential and Bound Currents
0
 1 0 1
A(r)  ∫ [∇′  M(r′)]d  ′  ∫ [M(r′)  nˆ ′]da′
4 r 4 r
J b  ∇′  M(r′) K b  M(r′)  nˆ ′
volume current surface current

With these definitions, bound currents

0  0
Gauss's law ∫ (∇ ⋅ E)d  v∫ E ⋅ A(r)  ∫
Jb
d ′ 
Kb
da′
da
v S
4 v ∫r 4 S r
 (∇ ⋅ (v  c))d  c ⋅ (∇ 
∫
v)d
∫
v
Let E  v   v The electrical analogy
 v∫ (v  c) ⋅ da  −c ⋅ v∫ v
c,
 da volume charge density  b  −∇ ⋅ P
S S

Since c is a constant vector, so ∫ (∇  v)d  − v∫ v  da

b
surface charge density σ  P ⋅ nˆ 14
13
v S

 0 R (− cos sin  ′ sin  ′)xˆ 2

Example 5.11 A spherical shell, of radius R, carrying a A(r)  R sin  ′d ′d  ′
4 ∫ r 2  R 2 − 2rR cos  ′
uniform surface charge , is set spinning at angular velocity
 R (cos sin  ′ cos  ′ − sin cos  ′)yˆ 2
. Find the vector potential it produce at point r.  0 ∫ R sin  ′d ′d ′
4 r  R − 2rR cos  ′
2 2

 R (sin sin  ′ sin  ′)zˆ 2

 0 ∫ 2 R sin  ′d ′d ′
4 r  R − 2rR cos  ′
2

−R  sin y0 ˆ cos  ′
3
A(r)  ∫ sin  ′d ′d ′
4 r  R 2 − 2rR cos  ′
2

Sol :First, let the observer is in the z axis and  is tilted at an angle  −R  sin yˆ
3
− cos  ′
 K(r′)  d cos  ′
(2 ) r  R − 2rR cos  ′
2 2
Vector potential is A(r)  0 ∫ da′  0
∫
4
4
0
r
− 0 R  sin yˆ
3 1
The surface current density K (r′)   v′ u
 ∫−1 r 2  R 2 − 2rRu du
2
15
16
 −0 R
3
sinyˆ (2 R r
2
Rr ) | R −r |2−( R2 r −Rr )( Example 6.1 Find the magnetic field of a
A(r)  (−
R r )
) 2
2 3R r uniformly magnetized sphere of radius R.
2
  0 R

A(r)   2 (ω  r) inside Sol : Choosing the z axis along the direction of M,
 R
 0 (ω  r)  J′  ∇  M  0
outside
3 b
 2r we have 
K ′b  M  nˆ ′  M sin φˆ
Reverting to the “natural” coordinate, we have The surface current density is analogous to that of a spinning
spherical shell with uniform surface current density.

K ′b  M  nˆ ′  M sin φˆ ⇔ K ′  v′  R sin φˆ

R → M
2
B   0 M (inside)
3
Surprisingly, the field inside the spherical shell is uniform. 17
Can you find a more direct method? 18

6.2.2 Physical Interpretation of Bound Current Physical Interpretation of Bound Current

Bound surface current Kb: Bound current density Jb:
What is the current in terms of M? What if the magnetization is not uniform?
In terms of the magnetization M, its dipole The adjacent current loops do not completely cancel out.
moment is m=Mat=Ia. So, M=I/t=Kb
∂M z
Consider a thin slab of uniformly magnetized material, with Case (a) I  [M z ( y  dy) − z ( y)]dz  dydz
the dipoles represented by tiny current loops. ∂y
x M
All the “internal” currents cancel. However, at the edge there ∂M y
 [M y ( z)]dy  dydz
is no adjacent loop to do the canceling. Case (b) I ∂z
y ( z  dz) −
x
M
∂M z ∂M y
∴ ( J b) x  − ⇒ Jb ∇M
∂y ∂z
 19 20

6.3 The Auxiliary Field H

6.3.1 Ampere’s Law in Magnetized Materials The Role of H in Magnetostatics
What is the difference between bound current and free H plays a role in magnetostatics analogous to D in the
current? JJ J electrostotics.
b f

Ampere’s law can be written: D allows us to write Gauss’s law in terms of free change alone.
1
(∇  B)  J  J  J b  J  ∇  D   0E  , ∇ ⋅ D= f
P
0
f
f M H permits us to express Ampere’s law in terms of free current
1 1
⇒ ∇  ( B − M)  J alone.
H B− ∇HJf
0 f
M,
0
H What we can control directly.
In terms of H, then the Ampere’s law reads
∇  H  J (differential form) Why can’t we turn the bound currents on or off
f
independently?
(integral form)
∫ H ⋅ dl  I 21 22

Example 6.2 A long copper rod of radius R carries a

uniformly distributed (free) current I. Find H inside and Sol :
outside the rod.
Use the Ampere's law in the integral form
and properly choose a suitable Amperian
loop.
s
2
s ≤ R : H (2s)  I f enc  I
R 2
sI
so H  2φ
ˆ
2R
 sR: I
H (2s)  I so H  φˆ
, 2s

How to determine the magnetic field B?

How to choose a suitable Amperian loop? Symmetry.
23 24

H and B, D and E 6.3.2 A Deceptive Parallel

∇HJ In free space
f Which equation is more useful? ∇  B  0 J
∇⋅ B  0
∇ ⋅D
f

We can easily control the free current I, but not the

In matter ∇HJf
free charge. So H can be determined accordingly.
On the other hand, the potential difference V can be ∇ ⋅ H  ∇ ⋅ ( − M)  −∇ ⋅ M ≠0
read from the voltmeter, which can be used to B
determine E. 0
At what condition the divergence of H is equal to zero?
The name of H: Some author call H, not B, the “magnetic
field”, but it is not a good choice. Let’s just call it “H”. M // B i.e. M // B // H for uniform material only.

25 26

6.3.3 Boundary Conditions

Homework #11
The magnetostatic boundary conditions can be rewritten in
terms of H and the free surface current Kf.

∇HJf Habove
// //
− below Kf 
H nˆ Problems: 6.4, 6.10, 6.13, 6.15
⇒
∇ ⋅ H  −∇ ⋅ M Habove
⊥ ⊥
− below  − above
⊥
− ⊥
below
)
⇒ H (M M
The corresponding boundary condition in terms of B and total
surface current K.
∇  B  0 ⇒ B above
//
− B//below  0 (K  nˆ )
J
∇⋅ B  0 Babove
⊥
−B ⊥
below
0
⇒
How to express the boundary conditions at metal or
dielectric interface? 27 28

6.4 Linear and Nonlinear Media

6.4.1 Magnetic susceptibility and Permeability Material Susceptibility
The magnetization of paramagnetic and diamagnetic
materials is sustained by the field, i.e. when B is removed,
M disappears.
M   m H,
where the proportionality constant  m is called
the magnetic susceptibility.

Why not use M  m B ? Because M   m H ∝ I f
0
Materials that obey M   m H are called linear media.
Β   0 (H  M)  0 (1   m )H  H,
where   0 (1   m ) is call the permeabili ty of the material.
29 30

Divergence of the Magnetization

Example 6.3 An infinite solenoid (n turns per unit
length, current I) is filled with linear material of
susceptibility m: Find the magnetic field inside the Does the linear media avoid the defect that the divergence
of M is zero? No!
solenoid.
Even though M, H, and B are parallel, the divergence of M
Sol: The problem exhibits solenoidal symmetry. Thus, we is not zero at the boundary. Consider the following example.
can employ the Ampere’s law.
 ∫ H ⋅ dl  I (integral form)
∫ M ⋅ da ≠ 0
f
HA  nAI ∴ H  Gaussian pillbox

nIzˆ
⇒ ∇ ⋅M≠0
B   0 (1   m )nIzˆ
The enhancement of the magnetic field strength depends on
and J b  ∇  M  ∇   m H   m J f
the susceptibility of the material.
Is there a material that the field is significantly enhanced? 31 32

6.4.2 Ferromagnetism Ferromagnetic Domains

Ferromagnets---which are not linear---require no external
fields to sustain the magnetization unlike paramagnets and
diamagnets.
In a ferromagnet, each dipole “like” to point in the same
direction as its neighbors. All the spins point the same way.

Domain boundaries: Domains parallel to the field grow, and

the others shrink.
Why isn’t every wrench and nail a powerful magnet?
If the field is strong enough, one domain takes over entirely,
Domains. and the iron is said to be “saturated”.
33 34

Hysteresis Loop

Hysteresis: The path we have traced out.

In the experiment, we adjust the current I, i.e. control H.
In practice M is huge compared to H.
35
Curie Temperature and Phase Transitions
Temperature effect: The dipoles within a given domain line
up parallel to one another. However, the random thermal
motions complete with this ordering.
Curie temperature: As the temperature increases, the
alignment is gradually destroyed. At certain temperature the
iron completely turns into paramagnet. This temperature is
called the curie temperature.
phase transitions
36
 Homework #12

Problems: 6.17, 6.21, 6.23, 6.26

37 38

Supplementary Material (optional): Properties of ferrite materials (I)

Introduction to ferrite materials
Nonreciprocal electrical property: the transmission
coefficient through the device is not the same for different
The ferrites are crystals direction of propagation.
having small electric
conductivity compared to
ferromagnetic materials, Unequal propagation constant: The left and right
circularly polarized waves have different propagation
constant along the direction of external magnetic field B0.
Thus they are useful in
high-frequency situations
because of the absence Anisotropic magnetic properties: The permeability of the
of significant eddy ferrite is not a single scalar quantity, but instead is a tensor,
current losses. which can be represented as a matrix.

39 40

Properties of ferrite materials (II)

Ferrites are ceramiclike materials with specific Classical picture of the magnetization process
resistivities that may be as much as 1014 greater than that
of metals and with dielectric constants around 10 to 15 or --- By treating the spinning electron as a gyroscopic top.
greater.
If an electron is located in a uniform static magnetic field
B0, a torque is given by
T  m  B0  − m p  B0 e B0  P
 mo
p
Ferrites are made by sintering a mixture of metal
oxides dP B 0  P  0  P
and have the general chemical composition MO·Fe2O3, e dt T 
where M is a divalent metal such as Mn, Mg, Fe, Zn, Ni,
mo
Cd,
et eB0
where  is called the Larmor
c. 0 fequency;
mo
=
Relative permeabilities of several thousand are P is angular momentum; and
common. The magnetic properties of ferrites arise 2
mainly from the
magnetic dipole moment associated with the electron m is magnetic dipole
spin. e= moment.
41
2 42
mo

Quantum mechanics’ viewpoint sz=1/2
In the absence of any damping forces, the actual
precession angle will be determined by the initial
position of the magnetic dipole, and the dipole will
precess about B0 at this angle indefinitely (free
precession).
In reality, however, the existence of damping forces will
cause the magnetic dipole to spiral in from its initial angle
until m is aligned with B0.
This explains why sz equals 1/2 in the Quantum
Mechanics.
But where does the damping force come from?
 Saturation magnetization
As the strength of the bias
field H0 is increased,
more magnetic dipole
moments will align with H0
until all are aligned, and
M reaches an upper limit.
The material is then said to be magnetically saturated,
and Ms is denoted as the saturation magnetization. Ms
typically ranges from 4Ms=300 to 5000 Gauss.
Below saturation, ferrite materials can be very lossy
at microwave frequencies, and rf interaction is
reduced.

43
The ferrites are usually operated in the saturated state.
44

Curie Properties of some ferrite materials

temperature

The saturation
magnetization of a
material is a strong
function of temperature,
decreasing as
temperature increases.
This effect can be understood by noting that the
vibrational energy of an atom increases with Why use B  4 M  H  (Gaussian unit)
temperature, making it more difficult to align all the 4Ms? H
magnetic dipoles.

At a high enough temperature a zero net magnetization The unit of B is gauss; the unit of H is Oersted. They have
results. This temperature is called the Curie temperature, same dimension.
Tc. What does ∆H and Mr mean?

45
Ferrite linewidth and remanent magnetization
46

Anisotropic magnetic properties Anisotropic magnetic properties (II)

(I)
If H is the applied ac field, the total magnetic field is
 Ht  H0 zˆ  H , Omitting higher order terms, the equations can be reduced
to
dM x dH y
 − M   H d 2M 2
y,  0 M x   0m H x ,
where H  H . The field pro duced a total dt
0 m
2
x

magnetization is y dt  dt
0 m
the ferrite given by M t  M s zˆ  dM y
 −(   H d 2 My dH x
M . ),
2

M  0 M y   0m H
Ms is the dc saturation magnetization and is 0 x m 2
dt dt −
M the x m
dt
y.

additional ac magnetization (in the xy plane) caused dM z

by  0,  and    M
where H
applied dt
0 0 m 0 s

field. 0

jt
The component equations of If M and ∝ e , the aboveequtionscan be reduced to
motion: H
dM x the phasor equations:
 −  M H ) M )
(H (M Hs
  xx  xy 0 
0 y 0 z 0 z
dt 
( −    x j H
2 2
0 )  0 ,m
y
M H x m y
M   H  
dM y  
 0H,
 −  M H )− M ) ( 2 −  2 )  − j  H 
yy

(H (M H M H . yx
0 x 0 z 0 s z
dt 0
x
y m 0
y
m
0 0 0
x
0
0

dM z 0m jm
 −  M   M where    and   
H H  −
0 x
0 y x xx
yy 2 − 2 xy
yx 2 −2 48
dt 47
y

Anisotropic magnetic properties (III) Forced precession of spinning electron (I)

To relate B and H, we have
  j 0 If a small ac magnetic field is superimposed on the static
  field H0, the magnetic dipole moment will undergo a
forced
B  0 (M  H )  ⇒    0 (U    )  − j 
 H 0  precession.

0 0
0 m 0
  
Of particular interest is the case where polarize d in the plane perpendicular to H .
the ac magnetic
  field
(1 0 (1 xx )
 0is  yy )  0 2 ) 2
circularly
(1
0
 −


  − j0 xy   A right-hand circularly polarized wave can be expressed
)  j0    0 2m ) in

− 2
0
yx
phasor form as
 
H  H (xˆ − jyˆ )
A material having a permeability tensor of this form is
called and in time-domain form as
gyrotropic. 

H  Re H e j
 t
 H 
( xˆ cos t  yˆ sin t )
How to apply this concept to a circularly polarized wave?

49
50

Forced precession of spinning electron Real and imaginary permeability

(II) &
propagation and attenuation
constant.

propagation constant
     

RHCP LHCP

   
M  0m H , 
x
 −    m 
 m

⇒  H ⇒   0 (1 ) RHCP
−j  M  −  −0 

M  m 
H . 0

y
0  m
   (1 LHCP
−
−
)
 0
0   51

52

Faraday rotation --- a nonreciprocal Microwave gyrator

effect
Consider linearly polarized Gyrator with
electric field at z=0, a twist
represented as the sum of a section.
RHCP and a
LHCP wave:
E0 E0
E   (xˆ − jyˆ )  (xˆ  jyˆ )
x ˆE 0
( z0)
2 2
These two polarized waves propagate with
different propagation constants.
E0 − j  A E0
E  (xˆ − jyˆ )e  (xˆ  Gyrator without
− j − A
jyˆ( )e
zA)
2 2 a twist section.
  −  −  − j (  − )A / 2
 E0 xˆ cos(  − )A − yˆ sin(  − )A e
 2 2

  tan−1
Ey  −
 −(  − This effect is called Faraday rotation. 54
)A.
Ex 2 53

Faraday-rotation Resonance isolator

isolator
 55
56

Four-port circulator Three-port circulator

57 58