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5 6
6.1.3. Effect of a Magnetic Field on Atomic Orbits Electron Speeds Up or Slows Down
1 e2 v2
Electrons not only spin; they also revolve around the nucleus. = me without the magnetic field.
4πε 0 R 2 R
Let’s assume the orbit is a circle of radius R. The current
looks like steady (really?) The centripetal force comes from two sources:
the electric force and the magnetic force.
e e ev
Current I = = =
T 2πR 2πR The negative charge
v of the electron 1 e2 v′ 2
+ ev ′B = m
4πε 0 R′2 R′
e
evR
Orbital dipole moment m = − zˆ (m = IπR 2 )
2 Assume R′ ≅ R
m (v′2 − v 2 ) me (v′ + v)(v′ − v)
ev′B = e =
R R
eRB
∴ ∆v = (v′ − v) ≈ When B is turn on, the electron speeds up.
7 2me 8
The Dipole Moment and The Diamagnetism 6.1.4 Magnetization
A change in the orbital speed means a change in the In the present of a magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized.
dipole moment. Upon microscopic examination, it contains many tiny dipoles,
1 e2 R 2
∆m = − e∆vR = − B with a net alignment along some direction.
2 2me
Two mechanisms account for this magnetic polarization:
The change in m is opposite to the direction of B.
1.Paramagnetism: the dipoles associated with the spins of
In the presence of a magnetic field, each atom picks up a unpaired electrons experience a torque tending to line them up
little “extra” dipole moment, and the increments are all parallel to the field.
antiparallel to the field. This is the mechanism responsible
2. Diamagnetism: the orbital speed of the electrons is altered
for diamagnetism.
in such a way as to change the orbital dipole moment in the
This is a universal phenomenon, affecting all atoms, but it is direction opposite to the field.
typically much weaker than paramagnetism.
We describe the state of magnetic polarization by the vector
quantity:
9 M ≡ magnetic dipole moment per unit volume. 10
6.2 The Field of a Magnetized Object Vector potential and Bound Currents
6.2.1 Bound Currents
Can the equation be expressed in a more illuminating form,
Suppose we have a piece of magnetized as in the electrical case? Yes!
material (i.e. M is given). What field does By exploiting the identity, ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
this object produce? (xˆ ′ + yˆ ′ + zˆ ′ )
1 rˆ ∂x′ ∂y′ ∂z′ ( x − x′) 2 + ( y − y′) 2 + ( z − z′) 2
The vector potential of a single dipole m is ∇′ = xˆ ′( x − x′) + yˆ ′( y − y′) + zˆ ′( z − z ′) rˆ
r r2 = =
(( x − x′) 2 + ( y − y′) 2 + ( z − z ′) 2 )3/ 2 r 2
µ0 m × rˆ µ0
A(r ) = 1
4π r 2 The vector potential is A(r ) =
4π ∫ M (r′) × (∇′ )dτ ′
r
In the magnetized object, each volume element carries a Using the product rule ∇ × ( fA) = ∇f × A + f (∇ × A)
dipole moment Mdτ’, so the total vector potential is and integrating by part, we have
µ0 1 M (r′)
4π ∫ r
µ M (r′) × rˆ A(r ) = [∇′ × M (r′)]dτ ′ − ∫ ∇′ × [ ]dτ ′
A(r ) = 0 ∫ dτ ′ r
4π r2 µ0 1 µ 1
how? Prob. 1.60
4π ∫ r ∫ [M(r′) × nˆ ′]da′
= [∇′ × M (r′)]dτ ′ +
0
11 4π r 12
Vector potential and Bound Currents
µ0 1 µ 1
A(r ) = ∫
4π r
[∇′ × M (r′)]dτ ′ + 0 ∫ [M (r′) × nˆ ′]da′
4π r
J b = ∇′ × M (r′) K b = M (r′) × nˆ ′
volume current surface current
∫ (∇ ⋅ E)dτ = v∫ E ⋅ da µ0 Jb µ Kb
∫ ∫
Gauss's law A(r ) = dτ ′ + 0 da′
v S 4π v r 4π S r
(∇ ⋅ ( v × c))dτ = c ⋅ (∇ × v )dτ
∫ ∫v
Let E = v × c, v The electrical analogy
v∫ ( v × c) ⋅ da = −c ⋅ v∫ v × da volume charge density ρ b = −∇ ⋅ P
S S
4π r − µ0 R 3σω sinψ yˆ
1
u
The surface current density K (r′) = σ v′ =
2 ∫
−1 r + R − 2rRu
2 2
du
15 16
− µ0 R 3σω sinψyˆ ( R 2 + r 2 + Rr ) | R − r | −( R 2 + r 2 − Rr )( R + r ) Example 6.1 Find the magnetic field of a
A(r ) = (− )
2 3R 2 r 2 uniformly magnetized sphere of radius R.
µ 0 Rσ
(ω × r ) inside
A(r ) = 24 Sol : Choosing the z axis along the direction of M,
µ 0 R 3σ (ω × r ) outside J ′b = ∇ × M = 0
2r we have
K ′b = M × nˆ ′ = M sin θφˆ
Reverting to the “natural” coordinate, we have The surface current density is analogous to that of a spinning
spherical shell with uniform surface current density.
19 20
6.3 The Auxiliary Field H
The Role of H in Magnetostatics
6.3.1 Ampere’s Law in Magnetized Materials
What is the difference between bound current and free H plays a role in magnetostatics analogous to D in the
current? J =J +J electrostotics.
b f
Ampere’s law can be written: D allows us to write Gauss’s law in terms of free change alone.
1
(∇ × B) = J = J f + J b = J f + ∇ × M D = ε 0 E + P, ∇ ⋅ D=ρ f
µ0
H permits us to express Ampere’s law in terms of free current
1
⇒ ∇×( B − M) = J f alone.
H=
1
B − M, ∇ × H = J f
µ0 µ0
H What we can control directly.
In terms of H, then the Ampere’s law reads
∇ × H = J f (differential form) Why can’t we turn the bound currents on or off
independently?
∫ H ⋅ dl = I f (integral form)
21 22
25 26
∇×H = J f ⇒ H above
//
− H below
//
= K f × nˆ
Problems: 6.4, 6.10, 6.13, 6.15
∇ ⋅ H = −∇ ⋅ M ⇒ H above
⊥ ⊥
− H below ⊥
= −( M above ⊥
− M below )
∫ H ⋅ dl = I f (integral form)
∫ M ⋅ da ≠ 0
HA = nAI ∴ H = nIzˆ Gaussian pillbox
⇒ ∇⋅M ≠ 0
B = µ 0 (1 + χ m )nIzˆ
The enhancement of the magnetic field strength depends on
the susceptibility of the material.
and J b = ∇ × M = ∇ × χ m H = χ m J f
Is there a material that the field is significantly enhanced? 31 32
6.4.2 Ferromagnetism Ferromagnetic Domains
37 38
39 40
Classical picture of the magnetization process
Properties of ferrite materials (II)
--- By treating the spinning electron as a gyroscopic top.
Ferrites are ceramiclike materials with specific resistivities
that may be as much as 1014 greater than that of metals and If an electron is located in a uniform static magnetic field
with dielectric constants around 10 to 15 or greater. B0, a torque is given by
m e
T = m × B0 = − p × B0 = B0 × P
p mo
Ferrites are made by sintering a mixture of metal oxides dP e
and have the general chemical composition MO·Fe2O3, =T= B 0 × P = ω0 × P
dt mo
where M is a divalent metal such as Mn, Mg, Fe, Zn, Ni, Cd,
etc. eB0
where ω0 = is called the Larmor fequency;
mo
=
Relative permeabilities of several thousand are common. P= is angular momentum; and
The magnetic properties of ferrites arise mainly from the 2
magnetic dipole moment associated with the electron e=
m= is magnetic dipole moment.
spin. 41 2mo 42
At a high enough temperature a zero net magnetization The unit of B is gauss; the unit of H is Oersted. They have same
results. This temperature is called the Curie temperature, Tc. dimension.
What does ∆H and Mr mean?
45 46
Ferrite linewidth and remanent magnetization
49 50
Forced precession of spinning electron (II) Real and imaginary permeability &
propagation and attenuation constant.
propagation constant
β ± = ω εµ ±
RHCP LHCP
ωm
M x+ = H + ,
ω0 − ω ωm ωm
+
⇒M = H+ ⇒ µ + = µ0 (1 + ) RHCP
− jω ω − ω ω0 − ω
M y+ = m
H + . 0
ω0 − ω ω
µ − = µ0 (1 + m ) LHCP
ω0 + ω 51 52
Faraday rotation --- a nonreciprocal effect Microwave gyrator
Consider linearly polarized
electric field at z=0, represented Gyrator with a
as the sum of a RHCP and a twist section.
LHCP wave:
E0 E
E ( z =0) = xˆE0 = ( xˆ − jyˆ ) + 0 ( xˆ + jyˆ )
2 2
These two polarized waves propagate with different
propagation constants.
E0 E
E ( z =A) = ( xˆ − jyˆ )e− jβ+A + 0 ( xˆ + jyˆ )e− jβ−A Gyrator without
2 2 a twist section.
β −β β −β
= E0 xˆ cos( + − )A − yˆ sin( + − )Ae− j ( β+ +β− )A / 2
2 2
E β −β
θ = tan−1 y = −( + − )A. This effect is called Faraday rotation.
Ex 2 53 54
55 56
Four-port circulator Three-port circulator
57 58