Chapter 9: Electromagnetic Waves The Wave Equation

9.1 Waves in One Dimension 9.1.1 The Wave Equation

How to represent such a “wave” mathematically?
What is a “wave”?
Hint: The wave at different times, once at t=0, and again at
A start: A wave is disturbance of a continuous medium that some later time t --- each point on the wave form simply shifts
propagates with a fixed shape at constant velocity. to the right by an amount vt, where v is the velocity.
In the presence of absorption, the wave will diminish in
initial shape f ( z , 0) = g ( z )
size as it move;
If the medium is dispersive different frequencies travel at subsequent form f ( z, t ) = ?
different speeds; (capture (mathematically) the
Standing waves do not propagate;
f ( z , t ) = f ( z − vt , 0) = g ( z − vt ) essence of wave motion.)
Light wave can propagate in vacuum;…
The function f(z,t) depends on them only in the very special
combination z-vt;
When that is true, the function f(z,t) represents a wave of
fixed shape traveling in the z direction at speed v.
1 2

The Wave Equation (II) The Wave Equation of a String

f1 ( z , t ) = Ae − b ( z −vt ) From Newton’s second law we have
2

f 2 ( z , t ) = A sin[b( z − vt )] ∂2 y
Examples: F[sin(θ + ∆θ ) − sin(θ )] = (µ∆x)
f3 ( z, t ) =
A ∂t 2
b( z − vt ) 2 + 1

How about these functions? Small angle approximation:

∂y
f 4 ( z , t ) = Ae − b ( z + vt )
sinθ ≈ tanθ =
2

∂x
f 5 ( z , t ) = A sin(bz ) cos(bvt ) ∂ y
2
∂2 y
= (µ / F ) 2
A
= [sin(b( z + vt )) + sin(b( z − vt ))] a standing wave
∂x2 ∂t
2
3 4
 The Wave Equation 9.1.2 Sinusoidal Waves
Derive the wave equation that a disturbance propagates wave speed
without changing it shape. (i) Terminology
f ( z , t ) = g ( z − vt ); Let u ≡ z − vt f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) + δ ]
∂f df ∂u dg ∂2 f ∂ dg 2
2 d g
= = −v ⇒ =- v ( )= v amplitude wave number phase constant
∂t du ∂t du ∂t 2 ∂t du du 2
∂f df ∂u dg ∂ 2 f ∂ dg d 2 g f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) + δ ] = A cos(kz − ωt + δ )
= = ⇒ = ( )=
∂z du ∂z du ∂z 2 ∂z du du 2 2π
k= , λ: wave length
d 2 g 1 ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f 1 ∂2 f λ
= = ⇒ − = 0 qed v
du 2 v 2 ∂t 2 ∂z 2 ∂z 2 v 2 ∂t 2 ω = kv = 2π =2π f
λ
+ v or − v ω : angular frequency
f ( z , t ) = g ( z − vt ) + h( z + vt ) the wave equation is linear. 
5  f : frequency 6

Sinusoidal Waves Example 9.1

(ii) Complex notation The advantage of the complex notation.
Suppose we want to combine two sinusoidal waves:
Euler’s formula eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
f3 = f1 + f 2 = Re[ f1 ] + Re[ f 2 ] = Re[ f1 + f 2 ] = Re[ f3 ]
f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) + δ ] = Re[ Aei ( kz −ωt +δ ) ]
Simply add the corresponding complex wave functions, and
= Re[ Aiδ ei ( kz −ωt ) ] = Re[ Aei ( kz −ωt ) ] take the real part.
In particular, when they have the same frequency and wave
f ≡ Aei ( kz −ωt ) complex wave function number
A ≡ Aeiδ complex amplitude f3 = A1ei ( kz −ωt ) + A2 ei ( kz −ωt ) = A3ei ( kz −ωt )
f ( z , t ) = Re[ f ( z, t )] where A3 = A3eiδ3 = A1eiδ1 + A2 eiδ 2

The advantage of the complex notation is that exponentials Try doing this without using the complex notation.
are much easier to manipulate than sines and cosines.
7 8
 9.1.3 Boundary Conditions:
Sinusoidal Waves (III)
Reflection and Transmission
(iii) Linear combinations of sinusoidal waves f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z −ωt )
Incident wave:
∞
f ( z , t ) = ∫ A(k )ei ( kz −ωt ) dk , where ω = ω (k ) Reflected wave: f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( − k1z −ωt )
−∞
Transmitted wave: fT ( z , t ) = AT ei ( k2 z −ωt )
A(k ) can be obtained in terms of the initial conditions ∗ All parts of the system are oscillating at the same frequency ω.
f ( z , 0) and f ( z , 0) from the theory of Fourier transforms.
The wave velocities are different in two v1 k2 λ1
regimes, which means the wave lengths = =
Any wave can be written as a linear combination of and wave numbers are also different. v2 k1 λ2
sinusoidal waves.
The waves in the two regions:

So from now on we shall confine our attention to sinusoidal  AI ei ( k1z −ωt ) + AR ei ( − k1z −ωt ) for z < 0
f ( z, t ) = 
waves.  AT ei ( k2 z −ωt ) for z > 0
9 10

Boundary Conditions Determine the Complex

Boundary Conditions Amplitudes
Mathematically, f(z,t) is continuous at z=0.
− + f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t ) ⇒ AI + AR = AT
f (0 , t ) = f (0 , t )
df df
The derivative of f(z,t) must also be continuous at z=0. = ⇒ k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT
dz 0−
dz 0+
df df k1 − k2 v2 − v1
= Why? 
A = ( ) A = ( ) AI
dz dz   k1 + k2 v2 + v1
− + R I
0 0
AI + AR = AT
⇒ 
k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT   2k1 2v2
AT = ( ) AI = ( ) AI
 k1 + k2 v2 + v1
When v2>v1, all three waves have the same phase angle.
The complex wave function obeys the same rules: Why? When v2<v1 the reflected wave is out of phase by 180°.
df df
f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t ); = 11
Consider two extreme cases, open end and fixed end. 12
dz 0 − dz 0 +
 The Open End and Fixed End
Superposition of the actual pulse and an imaginary pulse.
9.1.4 Polarization
Transverse waves: the displacement of the wave is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, e.g. EM waves.
Longitudinal waves: the displacement of the wave is along
the direction of propagation, e.g. sound waves.

Transverse waves occur in two independent states of polarization:

fv ( z , t ) = Aei ( kz −ωt ) xˆ f h ( z , t ) = Aei ( kz −ωt ) yˆ
i ( kz −ωt )
General form: f ( z , t ) = Ae nˆ , where nˆ = cos θ xˆ + sin θ yˆ

13 14

9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

Right and Left Hand Circular Polarizations 9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B
In regions of space where there is no charge or current,
Maxwell’s equations read
∂B
(i) ∇ ⋅ E = 0 (iii) ∇ × E = −
∂t
∂E
(ii) ∇ ⋅ B = 0 (iV) ∇ × B = µ0ε 0
∂t
∂ (∇ × B) ∂ 2E
∇ × (∇ × E) = − ⇒ ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2 E = − µ0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t
∂ (∇ × E) ∂ 2B
∇ × (∇ × B) = µ0ε 0 ⇒ ∇(∇ ⋅ B) − ∇ 2 B = − µ0ε 0 2
∂t ∂t
 2 ∂ 2E
∇ E = µ0ε 0 2
∇ ⋅ E = 0 ∂t
since  
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ 2 B = µ ε ∂ B
2

15  0 0
∂t 2 16
 The Wave Equation for E and B Hertz’s Experiment
In vacuum, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies When Maxwell’s work was published in 1867 it did not
the three-dimensional wave equation receive immediate acceptance. It is Hertz who conclusively
 2 ∂ 2E
 ∇ E = µ ε demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic wave.
0 0
∂t 2 1 ∂2 f
 ⇒ ∇ 2
f =
∇ 2 B = µ ε ∂ B
2
v 2 ∂t 2
 0 0
∂t 2
Maxwell’s equations imply that empty space supports the
propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling at a speed
1
v= = 3 ×108 m/s the speed of light
µ 0ε 0

17 18

9.2.2 Monochromatic Plane Waves The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Since different frequencies in the visible range correspond to Electromagnetic waves span an immerse range of
different colors, such waves are called monochromatic. frequencies, from very long wavelength to extremely high
This definition can be applied to the whole spectrum. A wave energy with frequency 1023 Hz. There is no theoretical limit
of single frequency is called a monochromatic wave. to the high end.

19 20
Mainly Heating Effect in Micro/mm-Wave Spectrum Windows for Research and Application Opportunities

21 22

Spectrum to Be Exploited
--- Significance of the Electron Cyclotron Maser
Monochromatic Plane Waves
Consider a monochromatic wave of frequency ω and the
one photon multiple-photon multiple photon wave is traveling in the z direction and has no x or y
per excitation, per electron, per electron, dependence, called plane waves.
Plane waves: the fields are uniform over every plane
large interaction large interaction interaction space
space space ~ wavelength perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
↓ ↓ ↓ Are these waves common? Yes, very common.
E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt )
 i ( kz −ωt )
where E0 and B 0 are the complex amplitudes.
B( z , t ) = B 0 e
THz gap

23 24
 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves Transverse Electromagnetic Waves (II)
∂E
Q: What is the relation between E and B? Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction: ∇ × B = µ0ε 0
∂t
∂Ez
∇⋅E = 0 = ( E0 ) z ikei ( kz −ωt ) = 0 ⇒ ( E0 ) z = 0 ∂ ( B0 ) z ∂ ( B0 ) y ∂ ( E0 ) x
∂z xˆ : − = µ 0ε 0 ⇒ k ( B0 ) y = µ0ε 0ω ( E0 ) x
∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Bz
∇⋅B = 0 = ( B0 ) z ikei ( kz −ωt ) = 0 ⇒ ( B0 ) z = 0 ∂ ( B0 ) x ∂ ( B0 ) z ∂ ( E0 ) y
∂z yˆ : − = µ 0ε 0 ⇒ k ( B0 ) x = − µ0ε 0ω ( E0 ) y
That is, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric ∂z ∂x ∂t
and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of ∂ ( B0 ) y ∂ ( B0 ) x ∂ ( E0 ) z
zˆ : − = µ 0ε 0 ⇒ 0=0
propagation. Moreover, Faraday’s law ∇ × E = − ∂B ∂x ∂y ∂t
∂t ω 1
∂ ( E0 ) z ∂ ( E0 ) y ∂ ( B0 ) x In free space, the speed of light is c= =
xˆ : − =− ⇒ k ( E0 ) y = −ω ( B0 ) x k µ 0ε 0
∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ( E0 ) x ∂ ( E0 ) z ∂ ( B0 ) y More compactly, B 0 = k (zˆ × E0 ) = 1 (zˆ × E0 ) ⇒ E ⊥ B
yˆ : − =− ⇒ k ( E0 ) x = ω ( B0 ) y ω c
∂z ∂x ∂t 1
∂ ( E0 ) y ∂ ( E0 ) x ∂ ( B0 ) z amplitude relation: B0 = E0
zˆ : − =− ⇒ 0=0 25 c 26
∂x ∂y ∂t

Example 9.2 Plane Waves Traveling in an Arbitrary Direction

Prove: If E points in the x direction, There is nothing special about the z
then B points in the y direction. direction---we can generalize to
monochromatic plane waves traveling in
Sol: E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt ) xˆ an arbitrary direction.
k 1 1
B0 = (zˆ × E0 ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt ) (zˆ × xˆ ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt ) yˆ The propagation (or wave) vector, k: pointing in the
ω c c
direction of propagation.
Take the real part: Generalization of kz: using the scalar product k·r.

E( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − ωt + δ )xˆ E(r, t ) = E0 ei (k ⋅r −ωt )nˆ ← the polarization vector

1 1 1
B( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − ωt + δ )yˆ B(r, t ) = E0 ei ( k ⋅r −ωt ) (kˆ × nˆ ) = kˆ × E
c c c
Q: Why not use sin function? Q: Can you write down the real electric and magnetic fields?
27 28
 9.2.3 Energy and Momentum in
Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector
Electromagnetic Waves
The energy per unit volume stored in the electromagnetic Consider two planes, each of area A, a distance dx apart,
field is and normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. The
1 1 2 total energy in the volume between the planes is dU=uAdx.
u = (ε 0 E 2 + B )
2 µ0 The rate at which this energy through a unit area normal to
1
Monochromatic plane wave: B 2 = 2 E 2 = µ0ε 0 E 2 the direction of propagation is
c
1 dU 1 dx
1
u = (ε 0 E 2 +
1 1
B 2 ) = (ε 0 E 2 + ε 0 E 2 ) = ε 0 E 2 S= = uA = uc
2 µ0 2 A dt A dt
EB
Their contributions are equal. S = uc =
µ0
u = ε 0 E = ε 0 E0 cos (kz − ωt + δ )
2 2 2
E×B
S= (the vector form)
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. µ0
1 1 1
Q: How about the momentum? See next slide. g= 2
S = 2 ε 0 E0 2 cos 2 (kz − ωt + δ )zˆ = uzˆ
29 c c c 30

Average Effect Example

In the case of light, the period is so brief, that any A radio station transmits a 10-kW signal at a frequency of 100
macroscopy measurement will encompass many cycles. MHz. For simplicity, assume that it radiates as a point source.
At a distance of 1 km from the antenna, find: (a) the amplitude
All we want is the average value. of the electric and magnetic field strengths, and (b) the energy
1 incident normally on a square plate of side 10 cm in 5 min.
u = ε 0 E0 2
2 Solution:
1
S = uc = cε 0 E02 zˆ Average power E02
2 (a ) S av = =
1 1 4π r 2 2 µ0 c
g = 2 S = ε 0 E02 zˆ 10000
c 2c ⇒ × 2 × 4π × 10−7 × 3 × 108 = E02
4π 10002
The average power per unit area transported by an  E0 = 0.775 V/m
electromagnetic wave is called the intensity:  −9
 B0 = 2.58 × 10 T
1 (b) ∆U = S av A∆t = 2.4 × 10−3 J
I≡ S = cε 0 E02
2 31 32
 Momentum and Radiation Pressure Momentum and Radiation Pressure (II)
An electromagnetic wave transports linear momentum. The radiation pressure at normal incident is
The linear momentum carried by an electromagnetic wave is F S
= =u
related the energy it transport according to A c
U
p= Examples: (a) the tail of comet, (b) A “solar sail”
c
If surface is perfectly reflecting, the momentum change of
the wave is double, consequently, the momentum imparted
to the surface is also doubled.
The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on a surface
may be related to the Poynting vector
F ∆p ∆U SA S
= = = = =u
A A∆t Ac∆t Ac c
33 34

Homework of Chap.9 (I) 9.3 Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

9.3.1 Propagation in Linear Media
In regions where there is no free charge and free current,
Maxwell’s equations become
∂B
Prob. 2, 6, 8, 10, 12 ∇⋅D = 0 ∇×E = −
∂t
∂D
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×H =
∂t
1
If the medium is linear, D = ε E and H = B
µ

If the medium is linear and ∂B

∇⋅E = 0 ∇×E = −
homogeneous (ε and µ do not vary ∂t
from point to point), ∂E
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ × B = µε 36
35
∂t
 The Index of Refraction Energy Density, Poynting Vector, and Intensity in
Linear Media
Electromagnetic waves propagate through a linear
All of our previous results carry over, with the simple
homogeneous medium at a speed
1 c transcription 1
 2 ∂ 2E v= = 1 1 g = uzˆ
u = (ε E 2 + B 2 )
∇ E = µε 2 1 ∂2 f µε n ε0 → ε 2 µ v
∂t
 ⇒ ∇ f = 2 2
2
µε µ0 → µ
∇ 2 B = µε ∂ B
2
v ∂t n≡ E×B 1
µ 0ε 0 S= I ≡ S = vε E02
 ∂t 2 c→v µ 2
The index of refraction of the material Q: What happens when a wave passes from one
ε
For most material, µ is very close to µ0, so n ≅ = εr transparent medium into another? Boundary conditions.
ε0
Since εr is almost always greater than 1, light travels D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σ f E1// − E2// = 0
more slowly through matter. B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 H1// − H 2// = (K f × nˆ )
Q: What happens when εr is less than 1 or negative?
Very interesting. 37 38

9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal

Incidence The Boundary Conditions
A plane wave of frequency ω, traveling in the z direction and Normal incident: no components perpendicular to the surface.
polarized in the x direction, approaches the interface from the
left. E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1 1
Incident wave: ( E0 I − E0 R ) = E
µ1v1 µ2 v2 0T
E I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −ωt ) xˆ µ1v1
⇒ ( E0 I − E0 R ) = β E0T , where β =
1 µ2 v2
B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −ωt ) yˆ
v1 In terms of the incident amplitude:

Reflected wave: Transmitted wave: 1− β v2 − v1

i ( k2 z −ωt ) E0 R = ( ) E0 I E0 R = ( ) E0 I
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( − k1 z −ωt )
xˆ ET ( z , t ) = E0T e xˆ 1+ β v1 + v2
if µ µ0 ⇒
1 2 2v2
1
B R ( z , t ) = − E0 R ei ( − k1z −ωt ) yˆ BT ( z , t ) = E0T ei ( k2 z −ωt ) yˆ E0T = ( ) E0 I E0T =( ) E0 I
v1 v2
39
1+ β v1 + v2 40
 Determine the Complex Amplitudes of a String Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
The reflected wave is in phase if v2 >v1
Incident wave: f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z −ωt )
and is out of phase if v2 <v1
Reflected wave: f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( − k1z −ωt ) v2 − v1 n −n
i ( k2 z −ωt ) E0 R = ( ) E0 I = ( 1 2 ) E0 I
Transmitted wave: fT ( z , t ) = AT e v1 + v2 n1 + n2
df df 2v2 2n1
Boundary f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t ) = E0T =( ) E0 I = ( ) E0 I
conditions: dz dz v1 + v2 n1 + n2
0− 0+ 1
The intensity (average power per unit area) is: I ≡ S = vε E02
 k −k v −v 2
 AR = ( 1 2 ) AI = ( 2 1 ) AI
AI + AR = AT   k1 + k2 v2 + v1 IR n −n
⇒  Reflection coefficient R ≡ = ( 1 2 )2
k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT   2k1 2v2 II n1 + n2
AT = ( ) AI = ( ) AI εv
 k1 + k2 v2 + v1 I
Transmission coefficient T ≡ T = 2 2 (
2n1 2
) =
4n1n2
When v2>v1, all three waves have the same phase angle. I I ε1v1 n1 + n2 (n1 + n2 ) 2
41 42
When v2<v1, the reflected wave is out of phase by 180°.

9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Oblique

Incidence Boundary Conditions
Suppose that a monochromatic plane wave of frequency ω, All three waves have the same frequency ω.
traveling in the kI direction
v2 n
ω = k I v1 = k R v1 = kT v2 or k I = k R = kT = 1 kT
Incident wave: v1 n2
E I (r, t ) = E0 I ei (k I ⋅r −ωt ) Using the boundary conditions
1
B I (r, t ) = (kˆ I × E I ) ε1 E1⊥ − ε 2 E2⊥ = 0 E1// − E2// = 0
v1
1 1
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1// − B 2// = 0
µ1 µ2
Reflected wave: Transmitted wave:
E R (r, t ) = E0 R ei (k R ⋅r −ωt ) ET (r, t ) = E0T ei (kT ⋅r −ωt ) A generic structure for the four boundary conditions.
1 1
B R (r, t ) = (kˆ R × E R ) BT (r, t ) = (kˆ T × ET ) ( )ei ( k I ⋅r −ωt ) + ( )ei (k R ⋅r −ωt ) = ( )ei (kT ⋅r −ωt )
v1 v2
43 44
 Laws of Reflection and Refraction
θ I , θ R , and θT are angles
k I ⋅ r = k R ⋅ r = k T ⋅ r at z=0
of incidence, reflection,
k I sin θ I = k R sin θ R = kT sin θT
and refraction, respectively.
The law of reflection: θI = θR
sin θT k I v1 n1
The law of refraction: = = =
(Snell’s law) sin θ I kT v2 n2
Boundary Conditions (ii)
( )ei (k I ⋅r −ωt ) + ( )ei (k R ⋅r −ωt ) = ( )ei (kT ⋅r −ωt )
We have taken care of the exponential factors—they cancel.
The boundary conditions become:
(i) ε1 (E0 I + E0 R ) z = ε 2 ( E0T ) z Normal D
(ii) (B 0 I + B 0 R ) z = (B 0T ) z Normal B
(iii) (E0 I + E0 R ) x , y = ( E0T ) x , y Tangential E
1 1
(iv) (B 0 I + B 0 R ) x , y = ( B 0T ) x , y Tangential H
µ1 µ2

1
Common properties of waves: These equations are where B 0 (r, t ) = (kˆ × E0 )
obtained from their generic form. v
45 46

Parallel to the Plane of Incidence Parallel to the Plane of Incidence (ii)

Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is parallel to the cos θT
plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted (iii) ( E0 I + E0 R ) = α ( E0T ) α≡
waves also polarized in this plane? Yes. cos θ I
µv
(iv) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = β ( E0T ) β ≡ 1 1
µ2v2
α −β 2
⇒ E0 R = ( ) E0 I E0T = ( ) E Fresnel’s equations
α +β α + β 0I

How about the first boundary condition?

Normal D (i) ε1 (− E0 I sin θ I + E0 R sin θ R ) = ε 2 (− E0T sin θT )
Does this condition contribute anything new?
Tangential E (iii) ( E0 I cos θ I + E0 R cos θ R ) = ( E0T cos θT )
Normal B (ii) 0=0 ε 2 sin θT ε 2 sin θT µ1v1
(i) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = (E ) = ?
1 1 ε1 sin θ I 0T ε1 sin θ I µ2v2
Tangential H (iv) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = (E )
µ1v1 µ2 v2 0T 47 48
 Brewster’s Angle Brewster’s Angle (II)
 α −β If µ1 ≅ µ2 , β ≅ n2 / n1 and sin 2 θ B ≅ β 2 /(1 + β 2 )
 E0 R = ( α + β ) E0 I cos θT µv
 ⇒ tan θ B ≅ 2
n
 where α ≡ and β ≡ 1 1
E = ( 2 )E cos θ I µ2 v2 n1
 0T
α +β 0I

When α =β, there is no reflected wave. E0 R = 0

cos θT µ1v1
= when θ I = θ B (called Brewster's angle)
cos θ I µ2 v2
v sin θT cos θT µ1 sin θ B
From Snell's law 2 = ⇒ =
v1 sin θ B cos θ B µ2 sin θT
µ12 sin 2 θ B v2 2 2 1− β 2
=β 2
and sin 2
θ = ( ) sin θ ⇒ sin 2
θ =
µ22 sin 2 θT T
v1
B B
(n1 / n2 ) 2 −49β 2 50

Transmission and Reflection Perpendicular to the Plane of Incidence

1
I I ≡ S ⋅ zˆ = v1ε1 E02I cos θ I I α −β 2 Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is perpendicular
2 R≡ R =( ) to the plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted
1 α −β 2 II α +β
I R = v1ε1 E02R cos θ R = ( ) I waves also polarized in this plane? Yes.
2 α +β I I
T ≡ T = αβ (
2 2
)
1 2 2 II α +β
IT = v2ε 2 E02T cos θT = αβ ( ) I
2 α +β I

51 See Problem 9.16 52

 9.4 Absorption and Dispersion
Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (II)
9.4.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors
∂ρ f
When wave propagates through vacuum or insulating The continuity equation for free charge: = −∇ ⋅ J f
conductivity ∂t
materials such as glass or teflon, assuming no free charge
and no free current is reasonable. J f =σE ∂ρ f ρf σ
= −σ (∇ ⋅ E) = −σ = − ρf
ρ f = ε∇ ⋅ E ∂t ε ε
But in conductive media such as metal or plasma, the free
charge and free current are generally not zero. −
t

The free current is proportional to the electric field: Ohm’s law For a homogeneous linear medium: ρ f (t ) = e τ ρ f (0)
ε
J f =σE where τ =
σ
Classification of conductors:
Maxwell’s equation for linear media assume the form
superconductor σ = ∞, τ = 0 What’s the difference?
ρf ∂B
∇⋅E = ∇×E + =0 perfect conductor σ = ∞, τ = 0 See Prob. 7.42
ε ∂t
∂E
good conductor τ << ω τ ≈ 10−19 s for copper
∇⋅B = 0 ∇ × B − µε = µσ E poor conductor τ >> ω τ c ∼ 10−14 s collision time
∂t 53 54

Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (III) Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (IV)

Omitting Transient Effect Complex Wave Number
Omit the transient behavior. These equations still admit plane-wave solutions,
Assume no charges accumulation: ρ f = 0 ∂ 2E ∂E
∂B ∇ 2 E = µε + µσ E( z , t ) = E0 ei ( kz −ωt )
∇⋅E = 0 ∇×E + =0 ∂t 2 ∂t
∂t 
∂ 2B ∂B B( z , t ) = B 0 e
i ( kz −ωt )
∂E ∇ 2 B = µε 2 + µσ
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ × B = µε + µσ E ∂t ∂t
∂t
∂B ∂ (∇ × B) Note this time the " wave number" k is complex:
∇ × (∇ × E + ) = ∇ × (∇ × E) +
∂t ∂t k 2 = µεω 2 + i µσω
 εµ  σ 2 
∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2 E = −∇ 2 E k ≡ ω  1 + ( ) + 1
=0  2  εω 
∂ (∇ × B) ∂ 2E
= µε 2 + µσ
∂E k = k + iκ , where 
∂t ∂t ∂t  εµ  σ 2 
κ ≡ ω  1 + ( ) − 1
∂ 2E ∂E ∂ 2B ∂B  2  εω 
∇ 2 E = µε + µσ , ∇ 2
B = µε + µσ (likewise) 55 56
∂t 2
∂t ∂t 2
∂t
 The Real Parts of The Fields 9.4.2 Reflection at a Conducting Surface
k ε1 E1⊥ − ε 2 E2⊥ = σ f E1// − E2// = 0
E( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z ei ( kz −ωt )  → B( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z ei ( kz −ωt )
Faraday's law
ω 1 1
iφ B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1// − B 2// = K f × nˆ
k = k + iκ = Ke µ1 µ2
σ 2 Where σf is the free surface charge, Kf is the free surface
K ≡ k 2 + κ 2 = ω εµ 1 + ( ) and φ ≡ tan −1 (κ / k ) current, and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface,
εω
pointing from medium (2) into medium (1).
k iδ B Keiφ
B( z , t ) = E ⇒ B0 e = E0 eiδ E
ω ω Normal
incident
B0 K σ
δ B − δ E = φ and = = εµ 1 + ( ) 2
E0 ω εω (1) nonconducting (2) conductor
−κ z linear medium
E( z , t ) = E0 e cos(kz − ωt + δ E )xˆ
K
B( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z cos(kz − ωt + δ E + φ )yˆ
ω 57 58

Reflection at a Conducting Surface (II) Reflection at a Conducting Surface (III)

Incident wave: Tangential components of the fields at z=0:
i ( k1 z −ωt ) 1
E I ( z , t ) = E0 I e xˆ , B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −ωt ) yˆ E1// − E2// = 0
v1 E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1 1 1 k
Reflected wave: B1// − B 2// = K f × nˆ ( E0 I − E0 R ) − 2 E0T = K f
1 µ1 µ2 µ1v1 µ2ω
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R ei ( − k1 z −ωt ) xˆ , B R ( z , t ) = − E0 R ei ( − k1 z −ωt ) yˆ
v1
with K f = 0, why? K f ∝ E // = 0 1− β
Transmitted wave: E0 R = ( ) E0 I
k2 E0 I + E0 R = E0T 1+ β
E( z , t ) = E0T e −κ z ei ( k2 z −ωt ) xˆ , B( z , t ) = E0T e −κ z ei ( k2 z −ωt ) yˆ
ω µ1v1 E0T = (
2
( E0 I − E0 R ) = β E0T , where β ≡ k ) E0 I
µ2ω 2 1+ β
Normal components of the fields
For a perfect conductor (σ=∞), k2=∞ Î E0 R = − E0 I and E0T = 0
ε1 E1⊥ − ε 2 E2⊥ = σ f
⇒ σ f = 0 (E = 0) ⊥

B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
1,2
59 That’s why excellent conductors make good mirrors. 60
 9.4.3 The Frequency Dependence of Permittivity
When the speed of a wave depends on its frequency, the
supporting medium is called dispersive.
The Group Velocity and Phase Velocity
When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in
amplitude.
Asin((k0 + ∆k ) z − (ω0 + ∆ω)t ) + Asin((k0 − ∆k ) z − (ω0 − ∆ω)t )
= Asin((k0 z − ω0t ) + (∆kz − ∆ωt )) + Asin((k0 z − ω0t ) − (∆kz − ∆ωt ))
= 2 A cos[(∆kz − ∆ωt )]sin[(k0 z − ω0t )]

ω0
Phase velocity vp =
k0
∆ω dω
Group velocity vg = =
∆k dk
61 62

Simplified Model for the Frequency Dependence of

Interference in Time: Beats
Permittivity in Nonconductors
When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in The electrons in a nonconductor are
amplitude. bound to specific molecules.
y = y1 + y2 = Asin(2πf1t ) + Asin(2πf 2t )
f1 − f 2 f +f
= 2 A cos[2π ( )t ]sin[2π ( 1 2 )t ] The simplified binding force: Fbinding = − kspring x = − mω02 x
2 2
Beat frequency (|f1-f2|): frequency of the amplitude Is this model oversimplified to you?
envelope dx
The damping force on the electron: Fdamping = − mγ
dt
The driving force on the electron: Fdriving = qE = qE0 cos(ωt )

d 2x
Newton's law: m = Ftot = Fbinding + Fdamping + Fdriving
63 dt 2 64
 Permittivity in Nonconductors Permittivity in Nonconductors (II)
The equation of motion N molecules per unit volume; each molecule contains fj
electrons with frequency ωj and damping γj.
d 2x dx The polarization P is given by the real part of:
m 2 + mγ + mω02 x = qE0 cos(ωt )
dt dt
Nq 2  fj 
 d 2x dx  P=  ∑ 2  E = ε 0 χeE
Re m 2 + mγ + mω02 x = qE0 e − iωt  m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω 
 dt dt 
Nq 2  fj 
Let the system oscillates at the driving frequency ω χe =  ∑ 2  ← the complex susceptibility
ε 0 m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω 
q/m
x = x0 e − iωt , where x0 = 2 E
ω0 − ω 2 − iγω 0 the complex permittivity ε =ε 0 (1 + χ e )
The dipole moment is the real part of p = qx(t ) the complex dielectric constant
Nq 2  fj 
p=
q2 1
E0 e − iωt ε r =(1 + χ e ) = 1 +  ∑ 2 
m ω0 − ω − iγω
2 2 ε 0 m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω 
65 66

Waves in a Dispersive medium Anomalous Dispersion

The wave equation for a given frequency reads The index of refraction:
∂ 2E Nq 2  fj  Nq 2  f j (ω 2j − ω 2 ) 
 ∑ 2
ck
∇ E = µε 2 ε =ε 0 (1 + χ e ) = ε 0 +  n= ≅ 1+ ∑
2

∂t m  j ω j − ω 2 − iγ jω  ω 2mε 0  j (ω 2j − ω 2 ) 2 + γ 2j ω 2 
k ≡ εµ0 ω = k + iκ E( z , t ) = E0 e −κ z ei ( kz −ωt ) Nq 2ω 2  f j γ 2j 
α = 2κ ≅  ∑ 2 2 2 
mε 0 c  j (ω j − ω ) + γ j ω 
2 2

I ≡ S = I 0 e −2κ z , α ≡ 2κ (absorption coefficient)

In the immediate neighborhood of a resonance, the index of
For gases, the second term of ε is small refraction drops sharply. Í called anomalous dispersion.
ω ω 1 ω Nq 2  fj 
k≡ εr ≅ (1 + ε r ) = 1 +  ∑ 2 
c c 2 c  2mε 0  j ω j − ω − iγ jω  
2 Faster Than Light (FTL):
Can we find cases where the waves propagate at a speed
The binomial expansion faster than light? Superluminal effect.
67 68
 9.5 Guided Waves
General Properties of Wave Guides
9.4.1 Wave Guides
In the interior of the wave guide, the waves satisfy Maxwell’s
Can the electromagnetic waves propagate in a hollow metal
equations: ∂B
pipe? Yes, wave guide. ∇⋅E = 0 ∇×E + = 0 Why ρ = 0 and J = 0?
∂t f f
Waveguides generally made of good 1 ∂E 1
conductor, so that E=0 and B=0 inside ∇⋅B = 0 ∇×B = 2 where v =
v ∂t εµ
the material.
We obtain
The boundary conditions at the inner wall
are: E // = 0 and B ⊥ = 0 …

The generic form of the monochromatic waves:

E( x, y, z , t ) = E0 ( x, y )ei ( kz −ωt ) = ( Ex xˆ + E y yˆ + Ez zˆ )ei ( kz −ωt )
 i ( kz −ωt )
 B( x, y, z , t ) = B 0 ( x, y )e = ( Bx xˆ + By yˆ + Bz zˆ )ei ( kz −ωt )
The confined waves are not (in general) transverse. 69 70

TE, TM, and TEM Waves No TEM Waves in a Hollow Wave Guide
Determining the longitudinal components Ez and Bz, we could Proof:
quickly calculate all the others.
∂Ex ∂E y
If Ez=0, Gauss’s law says + =0
∂x ∂y ∂ 2 Ex ∂ E y
2

⇒ + =0
∂E y ∂Ex ∂x 2 ∂y 2
If Bz=0, Faraday’s law says − =0
∂x ∂y

The boundary condition on E requires that the surface be an

equal-potential.
Laplace’s equation admits no local maxima or minima.
We obtain Î the potential is constant throughout. Ez=0 — no wave at all.
 ∂2 ∂2 ω 2 
 2 + + 2 − k 2  Ez = 0 If Ez = 0 ⇒ TE (transverse electric) waves;
 ∂x ∂y
2
v  A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave.
If Bz = 0 ⇒ TM (transverse magnetic) waves;
∂ 2
∂ 2
ω2 2 Can a metal wire support the TEM wave? Yes.
 2 + 2 + 2 − k  Bz = 0 If Ez = 0 and Bz = 0 ⇒ TEM waves.
 ∂x ∂y
71 72
v 
 A Diagram of the Optical Setup 9.5.2 TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide
Ez = 0, and Bz ( x, y ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) ← separation of variables

1 ∂ 2 X 1 ∂ 2Y ω 2
+ + ( 2 − k2) = 0
X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 v

1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y
= − k 2
and = − k y2
X ∂x Y ∂y
2 x 2

ω2
with = k 2 + k x2 + k y2
v2

X ( x) = A sin k x x + B cos k x x
Y ( y ) = C sin k y y + D cos k y y
K. Wang and D. M. Mittleman, “Metal wires for terahertz wave
guiding”, Nature, vol.432, No. 18, p.376, 2004. 73 74

TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (II) TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (III)
∂Bz Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(mπ x / a ) cos(nπ y / b)
Ex ∝ ∝ C cos k y y − D sin k y y
∂y In vacuum, ε = ε 0 and µ = µ0 , v = c. the cutoff frequency
Ex (@ y = 0) = 0 ⇒ C = 0
1
nπ k= ω 2 − ωmn2
, where ωmn
2
= c 2π 2 [(m / a ) 2 + (n / b) 2 ]
Ex (@ y = b) = 0 ⇒ sin k y b = 0, k y = (n = 0,1, 2,...) c
b If ω < ωmn , the wave number is imaginary.
∂B
E y ∝ z ∝ A cos k x x − B sin k x x
∂x The lowest cutoff frequency of TE10 mode is: ω10 = cπ / a
E y (@ x = 0) = 0 ⇒ A = 0
mπ The wave velocities are:
E y (@ x = a) = 0 ⇒ sin k x a = 0, k x = (m = 0,1, 2,...)
a ω c
vp = = > c phase velocity
Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(mπ x / a) cos(nπ y / b) ← the TE mn mode k 1 − ωmn
2
ω2
dω
vg = = c 1 − ωmn
2
ω 2 < c group velocity
k = (ω / v) − π [(m / a ) + (n / b) ]
2 2 2 2
dk
75 76
 Why the Phase Velocity Greater Than
The Field Profiles: Examples
The Speed of Light
ω c
vp = = > c phase velocity
k 1 − ωmn
2
ω2
dω
vg = = c 1 − ωmn
2
ω 2 < c group velocity
dk
v p vg = c 2

77 78

9.5.3 The Coaxial Transmission Line The Coaxial Transmission Line (II)
The problem is reduced to two dimensions.
A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave,
but a coaxial transmission line can.
Electrostatic: the infinite line charge;
Magnetostatic: an infinite straight current.
A A
E0 ( s, φ ) = sˆ, B 0 ( s, φ ) = φˆ
s cs

Taking the real part:

A cos(kz − ωt )
E( s , φ , z , t ) = sˆ
s
A cos(kz − ωt )
B( s, φ , z , t ) = φˆ
cs
∇ ⋅ E = 0 and ∇ × E = 0  E = −∇φE electrostatic
⇒
∇ ⋅ B = 0 and ∇ × B = 0  B = −∇φB magnetostatic 79 80
Homework of Chap.9 (II)

Prob. 16, 18, 19, 29, 30, 35, 38

81