ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

VOL. XXVIII SEPTEMBER, I933 No. 6

THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. •

L. C. GRATON.

INT•0mrCT•0N ................................................ 5X4

Great Vertical Range Proved ........................... 5x4
Scopeof Present Considerations........................ 5•7
Trxv. I-t¾•)•0Trxw•At. DwvxR-Zo•rv.s ............................. 5x9
Foundations of the Argument .............................. 5•9
Basis of Subdivision .................................. 5•9
Essential Postulates ................................... 520
Sourceand Composition............................ 520
Pressure ......................................... 520
Temperature ...................................... 52 •
Intensity Factor ................................... 52 x
Evaluation of Depth Factor ............................ 523
The I-typothermal Zone .................................... 527
General Characteristics ................................ 527
Fahlbands Included Here .............................. 530
Contact-Metamorphic Type ............................ $3x
Vertical Range ........................................ 532
The Mesothermal Zone .................................... 535
General Characteristics ................................ 535
Vertical Range ........................................ 535
The Leptothermal Zone .................................... 536
Definition and Characteristics .......................... 536
Vertical Range ........................................ 538
The Epithermal Zone ..................................... 540
General Characteristics ................................ 540'
ß Presidential Address, Society of Economic Geologists, presented at the Tulsa,
Okla., meeting, in joint sessionwith the GeologicalSociety of America, December,
x93x.

35
5 x4 L.C. GRA TON.

Vertical Range ....................................... 542

Telescoping,Pre-Heating and Stretching................. 544
Source ............................................... 546
The TelethermalZone ..................................... 547
Definition and Character .............................. 547
Vertical Range ........................................ 55x
CONCnUStONS
................................................. 55•

INTRODUCTION. ß

Great.VerticalRangeProved.--The depth.s to whichoresper-

sistand the physicaland chemicaldifferences
whichthey display
at variouslevelsbelow the surfacecommandperennialinterest.
Mines everywhereare deepening,and generallyat rates never
before equalled. Nearly a scoreof mines on four continents
have now reachedvertical depthsof from 5,000 to nearly 8,000
feet. This opensboth new problemsof mine operationand new
opportunitiesfor geologicalobservation. As it has been my
privilegeto examineall thesevery deepmineswithin the last four
years, I take this occasionto presentsome generalizedimpres-
sionson the subjectof ore depositionin relationto depth. Great
practicalimportanceobviouslyattachesto this question;but of
that no generaldiscussion will now be attempted. Attention will
here be confinedto certainconsiderations of distinctlygeological
significance.
Sincean ore bodyvariesin richnessor characterfrom point to
point chieflybecauseof conditionscontrollingits deposition,dis-
cussionof the effectsof depth cannot be kept independentof
hypotheses of origin.
For thosefew metals,notablyaluminum,iron, and manganese,
soplentifulin the usualrocksthat a relativelysmallmultiplication
of contentwould afford material of commercialtenor, it has been
amply demonstratedthat this comparativelyeasytask of concen-
tration can be accomplished at especiallyfavorableplacesby so
simpleand familiar a processas weatheringor by so feeblebut
sustainedan instrumentalityas the sub-vadosecirculation. For
this restricted.
but highly important family of deposits,the time•
honoredtheory of genesisby meteoricwatersstandssecure. But
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION.

suchores,whenunaffectedby later structuralrelocations, possess

a simplemineralogyand a relatively monotonouscharacterin
generalaccordwith what the theory of their superficialorigin
would imply. Therefore, suchdepositsordinarily add but little
to our understandingof the intenselyinterestingprocesses that
go on at depth,and for that reasonwill not be consideredhere.
For mosttypesof ores,however,considerations had led, by the
early years of the present century, to firm establishmentof a
deep-seatedmagmatic source. This openedthe conceptionof
'deposition
of oresat depthsmuchgreaterthanhadpreviously
been seriouslyentertained. Neverthelessthe evidencessupport-
ing magmaticderivationwere, for the most part, merely permis-
sive of persistence to great depthin given cases;there was little
of compulsionabout them. Metals might be derived from
abysmalsources,the requisiteheat, the mobilemediumof trans-
•fer and the necessary transportingpower might likewisetherebe
suppliedinstill,the metalsmight be depositedonly at depthsfar
;shallower
than the source. Notwithstandingsuggestivecontri-
butionsby Vogt, DeLaunayand others,there remaineda gap in
both the evidenceand the argument for the actual formation of
oresat great depth.
Toward the fillingof this gap,nothinghascontributedsomuch,
whetherin the way of clarifying and extendingearlier ideasor
of addingentirelynew ones,as the epoch-making paperof •9o6
by Lindgren, showingthe controlof physicalconditionson ore
deposition. It was my great fortune to serveas ProfessorLind-
gren'sassistantduring the yearswhen many of his ideason this
subjectwere taking form and being testedagainst actual occur-
rencesin many regions. To that inspiring associationmust be
ascribedthe initiation of interestswhich find in my presentre-
marks all too unworthy a reflectionof the stimulus.
This conceptionof physicalcontrol (really, physico-chemica!
control) appliedto his enormouslyrich and intensivefield experi-
ence with ore depositsenabledLindgren to achievethat long-
soughtaccomplishment, a classification
of mineraldepositsbased
consistently on origin. By this doctrineof physicalcontroland
its later elaborations,Lindgren also showedhow, particularlyfor
5 •6 L.C. GRATON.

thatvastfamilyof hydrothermal
deposits,
it ispossible
toenvisage
the entireverticalrangeof vein deposition,and to setup a three-
fold grouping: hypothermalor deepest,mesothermalor inter-
mediate,and finally epithermalor shallow,the last-namedmerg-
ing at its upperlimit into the hot-springdepositsat the very sur-
face. Conversely,from the mineralogicaland textural character
of ore and adjoining alteration, a given depositcan be assigned
to a definiteplacein this vertical range, inferencesdrawn as to
amountof erosionit hassufferedsinceformation,and predictions
made as to its characterstill deeper. This was the most clear-
cut recognitionand expositionthat had yet appearedregarding
systematicand progressivechange in character of depositsof
common source. Although Lingren did not use the term, he
plainly demonstrated the importanceand the necessityof mineral
zonin#, especiallyin the vertical sense,as a consequence of the
inevitablychangingphysicalconditionsattendingdeposition. The
valueof theseconceptions hasbeenwidelyrecognized.
Closelyrelatedin many waysto this theoryof physicalcontrol
is the zonal theory, definitely so-called. Likewise glimpsedby
variousearlier investigators,this theory first found generalized
expression by Spurr, and has receivedlater elaborations by De
Launay, Sales, B. S. Butler, W. H. Emmons, Rastall, Berg,
and others,especiallywith respectto horizontalvariationsand
as regardsdefinitepositionalrelationof the deposits to the parent
intrusivebody. This conception, also,hasdemonstrated its value
by aidingin the interpretationof many occurrences.
More recentlyNiggli, who hasapproached the questionrather
from the strictlyphysico-chemical sidethan that of field observa-
tion,haspresented a classification
of thgoresof magmaticderiva-
tion, full of suggestiveandenlightening viewpointsand definitely
in accordas to many major implicationswith the theoriesof
physical controlandof zonalarrangement.Schneiderh6hn, Berg
and variousother Continentalgeologists have indicatedsubstan-
tial accordwith Niggli's conceptions.
While thesethree lines of approachdiffer somewhatamong
themselves and in certainrespectsappearevenincompatible with
one another,they are in completeagreementin provinga great
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 517

vertical range within which ore depositionis actuallyaccom-

plished. What hadbeenpermissible as to depthhasnowbecome
compulsory.
Scopeof PresentConsiderations.-•This firm theoreticalback-
groundof ore occurrence and the actualevidences now afforded
by the deepminesjointly makeit possibleto considerthe effects
of depthon ore depositionwith somewhatmore of confidence
and definiteness than has perhapsbeen justifiablehitherto. It
seemspermissible, also,to take inventoryof the existingclassi-
ficationsof thoseore depositsin which the depth factor is of
primeimportance, and to suggestfor consideration certainmodi-
ficationsthat haveas their aim the bringingof theoryinto better
accord with the facts now known.
No attemptwill be madeto considerhere the variousrelation-
shipsof depththat are independent of initial deposition,suchas
later structural deformation, aggradation,and superficialim-
poverishmentor enrichment;erosion enters this consideration
only as it enablesus to seewhat oncewas deepand thus to im-
prove the ratio of fact to speculationregardingconditionsat
depth.
Two factorsaffectinginitial deposition, namely,rockcharacter
and structuralconditions,are in large measureindependent of
depth. They therefore influencethe broad principlesand ten-
denciesof mineraldeposition ratherin a locallymodifyingthan in
a broadlycontrollingmanner. For the individualoccurrenceor
locality,they may be of the greatestimportance;but they will be
considered hereonly as they affectore depositionin a generalway.
Attention will be further restrictedto suchtypesof depositsas
potentiallypossess a great initial rangeof verticalextent. It is
immediatelyevidentthat the oreswhich have the bestchanceof
deposition througha greatverticalrangeandare thusmostlikely
to discloseinherentinfluencesdirectly due to depth are those
which have long beenclassedas hydrothermal. The remainder
of my remarks will, therefore, be confinedto ores that may be
regardedas belongingto the hydrothermallineage,the limits of
which I suggestexpandingsubstantially.
518 L. C. GRATON.

Emphasis is putontheintimatebutchangingrelationships
that
permeatethe entirehydrothermal groupand that serveto join
all its variationsintooneco6rdinatedfamily. In particular,the
factor of depthis kept to the forefront, both becauseof its inti-
mate bearingon conditionsof ore genesisand because, of all the
influencesthat affectedore precipitation at the time the deposits
were formed,depthis the one that most tangiblysurvivesfor
observationalconsideration at the presentday. Moreover,since
theverticalrangesof thehydrothermal zonesappearto havebeen
under-estimated, the quantitativeaspectsof depth are given
prominence.
The principaldeviationsherein from Lindgren'streatmentof
the hydrothermaldepositsconsist,first, in the proposedinclusion
of certaintypesof depositsthat have not hithertobeenregarded
by all as embracedwithin the hydrothermalfamily, and second,
in the suggestionthat to the three hydrothermalzonesof Lind-
gren two more be added by mild rearrangementof the former
boundarylines.
Doubtlessmany othershave duplicatedmy frequent and dis-
illusioningexperiencein finding that a given occurrence,when
seenface to face, differs in surprisingdegreefrom my previous
mentalpictureof it gained from descriptions by others. That
the personalequationshouldenter profoundlyinto all geological
conclusions that rest upon the literature is inevitable. But it is
nonethe lessunfortunate;for there are enoughgrave imponder-
ables inherent in so complex a subject as ore genesiswithout
adding enormoushuman variables. Therefore, with the hope,
not of eliminatingthe personalfactor,but of holdingit hereinas
nearly constantas possible,I am choosingexamplespreferably
from occurrences which I have visited; other examplescited in
thesepagesare distinguishedby an asterisk,to servenoticethat
they necessarily
standon a differentbasisor denominatorof in-
terpretation.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. ,519

THE HYDROTHERMAL DEPTH-ZONES.

Foundationso1c the ,4rgument.

Basis of Subdiz•ision.--The major conceptionsunderlying
Lindgren'sclassification of the hydrothermallineageinto a num-
ber of subgroups appearfundamentally soundand enduring. If
I ventureto suggestwhat seemto me to be desirablemodifications
of detail, this only servesas confirmationof my respectfor the
basicidea. No attemptis made to presenta completeand self-
sufficientclassificationof the hydrothermal deposits. I shall
merely here and there attach certain commentsto the general
frameworkestablished by Lindgren. ß
Adherence
to the generalLindgrenclassification
in no wiseex-
cludes,as I see it, acceptanceof the zonal theory in its present
form. But it appearshelpful and logicallysoundto recognize
primarily a few inclusivegroups based on the broadestcon-
trolling conditionsof depositionand then to subdividetheseinto
as many individual types as may be thought desirable. This
Lindgren has successfully done, as illustrated,for example,by
his sub-sections"Tin Deposits," "Gold Deposits," etc., under
the hypothermalgroup. In this way is producedwhat seemsto
me a more truly geneticand a more practicallyelasticclassifica-
tion than that toward which the zonal supportersseem to be
tending in piling on top of one another somethinglike a score
of typesdistinguished
chiefl•by metalcontent.The number
of
suchtypesis almostcertain to grow, and the instancesof recur-
renceof the samemetal at different elevationsto multiply, as our
information increases,thus causingthis cumulativestraight-line
methodof classificationto becomemore and more unwieldy and
empirical. Niggli's recent classificationstandssomewhatbe-
tweentheseother two, but decidedlycloserto the zonal scheme.
•
• Since this paper was presented, Schneiderhbhnhas brought out a modified
classification (Zeit. prakt. Geol., 4o, Heft •, PP-•-4, •932) which follows the gen-
eral views of the present-dayGerman school; but in the application of his classifica-
tion to German ore occurrences (Metallwirtschaft, •i, Heft 46, P. 619, •932) he
shows a degree bf approach to Lindgren's idea of physical control by recognizing
high-, intermediate- and low-temperature subdivisions for a part of the hydro-
thermal series.
520 L. C. GRATON.

Essential Postulates.--Certain assumptionsor postulatesare

made necessaryby the limitations of our positiveknowledgere-
garding conditionsdeepin the crust. My principalassumptions
required for presentpurposesapply to the physico-chemical char-
acter of the hydrothermalsolutionsand are listedbelowwithout
presentattempt at argument in their support. These postulates
are assumedto apply in the 9eneral case; they may be to some
degreediscounted or evenupsetin certainlocalinstances.
Source and Composition.--The hydrothermal fluids are
evolved from the magma body before and during its crystalliza-
tion. When crystallizationis completed,their evolution ceases.
They acquiredtheir dominantcharacteristics of temperature,pres-
sureand compositionfrom the magmasourceitself, and they tend
to lose thesecharacteristicsprogressivelyas they move into alien
surroundings. The water and other volatiles containedin these
solutionsare of magmaticderivationequallywith the metalsand
other uncommonnon-volatile components. The proportion of
volatilescollectivelyto be regardedas the solventgenerallydomi-
nates greatly over the proportion of constituentscapableof
depositionas mineral material. From amongthe somewhatcon-
flicting opinions.of physico-chemical authorities,preferenceis
given, primarily on geologicalgrounds,to the assumptionthat
the hydrothermalsolutionis predominantlyliquid; nevertheless
transformationinto the gaseousstate is everywherepotential
through faster lossof pressurethan of heat, and may, at local
points,be in somedegreerealized. Save possiblyand occasion-
ally closeto the surface,the solutionsare of alkaline character
and in a state of true moleculardispersion. When the hydro-
thermalsolutionspassinto that very shallowregionwhere the
free groundwater existsin any importantquantity,theseascend-
ing solutions,by virtue of their great volumeand the pressure
they transmit,flushout and displacethe groundwaterfrom the
localizedchannelways of their ascentand hold it at a distance
until their work alongthesemain channelways is virtually done.
Pressure.--The solutionsare under great pressureat the
magmasource. They movebecausethey find opportunityto
escapefrom that pressure,
and the net eventualdirectionof
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. ,521

escapeis upward to the surfaceor to the highly fracturedrocks

near the surface. The system,while active, is open and hydro-
dynamic rather than hydrostatic,and great pressuredifferences
may exist in it simultaneouslyat different places;in general,the
pressuredeclinesfrom sourceto outlet, ordinarily at an acceler-
ating rate upward. Becauseof the great excessof non-deposit-
able solvent which must be disposedof for each unit of solid
material depositedat any particular place, a single filling of a
givenopenspaceby hydrothermalsolutionis entirelyinadequate
to fill that spacewith minerals;repeatedrefillingsare necessary.
Correspondingrequirementapplies to replacement. This in-
volvesmaintainedcirculationand puts as great necessityon out-
let as on source. When crystallizationin the magma chamber
ceases,driving pressureon the solution ceasesand flow stops.
'I'emperature.--Temperatureof the solutionsordinarily de-
clines from source to outlet. Reactions of a net exothermic char-
acter in which the solutionsparticipateare more than offset by
lossof heat through the walls of the channelway,which are as-
sumedto be everywhereinitially colderthan the solutionsthem-
selves. Therefore, althoughany given portion of the solutionis
constantlylosingheat as it ascends,the channelwaywall at any
given level and the depositthere formed are generallyand for
the mostpart subjected to risingtemperature throughcontinued
flow of solutionuntil the crest of the mineralizingepisodeis
reached. Thereafter,there is rapid declinein evolutionof solu-
tion at the source,expellingpressurefalls, flow dwindles,and
relativelylittle takesplacealongthe channelway savethe cooling
downof the depositand its wallsto the temperature normalfor
that depthandthat region.
IntensityFactor.--The interaction or integrationof thethree
precedingqualitiesof the hydrothermalsolutions,i.e., tempera-
ture, pressureand composition, constitutesa composite quality
thatmaybedesignated thephysico-chemical intensityof the solu-
tions. The resultant effectof thisdegreeof intensityof the solu-
tionson the localenvironmentof rock character,structuraldetail
andgeothermal valueat anygivenpointalongthe solution path-
522 L. C. GRATON.

way may be termedthe "intensity factor" of ore genesisat that

point.
In a region where rock character,thermal gradient and all
structural features are ideally homogeneousand constant, the
physico-chemical intensityof the solutionsand the intensity fac-
tor will have essentiallyparallel values or at least intimately re-
lated valuesthrough the entire range of hydrothermaldeposition.
The changein characterwhich the solutionswould experienceby
ascentthrough that •ange in suchan ideal region would be or-
derly and progressive,and might by typifiedby a line of simple
and smooth curvature--the "depth-intensity" curve. Various
considerations indicatethat this changein intensity of the solu-
tions and in the intensity factor would, in suchan ideal region,
take placeat a steadily(though perhapsslowly) acceleratingrate
upward from sourceto outlet; the depth-intensitycurve would
thusshowincreasingcurvaturefrom bottomto top of the hydro-
thermal range.
Variations in rock character or structure, in nature of the
channelway,or in the geothermalgradient--that is, departures
from the ideal just discussed--would manifestlyaffect the slope
and the smoothness of the depth-intensitycurve. But theselocal
deviationswould not sufficeto rob the curve of its generalchar-
acter; it would still show a dominant accelerationof curvature
upward,representing a cumulativelydecliningintensityfactor.
The charactero.f ore depositedat any depth is determinedby
thephysico-chemical intensityof the solutionat that depthandby
the localenvironment. The characterof ore that is pertinentfrom
the standpointof geneticprocessand significance is not neces-
sarilyconcerned with economicrichnessor quantity,but rather
it is thecomposite
of thosechemical,
mineralogical,andtextural
qualitieswhichwe recognize
as indicativeof the conditions
of
its formation. In order to distinguishthis particularkind of
characterfrom that more generalcharacterof customarypar-
lance,the former may be calledintensity-character. A hypo-
thermalore would thus be a relativelyhigh-intensitytype, and
an epithermalore wouldnormallybe of lower intensity-char-
acter.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. ,523

Evaluationof Depth Factor.--Lindgren haspresentedestimates

of the depthsof formation of each of his three hydrothermal
sub-groups. It seems extremely helpful, for both practical
and philosophical purposes,to attempt suchquantitativeexpres-
sionof the depthfactor,eventhoughit be recognizedthat in our
presentstate of understandingonly rough and perhapshighly
imperfect approximationscan be expected. Lindgren's method
of arrival at arithmeticalrather than merely relative specification
of depthsappearsto rest primarily on the amountof erosionsuf-
fered by the given locality sincethe depositswere formed; and
this, in turn, is ordinarily derivedfrom a theoreticalrestorationof
the stratigraphiccolumnof that locality. Ideas reachedby this
means he has subjectedto whatever checkmay be gained from
suchmiscellaneous considerationsas the depthto which voidscan
persist,strengthof the body of rock overlyingany given point at
depth, the effectsof pressuredue to the rock column and to the
hydrostaticcolumnat given depths,the critical pressureof water,
lossesdue to friction of the moving solutions,and indicationsof
vertical persistenceof given deposits.
Apparentlyrecognizingthe dangersin trying to translateinto
definitevaluesany or all of thesefactors (most of them pr.etty
speculativein themselves),and with his characteristicconserva-
tism, Lindgren has reachedestimatesof formation below the
then-existing surface which appear to range about as follows,
stated in feet:

Epithetreal .......................... o to 4,ooo (?)

Mesoihermal......................... 3-4,oooto possiblymorethan x2,ooo
Hypothermal ......................... 3-4,ooo to what he evidently regards as
a very speculative extreme of 33,oo0

One of the checksusedby Lindgren in estimatingtheseranges

of depth impressesme as affording a more direct and probably
a more reliableanswer than can ordinarily be had from any or
all the other means•:ombined:namely, the actual indicationsas
to vertical persistenceafforded by the depositsthemselves. It
seemspossible,moreover,to make effectiveuse of this kind of
informationover a substantiallygreater vertical range than that
actuallyrevealedby any mine-workingor mountain-side exposure.
524 L. C. GRATON.

This may be achievedby making from the disclosedfacts extra-

polationsthat seem decidedlyconservativeand dependable,as
geological extrapolations
go. The mannerof this application may
be indicatedin the followinghypotheticalexample.
Let it be assumedthat at the presenterosionsurfacethere is
found a body of ore having suchcharacteristics as to indicate
that it belongsbeyondall questionin, say,the hypothermal zone.
Let it be further assumed,for the sakeof simplification,that the
geothermalgradient,the countryrock and the structuralenviron-
ment of this ore depositremain constantfor as great a depthas
we may wish to imagine; also that the attitude of the depositin
spacehas not been disturbedsince formation.
If the physical-controltheory has any validity, it must mean
that the natureof this ore whichcausesus to classifyit as hypo-
thermalis a consequence of the physico-chemical conditionsthat
prevailedat this placewhen this ore was formed. Somewhere
above,in the regionnow erodedaway,conditionsof a lower order
of physico-chemical intensitymust have prevailedand have pro-
ducedore differing therefore from that with which we are here
dealing. Likewise,at somegreaterdepth,ore therepresentought
to beginto showeffectsof more intenseconditionsattendingits
deposition. We assumethat in due coursemining opensour dis-
covereddepositto the •,ooo-foot levelwhere it is still continuing
downward. And we find that in this •,ooo-foot vertical span,
althoughthe nature of the ore varies somewhatfrom place to
place,there is no discoverableprogressive or systematicchange
with depth;so that representative samplesof adequatesize from
the upper,the middleand the lowerpartsof this spanare found
to be essentially
identical. Statedotherwise,the rate of change
in intensitycharacterof the ore with depthis undiscoverably
small. As will be seen,the rate of chan#ewith depthis the core
of this entire conception.
The problemnow is to extrapolatesanelyfrom this known
I,ooo-footportionof the deposit. Our theorydemandsthat in
a •,ooo-footspantheremustbe somechangein intensitychar-
acter. Therefore,althoughwe havebeenunableactuallyto de-
tectanychange, we will assume
that thereis an extremelyslight
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 525

declinein intensitycharacterfrom bottom to top of this exposed

span. It is clearthat we are dealingwith ore which belongswell
down on the depth-intensitycurve, where its curvatureis very
small; this tallies with our initial diagnosisof the ore as hypo-.
thermal. Extrapolation then consistsin extending the ideal
depth-intensitycurve upward and downward from the known
or base-lineportion. Our conceptionof the shapeof this curve
makes it evident that extrapolationfrom the position of the
known base-linecan be carried along the curve for a very con-
siderabledistanceaboveand below the known spanwithout lead-
ing to ore of substantiallydifferent intensitycharacterfrom that
exposed.
It must obviouslybe left for judgmentto decidehow far such
extrapolationmay be carried before encounteringore of a char-
acter that is obviouslydifferent from that in the exposedspan.
My own experiencewith deeplymined ores and the reflections
therefrom lead me to concludethat for any considerablevertical
spanof ore in which no systematicchangein intensitycharacter
can be detected,one is safe in assumingthat ore of the same
order of characterextendsfor an equalspanaboveand an equal
span below that known. In the examplewe have been using,
then,it couldbe predictedthat ore of virtuallythe sameintensity
characteras that exposedcouldbe countedon throughthreetimes
the developedspan,or 3,ooo feet.
But had the actual vertical developmentof •,ooo feet dis-
closeda pronounceddifferencein characterof ore as betweentop
and bottom of that span--that is to say, a relatively rapid rate
of changein characterwith depth--thenit is obviousthat extra-
polation above and below would have to be done with greater
cautionand restraint,moreexactingjudgment,and keenerunder-
standingof the variousways and degreesby which ores change
with depth. Under such circumstances one might predict, for
example,that •,ooo feet deeperthe hypothetical ore depositwould
still belongin the samezone as that of the exposedand known
portion, but •,ooo feet higher the ore might possiblybelongin
the next shallowerzone. (As a matter of fact, it may be added
that any ore whichwouldshowa pronounced changein intensity-
526 L. C. GRATON.

characterin •,ooofeetof depthwouldeitherbelsngin somezone

higher than the hypothermal,or elsewould owe its changeto
other causethan meredepthdifference.)
On the other hand, if mine development showedthe ore to
possessvirtually constantintensity characterover an exposed
verticalspan,not of •,ooo feet as first assumed,but of 5,ooofeet
or even7,500 feet (as is actuallyknownin certaindeposits),then
the slowness of the rate of changewith depthis still further
emphasized andconfirmed, andextrapolation throughequalspans
above and below is all the more secure.
Obviously,the morerapid the rate of change,the thinnerthe
verticalrangeof any given characterof ore; alsothe higher on
thedepth-intensity curvedoesthat orebelong.
It is to be clearlyunderstoodthat this methodof extrapolation
is intendedfor estimatingthe verticalrangeof the zones,or the
vertical range of the locusphysico-chemically favorablefor the
deposition of ore of a givenintensity-character;it is not intended
for predictingthe distancethrough which commercialore may
persistnor the verticaldimensionof individualore shoots. (In
this connection,it may be notedthat, for the averagecase,the
lateraldimensions of anyof the zonesare likelyto be substantially
lessthantheverticaldimension, because of the dominatingupward
directionof movementof solution,solutesand heat, and the more
rapid loss of pressureupward than horizontally. Thus, in an
ideal example, the successive
zoneswill not be concentrichemi-
sphericalshells,as is so often implied, but rather interfitting
conicalsheaths.)
It needhardly be addedthat the validity of all suchextrapola-
tions dependson the degreeto which the environmentof the
exposedore, in the way of rock character,structural conditions,
and thermal gradientmay be countedupon to persistessentially
unchangedthroughthe range coveredby the extrapolation. If
changein environmentmust be entertained,extrapolationbe-
comesless dependable. Validity of the extrapolationdepends
also on the thoroughnessand sagacitywith which the intensity-
characterof the known ore is appraised,as exposedat various
levels,and on the success
with which characterstruly dependent
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. ,527

on the depth factor are distinguishedfrom thosedue to wholly

local influences.
It is evident that this method of evaluating the depth factor
depends almostexclusivelyon what the ore itself discloses.There
is no reasonwhy conclusions so reachedshouldnot be checkedby
the various other methodsalready mentioned. My own experi-
ence, however, has led me to the conclusionthat the method of
extrapolationfrom the ore itself is, for the generalcase,safer
and morepracticablethan any other. But in thoserelativelyfew
regionswhich have sufferedso little erosionsinceore deposition
that the then-existingand the presentsurfacescan be correlated
by definitephysiographiclinks--and short, sure links, at thatm
ore depthsmay perhapsbe estimatedover relativelyshallowranges
more preciselyin that way than by the rate of changein ore
character.
The very importanteffectof depthof the magma-source on the
rate of verticalchangein characterof ore, and thuson the vertical
rangesof the severalzones,is considered
on page532.

The Hypothermal Zone.•

GeneralCharacteristics.--Thedeeperlimit of the hypothermal
zone, and thus the beginningof the hydrothermallineage, is
markedby the first or deepestappearance of thosedepositswhich
.containtoo little of the pyrogenicmineralsto be classed
as either
orthotecticor pneumotectic deposits. Whether underlyingpeg-
matitesand other pneumotectic products,wherepresentat all, are
separated from the hypothermal oresby gapor by transitionprob-
ably dependsin eachgiven caseon the particular conditionsthere
governing.
The mineralogy characteristicof the hypothermalzone has
beeneffectivelyset forth by Lindgren. A few words, however,
maywellbedevoted
to thequartz,bothhereandin appropriate
placefor eachof the otherzones. Becausequartz,with the pos-
sibleexceptionof pyrite, is the most abundantof all the hydro-
a It is unfortunate that. the division-name hypotherrnal is so similar in appear-
ance and sound to the group-name hydrothermal. One could wish that for this
deepestsubdivision Lindgren had initially adopted katatherrnal, as Niggli has done.
528 L. C. GRATON.

thermalminerals,andthe mineralmostabundant(if cryptocrys-

talline varietiesbe included) in each of the zones,it is evident
that if the quartz shoulddiscloseany featuresindicativeof the
conditions of its formation,the abundance and ubiquitouspres-
enceof the mineralwouldmakethosefeatureshighlyvaluablefor
diagnosing the intensitycharacterof the containingdeposit. For-
tunately,quartz doesoften showrather delicateresponseto the
conditionsof its formation;this is revealedbothin grain-sizeand
in transparency. In the hypothermaldepositsthe quartz ranges
from perfectly clear, colorlessand glassythrough various sub-
vitreousdark colorsto the dull white of typical "bull quartz."
The size of the individualgrainstendsto be large whereverthe
surroundingspermit, so that coarse-grainedaggregatesare the
rule. An extreme instanceis afforded by the Messina copper
deposit,in the northernTransvaal,where, in the midst of a solid
ore that combinesstrong hypothermalcharacteristicswith some
puzzling anomalies,fairly well-formed prisms of sub-vitreous
quartz attain maximum dimensionsof •o inchesin width and
severalfeet in length. _Asa rule, the greater the intensity-factor
of the ore, the coarserand morevitreousis the quartz likely to be;
but this criterion can of coursebe usedonly in conjunctionwith
others, and final diagnosismust be based on the net resultant
indication of all the available criteria.
It is desirableto emphasizethat there are probablyno sharp
breaksin mineralogyor other diagnosticcharactersfrom zone to
zone; but that on the contrary, continuousserial relationships
persistthroughoutthe hydrothermalgroup. _Andthe samekind
of progressivechangeswhich, seenin the large way, justify the
distinctionbetweenhypothermal,mesothermal,etc., exists also
on a smaller scale within each of these subdivisions. Thus it
often becomes evidentthat certainindividualdepositsundoubtedly
belongdeeperin, say,the hypothermalzone,than do certainother
occurrences which are no lessdefinitelyhypothermal. This abil-
ity to recognizevertical changesnot only from zone to zonebut
also within a given zone unquestionably improvesour basis for
estimationof the depth factor.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 5e9

A distinctivefeature of this zone is the extremelyirregular

shapeof many of the depositswhich must nevertheless be called
veins. Thesebodies--swelling,pinching,splittingand writhing
w-have,as a rule, beeninitially depositedthus, and have plainly
beenin large measurelocalizedby fracturesor placesof weakness
that alreadypossessed
approximately analogous contortions.The
irregularityof suchactualor potentialopenings is unquestionably
in the main a consequence of depth. On the other hand, even
with allowancefor someenlargementby marginal replacement,
the sizeof suchopeningsas pregxistint7 voidsis entirelyincom-
patiblewith the rockpressureinevitableat thesegreatdepths. It
is thereforenecessary to concludethat the wallsof the openings,
originallytightly pressedtogetherand mutuallyself-supporting,
havebeenspreadto something like presentwidthsduringthemin-
eralizing activity. Since the "force of crystallization" is en-
tirely incompetent for soextremea task,reliancemustbe placed
here,just as for the simpler,straighterveinsof shallowlevels,on
intrusivepressuretransmittedto the walls by the very solutions
from which the depositedmineral was derived. But of course
this intrusive mechanismdoesnot demand,as Spurr assumed,
that the fluids involved were either concentrated or viscous.
The absenceor unimportanceof drusesin thesedeep-seated
depositscomportswith the followingconditions:the impossibility
of maintainingunsupportedopeningsof any appreciablesize at
suchgreatdepths,the drivingpressures that causethe solutionsto
flow, the more concentrated characterof the hydrothermalfluids
at thesedepthsthan higher up, and the greaterefficacyof mole-
culardiffusionas well as the tendencytowardloweredviscosityin
the solutionsat the relativelyhigh temperatures here prevailing.
The deepestveins are usually "frozen" to their walls, without
partingsor selvedge.
As contrastedwiththeabundance of definitely
localized deposits
of the vein type, great replacement depositsare lessabundant
amongthe deeperhypothermalores than they are in the upper
hypothermaland in the mesothermalranges. Where they do
occur,thesereplacements tendto be highly selective,often devour-
ing certain favorably conditionedrock massescompletelyand
leavingadjacentrocksbut little affected. The usualgradational
34
53 ø L. C. GRATON.

evidencesof metasomatism may, therefore,be lessobviousthan

in replacementbodiesformedat shallowerdepth;the natureof
the marginalrock alteration,mentionedbelow,likewisetendsto
disguisereplacementeffectsin the deepest
hypothermal deposits.
Thesereplacement depositsalsodemonstrate the greatmagnitude
of the impregnation pressures,as well, probably,as the high
efficiency
of true moleculardiffusionat theseelevatedtempera-
tures,in orderthat depositswith dimensions of hundreds and
thousands of feetma.ybeformedbyselective replacementof mas-
sive rock.
The natureof the alterationin the immediatewalls of the hypo-
thermaldeposits, whileinfluenced
by thecomposition of therock
itself,is furtherdependenton the physico-chemicalintensityof
the solutions and thusupondepth. In the higherpartsof the
hypothermal zone,rockalterationmarginalto the deposits is
clearlya superimposed process,
yielding a product
ordinarily dis-
tin•o-uishable
withoutgreatdifficultyfrom the unaltered country
rockthroughdifferences in colorand grain-sizeas well as by
moreor lesscomplete destructionor modification
of thetexture
of the initial rock. In this respect,transitiontowardthe over-
lyingmesothermal
zoneisforecast.Butdeep
in thehypothermal
zonethemarginal
alteration
mayoftenbecrisp,sparkling,
macro-
crystalline
aggregates
of darkershades
of color,quiteunlikethe
lusterless,
fine-grainedor earthy,andoftenfadedalterationmar-
ginscharacteristicof theshallowerzones.Where,asissooften
true,thecountryrockof thesedeepest hypothermal
oresis a crys-
tallineschist,
thealterationborderingthedeposit
propermayitself
closelyresemble, in generalmineralogy and texture,a.n"un-
altered"schist--aresemblance especially
markedwhere,as is so
common at depth,theplaneof thedeposithasbeenin largemeas-
ure determined
by the regionalfoliation.
FahlbandsIncluded Here.raThe so-calledfahlbandshave been
muchbandied aboutin geological
literaturewithoutfindinga very
satisfactory
or recognizedresting-placein anysystematicscheme
of ore classification.
By some,oresof the fahlbandtypehave
beenascribedto a process
of selectivesegregation
fromsurround-
ing formations
duringregional
metamorphism;
othersregard
themas preexisting
deposits
of syngenetic
or otheroriginsre-
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 531

worked to presentconditionby deep-seated metamorphism;and

by still others they are describedrather crypticallyas sulphide
impregnations.
From the considerationsgiven shortly above regarding the
characteristicsof the hypothermalreplacements and the easeof
overlookingrock alteration attending deep-seatedore deposits,
it would seem reasonable to assume that most of the so-called
fahlbands,as well as many more massivepyritic bodiesin schis-
tose rocks, are virgin hypothermalintroductionsby selectivere-
placement. Mineralogy, texture, structureand generalenviron-
ment seemcompatiblewith this view that theseare merelycertain
deep-seated phasesof the hydrothermalfamily.
Contact-Metamorphic Type.mThereseemsat presentno certain
generalway of distinguishingbetweenthosedepositsformed by
volatile-rich solutionsthat left the magma source respectively
prior to, and in consequence of, wholesaleorthotecticcrystalliza-
tion. Perhapsit is partly on this accountthat the contact-meta-
morphic ores appear to occupya somewhatunconnectedand
anomalouspositionin the usual schemeof classification. Pos-
sibly in order to avoid this difficulty, Niggli placesthesecontact
depositsin his "pegmatitic-pneumatolytic"or pneumotectic class.
But the mineralogicaland compositional relationsdo not seemto
support such grouping. On the other hand, the contact-meta-
morphicdepositshavemany significantmineralsand certainother
featuresin commonwith the normal hypothermaldeposits,as
Lindgren has noted. I merely go still further by believingthat
the contact-metamorphic depositsare a definiteand integral part
of the hypothermalgroup,of which they representa well-defined
subdivisionchieflybecauseof the specialnature of the wall-rock
involved. Indeed, if the contact-metamorphic ores are not the
representatives of the hypothermalzone in limestones,then there
would appearto be virtually no representatives of that zone in
suchrocks;this wouldleadto the quite improbableconclusion that
hypothermalores form in other kinds of rock but practicallyre-
fuse to form in limestones.
Where a carbonate-richrock is reachedby a solutionsufficiently
vigorouschemicallyand thermally,the carbonatemolecule,instead
532 L. C. GRATON.

of being merely dissolvedand displacedbodily, as happensunder

lessintenseattack,is brokenup into lime silicatesand CO2. Thus,
where limestonesare cut by a volatile-richmagma at high tem-
perature,thesepyrometasomatic depositsare formedright at the
contact. Dependentprobablyon a balancebetweentemperature
andpressure, andthussomewhat dependent on depth,the deposit
will beoxide-richandsulphide poorasat FranklinFurnace,N.J.;
oxide closein and sulphidefarther out, as at Fierro, N. M.; or
mainly sulphide-richas at Morenci, Ariz.
But virtuallyidenticaldeposits
of the sulphide-rich varietymay
be formed in limestonedistant from the contact provided the
magmaticsolutionsreachsuchlimestonewithouthavinglost too
muchof their chemicalandthermalvigor en route. Retentionof
this necessary physico-chemical intensity,despiteconsiderable
migration,mightbe expected at greatdepthwherethe normal
rocktemperaturesare high and wherethe interveningnon-lime-
stonerocksare relatively
inertschists.Thusmaybe explained
exampleslike Ducktown,Tenn.,whichdisplayall the usualear-
marks of contactmetamorphismexceptthe "contact." Hence
Lindgren'schangeof name' from "contact-metamorphic" to
"pyrometasomatic" for suchdeposits.At shallower horizons,
where the geothermshave lower valuesand the non-limestone .
rocksare usuallymorereactivethan are the deep-lying schists,
magmaticsolutionsthat have to travel substantiald•istances
throughsuchrockto reachlimestone will arrivetherewith les-
senedintensityand thus will yield the more normallimestone
replacements
of mesothermal or evenfeeblercharacter.
VerticalRan#e.--The verticalrangeof all the hydrothermal
zonesis probablydependent primarilyuponthe depthof the
magma sourcebelowthethen-existing
surface.Wherethisdepth
is relatively
small,thecurvature
of thedepth-intensity
curvewill
be accentuated,
and eachof the hydrothermal
zoneswill be cor-
respondingly
thin,givingwaywithrelativerapidityto thenext
ßPerhapsthe significance
of the changeis lessreal thanapparent;for if such
ores'candevelop
distantfrom the "contact"are theynot equally•stant from the
"fire "? But if the "pyro" is justifiedin the sensethat theseare high temperature
deposits,
that factwouldseemto be adequately
covered
by thetermhypothermal.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 533

succeeding zone. But wherethe magmasourceof the solutions

lies far below the surface, depth-intensityis representedby a
more slowlychangingcurve, eachzone will be of greater vertical
extent, and a muchmore gradual transitionwill be exhibitedfrom
zone to zone. Considerationof the hydrothermaldepositsin
general leads to the conclusionthat the instancesin which the
solutionsourceis deepstronglyoutweighthe number in which
the sourceis shallow. It remainsto define"deep" and "shal-
low" in other than those relative terms.
For the hypothermal
zone,the maximumverticalrangehas
never beendisclosed. Probablyit never will, sincedoubtlessit
greatly exceedsthe depth to which man can mine. At Morro
Velho, Brazil, mininghasfollowedan absolutelycontinuousshoot
of hypothermalore to a depthof over 7,5oo feet 5 without any
indicationof a systematicdownwardchangein intensity-char-
acter. There probablyis change,but the rate of changewith
depthmustbeexceedingly
slow. Fromthisslowrate,it maybe
inferred that, barring structuralaccident,the depositmust have
beenof substantiallythe samecharacteras far abovethe present
outcropas mining hasalreadyreachedbelow,and that for a fur-
ßther equaldistancedownwardfrom the presentmine bottomore
of the samegeneralnature will continue. This would indicatea
verticalrangeof some2o,oooft. within which ore was deposited
substantiallylike that now mined.
Even this greatdistancewould not reacheither to the top or to
the bottom of the hypothermalzone as a whole. The Morro
Velhoore is of a substantially
moreintenseor deeper-seated type
than .thatof Porcupine,Ontario, which is alsohypothermaland
alreadymined to 4,ooo œeet. Transitionsat Porcupineto the
'Morro ¾elho type of ore are indicated,but thereis still a con-
'siderablegapin characterasyet unrepresentedby knownore. On
the other hand the Morro Velho ore is of less intense or shallower-
•seated•characterthan that of Homestake, $. D., or of Kolar,
rIndia, in which latter distric.
t mining has alreadyreached7,ooo
feet with no systematic .downwardchangesavepossiblya slight
5 All figuresof depth given in this paper refer to vertical distances. In x933,
Morro Velho had reached8,o5x feet, becomingagain the world's deepest.
534 L. C. GRATON.

increaseof pegmatiticstreaks and clots which probably fore-

shadowan eventualchangeinto an underlyingpneumotecticde-
posit. Extensionsabove and below the levels mined must be
entertainedat Porcupineand at Kolar without substantiallychang-
ing the characterof the ore of either of thoselocalities.
If it be imagined,then, that the Morro Velho depositbe seton
top of the Kolar depositand the Porcupineveinsset on top of
both, with interveninggaps to representtransitionalcharacters
not represented in any of the threedistricts,we wouldhave in-
dicatedan aggregateverticalrangeof perhaps50,000 ft. for the
hypothermalzone. Even this might not be a maximum. On
the otherhand,no suchgreatrangemay actuallyhaveexistedat
anyoneplace. The accidents of structureandrockcharacter are
ratheragainstit. But I seeno valid objectionagainstthe pos-
sibilityof so greata range;and in singleoccurrences a vertical
spanof half that distance,or say five miles,may be common
enoughif we couldbut knowall the facts. If magrnascanexist
andcanundergocrystallization to igneousrocksat depthsof ten
or twentymilesin thecrust,thenI seeno reasonwhyhypothermal
deposits maynotextenddownto depthsasgreat.
The specific examples of greatverticalpersistence that have
just beenmentioned fall in the structuralcategoryof veinsor
lodesandare of relativelyrestricted horizontalcrosssection. As
contrasted with suchsteeplodes,extensive replacements
of greater
horizontaldimensions wouldbe expected to havea smallermaxi-
mum verticalrange within the hypothermalzone,ø becauseof
greaterdissipation
of thesolutions
andthusmorerapidreduction
of theirphysico-chemical
intensityon theirupwardjourney.
So much for the maximum range. The minimum vertical
rangeof thehypothermalzoneis likewiseprobably
unknown, for
thereappears
tobenowell-authenticated
casein whichmininghas
passeddownwardfrom the bottomof the mesothermalzoneto
andbeyondthebottomof thehypothermalzone. For thehypo-
thermalzoneas a whole,the rate of changein mineraland tex-
tural characterdownwardis almostundiscoverablyslow.
o The same contrast would of course hold true in any of the zones.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 535

The Mesothermal Zone.

GeneralCharacteristics.--Themesothermal zonebeginsat such

elevationor suchdistancefrom the parentsourcethat the physico-
chemicalconditionscause the depositedmaterial to show de-
parturesfrom thosecharacteristics whichwe call hypothermaland
acquisitionof new characteristics to be classedas mesothermal.
The boundary line betweenthe two zones, as in most natural
series,hasto be placedarbitrarily. No reasonappearsfor chang-
ing Lindgren'splacingof it.
Depositsof the mesothermalzone are highly varied in detail,
but they all have the earmarks of depositionunder those inter-
mediateconditionsof intensityof which the prefix "meso" is
expressive. As contrastedwith the hypothermal,the mesother-
mal zone shows,besidesa well-recognizeddifferencein min-
eralogy(the quartz is milky, neverapproaching clear and glassy
as in someof the deepesthypothermalores), a tendencytoward
decreasein proportionof veins to extensivereplacements, an
averagedecreasein grain size, somewhatmore of vugginess,oc-
casionalcrudeand coarsebandingin the veins,and marginal rock
alterationthat is more readily identifiableas such.
I•erticalRan#e.--Lindgren says:"A greatverticalrangeof up
to 5,ooo feet or even more is characteristicof many types de-
scribedunder this (mesothermal)heading.... Many of them
continueto the greatestdepthsreachedin mining." The maxi-
mum range for the zone as a wholemust plainly be greatly in-
creased. On the Mother Lode, Calif., mine levels more than
5,0o0 ft. deepare encountering almostidenticallythe samekind
of ore that occursjust belowoxidation. All this ore obviously
belongstowardthe deeperend of the mesothermal range. But
here again the extremelyslow rate of changethroughthis ex-
ploredspanobviouslyrequiresthat relativelygreatoverlyingand
downwardextensionsof essentiallysimilar ore must be granted.
The greatconglomeratelodesof theWitwatersrand,
Transvaal,
confirmthe testimonyof the Mother Lode through an even
greaterdepthrange,providedthe abundant evidencesof hydro-
thermalorigin at the Rand be accepted
as conclusive.In that
536 L. C. GR,4TON.

districtmining has now goneto a verticaldepthof 7,800 feet *

withoutdisclosing any systematic changein characteror quantity
of depositedmineralssaveprobablya slightfalling-off in the most
minute component, gold--a falling-off difficultto establishwith
certaintybecauseof the obscuringinfluenceof non-geological
factorson the productionrecordsthroughtheyears. This known
Randore with its indefiniteupwardanddownwardextensions of
similar charactershouldprobablybe placedtoward the lower
boundaryof the mesothermalrange. It showsbut faintly and
only sporadicallythosefeatureswhichwouldindicatetransition
towardthe hypothermal zoneand nothingwhateverof the char-
acteristics
that wouldsuggest proximityto the upperboundaryof
the mesothermal range. An originalverticalspanof 2o,ooofeet
for ore of the kind now known on the Rand seems not at all
unreasonable.
The MorningLode in the Coeurd' AleneDistrict,Idaho,has
beenopenedcontinuously
to just shortof a milebelowtheoutcrop.
It is a lead-zinc-sideriteore, with scantybarite, and belongsnot
deeperthan the upperhalf of the mesothermal group. The ore
is substantially
constantin characterfrom top to bottomof the
mine. At the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mine a few miles distant,
a verticalspanonlyslightlysmalleris opened
onoreof shallower-
seatedcharacteristics
than that of the Morning Mine.
From suchexamplesas these,it seemsnecessary to conclude
that the maximumrangeof the mesothermal zonesurelyexceeds
IO,OOO ft. and in individualoccurrences
it may havepossesseda
2o,ooo ft. range or even more. The minimumrange is less
readilyto be stated,but rareindeedis the casein whicha given
minehasspanned theentireverticalmesothermal rangebypassing
downwardfrom materialbelongingabovethe upperlimit to ma-
terialbelonging
belowthe lowerlimit of thezone.
The LeptotherrnaIZone.
Definition
andCharacteristics.--While
realizing
thedangersof
coiningnewterms,of redefining
oldonesandof takingliberties
7 Early in x933,the Turf or old Village Deepsectionof the Robinson
Deepprop-
erty had reacheda verticaldepthof 8,oo6feet, but is now surpassed by Morro
Velho, Brazil.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 537

with classificationsalready familiar, nevertheless I venture to

proposefor considerationthe establishmentof a new zone, for
which is proposedthe name leptothermalfrom the Greek leptos
implying moderate or subdued. The leptothermalzone com-
prisesa part taken off the top of Lindgren'smesothermaland a
part off the bottom of Lindgren's epithermal,and thus stands
betweenthosetwo as necessarilyredefined.
. The characteristics of this proposedzone are revealedin well-
known vein occurrences suchas certain of thosein the San Juan
Region,Colo., Sales'soutermostzoneat Butte, Mont., Casapalca,
Peru, and as somewhatvariant types,the Michigan copperlodes
and the veinsof Cobalt,Ont. But the essentialgeneticfeatures
of the zoneappearalso in replacement bodiesin limestoneor in
other rockssusceptible of rather easyattack.
Metalliferous minerals include both the simple sulphidesso
abundantin the mesothermalzone and more complexsulphide
moleculesand sulphosalts of the basemetalsand of silver. But
the silver-bearingmineralsgenerallyeither are not of the richer
varietiesor are presentrather scantily,and the silver is commonly
a by-productof base-metalproductionrather than dominant on
its own account. Gold in the metallic form or as telluride is
ordinarily subordinate. Of the metallic minerals diagnosticof
the deeper zones, only speculariteoccurs and infrequently.
Milky quartz generallydominatesas gangue,but is commonly
associatedwith more or less carbonateor barite; less commonly
with fluorite or with adularia as indicative of transition toward
epithermal. The carbonatemineral is proneto be manganiferous
and is often rhodochrosite,not uncommonlyaccompaniedby
some rhodonite. Where gabbroid magma is the source,quartz
is lessin evidencethan carbonate,and silicatesderived from the
immediatewalls may appear.
Grain size, while rarely fine, averagessmallerbut more vari-
able than in mesothermalores. In the veins,coarsebandingor
crustificationis likely to be strikinglydeveloped,but may become
interruptedand irregular or entirelydisappear. Vugs and druses
are common. Angular fragmentsof wall rock becomeincreas-
ingly noteworthyin the veinstoward the shallowerlimit of the
538 L. C. GRATON.

zone and, by complicatingthe vein channelway,favor incomplete

filling and thus increaseddevelopment of vugs. Rock alteration,
generallynot very pervasive,variesin the averagewall rock from
sericitic, like that so characteristicof the mesothermalzone, to
the propyliticphasescommonin the epithermal.
Vertical Rant7e.-•The vertical range of the leptothermalzone
is probablylessthan that ascribableto eithermesothermalor hypo-
thermal. The suppositionthat the long-soughttransition from
one zone to anothermight be revealedby the great topographic
relief of the .San Juan country has recentlybeen embarrassedby
Burbank'sconvincingproof at Ouray that the lower deposits
antedateand are geneticallyindependentof thosepresentin the
higher mountains. Correlationfrom top to bottom of all the
Ouray depositsas if varying parts of a genetic unit is thus
fallacious. Nevertheless,where mining has been carried deep
enoughin the youngerdeposits, a markedchangein characteris
discerniblein the selfsameveins,as strikinglyshown,for example,
in the CampBird Mine. The lower part of suchveinsshows
definitelyleptothermalcharacteristics; the upperpart is typically
epithermalin the narrowsenseusedhere. Althoughthis appears
to afford an undoubtedtransition from one zone to another, the
full verticalrangeof neitherzoneis revealed.
A betterindicationof the rangeof the leptothermalzoneis af-
fordedat Casapalca, whereverticaldevelopment of the samevein
systemnow reachesnearly 4,000 feet. In the uppermostfew
hundredfeet, transitionstoward epithermalcharacterhave just
escaped erosionaldestruction.Thencedownward,as McKinstry
and Noble have shown,one seesthe characteristicmineralogyof
the leptothermal
zone, which is still continuingstrongin the
mine bottoms. However, a slow but undoubtedchangein min-
eralogicalcharacterand metalcontentfrom outcropto lowest
level forewarnsthat at somestill greaterdepththe deposits
will
beginto resemble the uppermesothermal veinsand replacement
deposits
presentin the centralpart of the near-bydistrictof
Morococha;in theselatter, enargiteis a distinctivemineral,but
somemarginaloccurrences with tetrahedrite
and rhodochrosite
are suggestive
of leptothermal.At Casapalca,then, one may
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 539

estimatethat the exposedvertical spanof over 3,000 feet in the

leptothermalzonerepresentssomethinglike half of its total range
in that district.
Depositsof the general characterof those at Cobalt are at
presentless certainly to be includedin the leptothermalgroup.
But as I appraisetheir physico-chemicaland geneticsignificance,
they seem to belong at this place in the hydrothermal range
rather than at any other. The probability that such deposits
comefrom a magma sourceof more basiccompositionthan those
which furnish most of our hydrothermalillustrationsmay ac-
count for the abundance of cobalt, nickel, arsenic and native
silver. Silver-rich sulphidesand sulphosaltsat certain outlying
pointsof the district suggestan unimportantperipheralzone of
epithermalcharacter.
The native copperdepositsof Michigan, unquestionablyhypo-
gene and hydrothermal, may belong here. They have almost
nothing in commonwith hypothermalor mesothermalores and
relativelylittle in commonwith the strictlyepithermaideposits
save a dominant marginal alteration leaning strongly toward
propylitic. The presenceof arsenidesand of native silver hints
at analogywith depositsof the Cobalt type. The fact that cop-
per occursalmost wholly as native metal plainly results from
oxidizing effects of the hematite-bearingwall rocks and there-
fore is not to be taken as an independentcharacteristicof the
zoneto whichthesedepositsbelong. The virtually constantchar-
acter through 6,000 feet of vertical developmenton single lodes
in the Quincy and the Calumet and Hecla mines confirmsthe
very substantialthicknessof this leptothermalzone, for these
lodeshave undoubtedlysufferedgreat erosionand their exten-
sionsbelow the presentmine bottomsreach to depthsbeyond
forecast. Broderick'sinterestingdisclosure of certainrestrained
indicationsof downwardchangefor the districtas a wholeserves
alsoto emphasizethe greatverticalpersistence of theseMichigan
deposits. At Corocoro,Bolivia, the notablysimilar depositsmay
be of somewhatshallower formation than the portion of the
Michiganlodesnow known,i.e., theymaybe the depthequivalent
of portionsof the Michigan depositsnow erodedaway; but it
540 L. C. GRATON.

seems clear that the solutions at Corocoro had travelled less far
in the red, oxidizingrocksand thereforethe proportionof native
copperto coppersulphideis lowerin Boliviathan in Michigan.
The maximumvertical range for the leptothermalzone may
be estimatedas of the order of Io,ooo to I5,ooo feet at least.
The minimum thicknessmay be much less; but again no clear-
cut examplescome to mind in which vertical developmenthas
passedthroughthe entireleptothermalrange.
The Epither•naI Zone.
General Characteristics.--As it remains after its former lower-
mostportionhasbeencontributedto leptothermal,the epithermal
zone showsvein structureslikely to be strong and well-definedat
first but proneto branchand complicateupward,as at Comstock
Lode, Nev. Still shallower,such structural complexitymay in-
crease. This is shown strikingly at Goldfield, Nev., where the
ascending solutions,when reachingwithin a relativelyshort dis-
tance from the then-existingsurface,abruptly spreadout from
their former more restrictedchannelwaysinto nearly every avail-
able fracture in the highly shatteredeffusiverock.
Vugs rangefrom scantyto very abundant,depending chiefly
uponthe degreeof irregularityof the availableopenings, which
in turn dependslargelyon whetheror not the fracturescontained
jumbledfragmentsand slabsfallen or explodedfrom the walls
or evenflushedup from belowby the velocityof the solutions.
The commonbandingdue to successive depositionsis on a finer
scalethan in the leptothermal
zone,and frequentlyis curvedand
scallopedratherthan straight. The fashionjust now prevailing
namesthis,sort of banding"colloform" and invokescolloidal
deposition asits cause.Themicroscope,
however, seems to show
little to supportand strongevidence
againstcolloidalphenomena
in mostof thesefine-graineddeposits. The commonfinenessof
grainof bothgangueandsulphide mineralsis doubtless a direct
expressionof therapiditywithwhichsaturation wasattainedand
crystallization
inducedby the ultra-rapidlossof heatand pres-
sureexperienced closeto the surface. But just as in the lepto-
thermalores,grain sizevariesabruptly.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 541

The well-knownmineralogyof the typicallyepithermalOresis

a natural progressionfrom that of the leptothermal. The silica
ranges from milky quartz through porcellanic,flinty and dull
cherty, to opalinevarieties. One of the most noteworthymin-
eralogicalcharacteristicsof this zone is the generallylow ratio
of metalliferousmineralsto gangue.
The greater numberof representatives of the epithermalzone
indicateby their mineralogyand attendantrock alteration, just
as in the lower zones,that they were formed by alkaline solutions.
But in somethe ascendingsolutionseventuallybecomeacid. To
accomplishthis, a means probably more competentand more
restrictedto this definitelyshallowregion would be requiredthan
the interestingproposalby B. $. Butler for sulphateformation
by abstractionof oxygen from ferric compounds. This means
would seemto be affordedin the reactionestablished by E. T.
Allen whereby in a closedtube at 200ø C. liquid water and
sulphuryield sulphuricacid:
4H•O q- 4S --- 3H2S q- H2S04.
The conditionsof this reactionappearto accordwell with the
conditionsof temperature,pressureand compositionlikely to
prevail in the very upper part of the hydrothermalrange. The
consequences would be postulatedas follows: If and wherever
the proportionof acid so producedin the solutionsexceedstheir
natural inherent alkalinity, they will thenceforthfail to deposit
carbonates and will attackany carbonatethat may previouslyhave
beenprecipitatedat or abovethe levelwhere the changeto acidity
takes place. Thus may be explained the hackly or lamellar
quartz so commonin epithermalores. They will also fail to
depositadularia,a mineralcommonin epithermaloresof alkaline
environment. Where the acid concentration becomes still
stronger,definiteattackwill be made uponthe alkalinesilicates
of the wall rock; in this way the kaolin mineral, dickite, and,
with still higher acid concentration,the sulphate-richalunite,
may result. And it may be that the relative instabilityof many
of the silver-bearingsulphidesin H•S04 has to do with the
dominanceof gold over silver in thosevery shallowepithermal
542 L. C. GRATON.

depositswherehypogeneacid attackseemsto havebeenstrongest.

For suchvery shallow-seated examplesas Goldfield,Nev., Red
Mountain and Cripple Creek in Colorado,as well as the Lassen*
and the Yellowstonehot springs,onemust agreewith Larsenthat
the responsibleacid is to be regardedas wholly of hypogene
origin. That it resultedfrom atmosphericoxidation, as some
have proposed,seemsquite incompatiblewith the attendantgeo-
logicalfacts. This extremeof acid development in the hydro-
thermalwatersprobablytakesplaceonly under rather uncommon
circumstances.It is alsoprobablyattainedonly fairly closeto the
surface. There is eventhe possibilitythat it may be coincident
with that occasionalchangeof the solutionfrom a dominantly
liquidto a moreor lessgaseous
statethroughrapidlossof pres-
sure close to surface.
Vertical Rantie.---Theepithermalzone as here definedprob-
ablyhasa smallerverticalrangethan any of the threealready
discussed.Perhapsthe mostconspicuous evidence of thisis the
fact that many profitablemineson theseepithermaloresbecome
unprofitablewithin a depthof oneto threethousandfeet from
the presentsurface,althoughin manyinstances theveinson the
bottomlevelsmaycontinue aswideandevenaslongasaboveand
maycontain95 to 99 per cent.of the samemineralsas in the
profitablelevels,the smallpercentageof changehavingunfor-
tunatelyaffectedchieflythe preciousmetalcontent. Obviously,
economic deathis not necessarily
coincidentwith terminationof
the genetictype. Therefore,this oft-observed declinein com-
mercialtenor is not so convincingan indicationof the relative
thinnessof the epithermalzoneas is the commondownward
changein mineralogical andtexturalcharacterthat is to be seen
in most minesa thousandor more feet deepon theseepithermal
ores,eventhoughcommercial valuesmaystillpersist.
The Comstock deposits,
opened verticallyfor morethan3,ooo
ft., are still abovethe leptothermal
zone,eventhoughthe lower
levelswereunprofitable.At theirpresent outcrops,however,the
Comstock ores are clearlydeeper-seatedrepresentatives
of the
ß Not seen by the writer.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 543

epithermalzonethanare, for example,the oresof Tonopah,and

still deeperthan thoseof Mogollon,N.M., Republic,Wash.,
Cripple Creek, and particularlyGoldfield. It would, therefore,
appearjustifiableto assumethat the Comstockveinsinitiallyex-
tended two or three, or even more thousandsof feet above their
presentoutcrops. Such an indicatedtotal of, say, 6,000 ft. at
Comstockis possiblygreaterthan the generalaveragefor this
zone;but thereis no goodreasonfor thinkingthat this particula(
districtembraced the maximumpossiblerangefor the zone.
The so-called barrenzoneintowhichthe profitable epithermal
ores so often passwhen developeddownward involvesno real
mystery. Thesericheroresgenerallyhaveabundantgangueand
subordinatequantitiesof sulphidesand other metalliferousmin-
erals. Because of the extremelyhigh ratio of valueto weight
possessedby silver and gold, thesemetalswhenoccurringas a
wholly insignificantpercentageof the total mineralmasssuffice
neverthelessto givea richore. The normalgeneticexpectation is
that theseprecious-metal
epithermalores will graduallypass
downwardinto coarser-grained
sulphide-richer
oresin whichthe
commonbasemetalspredominate, suchas found in the lepto-
thermal zone. But the base metals have so low a ratio of value
to weightthat a relativeabundanceof basemetal sulphidesis
requiredfor an economic ore. Therefore,as the ore changes
in
character downward, the base metals would have to increase
scoresto thousandsof timesas fast as the preciousmetalsfall
off if the same money value of the ore is to be maintained
throughout.
No suchabruptchange in proportionsof mineraldepositionis
to be expected
astheusualthing. Instead,it is likelyto happen
thatin the gradualchangefrom dominantly
precious
metalores
aboveto dominantlybasemetaloresbelow,therewill be a stretch
whereneitherthe preciousnor the basemetals,nor indeedthe
combined valueof both,meetstheeconomic requirement.There-
fore, miningceasesbeforethe completetransitionhasbeendis-
closed.But in a few favorableregionsthisunhappy economic
limitationupongeologicalobservationdoesnot apply. For ex-
ample,in the veinsat Casapalca,
the gradationfrom epithermal
544 L. C. GRATON.

silver ores as the uppermostportion left by erosion to lepto-

thermalbasemetal ores with silver as a by-productfortunately
holdssteadilyabovethe economicrequirementand, therefore,the
transition from zone to zone finds opportunityand incentiveto
be revealedby mining operations.
Telescopin#,
Pre-Heatin#
andStretchin#.-•The
'notably
rapid
changein characteristicsof ore with depth in many of thesede-
posits of shallow-seated depositionis given by Spurr the ex-
pressiveterm "telescoping"and by Niggli referred to as "crowd-
ing." Spurr ascribedthis to a peculiarbreakdownof the "ore
magma" closeto the surface;and by thus magicallydisposingof
the ore magma, he managedto escapethe otherwisedamaging
absenceof "ore lavas," and "ore tuffs," that is, surface effusions
of ore magmacorresponding
to surfaceoutpourings
of rock
magma. Telescopingprobably representsmerely hurried and
promiscuous precipitationcausedby rapid lossof heat and pres-
sure as the ascendingsolutionsare dissipatedinto the highly
fractured and colder rocks near the surface. That the tempera-
ture and pressuregradientsare excessivelysteepcloseto the sur-
face in volcanicregionsis indicatedby the "steam wells" and
analogousoccurrences in variousparts of the world and by the
resultsof recentdrilling by the Geophysical Laboratoryparty in
Yellowstone Park.
If it shouldprove true that somewherewithin a few hundred
to one or two thousand feet of the surface the hydrothermal
solutionsin certain districtsexperiencesuch faster loss of pres-
sure than of heat that there is substantial conversion from their
previously
liquidstateintothe gaseous,
the decreased
solvent
power of water as steamand the coolingdue to the latent-heat
effect might causean abrupt dumping of soluteswhere such
changeof statetakesplaceandthusproducea highly exaggerated
manifestationof telescoping.
It seems.probablethat telescopingis especiallylikely to occur
wherethe geothermalgradientis abnormallysteepbecause of the
near-surfacecoolingof hot effusiverocksthat had but shortly
precededthe introductionof the ores. In such instancesthe
solutionswouldhavemovedupwardfor indefinitedistancesalong
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 545.

"pre-heated" channelways, losingheat lessrapidly than they

would if passingthroughrockswhere the usualthermalgradient
prevails. In so far, therefore,as rateof heat-loss
affectsmineral
precipitation,solutionsunder these circumstances would cause
depositscharacteristic of the deeperzonesto be exfended,or
"stretched" as onemight say,to abnormallyshallowlevels. But
in closeproximityto the surface,wherethe preceding
effusives
have becomecold, the rate of heat-lossby the solutionswill be
so unusuallyrapid as to produceimpetuousdepositionwhich
telescopes
or crowdstogetherkindsof mineralsthat shouldunder
more normal circumstanceshave been depositedsuccessively at
differentplacesalongthe ascendingpathway. Naturally, in some
districtstelescoping
evidentbelowthe presenterosionsurfacewill
be unimportant;in othersit may be highly exaggerated. Indeed,
where the pre-heatinghas been accomplished or augmentedby
an intrusivebody reachingdose to the surface,telescoping may
be so extremeas to bring mineralscharacteristic of great depth
up to thoseshallowlevelswhere normal epithermalores would
naturallybe expected. For example,F. S. Turneaure,holderof
the Emmons Memorial Fellowship for •93•-3 2, finds that at
Llallagua,Bolivia, cassiterite,wolframite,tourmaline,pyrrhotite,
and arsenopyrite were thus depositedin and abouta porphyry
stock at surprisinglyshallow depths; and in the same district
Lindgrenhas describeda present-day hot spring that carries
tungstenin what would otherwisebe regardedas anomalousasso-
ciationwith barium and manganese.
The growing numberof occurrences in which complexityof
sequenceand mineralogyis ascribed,both herq and in Europe, to
depositionsof different ages and charactersat the same locus
plainly shouldnot be calledexamplesof telescoping, unlessthat
term is to sufferconfusingdistortionfrom its original meaning;
superimposition or "rejuvenation" (Berg) would seembetter
to imply what is intended. Moreover, it appearsprobablethat
manyof the instances to which is now assignedsucha "hetero-
genetic" (Niggli) historywill be provedby further considera-
tion and studynot to be haphazardconsequences of chanceposi-
tional coincidencesof unrelateddepositions;but insteadwill be
37
546 L. C. GRATON.

found to be entirelyunderstandablemanifestationsof mechanical

and physico-chemical readjustments that inevitablyresult from
changingconditionsduring a singlebut extendedand complex
mineralizingprocess attendinga givenperiodof igneousactivity.
._?ource)•The.common occurrenceof these epithermal de-
positsin regionsof Tertiary effusiverockhasled someto believe
that theyhavea shallower-seated sourcethan do the oresof the
deeperzones. Conformable with the long-standing distinctions
of the Germanpetrological schoolbetween"old" and "young"
igneousrocks,Niggli, Schneiderh6hn, and Bergseverallyunder-
take, indeed,to distinguishand separateplutonicor intrusive
from volcanicor effusivetypes8 of ores,andin the lattercategory
theyplacethe epithermaldeposits.But as bothLindgrenand
Kato haveemphasizedin reply,as a resultof their longandin-
tensivefirst-handstudiesof thistype,derivationof the epithermal
oresdirectlyfrom the masses of the effusiverockis extremely
unlikely.'That the Tertiaryvolcanicrocksand the epithermal
depositswhichcutthemhavea relatedparentage maybegranted.
But thisis far differentfrom assuming
that metalsandvolatiles,
broughtup to shallowlevelsas undifferentiatedcomponents of
moltenmaterialshortlyto be ejectedas flowsandtuffs,will be
liberatedwith that restrictedlocalizationrequiredto produce
economic ores. Instead,hopelessdissipationassublimates,
fuma-
rolicincrustations
andinsignificant "exudationveinlets"would
bevastlymoreprobable thaneffectiveconcentration.In a region
like.Casapalca,
wherestrong productiveveinspassuninterruptedly
fromunderlying sediments up intoeffusive
rocksandeventually
change fromleptothermal to epithermalcharacter,
a deeper-lying
sourceof the solutionsis surelyindicated
thanthe surfacevol-
canicsthemselves. In still other districts,someof which will be
mentioned
hereafter,oresof closeaffiliations
to epithermal,
if not
actuallybelonging
in that subdivision,
occurin sediments
of
regionswhereapparently
therehaveneverbeensurface
effusions
8 Sincethis manuscript
was written, SchneiderhiShn
has expressed
views (Zeit.
prakt.Geol.,4o, Heft xx,p. 2, x932)thatmayindicate
somemisgiving
onhispart
as to the distinctionbetweenintrusive and extrusive affiliationsfor the hydro-
thermal ores.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 547

of corresponding age. On the other hand, I seeno reasonfor

assuming,as Lindgrenappearsto do, that the epithermalores
camefrom evendeepermagmasourcesthan thosewhich yielded
the leptothermal
and deeperzones.
Althoughit is probablyto be recognizedthat someepithermal
depositsrepresenta somewhatabnormalbulge in the otherwise
generallysmoothline of progressionfrom zoneto zonethrough-
out the hydrothermalrange, or may in someinstancesperhaps
evenbe regardedas a separatesplitoff the main line of through-
going relationships,
theseaberrationsmust be attributed,not to
differencesin source,but to differencesin the local environment
at and near the placeof deposition,resultantprobablyin greatest
part from the highly permeableconditionof the effusiverocks
and from the unusuallysteepthermal gradientcloseto the then-
existingsurface. There seemsevery reasonto supposethat the
leptothermal,mesothermaland hypothermalzones underlie the
epithermaljust as thesezonessuccessively
underlieone another.

The Telethermal. Zone.

Definition and Cha,ra.cter.--Thereis now wide-spreadbelief

that the hot springsand geysersof many regionsrepresentthe
surfacedischargeof solutionswhich,belowtheir outlets,are per-
forming mineralizationof the epithermalkind. Such escaping
solutionsstill have mechanical,thermal, and chemicalenergy
which they dissipateand waste on pouring out at the surface.
In otherwords,it wouldseemthat the epithermaldepositsdo not
necessarily mark the completeupwardexhaustionof the capacity
of the solutionsto accomplishmineral deposition;they do not
representthe logicalterminationof the hydrothermalfamily.
The questionthereforearises:what kind of deposits,if any,
standsat the very terminusof. the hydrothermallineage? That
is to say, what will happenin a region where a great body of
hydrothermal solution ascendsthrough rocks not abnormally
"pre-heated" by just-precedingvulcanism,but where instead
the normal thermal gradient prevails? In due courseupward
the solutionin sucha region would depositthe successive min-
548 L. C. GRATON.

eral zonesup to and includingthe epithermal,or at least some

non-telescoped intensity-equivalentof the epithermal. But after
it had finishedthe .depositionof suchproducts,it would still re-
tain thermal, piesticand chemicalpower, thoughof reducedin-
tensity. It might still be somedistancebelow the surfaceand be
destinedto continueon upward to a placeof easyoutlet.
It seemsreasonable to assumethat suchenfeebledhydrothermal
solutionpassingthrough relativelyinert rocksof aluminousand
siliceouscompositionis likely to experiencelittle stimulationof
its flagging powers, and thus leave behind little in the way of
depositionalevidenceof its passagethrough suchrocksor of its
existenceat all. But if it shouldpassinto rocksmore highly re-
active, particularlyinto limestones,thesemight be able to exact
from the tired solutionall that it has left to give. (This is, of
course,no novel principleinventedto supportthe particularpro-
posaljust made; from the pyrometasomatic depositson upward
into the great mesothermaland higher replacementbodies,ag-
gressiveattack is made selectivelyon limestoneswhile adjacent
more resistant rocks are relatively ignored.) At favorable
places,the quantity of solution available and of solute capable
of depositionby reaction with the susceptiblewall rock may
sufficeto producedepositsthat are large, but they are boundto
be of the lowest order of intensity in the physico-chemical
sense.
Depositspossessing
the positionand the characteristics
that the
foregoingconsiderations
of genesis wouldimplyare,'of course,
well known. It is proposedthat they be calledtelethermal 9 to
indicate their direct affiliation with the hydrothermal family.
Long ago the French geologistsreferred to certainof the com-
ponentsin depositsof this kind as the "far-travelers." The
"apomagrnatic" group of present-dayEuropean geologists
wouldincludethesetelethermaldeposits,but, as a merecontrastto
"perimagmatic,"the name seemstoo indefiniteto specifythis
particularzone. Someof the samedepositsNiggli calls"tele-
magmatic"; his term haspriority over "telethermal,"but seems
lessexpressive of theserialrelationship of thesedeposits
to those
of the other hydrothermalzonesand is, moreover,definitelyre-
9 Name suggested
to the writer by a former graduatestudent,C. G. Doll.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 549

gardedby him as implyinga basicmagmasource•an ideawhich,

howeverattractive,is by no meansyet proved.
The outstandingexamplesof the telethermalzone are the lead-
zinc depositsof the MississippiValley and similaroccurrences
in
many parts of the world. As a long-timebelieverin the hydro-
thermal origin of the MississippiValley ores, I listenedwith
deepestsatisfactionto a recent PresidentialAddressbefore this
Societyby ProfessorW. H. Emmons,in whichhe supportedthe
magmaticderivationtheory chieflythroughthe evidencehe ad-
ducedof zoningin that extensiveprovince. It mustbe confessed
that, when actuallyon the ground,the zoningpart of this con-
ceptionseemsin certain directionsrather less.convincingand
securethan whenonereadsit in print; it may provethat certain
occurrenceswhich Emmonshas citedas fitting into and strength-
ening the zonal pattern are in reality independent in age and
genesisof the major lead and zinc deposits. But someof his
evidencesof zoningare indeeddifficultof escape.
Moreover,as both Pirssonand Spurr had noted,the general
aspectsof the depositsboth in southeasternMissouri and in the
Tri-Stateregionseemwhollyfamiliarto oneaccustomed to hydro-
thermalsulphidedeposits.No singleitem of composition, min-
eralofty,sequence,
textureor structureof thosedepositsfails in
my opinionto find approximatecounterpartin many examples
of undoubtedly hydrothermalorigin. Were the Mississippi Val-
ley oresto be just now discovered,it seemsprobablethat their
classification
asa subdivision
of thehydrothermal
familywould
be made unhesitatinglyby all, sinceinterpretationwould thus
entirelyescapethe influenceof that long inheritanceof local
tradition favoring meteoricorigin, which started before there
existedthe presentadequate and consistentphilosophyof mag-
matic derivationof sulphideores,and which in large measure
built itself up to fit only theseparticulardeposits
amongall the
sulphideores of the world. One may look forward with con-
fidenceto the timewhenAmericanopinionwith respectto these
mid-continentaldepositswill be as unanimousas European
opinionhasbecome regardinganalogous occurrences
elsewhere.
55 ø L. C. GRATON.

Into this telethermal

classmay be put the so-called
"red bed'-'
copperdeposits,suchas thoseof the southwestern
United States,*
where calcite cement of the sediments seems to be the chief victim
of replacementby the coppersulphides. Here, also, may be
placedprovisionally
the BrokenHill lead-zincdepositof Northern
Rhodesia, whoseimportantvanadiumcontentsuggests that other
puzzlingvanadiumand uraniumoresmay belonglikewisein this
or a nearbycategory.
Perhapsjust at the lowestlimit of this zonebelongthe rich
copper replacementsin limestone of Kennecott, Alaska, before
they were affectedby supergene processes,and thoseof Katanga,
in the BelgianCongo,beforethey were so profoundlymodified
by the peculiarlyintensetropicaloxidation. Depositscloselyre-
lated to the latter, and lying just to the south in Northern
Rhodesia,but occurringfor the mostpart rather in shalythan in
limy rocks,possiblybelonga little deeperin the hydrothermal
range.
The mercury ores, with which I have almost no personal
familiarity, may perhapsbelongsomewherenear the border line
betweenthe epithermaland the telethermalzonesin thoseregions
where there was some manifestation of intrusive or extrusive
pre-heatingof the channelwaysand where the solutionsretained
enoughvigor to attacknon-limestonerocks.
On the whole, the basemetal and metalloidsulphidesof this
zoneare strikinglydeficientin preciousmetals,thoughoccasional
exceptionsappear. Nickel and cobaltmay be sparinglypresent,
suggestiveof affiliationswith leptothermalores. Cadmiumoften
accompanies the zinc, as it is now being found to do in certain
mesothermaland hypothermaldeposits. Fluorite and barite are
presenthereand there,indicativeof epithermalrelationships. In
the typical telethermaldepositsthere was leisurelydeposition
rather than that impetuousdumpingso characteristic of the epi-
thermalores. Therefore, the grain sizeof the sulphidesusually
rangesfrom mediumto coarse,especially wherethe replacedrock
has the low resistance of calcite and dolomite; but concentric
* The writer has examined some of these depositsin New Mexico and Arizona,
but not. elsewhere.
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 551

banding(Schalenstruktur)dueto successive depositionof differ-

ing thin layersis noteworthyin someoccurrences; moreover,most
of the silica occurswith characteristicfine grain, often crypto-
crystallineand chertylike that in the shallowestepithermalores.
Marginal alterationis as a rule insignificantor wanting because
nothlngcanbemuchfeeblerthanthesedeposits
themselves.
Vertical Rant7e.--The indicatedlow physico-chemical intensity
of thesetelethermaldepositsis compatibleonly with the view that
they were formed at no great depthbelow the surface. On the
whole,indicationsfrom the localerosionalhistoryappearto con-
firm this conclusion. Perhaps 3,000-4,000 feet might be as-
sumedas the maximumverticalrangeof the zone. Inasmuchas
any depositionof importanceis generallydependenton encounter
by the solutionsof favorablyreactiverock,the verticaldimensions
of individualtelethermaldepositsare likely to be much lessex-
pressiveof the vertical range of the zone than they are of the
chance local thickness of the favorable rock formation. For the
same reason,these ores may appear to terminate abruptly and
permanentlydownwardat the placewhere the favorable forma-
tion gives way to an underlyingformation of unreceptivechar-
acter, sincethe localventsor channelwaysof ingressfrom which
the solutionsspreadout into the favorable formation may be
relativelyfew in numberand of restrictedcrosssection,and they
may evenbe, when at last broughtto view by mining, so faintly
markedby deposited mineralmaterialas to escape
recognitionfor
what they actuallyare. This samepaucityand insignificance of
f4edingchannelsfrom below is, of course,commonin limestone
replacementsof all the zones,althoughexceptionsoccur.
CONCLUSIONS.

The foregoing considerationof the hydrothermaldeposits

presumesto link on wherethe pneumotectic operationscease,and
to carry throughthenceto the placeof ultimatedischarge,at or
near the surface,a reasonablyconsistentbut changingsequence
of events. It proposesto addto the hydrothermalfamily a num-
ber of typespreviouslytreatedas somewhatspecialand discon-
nectedcases,but which seemactuallyto fit consistently into a
552 L. C. GRATON.

unified series. Thus the contact-metamorphic

or pyrometaso-
maticdeposits,the fahlbandsand relatedpyritic masseshitherto
commonly linkedwith regionalmetamorphism, the depositsof
nativecopper(and associated sulphides),the lead-zincdeposits
of the Mississippi
Valleytype,the copperdeposits of the "red
bed"andKatangatypesandsimilaroccurrences oftenentertained
assyngenetic,
aswellasmanymiscellaneous metalliferous
deposits
ascribedby Lindgrento "circulatingwaters" findby this view
logicalascription
to directmagmaticancestry.Togetherwith
theorthotectic
andthepneumotecticconcentrations,
thehydrother-
mal family.thusembracesall knowntypesof sulphideoressave
only the supergenerearrangements.
The possibility
thatwith furtherstudywe shallbeableto recog-
nizemoreor lessparallellinesof descendants, depending upon
whetherthe immediatemagmaticparentwas dominantly. basic,
intermediate
or salic,mustbeleft alluringlyopen,thoughwith the
probability
that,forthehydrothermal
ores,a magma
whichyields
igneous
rocksratheronthesalicsideof intermediate
is likelyto
be mostprolific.
Formof deposit
entersintosucha genetic
classification
onlyas
an accidentof the environmentor in consequence
of depthcon-
ditionswith which,throughtemperature
and pressure,
chemical
equilibriummustdeal.
Noprovision seemsnecessary
foranygenetic differentiation
on
thebasisof age,whichhassolongbeenemphasized by theGer-
manschool, or onthebasisof whethertherelatedrockdidor did
notbreakthrough to thesurface. Possibly
thedeep-lyingsources
arewiththepassage of timebeinggradually
exhausted of their
volatilesand their metals,and thustheremay exist a progressive
change
in quantity
andcharacter
of oresfromearlyto lategeo-
logical
time. Butweareasyetunprepared
withspecific
data
wherebyto checkthisidea.
The basisfor subdivisionof the entire hydrothermallineage
into a number of zones is intendedto be primarily physico-
chemical;
thesezonesare in realityintensity-zones.
But since
wehaveasyetnodirectwayof measuring absolutely
thephysico-
chemical
conditions
that prevailednor the changes
theyexperi-
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 553

encedfrom placeto place,we must reachinferencesregarding

them from what resultedin the way of mineral depositionand
rock alterationat thesevariousplaces. For so doing, I follow
Lindgren in the view impliedby his first namingof the hydro-
thermalsubdivisions as deep,intermediateand shallow;namely,
that the simplestand probablythe bestintegrationof all the va-
riablesis by meansof the yardstickof depth. Depth pretty
directlyaffectspressureon the solutions;depth,in the senseof
distanceof flow throughrockscoolerthan the solutions,affects
their temperature;and in the senseof distanceof flow through
reactingwall'rocks, depth affectscompositionof the solutions.
But it is, of course,to be clearly understoodthat depth as so
used is relative, not absolute. Thus, in any given occurrence,
increasingdepth almost invariably meansincreasingintensity;
but a givennatureof ore, representing a certainintensityfactor,
may havebeenformedat somewhatdifferentdepthsin different
occurrences.Moreover,one of the vital factorsaffectingdeposi-
tion, namely,rockcharacter,may be highlyindependent of depth,
andespecially wherelimestones are involvedtheremay be striking
accelerations of the otherwise normal tendencies.
The figures hitherto assigned for the maximum vertical
ranges of the several hydrothermalzones must evidently be
greatlyincreased,so that if the probablemaximumfor eachof
the five subdivisionshere contemplated be added,one on top of
another,with appropriateallowancefor overlap,the aggregate
might conceivably be of the orderof onehundredthousandfeet,
or saytwentymiles. No reasonis apparent,whetherin erosional
historyor magmaticprocess, for recoilingfrom sogreata figure,
thoughon the other hand it seemsprobablethat in the average
individualcasethe total hydrothermaldepthrangewas muchless,
becauseof shallowerlocationof the magma source. In a broad
way, each higher zone tends to be thinner'than the one next
below; but the local environmentmay in someplacesupsetthis
generaltendency.
No reasonis evident for excludingthe possibilitythat sub-
stantialdepositionmay take placealong a continuouschannel-
way systemfrom the lowermostend of the hypothermalto the
554 L. C. GRATON.

uppermostlimit of the telethermalzone. On the contrary,there

is no requirementthat depositionmust persistuninterruptedly
throughout sucha channelway system. Indeed,experienceshows
that certain oreshootsof the kind calledby Irving "shoots of
occurrence"terminatecompletely, andthenat somegreaterdepth
other suchshootsmay recur. How great the longestof these
interveninggapsmay be, we do not know. Someof the zones,at
a givenoccurrence, therefore,may be entirelyunrepresentedby
depositedmineral.
JustasLindgren;s
range
of depths
mustprobably
beincreased,
so must the temperatureshe has assignedfor the •arious zones
probablybe in generalmarked up to somewhathigher values.
The relatively few points already establishedon the so-called
geologicalthermometerhave, for the mostpart, beenascertained
under highly simplifiedlaboratoryconditions. It is gradually
being demonstrated,as somehad already surmised,that when the
conditionsare actuallyas complexas those which prevail in
nature,the tendencies in manycasesare to raisethe temperatures
over thosewhichobtain.undersimpleconditions. For example,
the critical temperatureof water at 374ø C. and the beta-alpha
inversion point for quartz at 575ø C. are repeatedlyused in
geologicaldiscussionsas if absoluteand unchanging,like two
plustwo. But we havelearnedthat the criticaltemperaturemay
be greatly elevated by dissolvedsolutes; and that the quartz
inversionpoint may probablybe raisedxooø or moreby the pres-
surein the deepzones. With the temperatures of possiblysuper-
heatedmagmaat oneextremeand the high present-day tempera-
tures running into hundredsof degreesfound at or closeto the
surfacein the Yellowstone,the Katmai * and similar hot-spring
and fumarole regions,where underlyingbatholithsare undoubt-
edly now crystallizing,it seemsprobablethat the vast majority of
hydrothermaldepositshave been formed far abovethe tempera-
ture of boilingwaterat the surface. For the telethermaldeposits
alone can really moderatetemperaturesbe assumed.
Let it not be overlookedthat the purposeof classificationis not
to set forth final and indisputable
truths but rather to afford the
aiming-sightsfor predictionand the stepping-stones toward bet-
 THE DEPTH-ZONES IN ORE DEPOSITION. 555

terunderstanding.
Norshould
it'beforgotten
thatthedifficulties
and dangerswhich inevitablyattendevery effort at classification
of such
variedandcomplex
phenomena
asmineral
deposits
must
apply to the groupingsand the highly abridgedgeneralizations
presentedin this paper. The extensionand increasingprecision
of fieldobservation,
the improvements in microscopicaland other
instrumentaltechnique,and the further invaluableadvancein
physico-chemical experimentation
will gradually,here as in other
problems,separatethe evanescentfrom that which merits sur-
vival.
My obligationis great to many fellow geologistswhosespoken
or written ideas have contributedto the viewpointsexpressed
herein, both in ways that are definitelyrememberedand can be
acknowledged and in thosemore subtlewaysthat do not always
come
specifically
tomindyethax;e
nonetheless
become
a partof
my understanding
and beliefs.
LABORATORY
OF !•INING GEOLOGY•
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.