Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

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Tectonophysics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Review Article

Analogue modelling of intraplate strike-slip tectonics: A review and new

experimental results
Tim P. Dooley a,⁎, Guido Schreurs b
a
Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, University Station, Box X, Austin, TX 78713-8924, USA
b
Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 1 & 3, CH 3012 Bern, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Intraplate strike-slip zones commonly display intricate 3-D geometries, with rapid changes in structural style
Received 18 January 2012 along strike and with depth. Strike-slip deformation typically results in complex vertical and horizontal sec-
Received in revised form 2 May 2012 tions that can be difficult to interpret coherently. Physical modelling of strike-slip fault systems is a powerful
Accepted 5 May 2012
and graphic tool to help in providing a unified picture of the evolution of strike-slip zones with considerable
Available online 2 August 2012
spatial and temporal detail. A large number of experimental studies have investigated different aspects of
Keywords:
strike-slip tectonics using materials such as dry sand, wet clay, or silicone. The choice of analogue material
Analogue modelling and experimental design exerts a strong control on the structures that form in the model.
Strike-slip tectonics Here we present a review of different experimental setups used to investigate intraplate strike-slip tectonics,
Transtension from the classical Riedel experiment to more sophisticated setups using brittle and viscous analogue mate-
Transpression rials. We review our current understanding from models of distributed shear, transtension, transpression,
Pull-apart basin pull-apart basins formed in releasing stepovers, and popups formed in restraining stepovers. In addition,
Popup we present the results of two new experimental series that investigated (1) the effect of crustal weak
zones on strike-slip fault-zone segmentation and (2) strike-slip and transpressional reactivation of exten-
sional basins.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Properties of modelling materials and scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Material properties of dry granular materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Material properties of wet clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3. A comparison of dry sand and wet clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4. Material properties of viscous materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5. Scaling issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.6. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3. Riedel experiment—structures in an overburden above a single planar and vertical basement fault reactivated in pure strike slip . . . . . . . . 6
3.1. Riedel experiments with wet clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2. Riedel experiments with dry sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3. Comparison of wet-clay and dry-sand models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4. Riedel experiments with nonuniform mechanical stratigraphies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5. Variations on the Riedel experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5.1. Transpression and transtension above a vertical basement fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5.2. Oblique-slip faulting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5.3. Pure strike slip above two parallel, vertical basement faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5.4. Strike-slip deformation of a brittle–viscous model with isostatic compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Distributed strike-slip shear experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1. Structures in zones of distributed strike-slip shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2. Distributed strike-slip shear and block rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3. A comparison between Riedel experiments and distributed strike-slip shear experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tim.dooley@beg.utexas.edu (T.P. Dooley), schreurs@geo.unibe.ch (G. Schreurs).

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.05.030
2 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

4.4. Structural criteria to identify distributed strike-slip shear zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.5. Distributed transpression and transtension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5.1. Distributed transpression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5.2. Distributed transtension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5. Analogue modelling of pull-apart basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1. Pure strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.1.1. Single-layer models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.1.2. Dual-layer models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2. Divergent strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6. Analogue modelling of restraining stepovers or bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1. Evolution and geometries of popups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2. Primary controls on popup geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7. Effect of crustal weak zones on strike-slip fault-zone segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.1. Model design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2. Linear weak zones with long axis oriented 45° counterclockwise oblique to the basement fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2.1. Pure strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2.2. Divergent strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3. Linear weak zones with long axis oriented 45° clockwise oblique to the basement fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.3.1. Pure strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.3.2. Divergent strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.4. Double-cylinder weak-body array tangential to basement-fault trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.4.1. Pure strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.4.2. Divergent strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.5. Summary of Section 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8. Strike-slip and transpressional reactivation of extensional basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.1. Extension followed by distributed strike slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.2. Extension followed by distributed transpression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.3. Summary of Section 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9. Concluding statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.1. Current status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.2. Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

1. Introduction can then be interrogated and interpreted in 3-D by seismic interpreta-

Strike-slip tectonics is a fundamental process affecting many parts
of the Earth's lithosphere and resulting in prominent surface
expressions. Sylvester (1988) and Woodcock and Schubert (1994)
provided extensive reviews on strike-slip deformation, whereas
Mann (2007) presented a worldwide inventory of major strike-slip
zones. Although structures in strike-slip zones can be investigated
through field investigations and geophysical imaging techniques, a
detailed knowledge of the complex 3-D geometry of folds and faults
in such zones is still lacking. Physical modelling studies have
contributed significantly to our understanding of structures in
strike-slip-dominated regimes. Although experimental studies have
inherent simplifications, such as the general absence of pore-fluid
pressure, a simplified mechanical stratigraphy, and the neglect of
thermal, flexural, and isostatic effects, their main advantage is that
they allow us to observe the geometric evolution of structures, in con-
trast to the natural world in which we see only the present-day state.
Hence, experimental models provide us with the opportunity to vary
specific parameters and assess their relevance for the tectonic process
being considered.
Most experimental models of strike-slip tectonics have been tradi-
tionally analysed in surface view and, in some cases, additionally by
sectioning at the end of the experiment. With the introduction of the
nondestructive X-ray computer-tomography technique, it became
possible to analyse the 3-D geometry of the interior of strike-slip
models in unprecedented detail (e.g., Mandl, 1988; Richard et al.,
1989, 1995; Schreurs, 1994, 2003; Schreurs and Colletta, 1998, 2003;
Ueta et al., 2000). Although the traditional serial sectioning technique
is destructive, recent advances have allowed reconstruction of the 3-D
volume of strike-slip models through the use of closely spaced serial
sections (e.g., Dooley et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2009). These volumes
tion and medical software packages, contributing greatly to our un-
derstanding of strike-slip-related deformation, in which rapid
changes in deformation occur both along strike and with depth, pro-
ducing highly complex 3-D deformation (e.g. Wu et al., 2009).
Here we present a review of a wide range of experimental studies on
intraplate, strike-slip tectonics, ranging from the traditional Riedel-
shear experiments to studies focused on structures formed between
segmented or curved, strike-slip fault zones. Larger-scale experiments
such as those of Tapponnier et al. (1982) and Ratschbacher et al.
(1991) are beyond the scope of this paper. The reader is referred to
Marques et al. (2007) for experiments investigating rifts and transforms
in the oceanic lithosphere. We include experiments in which a small
component of either convergence or divergence (angle of obliquity—
defined here as the angle between the displacement vector and basal
velocity discontinuity or the boundary of the deforming zone) accom-
panied by strike-slip deformation. The review is complemented with
two new model studies: one investigating the influence of crustal
weak zones on strike-slip fault segmentation, and the other examining
basin reactivation by distributed strike slip and convergent strike slip.
The choice of modelling material has a direct influence on re-
sulting structures; therefore, we first present an overview of the
physical characteristics and mechanical properties of three common-
ly used analogues – dry granular materials, wet clay, and silicone –
and discuss general scaling issues.
2. Properties of modelling materials and scaling
Dry granular materials and wet clay are often used to simulate
brittle deformation of upper crustal rocks. Dry granular materials –
in particular, quartz sands – have a long tradition as analogues in
experimental models at natural gravity conditions because they
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 3

allow easy model construction and sectioning. Typically used sands
generally have a grain size of between about 100 and 500 μm. Wet
clay is generally composed predominantly of clay particles, with a
grain size of several microns, and water. Viscous materials such as
silicone have also been used, particularly to distribute strike-slip
deformation, with the viscous layer generally simulating either the
lower crust or a weak detachment layer in the upper crust.
2.1. Material properties of dry granular materials
The properties of dry granular materials have been investigated
in different degrees of detail by, e.g., Cobbold and Castro (1999),
Klinkmüller (2011), Krantz (1991), Lohrmann et al. (2003),
Mourgues and Cobbold (2003), Panien et al. (2006), Rossi and Storti
(2003), and Schellart (2000). In these studies, different measuring
techniques, such as Hubbert-type shear boxes and ring-shear testers,
have been used to determine material constants, such as the angle of
internal friction and cohesion.
Experimental modellers have generally assumed that dry quartz
sand and other granular materials – such as upper crustal rocks –
obey, to a good approximation, the empirical Coulomb failure criteri-
on:
σ s ¼ C þ tan φ⋅σ n ;
where σs and σn are, respectively, shear and normal stresses on a
potential fault surface, C is cohesion (or cohesive strength), and φ is
the angle of internal friction. The coefficient of internal friction (μ)
is equal to tan φ.
The Coulomb criterion also predicts the orientation of two poten-
tial fault planes in a perfect homogeneous and isotropic Coulomb ma-
terial. These orientations are both parallel to the intermediate
principal stress (σ2) and make an angle of ±(45° − φ/2) to the direc-
tion of the maximum principal stress (σ1).
Hubbert-type shear testers and ring-shear testers allow measure-
ments of mechanical properties under low normal loads that are in
the range of normal stresses in scaled analogue experiments. Ana-
logue models constructed with granular materials typically have
thicknesses in the range of 2 to 10 cm, resulting in normal stresses
at the base of the model – for a quartz sand with a density of
1560 kg/m 3 – between 300 and 1530 Pa. These values decrease to
zero towards the model surface.
In contrast to the Hubbert-type shear tester, ring-shear tests yield
not only the angle of internal friction at peak strength (i.e., fault
initiation), but also friction angles at stable dynamic strength (fault
sliding) and at stable static strength (fault reactivation). The
ring-shear test results, in fact, show that the Coulomb failure criterion
does not adequately describe the complete rheological behaviour of
granular materials (Lohrmann et al., 2003; Panien et al., 2006). Gran-
ular materials are characterised by elastic/frictional plastic behaviour,
with transient strain hardening prior to failure at peak strength and
subsequent strain softening until the beginning of stable dynamic
sliding. The rheological behaviour of granular materials is similar to
that exhibited by rocks experimentally deformed in upper crustal
conditions (e.g., Jaeger et al., 2007; Marone, 1998).
Panien et al. (2006) and Klinkmüller (2011) provided comprehen-
sive overviews of the properties of granular materials used by exper-
imental modelling laboratories worldwide, applying the same
ring-shear-tester and identical filling techniques (filling height and
filling rate). The tested granular materials have angles of internal fric-
tion at peak strengths ranging from 31° to 41°, with the exception of
well-rounded microbeads, which have lower angles of internal fric-
tion of between 22° and 30° (Table 1). In the ring-shear tests, strain
softening in the dry sands varies between 10 and 30%. Friction angles
for fault sliding and fault reactivation are systematically lower than
those at fault initiation (Table 1). Because of strain softening after ini-
tial failure, the Coulomb failure criterion can in principle be used only
to infer the potential orientations of new faults, and not for subse-
quent sliding on, nor reactivation of, pre-existing faults.
In the course of experimental modelling, granular materials may
slide with respect to the base and sidewalls. The nature of the base
and sidewalls used in the experimental setup may influence the

Table 1
Summary of mechanical properties of granular materials. Material codes consist of 3 + 3 capital letters, with the first three letters defining the laboratory and the last three letters
defining the material, with SAN = quartz sand; GLB = glass beads; col = coloured; CAS = Czech Academy of Sciences; GFZ = German Research Centre for Geosciences; IFP = IFP En-
ergies Nouvelles; KYU = Kyoto University; NTU = National Taiwan University; RHU = Royal Holloway, University of London; STU = Stanford University; UBE = University of Bern;
UCP = Université de Cergy-Pontoise; ULI = Université de Lille; UOP = Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto; UPU = Uppsala University; VW = very well; W = well; MW = moderate
to well; M = moderate; P = poor; RST = ring-shear tester TLW = TecLab Wroclaw.
Summary is from Klinkmüller (2011).

Density before Aspect Graphic mean Range Sorting RST internal Apparent RST stable Apparent RST stable Apparent
shear ratio grain size F=fine VW; W; (peak) friction cohesion static friction cohesion dynamic friction cohesion
3
(g/cm ) (μm) M=medium MW; M; P (°) at peak (°) at static (°) at dynamic

CASSAN 1.6 1.5 191 F MW 35.0 ± 1.1 72 32.6 ± 0.6 95 31.4 ± 0.6 44
GFZSAN 1.7 1.6 301 M M 34.2 ± 1.1 102 31.4 ± 0.6 106 29.7 ± 0.6 78
GFZSAN col 1.5 1.5 271 M M 40.7 ± 1.1 110 32.6 ± 0.6 77 31.0 ± 0.6 59
IFPSAN 1.4 1.6 127 F W 36.9 ± 0.6 29 35.0 ± 0.6 46 31.8 ± 0.6 60
KYUSAN 1.6 1.5 225 M MW 36.5 ± 1.1 29 33.8 ± 0.6 85 31.0 ± 0.6 52
NTUSAN 1.6 1.5 180 F W 36.1 ± 1.1 34 33.4 ± 0.6 65 27.9 ± 0.6 96
NTUSAN col 1.6 1.6 182 F W 31.4 ± 0.6 55 26.6 ± 0.6 87 25.6 ± 0.6 81
RHUSAN 1.6 1.5 204 M MW 33.0 ± 0.6 74 29.7 ± 0.6 91 28.8 ± 0.6 65
RHUSAN col 1.5 1.4 245 M M 36.5 ± 0.6 58 32.6 ± 0.6 73 31.4 ± 0.6 56
STUSAN 1.7 1.5 271 M M 33.0 ± 1.1 82 31.4 ± 0.6 96 30.1 ± 0.6 58
TLWSAN 1.4 1.7 151 F MW 36.9 ± 0.6 47 35.0 ± 0.6 59 33.0 ± 0.6 52
UBESAN 1.5 1.6 171 F W 36.9 ± 0.6 23 33.7 ± 0.6 73 30.8 ± 0.6 60
UCPSAN 1.7 1.5 260 M M 33.8 ± 0.6 75 33.0 ± 0.6 105 30.5 ± 0.6 62
ULISAN 1.7 1.5 220 M MW 33.8 ± 0.6 70 32.6 ± 0.6 106 30.1 ± 0.6 71
ULISAN col 1.7 1.7 295 M P 33.0 ± 0.6 59 32.2 ± 0.6 91 30.1 ± 0.6 64
UOPSAN 1.5 1.4 291 M W 39.4 ± 0.6 60 32.6 ± 0.6 116 31.0 ± 0.6 82
UOPSAN col 1.2 1.5 297 M MW 35.4 ± 2.9 102 36.5 ± 2.3 80 32.6 ± 0.6 61
UPASAN 1.7 1.5 224 M MW 33.0 ± 0.6 102 31.8 ± 0.6 104 30.5 ± 0.6 62
UPUSAN 1.6 1.5 245 M M 35.4 ± 0.6 82 32.6 ± 0.6 92 31.0 ± 0.6 62

GFZGLB 100–200μm 1.5 1.1 174 F VW 25.6 ± 0.6 11 23.7 ± 0.6 25 21.8 ± 0.6 25
GFZGLB 100–400μm 1.6 1.2 277 M P 27.0 ± 0.6 13 26.1 ± 0.6 27 22.8 ± 1.1 43
GFZGLB 300–400μm 1.6 1.2 410 M P 29.7 ± 1.1 18 26.1 ± 0.6 39 23.7 ± 0.6 34
4 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
orientation and formation of structures in the model. However, in
most experimental studies, values of wall friction are not known.
Klinkmüller (2011) determined the wall friction of granular materials
with respect to a foil (Alkor foil) and showed that the angle of basal
friction of a particular granular material can be as much as 20°
lower than the angle of internal friction at peak strength.
Because the cohesive strength of granular materials is difficult to
measure at low normal stresses (below several hundred pascals), it
is generally obtained by a linear extrapolation from measurements
done at higher values. A linear extrapolation implicitly assumes a lin-
ear Coulomb behaviour at all normal stresses. Such an extrapolation
yields a wide range of values for the apparent cohesive strength of
granular materials on the order of 10 to 100 Pa (Klinkmüller, 2011).
Krantz (1991) reported apparent cohesion values as high as 520 Pa
for dry sand. Such high values are contrary to the common observa-
tion that dry sand is nearly cohesionless. Shear tests by Schellart
(2000) show that the failure envelope for granular materials at low
normal stresses (i.e., below about 250–400 Pa) is not linear, but con-
vex upwards with negligible cohesive strength (c. 0–10 Pa), and only
approaches a straight line at higher normal stresses. These tests
therefore suggest that the linear Coulomb criterion of failure is not
valid at low normal stresses. Mourgues and Cobbold (2003), however,
argued that the convex-outward shape of the failure envelope
obtained by Schellart (2000) is due largely to sidewall friction during
shear testing. They concluded that neglecting this effect results in an
overestimation of the cohesive strength and an underestimation of
the coefficient of internal friction. According to Mourgues and
Cobbold (2003), dry sand has a linear Coulomb behaviour, except at
extremely low normal stresses below 30 Pa.
Note that different granular materials, filling techniques, and
shear testers have been used in the aforementioned studies, making
a direct comparison of shear test results difficult. Krantz (1991), for
example, showed that the angle of internal friction of the same dry
sand varies according to whether the sand was sieved or poured
into the shear-test apparatus, indicating a dependency of the friction
coefficient on density.
Differences in the shape of the failure envelope of granular mate-
rials may therefore be attributed to the applied measuring technique
(e.g., Hubbert-type shear box or ring-shear tester), the amount of
sidewall friction in the shear tester, filling technique and filling
height, and intrinsic material properties, such as grain shape, grain
sorting, and composition. In addition, storage conditions of modelling
materials, ambient laboratory conditions (e.g., humidity), and grain
colouring might also influence frictional properties and cohesion.
In analogue experiments at normal gravity conditions with typical
model thicknesses of several centimetres, faults form as shear bands
in dry granular materials with low cohesion. Under these conditions,
grain-size reduction does not occur, and shearing results in positive
dilatancy. This dilatancy depends on initial packing density, grain-
size distribution, sphericity, and surface conditions of the grains
(Koopman et al., 1987). The experimentally produced dilatancy does
Table 2
Physical characteristics and mechanical properties of several wet clays used in analogue modelling studies.
Reference Clay minerals
Tchalenko (1970)a Kaolin
Sims (1993) Powdered kaolin, nepheline-syenite, and flint
Eisenstadt and Sims (2005) Powdered kaolin, nepheline-syenite, and flint
Atmaoui et al. (2006) Kaolinite and illite
CF = clay fraction (b2 μm).
a
Shear box tests.
b
Averaged value.
c
Measured by a controlled-stress rheometer.
d
Angle of internal friction based on empirical correlation between plasticity index (10% for kaolin-O) and critical angle of friction, obtained in triaxial compression tests on nor-
mally consolidated clays (Terzaghi et al., 1996).
not scale to nature, and, consequently, the initial width of the dilatant
shear zones (i.e., the fault) that form – typically about 10 to 15 times
the average grain size (Panien et al., 2006) – does not scale to natural
faults (Mandl, 1988).
2.2. Material properties of wet clay
In wet-clay models, a clay–water mixture is prepared with low
shear strength and a consistency allowing easy handling and prepara-
tion. The grain size of clay minerals is generally on the order of several
micrometres. Although wet clay has been used in numerous studies
simulating strike slip (e.g., Atmaoui et al., 2006; Cloos, 1928, 1955;
Freund, 1974; Hoeppener et al., 1969; Riedel, 1929; Schwarz and
Kilfitt, 2008; Soula, 1984; Wilcox et al., 1973), details on composition,
grain size, water content, and mechanical properties are often lacking,
making it difficult to compare the evolution of structures in different
studies. The characteristics and mechanical properties of several clays
used in analogue modelling studies are listed in Table 2.
Although there is general agreement that wet clay deforms
according to the Coulomb failure criterion and has angles of internal
friction similar to those of upper crustal rocks (e.g., 32° Atmaoui
et al., 2006; 23°, Tchalenko, 1970; 31°, Withjack et al., 2007), contro-
versy exists as to whether its cohesive strength is appropriate for
scaled modelling (e.g., Mandl, 1988; Naylor et al., 1986). It has been
claimed that clay has too high a cohesive strength and should be
used only for modelling highly-cohesive natural rocks (Mandl,
1988; Naylor et al., 1986). In addition, Naylor et al. (1986) suggested
that the short duration of the clay experiments (typically a few hours)
prevents water from draining out, resulting in a constant effective
confining pressure and, hence, in a frictional component of yield
strength that is independent of the confining pressure. Therefore,
Naylor et al. (1986) considered wet clay to be ductile prior to faulting
and considered clay to be more appropriate as an analogue for model-
ling lower crustal rocks.
Only few data exist on the cohesive strength of clays used in ana-
logue modelling. Eisenstadt and Sims (2005) reported a value of 60 to
65 Pa for the cohesive strength of wet clay (density of 1.6–1.63 g/cm3)
obtained using a controlled-stress rheometer. Their data correspond
closely to the average value of 40 Pa found by Sims (1993), who used
the same measurement technique. These values are similar to those of
extrapolated cohesive strengths for dry granular materials obtained
from shear tests (Table 1). The cohesive strength of wet clay increases
with increasing density (i.e., less water), indicating that it is controlled
primarily by water content (Eisenstadt and Sims, 2005).
Several studies have investigated whether density (water con-
tent) or strain rate is the primary controlling factor on the deforma-
tion patterns produced in wet clay. Most data indicate that density
rather than strain rate plays the most important role in wet-clay de-
formation (Eisenstadt and Sims, 2005). Faults in high-density clays
(low water content) have larger displacements and are less closely
spaced than in low-density clays (Bain and Beebe, 1954). In addition,
Water content (%) Density (wet) Grain size (μm) Angle of internal Cohesion
friction (°) (Pa)
45–56 Unknown CF 95% 23 Unknown
63 1.63 b100; CF not known Unknown 40b
c. 59–66 1.67–1.57 b100; CF not known Unknown 54–130c
38–48 1.79–1.70 1.5–55; CF 41% 32d Unknown
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
faults in high-density clays are discrete and planar, whereas they are
more numerous and more complex in low-density clays (Arch et al.,
1988).
2.3. A comparison of dry sand and wet clay
Although internal friction angles and cohesive strengths of wet
clay and dry sand can be similar, the behaviour of these two materials
during deformation is significantly different. These differences are re-
lated to grain-size distribution, grain shape, and the behaviour of
water in the pore space in the case of wet clay (Atmaoui et al.,
2006; Withjack et al., 2007). Dry sand will deform mainly by dilatan-
cy and frictional gliding (e.g., Schöpfer and Steyrer, 2001), whereas
hydro-physico-chemical effects at the interparticle contacts play a
role in clays (Atmaoui et al., 2006). Clay particles have a platy shape
in contrast to that of dry sand, which generally is angular to round.
Deformation of clay particles will occur mostly by sliding along the
long, platy surfaces of the particles and will be influenced by pore
pressure under undrained conditions (Atmaoui et al., 2006).
Eisenstadt and Sims (2005) and Withjack et al. (2007) compared
the deformation patterns in dry quartz sand and wet-clay models
under identical boundary conditions. Although the large-scale defor-
mation patterns in their extensional and compressional models are
similar in both dry sand and wet clay, the differences in material
properties result in important small-scale differences (Eisenstadt
and Sims, 2005; Withjack et al., 2007). Faults develop and link more
quickly in dry-sand models than in wet-clay models. Individual faults
show more displacement, and fewer faults are formed in dry sand
than in wet clay. Individual fault-zone widths in sand models are
greater than in clay models, with faults in sand being several milli-
metres wide and faults in clay less than 0.1 mm wide (Withjack et
al., 2007). This difference primarily reflects the significant difference
in grain size (Withjack et al., 2007) and probably also the difference
in dilatancy between the two materials. Fault distributions vary
between sand and clay models. Faults form quickly and propagate
rapidly in sand models, with major faults accommodating the defor-
mation. In contrast, early fault propagation in clay models occurs
slowly along numerous small faults, and deformation is more distrib-
uted before fault linkage. Dry sand does not show significant folding,
with strain accommodated primarily by faulting. Wet clay, however,
may deform both by faulting and folding.
In inversion models, Eisenstadt and Sims (2005) showed that
the high-water content in wet-clay models favoured significant
reactivation along preexisting normal faults (increased fluid pres-
sure) in orthogonal shortening. In contrast, in dry-sand models, the
preexisting normal faults were barely reactivated, and most shorten-
ing was accommodated by newly formed conjugate thrusts.
These studies clearly show that the choice of modelling material –
dry sand or wet clay – exerts an important control on the style and
distribution of deformation in analogue models. Withjack et al.
(2007) considered that differences in the deformation patterns main-
ly reflect differences in ductility, with the term ductility reflecting the
capacity for distributed deformation at the scale of observation
(Rutter, 1986). In their opinion, dry sand with low ductility will best
simulate rocks in nature that deform primarily by localised faulting,
whereas wet clay with its higher ductility will best simulate rocks in
nature that deform by distributed minor and major faulting.
Both dry sand and wet clay exhibit certain characteristics that may
not make them perfect for scaled modelling. Both materials exhibit
diffuse deformation prior to faulting that may not accurately scale
to natural rocks, and the shear dilatancy in dry sand creates faults
whose width does not scale to actual faults (Mandl, 1988). In addi-
tion, certain material properties are not, or only poorly, known.
Data on cohesive strength of wet clay are limited, and friction angles
at fault sliding and at fault reactivation in wet clay are lacking. Despite
these limitations and uncertainties, analogue-model experiments
5
using dry sand or wet clay reproduce natural deformation patterns
in upper crustal rocks remarkably well.
An advantage of models consisting of granular materials, such as dry
sand, is that the complex 3-D geometric evolution of strike-slip-related
structures can be well imaged using X-ray-computed tomography
(Richard et al., 1995; Schreurs, 1994, 2003; Schreurs and Colletta,
1998, 2003; Ueta et al., 2000), in contrast to clay models, which strongly
absorb X-rays causing important artefacts and showing little internal
detail.
2.4. Material properties of viscous materials
Viscous materials such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS SGM-36)
of Dow Corning and Gomme G.S.1R manufactured by Rhône-Poulenc
have commonly been used in strike-slip-deformation experiments.
These two materials have densities of 0.965 g/cm 5 and 1.3 g/cm 5, re-
spectively, and display an almost perfectly Newtonian viscous behav-
iour (Klinkmüller, 2011; Weijermars, 1986). They are generally used
to simulate the viscous rheology of materials such as salt or rocks in
the lower crust.
Gomme G.S.1R has a viscosity of 5 × 10 4 Pa·s (Richard et al., 1991).
Klinkmüller (2011) determined the viscosities of samples of PDMS
SGM-36 from five different analogue-modelling laboratories and
obtained viscosities ranging between 2 × 10 4 Pa·s and 3.5 × 10 4 Pa·s.
Whether the observed differences are related to the manufacturing
process or to age and storage conditions is unclear (Klinkmüller,
2011). However, these viscosities are lower than the one determined
previously by Weijermars (1986), 5 × 10 4 Pa·s, for the same material.
Odonne and Vialon (1983) performed strike-slip experiments
using paraffin wax and silicon grease in an airtight container thermo-
statically controlled at 31.5°. Under these experimental conditions,
the paraffin wax has a viscosity of 3 × 10 5 Pa·s (Attane et al., 1980),
whereas the silicon grease has a viscosity of 5 × 10 2 Pa·s.
2.5. Scaling issues
Experimental deformation of natural rocks at upper crustal condi-
tions indicates that brittle faulting in intact (previously unfaulted),
homogeneous, and isotropic rocks obeys the empirical Coulomb fail-
ure criterion,
σ s ¼ C þ tan φ⋅σ n :
The angle of internal friction (φ) for most intact rocks in the upper
crust ranges from about 27° to 45°, corresponding to a coefficient of
internal friction of between 0.5 and 1 (Handin, 1966; Jaeger and
Cook, 1976). Laboratory values for cohesion of intact sedimentary
rocks are about 20 MPa (Handin, 1966), although they are signifi-
cantly less for highly fractured rocks (Brace and Kohlstedt, 1980).
Because an analogue model is not an exact duplicate of the natural
system, scaling parameters must be used to link the model to the nat-
ural system. Hubbert (1937) derived the general theory of similarity
between a model and the natural system. Following Hubbert (1937)
and Ramberg (1981), both the model and the natural system must
have similar rheological properties. To obtain proper scaling of an ex-
perimental model that deforms in a brittle manner, two conditions
must be satisfied (e.g., Hubbert, 1937): (1) the nondimensional
angle of internal friction of the modelling material must be similar
to that of upper crustal rocks and (2)
   
C ¼ρ g L ;
where C*, ρ*, g*, and L* are the dimensionless ratios of model:natural
system for cohesive strength, density, gravity, and length, respectively.
The first condition is fulfilled because dry granular materials have
angles of internal friction of between 20° and 40° (Eisenstadt and
6 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Sims, 2005; Klinkmüller, 2011; Panien et al., 2006), which are similar
to those obtained for upper crustal rocks.
In analogue-model experiments at normal gravity, the value of
g* = 1. The density of brittle analogue modelling materials varies
between about 1.4 and 1.7 g/cm 3 (see Table 1), and, assuming an
average density of the upper crust of 2.5 g/cm 3, ρ* is about 0.56 to
0.68. Hence,
   in the model. In addition, many model studies use both coloured
0:56⋅L < C < 0:68⋅L :
If we choose a reasonable-length ratio (L*) of 10 −5 – i.e., 1 cm in
the model equals approximately 1 km in nature – then the second
condition requires that the cohesive strength of the modelling mate-
rial is c. 0.56 × 10 −5 to 0.68 × 10 −5 of the cohesive strength of upper
crustal rocks. In the case of negligible cohesion at shallow crustal
depths (Byerlee, 1978), dynamic similarity requires a nearly cohe-
sionless modelling material.
Viscous materials are considered good analogue materials to sim-
ulate the viscous rheology of rocks such as evaporites or rocks in the
lower crust (Vendeville et al., 1987). Viscous materials have a rheo-
logical behaviour that is time dependent. In the case of linear viscous
materials such as PDMS and Gomme G.S.1R, Weijermars and
Schmeling (1986) showed that geometrical similarity and similar
boundary conditions are sufficient to achieve dynamic similarity in
normal gravity experiments:
  
σ ¼ η ⋅ ;
where ε* and σ* are the ratios of model:natural system for strain rate,
viscosity, and stress, respectively.
The equation above can be rewritten as
   
η ¼ ρ ⋅L ⋅T ;
where T* is the ratio of model:natural system for time. In cases where
inertial forces can be considered negligible in the tectonic processes
considered, the ratios of model:natural system for length and time
can be chosen independently (Hubbert, 1937).
The previous equation can also be expressed as
 
 2  
ρ ⋅ L ¼ η ⋅v ;
where v* is the ratio of model:natural system for velocity.
The density of natural rocks is well known, and we can determine
the viscosity and density of the analogue modelling material. Hence, if
we choose a reasonable-length ratio and assume a particular linear
viscosity, we can calculate the scaled natural velocity from this equa-
tion. Alternatively, we can choose a reasonable-length ratio, assume a
natural velocity, and calculate the scaled natural viscosity.
Although Hubbert (1937) stressed the importance of completely
and properly scaled models for obtaining an accurate representation
of the natural system, in practice, our ability to construct a model
that is correctly scaled with respect to all parameters involved is un-
likely. Limitations are imposed by certain parameters in the natural
system being unknown, uncertain, or difficult to model. Parameters
such as temperature gradient with depth, effects of pore pressure,
and differential compaction are generally not considered in physical
models.
Despite such limitations, partly scaled analogue models of
strike-slip tectonics have proven to be useful. They have generated
ideas about the origin and development of structures in strike-
slip-deformation zones.
2.6. Concluding remarks
In many experimental strike-slip studies, a detailed description of
mechanical properties and physical characteristics of modelling ma-
terials is lacking, making direct comparisons between model results
difficult. For granular materials, information on grain size, grain
shape, and grain sorting is often incomplete. The type of granular ma-
terial and grain characteristics directly influence resulting geometry
and uncoloured sand. Colouring of granular materials may affect fric-
tion angles (Klinkmüller, 2011) and, hence, the fault pattern in the
model.
An additional uncertainty is introduced by details in model con-
struction often being incomplete. In models using granular materials,
filling height and rate will affect the density of the layers and, thus,
the friction angles. Other uncertainties relate to ambient laboratory
and storage conditions of the material used. Humidity may affect
the cohesion of a granular material considerably and, hence, the ge-
ometry of structures in the model. Water content in clay models
also has a significant influence on the resulting geometry.
Boundary conditions of strike-slip models are not always fully de-
scribed. For example, in many studies, whether models were confined
by walls on all sides or only parallel to the strike-slip component of
deformation is not clear. Details on base and sidewall friction are gen-
erally lacking as well. Hence, direct comparisons of experimental
strike-slip studies from different modelling laboratories can generally
be done only qualitatively.
3. Riedel experiment—structures in an overburden above a single
planar and vertical basement fault reactivated in pure strike slip
The first experimental studies investigating strike-slip tectonics
simulate the transfer of deformation from a reactivated, straight,
and vertical basement fault into an overlying, initially undeformed
overburden (Cloos, 1928; Riedel, 1929). Although H. Cloos (1928)
was the first to describe this type of experiment in some detail, it
has become known as the Riedel experiment (Tchalenko, 1970). In
the classical experimental setup, two adjoining rigid baseplates simu-
late a vertical basement fault, with one of the baseplates undergoing a
horizontal movement parallel to the discontinuity (Fig. 1). The over-
burden with a free surface rests horizontally on these baseplates. In
the Riedel experiment, faults in the overburden are, in fact, secondary
structures generally directly rooting down to the preexisting base-
ment fault and restricted to its immediate vicinity.
The Riedel experiment has been performed by a large number of
modellers, albeit with differences in type of analogue material used
to represent the overburden. Most experimental studies use only
one type of analogue material, either clay (Atmaoui et al., 2006;
Cloos, 1928, 1955; Lazarte and Bray, 1996; Riedel, 1929; Soula,
1984; Tchalenko, 1970; Wilcox et al., 1973) or dry sand (Burbidge
and Braun, 1998; Emmons, 1969; Le Guerroué and Cobbold, 2006;
Cover
Basement
fault
Fig. 1. Simplified sketch of the Riedel experiment setup with vertical basement fault
and overlying horizontal cover. One table half is displaced horizontally.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Naylor et al., 1986; Richard, 1990; Richard et al., 1989, 1995; Schöpfer
and Steyrer, 2001; Viola et al., 2004). Other studies use alternating
horizontal layers of either different granular materials (Richard et
al., 1989) or combinations of granular materials and viscous materials
(Casas et al., 2001; Richard et al., 1989). In our assessment of the clas-
sical Riedel experiment, we have chosen key experimental studies
(Tchalenko, 1970—clay models; Naylor et al., 1986—sand models)
that provide information on the materials used and give a compre-
hensive description of the evolution of structures. We compare and
complement their descriptions with results from other relevant ex-
perimental studies that yield additional information.
3.1. Riedel experiments with wet clay
Descriptions of Riedel experiments performed with clay are based
on observations of the upper surface of the model and are thus es-
sentially two dimensional. Tchalenko (1970) performed Riedel exper-
iments using clay (kaolin) with a water content of 56% and an
internal friction angle of about 23°.
In this model the first shears to appear were en echelon, synthetic
Riedel shears, referred to as R shears, striking at approximately 12° to
the basement-fault trace (angle α, Fig. 2). With increasing displace-
ment, the R shears propagated along strike and swung into an orien-
tation that was more parallel to the basement-fault trace. More or less
coeval, new synthetic shears striking at somewhat lower angles
appeared first and then synthetic shears, referred to as P shears, that
crossed the basement fault in the opposite direction with strikes of
around 10° (α = − 10°). With further displacement, these shears
linked with the R shears into a synthetic principal displacement
zone that consisted of an anastomosing array of shear lenses, with
most displacement taken up by a central through-going shear parallel
to the strike of the basement fault. This central shear zone was re-
ferred to as a Y shear by Morgenstern and Tchalenko (1967).
In experiments with wet clay at lower water content, antithetic
Riedel shears (referred to as R′ shears) striking at approximately
80° formed nearly coevally with the R shears during the early stages
of deformation (Fig. 3). Because of their large angle to the shear
Fig. 2. Fault evolution in a clay cake Riedel experiment. D = horizontal displacement of one base plate.
Redrawn from Tchalenko (1970), with permission of the Geological Society of America.
7
direction, the R′ shears rapidly became inactive and were rotated
counterclockwise. These R′ shears are considered to be the conjugates
of the synthetic R shears, a supposition that is borne out by consider-
ing the Coulomb failure criterion that applies to most clays. The orien-
tation of potential failure surfaces is at 45° − φ/2 to σ1. At the surface,
σ1 is at 45° to the shear direction, and potential shears will strike at
angles of φ/2 and 90° − φ/2 to the basement fault—i.e. at about 12°
(R shears) and 78° (R′ shears). Later shears, such as P shears, form
in response to a local increase and rotation of the principal stresses
between the first-formed faults.
In contrast to those by Tchalenko (1970), clay-cake experiments
by H. Cloos (1928), Riedel (1929), and Wilcox et al. (1973) show ev-
idence of the development of tension fractures during initial stages of
the Riedel experiment, in addition to formation of R and R′ shears.
The fractures form parallel to σ1 and rotate towards steeper angles,
with increasing displacement along the basement fault. Tension frac-
tures formed only when the clay model was sprayed with water prior
to the onset of shearing, reducing the surface tension and resulting in
the tensional strength being lower than the shear strength, thus
permitting the development of tension fractures (Riedel, 1929;
Tchalenko, 1970). H. Cloos (1928), Riedel (1929), and Wilcox et al.
(1973) also documented the formation of en echelon folds in their
experiments. These wrench folds had low amplitude and formed ap-
proximately perpendicular to σ1. As displacement along the base-
ment fault increased, the folds rotated towards shallower angles
with respect to the basement fault and were cut by tension fractures
and shear fractures.
The width of the strike-slip deformation zone and the number, na-
ture, and spatial distribution of shear fractures within the deforma-
tion zone are strongly dependent on the thickness of the clay slab
and the shear strength of the clay slab (Atmaoui et al., 2006;
Tchalenko, 1970). At a constant clay-slab thickness, a higher shear
strength results in a wider strike-slip deformation zone, more abun-
dant R′ shears, less frequent R shears with larger spacing, and an ear-
lier appearance of shears at the surface (Atmaoui et al., 2006). In very
thin clay slabs, R′ shears were absent (Atmaoui et al., 2006). For a
given shear strength, the width of the strike-slip deformation zone
8 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 3. Comparison of structures in a Riedel experiment using clay with different water contents. (a) Kaolin, 56% water content; (b) kaolin, unspecified water content, but lower than
in a, between 45 and 54%. Note that the R′ shears obtain a slightly sigmoidal shape as central segments rotate counter-clockwise with increasing displacement along the basement
fault.
Redrawn from Tchalenko (1970), with permission of the Geological Society of America.

increases, and the number of R shears decreases proportionally as the
thickness of the clay slab increases (Atmaoui et al., 2006). In addition,
the first R shears appeared on the surface after more displacement
and overlapped more as the slab thickness increased (Atmaoui
et al., 2006).
Using silt-rich clay, Atmaoui et al. (2006) described the formation
of pull-apart structures in a simple Riedel experiment. In their expe-
riments, en echelon R shears striking at angles of 8° to 23° to the
trace of the basement fault accommodated most of the initial defor-
mation in the clay model. Subsequently, synthetic shear fractures
striking roughly parallel to the basement fault formed preferentially
at the tips of these R shears. Strike-slip motion on these faults pulled
apart the surface of the clay along the original R shears, forming de-
pressions (Fig. 4). In contrast to the descriptions of Atmaoui et al.
(2006), the development of pull-apart structures (see Section 5) has
not been described from other Riedel experiments. Clays show a
wide range of behaviour, and because the physical and mechanical
parameters of clays are rarely specified, the reason for the tensile
opening across the R shears is not well understood. Atmaoui et al.
(2006) suggested that differences in clay-size fraction, nature of the
minerals, and deformation rate might be responsible. Tchalenko
(1970), for example, used kaolinitic clay with a clay fraction of
more than 95%, whereas Atmaoui et al. (2006) used silt-rich clay,
with kaolinite and illite as clay minerals, and quartz in the silt fraction
making up 30% of the material.
3.2. Riedel experiments with dry sand
Although clay models have helped improve our understanding of
the surface evolution of shears in Riedel experiments, models
consisting of granular materials have provided more details on the
3-D geometry of shears in strike-slip zones owing to the ability of
the models to be wetted and sectioned after the end of the experi-
ment. Naylor et al. (1986) presented a detailed analysis of the
evolution of an experimental strike-slip zone that formed in a homo-
geneous sand pack above a straight and vertical basement fault. The
dry sand in their models was deposited from an overhead hopper
and had a grain size of between 150 and 300 μm and an angle of in-
ternal friction of about 35° to 40°.
Fig. 5 shows the typical surface evolution of a deforming sand pack
at different stages of horizontal displacement along the underlying
basement fault from Naylor et al. (1986). The first structures to ap-
pear at the surface were partly overlapping, en echelon R shears strik-
ing at around 17° to 20° to the trace of the basement fault (Fig. 5a).
With increasing displacement, short-lived splay faults formed at or
near the tips of the R shears (Fig. 5b). Subsequently, lower-angle syn-
thetic shears, with a surface strike of less than 17°, developed from
the tips of R shears or between two overlapping R shears (Fig. 5c).
The P shears had the same sense of displacement as did the R shears
and lower-angle synthetic shears but crossed the trace of the base-
ment fault in the opposite direction at a low angle (Fig. 5c,d). Linkage

Fig. 4. Pull-apart structures in a clay cake Riedel experiment.

Redrawn from Atmaoui et al. (2006), with permission of Springer Science + Business Media.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 9

Fig. 5. Fault evolution in a Riedel experiment using dry sand.

Redrawn from Naylor et al. (1986), with permission of Elsevier.

of portions of all these shears resulted in the formation of a
through-going, anastomosing fault zone, whose overall strike was
parallel to the basement fault (Fig. 5d,e).
During initial shearing of the sand, σ1 at the free surface is orient-
ed at 45° to the imposed shear direction. As in the clay models, initial
shears formed according to the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion, with
faults oriented at 45° − φ/2 to σ1, and the surface strike of the first R
shears will make an angle of φ/2 to the strike of the basement fault
(Fig. 6a). Antithetic shears (R′ shears) striking at 90° − φ/2 rarely
formed in these sand models. Once the en echelon, partly overlapping
R shears formed, the orientations of later-formed faults reflect a mod-
ification to the initial stress field. Naylor et al. (1986) noted that on
the releasing side of the tip of an R shear, the local maximum princi-
pal stress at the surface will be oriented at about 45° to the strike of
the R shears, i.e., at 45° + φ/2 to the basement fault, and, thus, new
synthetic strike-slip faults will strike at higher angles than the early
R shears (Fig. 6b). The orientation of these splay faults made them in-
efficient in accommodating strike-slip displacements, and they were
thus short lived. On the restraining side of the tip of an R shear,
where there is overlap with an adjacent en echelon R shear, the
local maximum principal stress will be rotated towards the strike of
the R shears, and, consequently, new synthetic shears between two
overlapping shears will strike at lower angles than approximately
17° to 20° (i.e., lower-angle R shears) and may even cross the
basement-fault trace in the opposite direction (P-shears, at a surface
strike of 15°; Fig. 6c). Note that all strike orientations are valid only
at the surface. As we will see later, shear stresses at depth result in
a complex 3-D geometry of the shears, with strike orientations,
dips, and lengths of individual shears changing with depth.
In these granular models, the 3-D geometry of early R shears was
reconstructed either by cutting closely spaced sections of the model
after impregnation (Naylor et al., 1986) or by X-ray-computed to-
mography images (Richard et al., 1995; Ueta et al., 2000; Fig. 7). At
the surface R shears are arranged in an en echelon pattern, whereas
at depth they must root into the basement fault. Each R shear thus
has a helicoidal geometry (Fig. 7b)—i.e. they change their dip direc-
tion along strike, with the switch occurring at its midpoint above
the trace of the basement fault (Naylor et al., 1986). The strike-slip
component along R shears diminishes towards their lateral ends,
and at the fault tips they have a small reverse offset. Uplift occurs in
the region between two adjacent and overlapping R shears. Cross sec-
tions, perpendicular to the strike of the basement fault (Fig. 7c) and
through overlapping R shears, show concave-upward R shears di-
verging from the basement to form a tulip structure, with the shears
becoming vertical near the surface (Naylor et al., 1986; Richard et al.,
1995; Ueta et al., 2000).
The helicoidal geometry of the early-formed R shears is attributed
to the shear stresses induced in the overburden by movement along
the basement fault (Mandl, 1988; Naylor et al., 1986). Shear stresses
not only occur at the basement–overburden contact, but also parallel
10 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 6. Mechanical basis for the observed strike-slip fault pattern in Riedel experiments
using dry sand. (a) R and R′ shears form at ±(45° − φ/2) to σ1, with φ the angle of in-
ternal friction. Note that R′ shears are rare in the Riedel experiments. (b) Reorientation
of stresses at the tip of R shears, showing orientations of potential secondary faults.
(c) Reorientation of stresses occurs between two R shears, generating lower-angle R
shears or P shears.
Redrawn from Naylor et al. (1986), with permission of Elsevier.
to the projection of the basement fault in the overburden (Fig. 8).
With increasing distance from the basement fault, the shear stresses
in horizontal sections of the overburden decrease both vertically
and horizontally and become zero at the free upper surface (Naylor
et al., 1986). As a consequence, principal stress directions change
their orientations (Fig. 8), and slip along the potential synthetic
shear planes will result in a synthetic strike-slip fault merging with
the basement fault at depth, to produce a helicoidal shape (Naylor
et al., 1986). The potential R′ shears (not shown in Fig. 8) cannot com-
bine into faults that merge with the basement fault. This inability may
explain their general absence in the classical Riedel experiment with
a single basement fault (Mandl, 1988).
Le Guerroué and Cobbold (2006) investigated the effects of
synkinematic erosion and sedimentation on fault shape during strike-
slip deformation of a sand pack. In experiments with synkinematic sed-
imentation, fault splays with gentle dips tended to die out at depth,
whereas steeper fault segments penetrated higher in the sand pack,
resulting in a steeper average fault dip during progressive strike-slip de-
formation. This steepening produced flower structures that narrowed
up the section. In contrast, experiments with synkinematic erosion pro-
duced broad flower structures bounded by faults that were less steep
and that accumulated more reverse slip than in equivalent experiments
without erosion or sedimentation.
3.3. Comparison of wet-clay and dry-sand models
Riedel experiments performed with granular materials such as sand
show less variability in structural style than clay models. In clay exper-
iments, faults, tension fractures, pull-apart structures, and folds have all
been described in the published literature, although not all of these
structures necessarily formed in one and the same model. In sand
experiments, only faults develop, except for the region in between
closely overlapping en echelon R shears, where local uplift may produce
antiformal structures trending parallel to the strike of the shears. In the
absence of any degree of shortening across the basement fault, these
uplifted regions, or positive flower structures, are accommodated by di-
lation of the sand pack (see Le Guerroué and Cobbold, 2006, for a more
detailed discussion of dilation in sand packs).
Fig. 9 shows a schematic summary of the main structures that
form during two stages of progressive dextral displacement above a
basement fault in wet clay and dry sand. The initial geometry of the
structures can be deduced from the orientation of the principal stress-
es and the orientation of the incremental strain ellipse at the onset of
deformation. The hinges of the folds in clay models form approxi-
mately perpendicular to the short axis of the incremental strain ellip-
se. Tension fractures form perpendicular to the orientation of the
minimum principal stress direction, whereas R and R′ shears form
at angles of 45° − φ/2 to the maximum principal stress. In sand
models, R′ shears are generally absent during the early stages of de-
formation, whereas in clay models, R′ shears may form nearly simul-
taneously with R shears when the water content is low and the clay
adheres better to the underlying basement. Folds, tension fractures,
and R′ shears make a large angle with the strike of the basement
fault and will rotate clockwise as material lines during progressive
displacement along the basement fault. New Y and P shears will
also form and localise deformation along the anastomosing principal
displacement zone parallel to the basement fault.
The en echelon arrangement of R shears and folds in Riedel exper-
iments can be used as shear sense criteria to deduce the overall
movement sense along the basement fault. Left-stepping R shears
and right-stepping fold hinges in the overburden are indicative of
dextral displacement along the underlying basement fault (Fig. 10),
whereas right-stepping R shears and left-stepping fold hinges indi-
cate sinistral displacement.
Fig. 11 shows a comparison of the surface evolution in Riedel ex-
periments with sand and clay at similar stages of displacement along
the basement fault. Note the difference in scale between the two ex-
periments. The most salient points are that fewer shears form in
sand models and that individual shears in sand are longer and wider
and show more displacement than in clay models. The difference in
the width of individual shears (not shown in Fig. 11) is related to the
difference in grain size and the associated difference in dilatancy. In
sand models, shears form at lower displacement along the basement
fault than in clay models—i.e., clay undergoes more diffuse deforma-
tion before strain is localised. The width of the strike-slip deformation
zones in map view depends on the thickness of the overburden for
both sand and clay models and, in the case of clay models, also on
water content. For both modelling materials, the angle of internal fric-
tion controls the orientation of the early-formed faults. An increase in
the angle of internal friction, results in a larger angle that the early R
shears make with the strike of the basement fault. The initial orienta-
tion of early R shears will also affect the overall 3-D geometry of the R
shears because of their helicoidal shape and because they merge with
the basement fault. In sand models, the dip of the R shears at the sur-
face will tend to decrease when the initial R shears strike at higher an-
gles to the basement fault (Ueta et al., 2000).
The primary advantage of sand models is that the 3-D geometry of
structures can be more easily reconstructed than in clay models
where, in general, only the surface evolution is documented in pub-
lished studies. In addition, the degree of reproducibility in experi-
mental programmes is greater in sand models owing to the nature
of the modelling materials.
3.4. Riedel experiments with nonuniform mechanical stratigraphies
In the previously described Riedel experiments, the overburden
was either clay or dry sand with uniform mechanical properties.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 11

Fig. 7. Geometry of early R shears in Riedel experiments using dry sand. R shears are en echelon at the surface and root into the basement fault at depth. (a) Three-dimensional
geometry of R shears in dextral Riedel experiment illustrated by X-ray computer tomography images. R shears have lower density as surrounding sand and are expressed as
dark zones. (b) Helicoidal shape of en echelon and partly overlapping R shears in dextral Riedel experiment; “+” indicates uplift between R shears. (c) Schematic diagram of
three-dimensional kinematic evolution of R shears after 6- (left) and 12-mm (right) displacements of one base plate resulting in sinistral shear.
a is reproduced from Richard et al. (1995), with permission of the Geological Society of London. b is redrawn from Mandl (1988). c is redrawn from Ueta et al. (2000), with per-
mission of Elsevier.

Several studies have tested the influence of a mechanically stratified
overburden on the resulting structures by using interlayered sands
and viscous materials (Casas et al., 2001; Dauteuil and Mart, 1998;
Richard et al., 1989) or paraffin wax and silicone grease (Odonne
and Vialon, 1983) or by interlayering a thin plastic film with a clay
slab (Wilcox et al., 1973).
In the experiments by Wilcox et al. (1973), the presence of an ini-
tially horizontal, thin, plastic film within the clay resulted in the en-
hanced development of en echelon wrench folds originating at
about 45° to the basement fault. Fold size and spacing increased
with an increase in the depth to this detachment. With increasing dis-
placement along the basement fault, the folds rotated towards the
trace of the basement fault and were cut by synthetic and antithetic
shears. The presence of this upper-level detachment resulted in a
broader deformation zone and more closely spaced faults as displace-
ment increased.
Odonne and Vialon (1983) used horizontal sheets of paraffin wax
separated by silicone grease coatings in a Riedel experiment. These
coatings simulated thinner weak layers and allowed bedding-plane
slip. During displacement along the basement fault, folds formed
with axial trends of about 45° to the trace of the basement fault.
With increasing displacement, the fold axes rotated differentially
within a horizontal plane and acquired a curved shape in map view.
Away from the basement fault, the fold traces were close to 40 to
45°, whereas above the basement fault, they became parallel to the
trace of the basement fault. The curved shape of the fold traces can
be used as a kinematic indicator, with an S shape indicating sinistral
displacement along the basement fault and a Z shape indicating dex-
tral displacement. Although folds are initially upright, they become
progressively inclined away from the trace of the basement fault
(Fig. 12).
Casas et al. (2001) demonstrated that a dual-layer model
consisting of a 1-cm-thick silicone layer overlain by a 2-cm sand
pack and deformed under pure strike-slip kinematics resulted in
fault orientations similar to those seen in classical Riedel experi-
ments. R shears formed at about 15° to the bulk shear direction,
and Y-type faults formed subparallel to the bulk shear direction.
Richard et al. (1991) performed Riedel experiments using a multilay-
er model consisting of a vertical succession of alternating silicone and
sand layers, detached on a basal silicone layer. In their sinistral exper-
iments, both faults and folds formed. The thickness of the basal sili-
cone layer exerted major control on the structures that formed in
the multilayered overburden. A thin basal silicone layer (2 mm)
resulted in synthetic R shears with a surface strike of about 10° to
15° to the trace of the basement fault. Folds are absent at the surface,
but millimetre-scale en echelon folds were visible just above the
basement fault in cross sections. In experiments with a thicker basal
silicone layer (4 and 6 mm), both en echelon R shears striking at
10° to 15° and en echelon folds trending at 45° formed. Increasing si-
nistral displacement along the basement fault caused progressive
counterclockwise rotation of both faults and folds, with synclines be-
coming tighter and reactivated as dextral antithetic shear zones.
12 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 8. Qualitative model of principal stress directions (heavy lines) and associated R shears (orange planes), with slip synthetic with movement on basement fault. Direction of
shear stresses on overburden base and vertical extension of basement fault are given by closed arrows.
Slightly modified and redrawn from Mandl (1988).
Richard et al. (1991) found that an increase in the thickness of the
basal viscous layer resulted in larger fold amplitudes. The width of
the folded zone narrowed downward, and folds become nearly paral-
lel to the basement fault. Mechanically stratified overburdens clearly
play a strong role in the structural styles developed in the overburden
above a basement strike-slip fault.
3.5. Variations on the Riedel experiment
The classical Riedel experiments described earlier involved hori-
zontal movement, or pure strike-slip motion, along a single vertical
basement fault to investigate the structures that form in the overlying
overburden. Several workers have investigated variations on the
Riedel experiment, such as transpression along a vertical basement
fault (Naylor et al., 1986; Richard and Cobbold, 1990), transtension
along a vertical basement fault (Naylor et al., 1986), oblique-slip
faulting along a dipping basement fault (Richard et al., 1995), and
pure strike slip along two parallel vertical basement faults (Richard
et al., 1995; Schellart and Nieuwland, 2003).
3.5.1. Transpression and transtension above a vertical basement fault
Using a modified experimental setup, Naylor et al. (1986) applied
nonuniform horizontal stress states to a sand pack prior to strike-slip
deformation above a vertical basement fault. Maximum horizontal
stress was applied either parallel or perpendicular to the basement
fault, and these nonuniform stress states can be equated, according
to Naylor et al. (1986), to transtension and transpression, respective-
ly. In the transtension experiment, the strike-slip deformation zone
was narrow and simple, with the surface strike of the synthetic shears
at a lower angle to the basement fault than in the classical Riedel ex-
periment with uniform horizontal stress conditions (Fig. 13a–b). Be-
cause the first-formed faults were nearly parallel to the basement
fault, a through-going fault zone developed at very small displace-
ments. The synthetic shears had steep dips, larger than 70°, and
were generally straight in cross section. In the transpression experi-
ment, the strike-slip deformation zone was wider and more complex,
with the synthetic shears striking at higher angles with respect to the
basement fault (Fig. 13b–c). Some of the early synthetic shears termi-
nated as reverse faults subparallel to the basement fault. With in-
creasing displacement along the basement fault, lower angle
synthetic shears formed in between the early overlapping synthetic
shears. In sections, fault dips varied considerably, from 25° near the
base of the sand pack to 40° to 90° at the surface. Consequently, the
helicoidal nature of the shears was more pronounced than in a pure
strike-slip Riedel experiment.
Richard and Cobbold (1990) modelled transpressional deforma-
tion by combining movement along a single, vertical, strike-slip base-
ment fault with transverse shortening. By keeping the strike-slip
velocity fixed and by varying the shortening velocity from one exper-
iment to another, they could vary the angle of obliquity (between
~ 11° and 27°). Model stratigraphy was varied from a homogeneous
5-cm-thick sand pack to a dual-layer model composed of a
4-cm-thick sand pack overlying a 1-cm-thick silicone layer (viscosity
of 10 5 Pa·s). In both brittle and brittle–ductile models, positive flow-
er structures formed. In sand-only models, most faults rooted into the
basement fault, possessed oblique-slip kinematics, showed little var-
iation in surface strike, and generally had a convex-upward shape. In
contrast, in dual-layer models, most faults were offset from the base-
ment fault at the sand–silicone interface. The structure consisted of
pure strike-slip faults that trended obliquely to the basement fault
and pure thrust faults parallel to it. These experiments suggest that
partitioning of fault motion is favoured by the presence of a viscous
layer at depth, which reduces the amount of basal drag transmitted
to the overlying sand pack (Richard and Cobbold, 1990).
3.5.2. Oblique-slip faulting
Richard et al. (1995) presented experiments in which the two
baseplates were separated by two hinged plates dipping at 45°
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 9. Schematic sketch diagram of structures forming in the Riedel experiment at two
stages of progressive dextral shear deformation for clay model and sand model. The
upper diagram shows incremental strain axes and orientation of maximum and mini-
mum compressive principal stress axes at the onset of deformation (left) and strain el-
lipse at a later increment of progressive dextral shear deformation. Early structures
that make a large angle with shear direction rotate clockwise during progressive shear.
(Fig. 14a). One half moved horizontally and vertically past the other,
and in this way, oblique-slip faulting above a 45° dipping basement
fault could be investigated. By varying the ratio of strike-slip to
dip-slip movement and relative displacements along the basement
fault, they were able to investigate how compressional and exten-
sional oblique slip is transferred into an overburden consisting of
dry sand. Fig. 14 shows the surface views of oblique-slip experiments,
in which the strike-slip component is more important than the
dip-slip component.
In compressional oblique-slip experiments, faults in the over-
burden formed mainly above the footwall block, resulting in an
R shear
Trend of
basement fault
Fold
Trend of
basement fault
Fig. 10. En echelon structures in Riedel experiments. Left-stepping R shears and
right-stepping fold hinges in the overburden indicate dextral displacement along the
basement fault.
13
asymmetric fault pattern with respect to the trace of the underlying
basement fault (Fig. 14b). The fault pattern consisted of left-
stepping en echelon faults in the overburden that all displayed a
reverse oblique-slip component of slip. Close to the trace of the base-
ment fault, these faults accommodated more strike slip, whereas far-
ther away from the basement fault, they accommodated more reverse
slip, indicating partitioning of displacement. In extensional oblique-
slip experiments, the fault pattern was relatively symmetrical with
respect to the trace of the basement fault, and there is little
partitioning of displacement (Fig. 14c). As in compressional oblique
slip, the faults were en echelon in pattern and accommodated an
oblique-slip component of movement.
3.5.3. Pure strike slip above two parallel, vertical basement faults
Richard et al. (1995) and Schellart and Nieuwland (2003) investi-
gated the fault pattern that forms in a dry-sand overburden above
two parallel basement faults. The fault pattern was controlled by
the ratio of basement-fault separation to overburden thickness.
When this ratio was small (0.25 or 0.5), a single fault zone developed
initially, consisting of long R shears with considerable overlap
(Fig. 15). With further displacement along the basement faults,
lower angle R shears, P shears, and R′ shears form in the zones of
overlap, resulting in complex 3-D fault geometries at depth
(Schellart and Nieuwland, 2003). When the ratio of basement-fault
separation:overburden thickness was large, two separate fault zones
formed at the surface (Fig. 15). Structures along the individual fault
zones were similar to those seen to form in models of deformation
above a single vertical basement fault.
3.5.4. Strike-slip deformation of a brittle–viscous model with isostatic
compensation
In the classical Riedel experiment, the flat, rigid surface underlying
the model prevents vertical motions in the model. In order to circum-
vent this restriction and to study strike-slip deformation of models
with free isostatic compensation, Dauteuil and Mart (1998) built a
multilayered model consisting of quartz sand on top of silicone
(viscosity of 4 × 10.4 Pa·s), above a low-viscosity layer of honey (vis-
cosity of 10 Pa·s). This low-viscosity layer allowed isostatic compen-
sation of the overlying two-layer model. Strike-slip deformation
resulted in Riedel shear formation, whose spacing depends on the
thickness of the brittle layer. Significant vertical motion occurred
along the Riedel shears, and they rotated with increasing shear
(clockwise for bulk sinistral shear). Elongated depressions formed in
the brittle overburden owing to extensional thinning above the
trace of the principal strike-slip fault. The underlying viscous layer
showed narrow zones of tight, parallel folds formed on top of elongat-
ed domes that underlay depressions in the brittle layer. Thus,
thinning of the brittle layer was associated with doming of the under-
lying viscous layer and could explain the anomalously high heat flow
associated with many strike-slip zones (Dauteuil and Mart, 1998).
4. Distributed strike-slip shear experiments
Strike-slip deformation of the continental lithosphere is generally
not confined to narrow linear belts, but distributed over broad zones
up to several hundred kilometres across. In these zones, faulting in
the upper continental crust is thought to be controlled by distributed
flow of the underlying ductile parts of the lithosphere. Examples of
distributed strike-slip shear zones are the San Andreas fault system,
the Alpine fault system in New Zealand, and the Dead Sea Fault sys-
tem. These fault systems show a complex fault pattern dominated
by major synthetic strike-slip faults, which are mutually subparallel,
although short, antithetic faults often striking at large angles to the
major faults are a common feature in these systems. Palaeomagnetic,
geodetic, seismic, and field studies indicate that rotation of upper
crustal fragments about vertical axes is a common feature of active
14 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Dry sand experiment Wet clay experiment

D = 2.10 cm 100 mm D = 1.95 cm 10 mm

D = 2.80 cm D = 2.72 cm

D = 3.50 cm D = 3.60 cm

Fig. 11. Comparison of dry sand experiment and wet clay experiment at similar stages of displacement (D) along a basement fault in a Riedel experiment. Note the difference in
scale.
The dry sand experiment is redrawn from Naylor et al. (1986), with permission of Elsevier; the mirror image of the wet-clay experiment is redrawn from Tchalenko (1970), with
permission of the Geological Society of America.

strike-slip zones, particularly in areas in which deformation is distrib-
uted over a wide zone (e.g., McKenzie and Jackson, 1983). It is evident
that such block rotations require a horizontal decoupling at depth.
Fig. 12. Cross sections of paraffin wax layer model deformed in a Riedel experiment.
Silicone grease coatings simulating thinner, weaker layers are placed between the
wax layers. Fold axes have rotated differentially and have become curved. The
S-shaped fold trace indicates sinistral displacement along the basement fault. Note
that axial surfaces are vertical above the basement fault and become inclined moving
away from the trace of the basement fault.
Redrawn from Odonne and Vialon (1983), with permission of Elsevier.
4.1. Structures in zones of distributed strike-slip shear
So that fault development and interaction in wide zones of distrib-
uted strike-slip deformation might be better understood, several ex-
perimental setups and analogue materials have been used. Naylor
(in Mandl, 1988) placed a rubber or foam plastic sheet over a single
vertical basement fault and investigated surface deformation in an
overlying sand pack (Fig. 16). Whether the lateral boundaries in
these experiments were confined remains unclear. In contrast to the
surface-fault pattern in traditional Riedel experiments, Naylor (in
Mandl, 1988) observed that R shears were much longer and
overlapped over considerable length. Arrays of short, antithetic
shears formed, most of which are confined between R shears
(Fig. 16). Naylor (in Mandl, 1988) observed two distinct types of an-
tithetic shears: those that appeared almost simultaneously with the R
shears and can be considered conjugates and those that formed later
and were spatially confined to the blocks between the R shears. These
faults formed in response to a modified stress field, in which σ1 rotat-
ed into an orientation that was more parallel to the strike of the
early-formed R shears.
Schreurs (1994, 2003) used a different approach to investigate the
complex fault evolution in zones of distributed strike-slip shear, and
especially fault development and interaction. The experimental
setup consisted of two baseplates overlain by an assemblage of 50
stacked 5-mm-wide Plexiglas bars (Fig. 17). If one of the baseplates
was displaced, the initial rectangular configuration would change
into a parallelogram. The Plexiglas bars were overlain by a
5-mm-thick layer of viscous PDMS, with layers of dry quartz sand
and glass powder sieved on top to produce a horizontal stratified
model. The granular materials had an average grain size of about
100 μm and an angle of internal friction of 36° and 37°, respectively
(Panien et al., 2006). The viscous layer represents a detachment
level in the middle to lower crust or a weak sedimentary layer at
the basin scale. This experimental setup with the PDMS layer at the
base of the model produced distributed strike-slip shear in the over-
lying granular materials.
The surface evolution of a dextral distributed-shear experiment is
shown in Fig. 18a–e and in the supplementary file of Fig. 18f.
Left-stepping R shears formed initially with a surface strike of approx-
imately 17° to 24° to the shear direction (Fig. 18). R′ shears that
formed nearly simultaneously in the acute corners, striking at about
72° to 78°, were considered an edge effect due to scissoring of the
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 15

Fig. 13. Fault pattern in three experiments showing how surface strike of early synthetic strike-slip faults varies with initial stress conditions. Typical cross sections for each of the
three stress states are shown next to the surface views. (a) Nonuniform stress state with maximum horizontal stress parallel to the basement fault—“transtension”; (b) isotropic
horizontal stresses—Riedel experiment; (c) nonuniform stress state with maximum horizontal stress perpendicular to basement fault—“transpression”.
The fault pattern is redrawn from photographs from Naylor et al. (1986). Cross sections for the three states are redrawn from Naylor et al. (1986), with permission of Elsevier.

deforming model. As distributed shear increased, push-up zones de-
veloped between adjacent left-stepping R shears, with the long axis
parallel to the strike of the R shears. The vertical R shears propagated
along strike, and, as they overlapped with adjacent R shears, they ac-
quired gentler dips at their lateral tips. The dip direction of individual
R shears changed along strike, and the footwall became the hanging
wall, with a small reverse offset at each fault tip. Coalescence of R
shears occurred in two ways: (1) individual fault segments of closely
spaced, left-stepping R shears propagated along strike and, as they
overlapped, their surface strike decreased and they linked up, and
(2) short, synthetic strike-slip faults formed in the overlap area be-
tween two adjacent left-stepping R shears. The surface strike of
these short faults was at a lower angle than the older R shears, and
they are referred to as lower angle synthetic shears (RL; Fig. 18).
Coalescence of en echelon R shears resulted in the formation of a
slightly anastomosing shear zone with an overall strike angle of
about 15° that is referred to as the master fault (Fig. 18d). Develop-
ment of a master fault is illustrated in Fig. 19. Initial R shears formed
in response to the regional stress field, whereas the lower angle syn-
thetic shears between overlapping R shears resulted from local stress
modifications. In these distributed-shear experiments, several master
faults formed subparallel to one another. These long-lived master
faults accommodated most of the displacement. With continued de-
formation, two new types of faults formed, mostly confined between
master faults: (1) antithetic strike-slip faults striking at angles lower
than R′ shears (lower-angle antithetic shears or cross faults; R′L in
Fig. 18d–e) and (2) dextral strike-slip faults (lower-angle synthetic
shears; RL in Fig. 18d–e), with strike angles lower than the older R
shears.
With increasing shear, secondary faults formed with progressively
lower angles with respect to the shear direction (Fig. 20). During the
final stage of the experiment, new cross faults formed, with strike an-
gles of less than 50°, whereas new lower-angle synthetic faults were
subparallel to, or slightly counterclockwise to, the shear direction.
Vertical cross sections show the steeply dipping shears extending
down to the top of the silicone layer (Fig. 21a,e). The horizontal slice
near the base of the model clearly shows anastomosing synthetic
master faults (R) and both the secondary antithetic cross faults (R′L)
and lower-angle synthetic faults (RL) confined between the master
faults (Fig. 21b). Perspective views illustrate push-up zones in
areas of overlapping en echelon R shears (arrows in Fig. 21c and
Fig. 21e,f - Supplementary video files). The push-up zone indicated
by the right white arrow in Fig. 21c was later transected by a younger
RL shear. The fault planes bounding the push-up zones typically
steepen downward and have a small reverse component of slip.
(Fig. 21d).
Fig. 22 shows a synoptic map view and interpretation of the fault
pattern observed in distributed shear experiments documented in
Schreurs (2003). The lower-angle R′L and RL shears confined between
master faults are the result of the rotation of σ1 into a direction that
gradually becomes more parallel to the earlier formed, but still active,
master faults. Although cross faults (R′L) and master faults were
active coevally, they do not form a conjugate pair. Where cross
faults abutted master faults, cross faults sometimes initiated on the
16 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 14. Oblique-slip experiments along dipping basement fault. (a) Experimental
apparatus. (b) Fault patterns formed in the overburden above a reverse basement
fault dipping at 45°. (c) Fault patterns formed in the overburden above a normal base-
ment fault dipping at 45°. SS/DS = ratio of strike-slip to dip-slip movement.
Redrawn from Richard et al. (1995), with permission of the Geological Society of
London.
opposite side of the master fault. However, continued displacement
on the master fault immediately offset the cross fault. Therefore,
cross faults (e.g., B in Fig. 21b) formed later than master faults (A in
Fig. 21b), although both fault sets were subsequently active coevally.
In contrast to the experiments of Schreurs (2003), in which a set
of parallel, synthetic master faults accommodates most of the
distributed-shear deformation of a rectangular model, experiments
by Gapais et al. (1991) show that R′ shear arrays (striking at about
75° to the shear direction) dominated during the early stages of de-
formation (Fig. 23). This difference is attributed to the specific bound-
ary conditions used in the experiments of Gapais et al. (1991). In
these models the sand pack had an initially square shape and loads
were transmitted from the sides. Thus, distributed strike-slip shear
deformation of an initially rectangular sand pack (with the long di-
mension parallel to the shear direction) produces dominantly R
shears, whereas an initially square sand pack tends to produce dom-
inantly R′ shears. Despite the difference in the initial fault pattern,
both sets of experiments illustrate some similarities. In both types
of experiments, early faults were long lived and controlled the forma-
tion of younger faults. Once master faults have formed, whether they
are synthetic shears (Schreurs, 2003) or antithetic shears (Gapais
et al., 1991), the intervening blocks were subjected to changes in
principal stress orientations, with σ1 rotating into a direction parallel
to the direction of the master faults. These stress-field modifications
result in new synthetic and antithetic faults that mostly terminate
against the older and long-lived master faults.
Clay-cake shear experiments with different initial geometries also
suggest that model shape has a profound influence on the resulting
fault pattern. Although both R and R′ shears developed at the earliest
stages of deformation (An, 1998; An and Sammis, 1996; Cloos, 1955;
Freund, 1974; Hoeppener et al., 1969), one of the sets of shears gen-
erally started to dominate with increasing deformation. R′ shears
dominated in a clay cake deformed on a square deformation table
(Hoeppener et al., 1969), whereas R shears dominated in a clay
model overlying a rectangular stack of parallel-arranged Plexiglas
bars (Freund, 1974).
4.2. Distributed strike-slip shear and block rotations
Schreurs (1994, 2003) also performed distributed strike-slip ex-
periments in which the transverse boundaries of the model remained
unconfined, allowing material to move sideways during shear
(Fig. 24). This setup resulted in a fault evolution that is markedly dif-
ferent from the one in experiments with confined transverse bound-
aries. Initial R shears had angles of between 28° and 35° to the
direction of the applied bulk shear (Fig. 24). Sinistral strike-slip faults
appeared almost at the same time and strike at about 70° (antithetic
Riedel shears, R′). With increasing bulk shear, older R shears
remained active, and some of them propagated along the entire
length of the model. At the same time, new faults formed that were
mostly restricted to areas located between the major, subparallel R
shears (master faults). These younger faults included evenly spaced
R′L shears (cross faults) striking at 60° to 65° and RL shears. Cross
faults rotated with increasing strain, propagated laterally, and ac-
quired a sigmoidal Z shape in plan view (Fig. 24). They had a small
dip-slip component, and the sense of fault dip changed along strike.
Strike-slip displacement along these cross faults was minor compared
with that along the master faults, and they usually merged with or
terminated against master faults. Transtensional grabens developed
near the unconfined transverse borders. As shear was progressively
increased, the arrays of cross faults and intervening unfaulted do-
mains underwent significant clockwise rotation about vertical axes.
At the end of deformation (γ = 0.57), the central segments of sigmoi-
dal cross faults had strikes at right angles to the shear direction, with
recorded rotations of up to 30°.
The presence or absence of transverse model boundaries in these
experiments clearly has a large influence on fault evolution. The
main differences between confined and unconfined experiments
are: (1) the surface strike of early R shears in unconfined models
(28°–35°) are at larger angles than in confined models (15°–25°),
(2) well-developed push-up zones between overlapping R shears
developed only in confined experiments, (3) in map view cross faults
(R′L) are sigmoidal in unconfined and approximately rectilinear in
confined experiments, (4) closely spaced arrays of cross faults be-
tween master faults formed only in unconfined experiments, and
(5) considerable rotation of R′L faults and blocks between master
faults took place only in unconfined models. Block rotations of
upper crustal fragments about vertical axes are a common feature of
active distributed strike-slip zones, e.g. in the San Andreas fault sys-
tem (Nicholson et al., 1986), suggesting that – by analogy with the
unconfined experiments – lateral movement of material parallel to
major, bounding, strike-slip faults commonly occurs in nature.
Rotation of cross faults and blocks between master faults in
unconfined experiments is clearly related to the lateral displacement
of material parallel to the shear zone. The sense of rotation of cross
faults is clockwise for bulk dextral shear. The sigmoidal Z shape of
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 17

Fig. 15. Faulting in an overburden above two parallel basement faults. (a) Experimental set-up. (b–f) Fault pattern at different ratios of S/T (ratio of basement fault separation to
overburden thickness). (b) Line drawing from surface photograph. (c) Corresponding horizontal X-ray CT slice at depth showing R shears and P shear. (d, f) Surface photographs of
fault pattern at S/T ratios of 0.5 and 2.0, respectively. (e) Schematic block diagram illustrating three-dimensional geometry of R shears above a double basement fault.
a and b are redrawn from Schellart and Nieuwland (2003). c is reproduced from Schellart and Nieuwland (2003) and d–f are reproduced from Richard et al. (1995) with permission
of the Geological Society of London. Note that d and f are mirror images of original figures.

cross faults in dextral bulk shear is considered to reflect two effects:
(1) cross faults propagate laterally and new segments start to form
at angles of about 50° to 60° with respect to the imposed bulk shear
direction (in response to the change in the stress field), whereas the
older fault blocks rotate passively, and (2) simultaneous movement
along cross faults and master faults caused local wedging of material
near their intersection in a direction opposite that of fault rotation.
Rotation about vertical axes of antithetic faults and unfaulted blocks
in between creates space problems that were accommodated locally
by relative vertical movements. Indeed, the sigmoidal cross faults
showed a component of dip slip, which became more pronounced
with increasing shear. The dip direction changes along strike of the
fault and is diametrically opposite at either tip of the fault. In the
central segment of the fault, the dip-slip component was zero, thus
defining a scissor fault. From the experimental evidence it is inferred
that the dip-slip component and the change in dip direction along
strike are due to the rotation of cross faults, in combination with
the possibility of the material to be displaced sideways because of
the unconfined transverse borders.
4.3. A comparison between Riedel experiments and distributed strike-slip
shear experiments
In Riedel experiments with a uniform overburden consisting of
dry sand, the initial orientation of R shears, their shape, their en ech-
elon pattern, and their subsequent linkage by lower-angle synthetic
18 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 16. (a) Riedel experimental set-up modified to obtain a wide basement shear zone.
Horizontal shear displacement along basement fault is distributed over a broad zone in
the cover by partly gluing a rubber sheet to each half of the shear table. (b) Fault pat-
tern in 10-cm-thick sand pack after 15-cm horizontal displacement distributed over
30-cm-wide shear zone.
b is redrawn from Naylor, private communication in Mandl (1988).
shears are similar to the one observed in distributed-shear experi-
ments with granular materials presented herein. However, important
differences in fault evolution, related to distinct boundary conditions,
become prominent with increasing shear. In Riedel experiments,
Fig. 17. Experimental set-up for distributed shear. (a) Perspective drawing of experimental apparatus and undeformed stratified model. Transverse boundaries consisting of rubber
sheets in confined experiments are not shown. (b) Section of undeformed model. (c) Base of experimental apparatus in undeformed state. (d) Base of experimental apparatus after
dextral movement of one of the base plates. The two base plates are overlain by 50 plexiglass bars stacked like cards that are longitudinally confined by vertical walls and
transversally confined by pivoting bars.
Experimental set-up is from Schreurs (2003).
orientation of the final anastomosing principal displacement zone is
parallel to the basement fault, and the active fault zone narrows
with increasing shear, with displacement concentrating on the cen-
tral through-going faults (Naylor et al., 1986; Richard and Krantz,
1991; Richard et al., 1995). In contrast, in the distributed-shear ex-
periments, anastomosing synthetic fault zones strike at about 10° to
15° to the shear direction, and the zone of active faulting widens
with increasing shear. Lower-angle antithetic shears are typically
lacking in Riedel experiments at advanced stages of shear. Their ab-
sence is related to the presence of the basement fault that is approx-
imately parallel to the potential orientation of lower-angle RL shears.
Thus, once overlapping R shears have formed in Riedel experiments,
development of Y shears – parallel to the basement fault – is favoured
over the potential shear plane of an R′L shear. In contrast, in
distributed-shear experiments, both RL and R′L shears developed at
advanced stages of shear, although R′L shears are inefficient at accom-
modating significant displacement. The RL shears in distributed-shear
experiments form at progressively lower angles with increasing
shearing but do not necessarily strike parallel to the orientation of Y
shears seen in Riedel experiments.
4.4. Structural criteria to identify distributed strike-slip shear zones
Analogue modelling can be used as an aid in the interpretation of
fault patterns in distributed strike-slip shear zones. The following
structural criteria are proposed for identifying such zones in nature
on the basis of the experimental results in Schreurs (2003): (1) the
presence of several parallel and overlapping major strike-slip faults
(master faults); (2) younger and shorter strike-slip faults (including
cross faults) that generally form after and between master faults;
(3) the sense of movement along cross faults that is opposite to dis-
placement along master faults—i.e., cross faults are antithetic and
master faults synthetic with respect to the bulk shear direction;
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 19

Fig. 18. (a–e) Sequential development of faulting at five sequential stages of distributed strike-slip shear shown by surface photographs (left column) and line drawings after pho-
tographs (right columns). Grid size is 4 × 4 cm and consists of coloured blue sand sprinkled on the free surface of the model. R = synthetic Riedel shear, R′ = antithetic Riedel shear,
RL = lower angle synthetic shear, R′L = lower angle antithetic shear (cross fault). (f) Supplementary movie illustrating the progressive development of faulting in progressive dis-
tributed strike-slip shear deformation. Movie made from 13 surface photographs.
a–e are slightly modified from Schreurs (2003), and reproduced with permission of the Geological Society of London.

(4) strike-slip displacement along cross faults that is small compared cross faults; (6) the orientation of cross faults (in map view) that is
with displacement along master faults; (5) the fact that master faults generally not in the “conjugate” position with respect to synthetic
are long lived and mostly arrest or offset the lateral propagation of master faults; (7) antithetic and synthetic faults being subvertical;
20 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 19. Development of a master fault from initially left-stepping R shears in a dextral
distributed strike-slip shear experiment. The upper inset shows initial orientation of
σ1, and the lower inset shows the reorientation of σ1 between overlapping R shears
producing RL shears. Thin lines are markers, thick lines are faults.
Slightly modified and redrawn from Schreurs (2003).
(8) local wedging of material near the intersection of cross faults and
master faults that may induce short faults (either antithetic or syn-
thetic) near their mutual intersection, or alternatively, local wedging
that may produce areas of positive and negative relief near the inter-
section of cross faults and master faults; (9) the traces of cross faults
that can be straight or sigmoidal; sigmoidal cross faults that may
have a dip-slip component and a change in dip direction along strike;
(10) the presence of sigmoidal cross faults, suggesting fault-bounded
block rotations between master faults; the curvature of sigmoidal
cross faults, indicating the sense of rotation—Z for clockwise and S
Fig. 20. Plot showing surface strike of newly formed faults with increasing, distributed
strike-slip shear. Surface strike is given with respect to bulk shear direction. Notation as
in Fig. 18.
Redrawn from Schreurs (2003).
for counterclockwise rotation; and (11) significant rotation of cross
faults between master faults that occurs only in experiments with
unconfined transverse borders, suggesting that fault and block rota-
tions in distributed strike-slip shear zones in nature might be restrict-
ed to areas where displacement of material away from the master
faults is possible.
4.5. Distributed transpression and transtension
In contrast to most previous experimental studies in which
oblique deformation was simulated by a movement along a single
basement strike-slip fault combined with a transverse displacement
of the longitudinal sidewalls of the models (e.g., Richard and
Cobbold, 1990), an experimental setup in which the shear component
of oblique deformation was distributed at the base of the model over
its entire width was used by Schreurs and Colletta (1998, 2003;
Fig. 25). The stratigraphy of the models consisted of a basal PDMS
layer (5 mm) and a 3-cm-thick, stratified, sand-glass powder cake.
This distributed strike-slip shear movement was combined with ei-
ther transverse shortening or transverse extension to simulate dis-
tributed transpression and transtension. The transtensional setup
involves a modification at the base of the model, where an assem-
blage of foam and Plexiglas bars was first shortened by 2 cm through
transverse movement of the longitudinal walls before the model
was constructed on top. The boundary conditions for the two
transpressional experiments shown are identical, except for the ve-
locity of the baseplate, which induced the dextral shear component
of transpression. This parameter was varied to investigate its influ-
ence on fault development and interaction in the brittle layers.
4.5.1. Distributed transpression
In the first transpression experiment (exp. 1661; Fig. 26 including
supplementary video files 26g–j) the angle of obliquity to the bulk
shear component was approximately 7°. Two separate zones of dex-
tral strike-slip faults formed initially in the brittle layers (Fig. 26a,
b): (1) subvertical (dipping at 80–90°) and (2) en echelon and left
stepping. Individual fault segments had angles between 24° and 30°
with respect to the longitudinal borders. Domains of positive vertical
relief were created in areas where two adjacent left-stepping faults
overlap. With increasing deformation, individual fault segments
propagated laterally with different strike orientations and dips. They
acquired a slight sigmoidal trace (Z shaped; Fig. 26c) and small re-
verse offsets, with the dip direction changing along strike: for exam-
ple, the hanging wall of fault X in section A became the footwall in
section C (Fig. 26d), a characteristic of so-called scissor faults
(Naylor et al., 1986). As documented in the previous section,
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 21

Fig. 21. Fault evolution in dextral distributed strike-slip shear experiment. For notation see Fig. 18. (a) Vertical sections at a shear strain (γ) of 0.37. Location of sections shown in
Fig. 18d. (b) Horizontal slice 7 mm above the base of model at γ = 0.6. Outline of slice shown in Fig. 18e. For A and B in b, see text. (c, d) 3-D-perspective view with push-up zones
indicated by black arrows in c. (e–f) Supplementary movies. (e) Movie illustrating the geometry of faults by a series of serial vertical sections at the final stage of distributed
strike-slip shear at γ = 0.6. (f) Movie of rotating 3-D-perspective view of strike-slip fault zones. Area of 3-D CT analysis indicated in Fig. 18e.
The figure is slightly modified from Schreurs (2003).

sigmoidal traces can be used as kinematic indicators—i.e., a “lazy” Z
shape for dextral shear component and a “lazy” S shape for the sinistral
shear component of transpression (see also Mandl, 1988; Richard et al.,
1995). With increasing shear, lower-angle dextral faults striking at 15°
to 0° (RL in Fig. 26e) formed in the overlap area between adjacent
left-stepping faults and linked with older faults to produce an overall
fault pattern dominated by major anastomosing, dextral strike-slip
fault zones. Between these fault zones, several sinistral faults striking
at high angles of 65° to 70° developed (R′L in Fig. 26e). These second-
ary, antithetic faults accommodated only minor displacement and
were generally confined between older, major, dextral fault zones.
As deformation increased, transpression was absorbed across several
steeply dipping oblique-slip fault zones, with an overall surface
strike of about 15°. These fault zones are similar to positive flower
structures and are characteristic of convergent strike-slip fault zones.
The strike-slip component along the oblique-slip faults dominates
over the reverse dip-slip component owing to the small amount of
bulk shortening imposed across the model. In plan view, the dominant
offset of the faults is dextral, but in vertical sections they display a small
reverse dip-slip component. Younger, lower-angle dextral faults (RL)
branch at depth with older faults (Fig. 26). Reverse faults that formed
during the later stages of deformation near the acute borders of the
sheared sand pack are boundary effects caused by “scissoring” of the
model (Fig. 26e).
In the second transpression experiment (exp. 1764; Fig. 27 includ-
ing supplementary video files 27g–j), the angle of obliquity was about
15°. As in the first experiment, the first-formed faults were synthetic
dextral strike-slip faults (Fig. 27a,b). The faults were again arranged
in an en echelon pattern and are left stepping, but their surface strikes
were at a higher angle to the shear direction (between 28° and 37°)
than in the previous experiment. With increasing deformation, uplift
occurred between overlapping strike-slip faults, and the faults them-
selves obtained a reverse component of slip. Gently dipping reverse
faults (30° to 50°; e.g., fault Q in Fig. 27c–f), formed in the centre of
the model between steep, dextral, convergent fault zones. These
faults are interpreted to be a result of local stress-field changes,
where the maximum compressive stress was reoriented subparallel
to the older strike-slip fault zones and the intermediate principal
stress axis switched locally from vertical to horizontal.
In these transpression experiments where the angle of oblique
convergence is low, the first-formed faults were pure strike-slip
faults. Schreurs and Colletta (1998, 2003) found that with an angle
of obliquity exceeding 18°, pure thrust faults formed. Once the first
major faults formed, the sand-glass powder cake consists of compe-
tent unfaulted material and incompetent dilatant fault zones that
have undergone strain softening. Additional deformation was then
mostly taken up by oblique slip along favourably oriented, preexisting
faults.
Similar to that of simple Riedel-type experiments, the en echelon
arrangement of the early strike-slip faults can be used as a kinematic
indicator—i.e., a left-stepping pattern indicates dextral transpression,
whereas a right-stepping pattern indicates sinistral transpression.
22 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 22. Interpretation of fault pattern in dextral distributed shear. (a) First-order R and
R′ shears result from the bulk stress field. R′ shears shown formed at lower angles, but
have rotated clockwise. (b) R′L shears (cross faults) and RL shears form at later stages
between earlier formed master faults owing to local, counter-clockwise rotations of
σ1. (c) Local wedging of material may cause short synthetic or antithetic faults (not
shown in a) near the intersection of cross fault and master fault.
Redrawn from Schreurs (2003).
Secondary faults that formed in between earlier-formed major shear
zones reflect local stress-field modifications that differ from those of
the far-field stress system. Gently dipping reverse faults, striking
obliquely to the previously formed strike-slip faults (exp. 1764) indi-
cate that the maximum principal stress direction was locally
reoriented subparallel to the major strike-slip fault zones and that
the intermediate principal stress flipped from vertical to horizontal.
4.5.2. Distributed transtension
In the early stages of the distributed dextral transtension experi-
ment, en echelon, left-stepping strike-slip faults once again accom-
modated initial deformation in the overburden (Fig. 28a). Initial
fault dips vary between 80° and 90° (Fig. 28b). The surface strike of
the early faults (6°–11°) was lower than the strike of early R shears
in the pure strike-slip distributed shear experiments, because of the
divergent component of the deformation field, that caused σ1 to be
oriented at an angle less than 45° to the shear direction (Fig. 28a–
b). Antithetic, sinistral strike-slip faults developed between some of
the major dextral strike-slip fault zones (Fig. 28b–c). The surface
strike of newly developed antithetic faults diminished with increas-
ing deformation from 55° to 36° owing to local stress-field modifica-
tions. Normal faults (dipping 60°–70°) formed, trending parallel to
the strike-slip faults with either no discernible or limited horizontal
offset (Fig. 28b–c and Fig. 28h - Supplementary video file). They
Fig. 23. Line drawings after surface photographs showing the influence of model shape
on fault pattern. (a) Dominantly antithetic faults in initially square model. The drawing
is a mirror image of the original illustration to facilitate comparison with the dextral
distributed shear experiment of (b), which shows dominantly synthetic faults in ini-
tially rectangular model.
a is redrawn from Gapais et al. (1991), with permission of Elsevier.
developed as a result of partitioning of fault displacement involving
local changes in the orientation of the maximum compressive stress
axis from horizontal for strike-slip faulting to vertical for normal
faulting (Fig. 28g).
A comparison of the surface strike of early strike-slip faults in dis-
tributed experiments with identical analogue materials and thick-
nesses is shown in Fig. 29. At low angles of negative and positive
obliquity, strike-slip faults accommodated early deformation and
demonstrated an increasing obliquity to the direction of the hori-
zontal shear component as the angle of obliquity increased. At higher
angles of positive obliquity in transpression (β > 18°), initial deforma-
tion was accommodated by thrusts striking parallel to the longitudi-
nal walls, and increasing shear led to a fault pattern dominated by
oblique-slip reverse faults (Schreurs and Colletta, 1998, 2003).
5. Analogue modelling of pull-apart basins
The previous sections focused primarily on physical models of
regional-scale, strike-slip fault-zone evolution under pure strike slip,
transpression, and transtension. In this section, we focus on the
modelling of secondary structures associated with segmented
strike-slip master faults under pure strike slip and transtension. In na-
ture, strike-slip faults form linear and continuous fault systems but
are typically segmented, resulting in localised extension/transtension
or contraction/transpression as displacement along the boundary
fault system is transferred across a variety of discontinuities or steps
(Fig. 30a; see Cunningham and Mann, 2007; Mann, 2007; Mann
et al., 1983; Sylvester, 1988 for a full discussion). Bends or sidesteps
(jogs) in the main strike-slip fault system (principal displacement
zone or PDZ) characteristically produce zones of localised extension
(pull-apart basins), where the sense of step of the fault system is
the same as the sense of slip on the PDZ, or regions of compressional
deformation (popups or restraining stepover), where the sense of
step is opposite the sense of slip on the PDZ (Fig. 30b). Mann et al.
(1983) attributed the term pull-apart basin to this quote from
Burchfiel and Stewart (1966) in their landmark paper on the genesis
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 23

Fig. 24. (a–c) Fault evolution at successive stages of distributed strike-slip shear model, in which transverse boundaries of the model remained unconfined. Thin lines are markers,
thick lines are synthetic faults, stippled lines are antithetic faults, and tick marks indicate a normal component of slip. (d) Surface photograph showing sigmoidal cross faults be-
tween master faults, with “lazy” Z shape indicating dextral bulk shear.
a–c are slightly modified and redrawn from Schreurs (2003). Reproduced with permission of the Geological Society of London.

of the Death Valley basin: “We suggest that the central part of Death
Valley is related to tension along a segment of a strike-slip fault that is
slightly oblique to the main trend of the fault zone. If this idea is cor-
rect, the two sides of Death Valley have been pulled apart and a gra-
ben produced between them.” Although the pull-apart origin of the
entire Death Valley region has been called into question (see
Norton, 2011, for a full discussion) the term pull-apart basin is a
well-used and -understood term for strike-slip basins (Mann et al.,
1983).
Numerous basins, more than 160 around the globe, have been at-
tributed to strike-slip motion across segmented systems, and the
reader is referred to Mann (2007) for a comprehensive review of
these basins. Releasing stepovers typically produces rhombic-
shaped basins in the upper crust (e.g., Aydin and Nur, 1985;
Ben-Avraham et al., 1979; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Crowell,
1974; Mann et al., 1983; Roussos and Triantafyllos, 1991; Shedlock
et al., 1990; Sylvester, 1988; Tjia and Liew, 1996). Mann et al.
(1983), and later expanded on by Mann (2007), proposed the contin-
uum model of pull-apart-basin development and evolution (Fig. 31a–
d), which built on previous workers such as Aydin and Nur (1982),
Freund (1974), Koide and Bhattacharsj (1977), and Rodgers (1980).
In this model, offset-fault segments begin to interact as they propa-
gate toward one another, forming a spindle-shaped basin (Fig. 31a).
As the master strike-slip faults continue to propagate, they overlap,
producing basins with lengthening and gradually changing geome-
tries, from lazy-Z-shaped basins to rhomboid-shaped basins
(Fig. 31b–c). Major extension in the lengthening basin can lead to ex-
treme crustal thinning and the formation of a spreading ridge (e.g.,
Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California, Mann et al., 1983).
Early models for the formation of pull-apart basins were primarily
geometric and two-dimensional. In the 1980s physical modellers
turned their attention to detailed investigations of the structures
that form in these jogs along segmented strike-slip fault systems
using a modified Riedel shear box that facilitated the insertion of
stepped basement faults (e.g., Larter and Allison, 1983; Fig. 32a).
Since then physical models have greatly advanced our understanding
of pull-apart-basin genesis and evolution using models in clay (e.g.,
Atmaoui et al., 2006; Hempton and Neher, 1986; Mitra and Paul,
2011; Raynaud, 1987; Soula, 1984), in sand (e.g., Dooley and
McClay, 1997; Dooley et al., 1999; Faugère et al., 1986; McClay and
Dooley, 1995; Rahe et al., 1998; Richard et al., 1995), and in mechan-
ically layered systems (brittle–ductile; e.g., Basile and Brun, 1999;
Dooley, 1994; Dooley et al., 2004, 2007; Mitra and Paul, 2011; Sims
et al., 1999; Smit et al., 2008a,b; Wu et al., 2009) using deformation
rigs with the same basic design (Fig. 32a,b). Offset, rigid metal or plas-
tic plates are placed within the deformation rig, and the plates are
displaced horizontally to generate local extension across the offset
zone and strike-slip deformation above the parallel master-fault seg-
ments (Fig. 32a). Displacement of the plates can be symmetric (e.g.,
Dooley and McClay, 1997), asymmetric with only one plate being
moved (e.g., Faugère et al., 1986), or a combination of the two (e.g.,
Rahe et al., 1998). The sharp pull-apart or rhomb-graben model of
Crowell (1974), combined with elastic dislocation models by
Rodgers (1980) and the continuum model of pull-apart basin forma-
tion put forward by Mann et al. (1983) provided important geometric
guidelines for the modelling of pull-apart basins (Fig. 32c). As we will
see later, the angle of offset that joins the offset master faults in these
rigid-baseplate models (A, Fig. 32) controls the amount of underlap
(U) or overlap (O), and this angle has a fundamental control on the
resultant pull-apart-basin geometry. Another primary control on
basin geometry is separation of master-fault segments (S in Fig. 32),
which has implications for the length:width ratio of the basins (e.g.,
24 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

a Distributed transpression of three models documented in Dooley (1994) and Dooley and
McClay (1997) illustrate the basic geometries of pull-apart basins as
the offset master-fault segments changed from an underlapping to
ll an overlapping array (see Fig. 32c). These models were all run with
l wa
t ica a 10-cm brittle overburden of layered silica sands above baseplates
er
a l v 0 cm with 10-cm separation between the master faults and with a total
din 7
itu Pivoting bar, providing of 10-cm combined dextral displacement (see Fig. 32c). Above
ng underlapping master-fault arrays (A b 90°), the basin displayed a
Lo transverse confinement
of plexiglass bars spindle shape and was bounded by gently curving oblique-
Longitudinal confinement extensional fault zones that linked across the offset to form the
of plexiglass bars
26 cm basin sidewalls (Fig. 33). These sidewall–fault systems link with the
Quartz sand PDZs that formed above the master-fault segments (Figs. 33, 34a,
Moving base plate Fixed base plate Glass powder 36a). The physical model illustrated in Fig. 37a was also run with an
Plexiglass bar PDMS underlapping master-fault array, but with a modified baseplate de-
sign that included a stretching rubber sheet to distribute extension
across the offset master faults and a thinner, 7.5-cm-thick overburden
b 70 cm C (see Wu et al., 2009, for baseplate design). Gross basin geometry was
A A A A nearly identical, but the basin floor was cut by numerous faults and
by a prominent cross-basin fault system that was active from the
26 cm

early stages in the model run (Fig. 37c—Supplementary movie).

Above a 90° or transverse offset (low overlap, low underlap, or neu-
tral) a lazy-Z-shaped basin formed, bounded by kinked sidewall–
B B B B
C fault systems that form the outer boundaries of the pull-apart basin
(Figs. 33, 34b, 36b). Above highly overlapping master faults, basins
with elongate rhomb- or box-shaped graben geometries that were
c Distributed transtension bounded by highly kinked sidewall–fault systems formed (Figs. 33,
34c, 36c).
al
l Irrespective of the master-fault array, all basin floors were cut by a
alw cross-basin fault that linked the offset PDZs (Figs. 33, 34, 36). These
tic
er cross-basin faults (CBFs) commonly localised intrabasin subsidence
alv cm
d in 70 and may separate depocenters within the pull-apart basin (Dooley
tu
n gi Pivoting bar, providing
and McClay, 1997; Figs. 33–37). In the case of the highly overlapping
Lo transverse confinement
of bars model, the CBF and associated high-angle extensional faults formed a
Longitudinal confinement secondary pull-apart structure within the main basin (Figs. 33, 36c).
of bars In cross section, the pull-apart structures displayed symmetric
26 cm box-graben geometries within the centre of the basin, narrowing
foam bar along strike to form V-shaped grabens and negative flower structures
Moving base plate Fixed base plate
plexiglass bar at the margins of the basin (Figs. 35, 37a). The centres of the basins
foam bar plexiglass bar are deep, with up to 5 to 6 cm of subsidence, and the boundary faults
are steep, with dips of up to 75° (Fig. 35; Dooley and McClay, 1997).
d 70 cm
Basin-fill sediments define synclinal geometries in horizontal sec-
B B tions, reflecting the flat-bottomed nature of the pull-apart structure
B B (Fig. 36). Breached relay ramps observed in horizontal sections reflect
C the consolidation and linkage of the basin sidewall–fault zones as dis-
26 cm

C placement on the master-fault segments increases (Figs. 34 and 36).

A A A A
Fig. 25. Experimental set-up for distributed transpression and transtension experiments.
Transverse borders of the multilayer model consisting of rubber sheets not shown. Dia-
grams at bottom show plan view of base of experimental apparatus. Longitudinal vertical
sidewalls (C) overlie the plexiglass bars in the transpression experiment. Transverse
movement of one of these walls induced either shortening (for transpression experiment)
or extension (for transtension experiment). The basal assemblage of the transtension
set-up consists of alternating plexiglass and foam bars that are compressed by the longitu-
dinal walls prior to construction of the overlying model.
Aydin and Nur, 1982; Katzman et al., 1995; Mann, 2007; Mann et al.,
1983; Rodgers, 1980).
5.1. Pure strike slip
5.1.1. Single-layer models
Final overhead views (Fig. 33), evolution line drawings (Fig. 34),
cross sections (Fig. 35), and horizontal sections (Fig. 36) from a series
Line drawings of the final geometries of pull-apart-basin models
presented in Richard et al. (1995) also demonstrate the changing ge-
ometries of the basins, depending on the degree of underlap or over-
lap of the master-fault segments (Fig. 38). In these models, separation
between the master fault segments was twice that of the overburden
thickness (Fig. 38). Richard et al. (1995) found that an increase in
master-fault separation of greater than 2.5 times the overburden
thickness resulted in a basin with an axis that faithfully reflected
that of the underlying basement-fault geometry (Fig. 39). Similarly,
for thinner overburdens, the shape of the pull-apart basin more faith-
fully reflects the geometry of the underlying baseplates (see figures
3–6 of Faugère et al., 1986, and figure 3 of Sims et al., 1999). In the
7.5-cm-thick model shown in Fig. 37, the basin sidewall faults are
closer to being parallel to the basement offset than the sidewall faults
in the 10-cm-thick model (shown in Fig. 33). Rahe et al. (1998)
modelled pull-apart basins with underlapping master-fault geome-
tries (A = 40°; their figure 2) and symmetric and asymmetric offset
on the basal plates. Models run with dominant motion on one of the
plates produced asymmetric pull-apart structures defined by a half
graben, with the master basin sidewall fault on the more mobile
side (Figs. 40 and 41a). Cross sections of the symmetric pull-apart
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 25

α γ = 0.14 & shortening 1.9 %

a γ = 0.14 & shortening 1.9 % b

R
R

0 5 cm

Steep, dominantly strike-slip fault

Oblique-slip reverse fault d Vertical sections

X

c γ = 0.28 & shortening 3.8 % ‚lazy‘ z-shaped sigmoidal fault (X)

X

X
RL

R’L R’

A B C D γ = 0.28 & shortening 3.8 %

f Vertical sections

e γ = 0.62 & shortening 8.5 %

Boundary effect

Boundary effect A B C D

γ = 0.62 & shortening 8.5 %

Fig. 26. Distributed transpression experiment, exp. 1661. (a) Surface photograph of early stage of transpression. (b, c, e) Fault evolution at three consecutive stages of transpression;
notation as in Fig. 18. The rectangle in e indicates area analysed by X-ray CT. (d, f) Vertical sections at two consecutive stages of transpression. (g–j) Supplementary movies.
(g) Movie illustrating progressive evolution of transpressional fault zones in plan view (exp. 1661). Note important boundary effects in acute corners due to scissoring effect. Rect-
angle in last frame indicates area of 3-D analysis by X-ray CT (27 × 23.8 cm). Initial grid spacing is 5 cm. (h) Movie of cross-sectional evolution of distributed transpression exper-
iment (exp. 1661). Location of X-ray CT slices A–D shown in first frame of movie in g. Initial width and height of model are 26 and 3.5 cm, respectively. (i) Movie illustrating the
geometry of transpressional fault zones by a series of sequential vertical X-ray CT slices. Each of the 135 frames represents a 2-mm-thick cross-sectional slice. (j) Movie showing
serial horizontal sections of transpressional fault zones (exp. 1661). First frame is near the base of brittle granular layers. Vertical distance between frames is 0.5 mm. Movie shows
66 frames at 3 frames per second.
a–f are from Schreurs and Colletta (2003).
26 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 27. Distributed transpression experiment, exp. 1764. (a, c, e) Fault evolution in surface view. (b, d) Vertical sections. (f) Surface view at final stage of transpression. The rect-
angle in e, f indicates area analysed by X-ray CT. (g–j) Supplementary movies. (g) Movie illustrating progressive development of structures in plan view (exp. 1764). The rectangle
in the last frame indicates the area of 3-D analysis by X-ray CT (27 × 23.2 cm). (h) Movie of cross-sectional evolution of exp. 1764. Note the lateral changes in fault dip along strike.
Initial width and height of model is 26 and 3.5 cm, respectively. (i) Movie illustrating fault geometry at the final stage of transpressional deformation by serial vertical sections (exp.
1764). Steep strike-slip faults branch at depth with oblique-slip thrust faults. Each of the 135 frames represents a 2-mm-thick cross-sectional CT slice. (j) Movie showing serial hor-
izontal sections of final deformation stage (exp. 1764). Note oblique thrust faults and associated vertical relief between major convergent strike-slip fault zones in upper part of
model. First frame is near the base of the brittle granular layers. Vertical distance between frames is 0.5 mm. The movie consists of 64 frames.
a–i are from Schreurs and Colletta (2003).

models of Rahe et al. (1998; Fig. 41b) show geometries similar
to those of the cross sections shown in Figs. 35 and 37a. Physical
models in Faugère et al. (1986) were also run with only one moving
baseplate and produced similar half-graben geometries in cross sec-
tion (Fig. 41c).
Despite the different master-fault configurations beneath the
models shown in Fig. 33, all of these pull-apart basins displayed a
similar evolutionary history. Basins initiated by the preferential for-
mation of strike- and oblique-slip fault segments above the offset
zone and their subsequent propagation and linkage with later faults
(Fig. 34). In 22 experiments in which the only variable was the base-
ment master-fault configuration, Dooley (1994) documented that the
first-formed faults in all his models were located above the basement
offset or bend zone with a small angular range (Table 3; Fig. 42). The
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 27

Fig. 28. Fault evolution in distributed transtension experiment. (a–c) Fault evolution at three successive stages. Fault pattern dominated by subparallel strike-slip faults and normal
faults. (d) Detail of stage shown in c. (e) Horizontal section of part of the interior of the model showing faults subparallel to longitudinal sidewalls. Relative position of horizontal
section indicated in sections F and G. (f) Vertical sections of stage shown in c. (g) Movie showing serial horizontal sections of final deformation stage of transtension experiment
(Supplementary file).
a–f are from Schreurs and Colletta (2003).

average angle of these first-formed faults with respect to the strike of
the linear master faults was just over 28°. The average maximum
angle of the first-formed faults above the PDZs was 16.3 for the initial
Riedel shears (R1) and 6.7° for lower-angle Riedel shears (R1′) that
formed in the stepover zones or bridges between the initial R1s.
These R1 and R1′ angles are consistent with the experimental results
of Naylor et al. (1986) for the deformation of a sand pack above a
linear strike-slip fault (see Fig. 5). In terms of kinematics, initial faults
above the offset or bends displayed dextral displacements (Fig. 42).
The preferential formation of these initial faults within the offset
zone is in good agreement with studies by Segall and Pollard (1980)
and Liu (1983), who demonstrated that crack formation and propaga-
tion are enhanced between releasing offsets. In addition, Rodgers
(1980) documented that at low strains, initial displacement on buried
28 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 29. Surface strike (angle α) of early faults in distributed shear and oblique defor-
mation experiments. β = angle of oblique deformation (+ for convergence).
master faults generated sigmoidal potential failure-plane form lines
that were synthetic strike-slip faults. Liu (1983), Rodgers (1980),
and Segall and Pollard (1980) also showed principal-stress axis rota-
tion into the offset zone, explaining the higher formation angle of
these initial structures. Note that the highly underlapping model
(A = 30°) displays a vertical component of slip after 1-cm displace-
ment on the master faults and develops basin sidewall–fault systems
early in the history of the pull-apart structure (Fig. 34a). This rapid
basin development can be attributed to the near-parallelism between
first-formed faults and the basement step or bend in this model, rap-
idly taking up extension as displacement was increased on the master
faults. Despite the presence of a stretching sheet at the base of the
sand pack in the model illustrated in Fig. 37, gross evolution was sim-
ilar to that of the models without stretching sheets (Figs. 33 and 34a).
The first-formed faults were left-stepping arrays above the offset zone
that rapidly linked to form basin sidewall–fault systems, with higher
angle R1 shears formed above the PDZs (Fig. 37c—Supplementary
movie). Rahe et al. (1998) documented similar evolutionary se-
quences during the early stages of pull-apart-basin formation,
although the extensional faults formed above the stepover at the
early stages in their models may have been enhanced by the greater
separation of the master faults with respect to overburden thickness
(see their Fig. 7).
The early-formed faults in the pull-apart models shown in Fig. 33
define releasing bend geometries and localised subsidence (Fig. 34).
This initial geometry is similar to that of the spindle-shaped basins
described in the continuum model of Mann (2007) and Mann et al.
(1983). As displacement on the master faults increased, these faults
linked across the offset zone to form the sidewall–fault systems to
the developing pull-apart structure (Fig. 34; Dooley and McClay,
1997). With 4- to 5-cm displacement, the pull-apart basin was well
defined, and further displacements on the master faults resulted in
lengthening of the basin in a direction parallel to the displacement
vector and hard linkage of the basin sidewall–fault system (Figs. 34,
36, 37c—Supplementary movie file). Cross-basin fault systems accom-
modate a limited amount of differential shear across the basin floor
and are characteristic features of all the models, regardless of the
master-fault configuration (Dooley, 1994; Figs. 33, 34, 37). Time-lapse
evolution of the model in Fig. 37 beautifully illustrates early formation
of the CBF that defined a releasing bend geometry across the basin
floor and linked the offset PDZs (Fig. 37c—Supplementary movie file).
Rahe et al. (1998) also documented CBFs in their pull-apart-basin
models (Fig. 40), as did Smit et al. (2008a) in their sand-only models
(see their figure 5). Dooley (1994) postulated that a rotational cou-
ple is generated in the upper levels of the sand pack, similar to the
couple that produced faults with strike-slip kinematics in the initial
stages of basin formation. Cross-basin fault zones form in response
to this couple, separating blocks with differing relative velocities.
At depth these CBFs became more difficult to discern because exten-
sion dominated directly above the rigid baseplates (Dooley, 1994).
Models with thin overburdens (e.g., figure 3 of Sims et al., 1999)
or those with large master-fault separation (Fig. 39; Richard et al.,
1995) are dominated by extensional faults within the basin and its
margins, which closely parallel the shape of the baseplates at depth. In
natural systems, CBFs may evolve into basin cutoff fault zones, such as
those described along the Haiyuan Fault, NW China, by Zhang et al.
(1989) and along the North Anatolian fault zone by Gürbüz and Gürer
(2009), whereas the rigid and nondynamic nature of the baseplates
used in these models precludes true cutoff.
Dooley (1994), Dooley and McClay (1997), Sims et al. (1999), and
Le Calvez and Vendeville (2002), among others, discussed the limita-
tions of the precut plate design for modelling strike-slip basins. The
primary problem with this experimental design is the rigidity of
these plates that forces the cover sediments to conform to the im-
posed geometry within the basement, resulting in faults that propa-
gate upwards from the velocity discontinuities rather than
along-strike propagation of strike-slip faults and their eventual inter-
action to form pull-apart structures. True asperity cutoff and basin
extinction (e.g., Gürbüz and Gürer, 2009; Wesnousky, 1988; Zhang
et al., 1989) cannot occur because the basement plates are nonde-
formable. The models are thus more applicable to a detached sedi-
mentary cover overlying a horizontal shear zone. This baseplate
control on the pull-apart geometry is stronger where the separation
between the master faults is large (Richard et al., 1995) or where
the overburden is thin (Faugère et al., 1986; Sims et al., 1999, their
figure 3) (Fig. 39). Despite these limitations, the close geometric sim-
ilarity between modelled pull-apart structures and some of their nat-
ural counterparts (Fig. 43) indicates their usefulness in generating
synoptic models for pull-apart formation and evolution (Dooley and
McClay, 1997).
5.1.2. Dual-layer models
Dual-layer pull-apart-basin models, whereby a ductile layer sepa-
rates rigid baseplates from the brittle overburden, were designed to
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 29

Fig. 30. (a) Schematic diagram illustrating variations in structural style along a strike-slip fault zone. (b) Releasing bend and stepover geometries.
a is modified from Christie-Blick and Biddle (1985).

alleviate some of the problems inherent in single-layer stratigraphy,
discussed above (Basile and Brun, 1999; Dooley, 1994; Sims et al.,
1999; see Le Calvez and Vendeville, 2002 for a full discussion). Al-
though the single-layer models described earlier may be more suit-
able for soft-sediment overburden overlying a rigid basement, in
nature, large-scale pull-apart basins are likely to detach at depth in
ductile lower crust. For instance, earthquake activity along the Dead
Sea transform system is concentrated within the various pull-apart
basins, with an average depth to foci of 6 to 12 km (e.g., van Eck
and Hofstetter, 1990) and a measured maximum depth of the basin

Fig. 31. Model for pull-apart basin nucleation as (a) a spindle-shaped pull-apart and growth through (b) lazy-Z, (c) rhomboidal, and (d) extreme pull-apart, with increased dis-
placement on the master fault system.
Modified from Mann et al. (1983) and Mann (2007).
30 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 32. Traditional deformation rig setup for (a) pull-apart basin. (b) Restraining stepover experiments. (c–d) Terminology for underlapping and overlapping master fault geom-
etries. Underlap (U) and overlap (O) are measured from fault tip to fault tip, parallel to the master fault strike. Separation (S) is measured orthogonal to the master fault trend.
b is modified from Dooley et al. (1999).

Fig. 33. Composite diagram illustrating pull-apart-basin geometries produced from underlapping, neutral, and overlapping master fault geometries.
Modified from Dooley (1994).
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 34. Line drawings of the evolution of the three experiments shown in Fig. 33.
Modified from Dooley (1994).
at 8.5 km (Smit et al., 2008a). In the southern San Andreas fault sys-
tem (San Andreas–Imperial–Cerro Prieto fault zone), average foci
depths are shallower, 4 to 6 km, reflecting the higher heat flow in
the Salton Sea (e.g., Brothers et al., 2009; Sanders and Kanamori,
1984). Although the introduction of a basal ductile layer alleviates
some of the problems inherent in single-layer models, Le Calvez and
Vendeville (2002) pointed out that the strain rates used in published
dual-layer models are higher, and, thus, the ductile layer, stronger
than in nature, so that localised strain might be transmitted from
the basement plates to the brittle layer.
Dooley (1994) carried out preliminary modelling of pull-apart-basin
formation in a dual-layer experiment consisting of a 1-cm-thick layer of
silicone (PDMS; see Section 2.4 for details) overlying a transverse offset
in the basement plates (Fig. 43; see Fig. 32a for the experimental setup).
The ductile layer was overlain by a 5-cm-thick layered sand pack de-
formed in a dextral manner with a displacement rate of 6 cm/h and a
master-fault separation of 8 cm. In the early stages of deformation, a
small sag that formed above the stepover region was the surface mani-
festation of bulk thinning across the stepover (Fig. 44a). This sag was ac-
companied by a broad zone of passive marker deformation, responding
to the distributed shear within the deep ductile unit. Minor uplift ob-
served above the surface trace of the buried master faults was attributed
to the upward propagation of Riedel shear arrays (Fig. 44a). As Riedel
shear arrays breached the surface, they rapidly propagated from one
31
master fault to the other across the stepover (Fig. 44b). As seen in the
sand models in Figs. 34 and 42 and in Table 4, these Riedel shear arrays
displayed formation angles that gradually rotated as they
approached the basement stepover, with a maximum angle of 28°
with respect to the master-fault strike observed in the stepover re-
gion. The Riedel arrays defined a releasing stepover geometry and
formed a narrow basin (Fig. 44b). At this stage small-displacement
normal faults that were subparallel to the transverse basement
step formed in response to the local extension generated across the
stepover (Fig. 44b). With increasing displacement, linkage occurred
along the PDZs to form through-going fault zones, and extensional
and oblique-slip faults gradually defined the basin sidewall–fault
systems (Fig. 44c–d). After a 5-cm combined displacement on the
master faults, the pull-apart basin possessed a rhombic geometry
and was flanked by inactive portions of the original releasing bend
fault array (Fig. 44e).
Dual-layer pull-apart-basin models documented in Basile and
Brun (1999) displayed similar geometries. Fig. 45 shows the early
stages of one of their models (Model PA-5; see their figure 2 and
table 1 for full details). As in the model in Fig. 44, their model starts
out with distributed simple shear across the offset zone, followed
by propagation of strike-slip faults in from the bordering PDZs
(Fig. 45a–b). Basile and Brun (1999) also observed that the angle
that these strike-slip faults make with respect to the master faults
32 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 35. Cross sections of pull-aparts produced by (a) underlapping, (b) neutral, and (c) overlapping master fault geometries.
Modified from Dooley (1994).

(~ 30°) was greater than expected for synthetic Riedel faults generat-
ed above a linear, and continuous, basement fault. As bulk displace-
ment increased, some of these modified R shears formed a releasing
bend across the basement offset, and through-going PDZs developed
above the master faults (Fig. 45c). Basile and Brun (1999) noted the
formation of R′ faults in fault-bounded lozenges along the PDZs
(Fig. 45c) similar to those seen in distributed shear experiments in
Figs. 18 and 22. They also attributed an R′ origin to a major extension-
al fault that had a trend of approximately 90° to the offset master
faults, However it is more likely that this fault developed as a purely
extensional structure owing to its parallelism with the basement off-
set and its location on the moving plate (Fig. 45c). Single-layer
models with one moving plate also showed this asymmetry
(Figs. 40 and 41a,c). In models with two moving plates, i.e., symmet-
ric displacements, Basile and Brun (1999) documented a central
spindle-shaped releasing bend system flanked by high-angle faults
that formed the outer basin sidewalls (Fig. 46). They also noted an in-
crease in higher-angle faults with an increase in bulk-displacement
rate, resulting in increased ductile-layer strength and, thus, coupling
between the baseplates and overburden.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 33

Fig. 36. Horizontal sections of pull-aparts formed above (a) underlapping, (b) neutral, and overlapping master fault geometries.
Modified from Dooley (1994).

Fig. 37. Overhead view (a), and cross sections (b) of a pull-apart-basin model generated above underlapping master faults. The basin narrows from a flat-bottomed graben to nar-
row, negative flower structures above the PDZs. A complex cross-basin fault system links the PDZs across the basin floor. Red and white sequences are syn- and postkinematic sed-
iments. (c) Time-lapse video showing evolution of this model (Supplementary file).
34 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 38. Line drawings of pull-apart-basin geometries generated above (a–b)
underlapping and (c) overlapping master fault geometries with constant separation
values.
Redrawn from Richard et al. (1995).
Sims et al. (1999) documented similar geometries and evolution-
ary histories of dual-layer pull-apart basins. Above a 1-cm-thick duc-
tile layer, their 5-cm-thick model developed a spindle-shaped basin
with a lower angle with respect to the PDZs, approximately 28°,
Fig. 39. Line drawings of pull-apart basins generated above master fault geometries
with A = 90° with S values of (a) 30 and (b) 10 cm. Note that with large separations,
the geometry of the basin faithfully reflects the underlying baseplate geometry.
Redrawn from Richard et al. (1995).
Fig. 40. Line drawings of a pull-apart basin generated during asymmetric offset along
the basal plate system. (a–b) The basin sidewall system on the left remains active
throughout the experiment, whereas the sidewall on the right becomes inactive as it
moves farther away from the offset zone.
Redrawn from Rahe et al. (1998).
than the basement offset (40°; see their Fig. 4). With a thinner ductile
layer, and, thus, more coupling between the basement and overbur-
den (cf. Le Calvez and Vendeville, 2002), the pull-apart geometry is
more directly controlled by the geometry of the basement stepover.
As seen in the previous section, the first-formed faults above the off-
set zone were dextral, with angles of approximately 30° to the buried
master PDZs (see figures 5 and 6 of Sims et al., 1999). A significant re-
duction in master-fault separation also resulted in development of a
basin with an axis that was highly oblique to the stepover geometry
(see figure 10 of Sims et al., 1999). Although the strain rate was
slower in this model, this result is similar to that of the single-layer
models of Richard et al. (1995) that investigated stepover magnitude
with respect to overburden thickness (see Fig. 39). Smit et al. (2008a)
also documented stronger coupling between the baseplate geometry
and the resultant stepover geometry, if step magnitude was large or
the basal ductile layer was thin. For small stepovers (a small S value;
Fig. 32) relative to overburden thickness, Smit et al. (2008a,b) devel-
oped pull-apart structures with a predominance of faults that
subparalleled the direction of plate movement, similar to that found
in the Dead Sea Basin (see figures 6, 8, and 10 of Smit et al., 2008a).
In their pure strike-slip control model, Wu et al. (2009) limited the
ductile basal detachment to the area immediately around the 30°
stepover (see their figure 2). Similar to the model illustrated in
Fig. 44, the Riedel shear arrays gradually increased their formation
angle as they propagated toward the stepover (see their figure 3).
The final geometry consisted of a central graben with an orientation
approximately 22° oblique to the master faults that was flanked by
oblique extensional faults that mark the outer limit of tectonic subsi-
dence (see figure 3 of Wu et al., 2009).
A recent study by Mitra and Paul (2011), using a dual-layer system
of strong and weak clays, describes pull-apart-basin geometries
above underlapping (A = 45°) and transverse bends and stepovers
(A = 90°, see their figure 2). In these clay models, the resultant
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 35

Table 3
Riedel shear formation angles above stepovers and above the main strike-slip master
faults in pull-apart-basin models. R1′ faults form between the initial Riedel shears.
Data from Dooley (1994).

Model # Offset Initial fault PDZ PDZ

angle angle above (max − R1) (°) (min − R1′)
(A) offset/bend (°)

W-45 30° 35 16 5
W-46 30° 30 18 5
W-41 45° 23 19 6
W-44 45° 33 11 2
W-40 60° 31 16 4
W-43 60° 28 16 11
W-39 75° 32 18 7
W-42 75° 28 19 6
W-38 90° 29 20 8
W-47 105° 23 14 10
W-49 120° 27 16 8
W-50 120° 27 16 8
W-53 135° 24 18 6
W-54 135° 24 17 10
W-51 150° 26 14 10
W-52 150° 26 15 8
W-57 Releasing bend 26 16 7
W-58 Releasing bend 32 18 7
W-59 Releasing bend 32 16 6
W-80 Releasing bend 32 18 3
W-81 Releasing bend 33 11 7
W-82 Releasing bend 28 16 4
Mean (°) 28.6 16.3 6.7

along the Eastern California shear zone (Dewey et al., 2008;

Monastero et al., 2005; Unruh et al., 2003), and the Sea of Marmara
composite pull-apart structure (Armijo et al., 2002).
Dooley et al. (2004, 2007) and Wu et al. (2009) used a modified
version of the traditional deformation apparatus to model trans-
tensional pull-apart systems. In this experimental setup the basement
plates were cut with a 5° obliquity to the direction of plate motion
(Fig. 47). Here we illustrate the basic geometries of transtensional

Fig. 41. Line drawings of cross sections from (a) asymmetric, and (b) symmetric,
pull-apart basin models. In the asymmetric model the basin has a half-graben geome-
try, whereas the symmetric model is comparable to models illustrated in Fig. 33.
(c) Similar half-graben geometries in asymmetric pull-apart models were documented
by Faugère et al. (1986).
Line drawings are from Rahe et al. (1998).

pull-apart basins more faithfully reflect the basal stepover geometry

than the brittle–ductile systems described earlier. The stronger cou-
pling between stepover and overburden in the study by Mitra
and Paul (2011) could be due to either the relatively thin overbur-
den with respect to master fault separation (overburden = 4.5 cm,
S = 6.5—according to their figure 4) or the mechanical properties
of the modelling materials (see Section 2.2).

5.2. Divergent strike slip

Most published physical models of pull-apart basins consider only

the case of PDZ-parallel plate motion. However, many natural basins
display a degree of divergence (transtension) across the boundary
fault systems owing to temporal variations in plate motion. One con-
sequence of divergent strike slip is that extension is promoted as a re-
sult of opening across weaker strike-slip faults, which in turn results
in a far wider zone of subsidence than in pure strike slip (e.g., ten Fig. 42. Line drawings of the first-formed faults in a model with (a) A=90° and (b) A=150°.
In both cases first-formed faults were preferentially developed above the offset zone with
Brink et al., 1996). Examples of transtensional pull-apart basins in- formation angles that were consistently higher than Riedel shears formed above adjacent
clude the Vienna Basin (Royden, 1985), the Coso Geothermal System PDZs.
developed between the Airport Lake and Owens Valley fault zones Modified from Dooley (1994).
36 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 43. (a) Line drawing of Salina del Fraille pull-apart basin in the Northern Argentinian Andes. CBF = cross-basin fault system. (b) Summary fault map of the Mesquite Basin,
southern California. (c) Summary structural and topographic map of the GlynnWye depression, Hope fault zone, South Island, New Zealand.
a is modified from Dooley and McClay (1997). b is modified from Segall and Pollard (1980). c is after Clayton (1966).

basins with a series of three models having varying mechanical stra-
tigraphies, consisting of an entirely brittle overburden (Fig. 47a,d), a
dual-layer system (Fig. 47b,e), and a dual-layer system that has
local topography on top of the brittle–ductile transition (Fig. 47c,f).
Fig. 48a–c shows the final overhead views of the three models after
7.5 cm of combined dextral displacement. Supplementary movie
files (Fig. 48d–f) show the evolution of these pull-apart basins.
The sand-only transtensional pull-apart model formed a relatively
narrow rhombic basin with a hard-linked, oblique-extensional ba-
sin sidewall–fault system on its margins (Fig. 48a,d). A complex
cross-basin fault zone cut the basin floor, and the PDZs consisted of
broad in-line graben systems (parallel to the master faults) bounded
by hard- and soft-linked, left-stepping extensional and oblique-
extensional fault segments (Fig. 48a,d). These transtensional PDZs
are similar to highly oblique-rifting and divergent models (e.g.,
Richard et al., 1991; Tron and Brun, 1991) and to transtensional
experiments documented in Holohan et al. (2008; see their figure
3). The graben floor of the PDZs was cut by an anastomosing
strike-slip fault, a feature attributed to strain partitioning by Wu
et al. (2009).
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 44. (a–e) Evolution of a dual-layer pull-apart basin model. In early stages Riedel shear arrays are seen to gradually increase their angularity with respect to the master faults as
the stepover is approached (a–c). With increasing displacement, basin sidewalls develop, defining a lazy-Z-shaped basin (d–e).
In the dual-layer model, the final geometry of the basin consisted
of an elongate graben (Fig. 48b,e). The cross-basin fault zone diverged
around a plunging horst block that divided the pull-apart system
into two relatively symmetric grabens (Fig. 48b,e). Strike- and
oblique-slip faults linked the ends of the horst block to the flanking
PDZs (Fig. 48b,e). The double-depocentre of the interior of the basin
is beautifully illustrated by the reconstruction of a marker layer
some 5 mm below the top of the prekinematic sequence (Fig. 49a).
Similar geometries were documented by Wu et al. (2009; see their
figure 5). Outer sidewall faults marked the limit of intrabasin subsi-
dence, and the inner sidewall faults formed a mostly linked system
defining a lazy-Z-shaped basin (Figs. 48b, 49a). The PDZs consisted
of an in-line graben, with outer boundaries formed of linked
left-stepping, oblique-extensional faults and internally cut by anasto-
mosing strike-slip faults (Fig. 48b,e). With a locally elevated brittle–
ductile transition, the basin had a similar gross shape, although the
cross-basin fault system consisted of a deep central graben flanked
by horst blocks (Figs. 48c, 49b). This central graben was located im-
mediately above the local high in the ductile layer and died out rapid-
ly along strike as the brittle ductile transition deepened (Figs. 47c,f,
48c, 49b). Outer sidewall faults again formed the eastern and western
limits of intrabasin subsidence (Figs. 48c, 49b). En echelon arrays of
soft- and hard-linked oblique-extensional faults formed the southern
margin of the basin (Fig. 48c). PDZ geometry was the same as de-
scribed earlier (Fig. 48).
Evolutionary movies of the transtensional pull-apart-basin models
reveal the similarities and differences between them and the models
run under pure strike-slip mode described in the previous section
(Fig. 48d–f). After approximately 1-cm combined dextral displace-
ment, the first faults appeared on the surface of all three models
(Fig. 48d–f). As in previously described models (Figs. 42, 44), the
Riedel shears increased their formation angles with respect to the
master faults as they approached the stepover region. Farther from
37
the stepover, the Riedel shears displayed angles of formation as low
as 13°, increasing to 29° to 32° within the stepover region. In the
sand-only model, the basin sidewalls formed initially as
left-stepping arrays of extensional and oblique-slip fault segments
that rapidly hard linked to form the sigmoidal sidewalls as displace-
ment increased (Fig. 48e). At the same time a CBF formed that scis-
sored across the basin floor and remained active during the entire
experiment, focusing intrabasin extension (Fig. 48a).
In the dual-layer model, inner sidewall faults rapidly formed by
propagation and linkage of left-stepping, oblique extensional fault
segments (Fig. 48e). Outer sidewall faults formed as left-stepping ar-
rays that propagated in from the PDZs. A complex cross-basin fault
system initiated on oppositely dipping oblique-slip faults on either
side of the stepover that propagated toward one another, followed
by propagation of a lower-angle set of dominantly strike-slip seg-
ments inward from the PDZs to form a releasing bend geometry on
the basin floor. Just prior to the addition of the first synkinematic
layer, the central horst structure began to take shape. After addition
of synkinematic sediments, the basin sidewall–fault systems re-
established themselves rapidly, followed by the central horst, and, fi-
nally, by the more deeply buried strike- and oblique-slip segments of
the CBF (Fig. 48e).
The effect of the locally elevated brittle–ductile transition on
pull-apart-basin evolution is clearly seen in Fig. 48f. Faulting in the
stepover region was concentrated in a narrower region surrounding
the high-level ductile zone, forming two left-stepping grabens that
gradually link along strike to form a stepped-graben system
(Fig. 48f). Faults propagated in from the PDZs to link with this graben
system, defining the CBF as a narrow graben. Outer sidewall faults
propagated in from the PDZs to form the lazy-Z-shaped longitudinal
margins of the basin (Fig. 48f). After the addition of synkinematic
sediments, the central graben system widened and linked to the
PDZs along strike- and oblique-slip fault segments. With continued
38 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

dextral displacement, horst blocks formed adjacent to the central gra-

Fig. 45. Evolution of an asymmetric dual-layer pull-apart basin model. Note the asym-
metry of the basin, with the dominant basin sidewall fault system developed above
mobile discontinuity.
Redrawn from Basile and Brun (1999).
ben as a result of differential extension between the central graben
and the outer sidewall faults (Fig. 48f).
Displacement-normal (N–S in Fig. 48), virtual displacement-
parallel (E–W in Fig. 48), and virtual depth sections reveal the dif-
ferent 3-D geometries of the transtensional pull-apart basins
(Figs. 50–52). In the sand-only model, the depth section shows
hard-linked sigmoidal basin sidewalls that define the gross geometry
of the basin (Fig. 50a). Basin geometry is similar to that of the
underlapping master fault models illustrated in Figs. 36a and 37.
The main differences are the concentration of extension along
intrabasin faults of the CBF and the greater width of the basin in the
displacement-normal sections (Fig. 50a,c). In the displacement-
parallel direction, the virtual section reveals a symmetric graben ge-
ometry, with maximum subsidence in the centre of the basin and
sidewall faults that root down to the basement plates (Fig. 50b). In
the dual-layer model, the double-depocentre geometry is clearly
seen in the virtual-depth, displacement-parallel, and displacement-
normal sections (Fig. 51a). Outer sidewall faults root down to the
edge of the basal ductile zone at the longitudinal ends of the basin
(Fig. 51b), whereas the inner sidewall faults that bound the main
lazy-Z-shaped basin sole out within the ductile zone (Fig. 51c). Faults
are dominantly planar (Fig. 51). The presence of the ductile zone at
depth allows for greater fault-block rotation than what is seen in
single-layer models (Figs. 50, 51). The focusing effects of the locally
elevated brittle–ductile transition are clearly seen in the sections in
Fig. 52. Extension was concentrated in the central graben that formed
part of the CBF, resulting in a deep graben with an anomalously thick,
synkinematic infill (Fig. 52a–c). This central graben was bounded by
faults with mildly listric geometries that sole out and keel into the
top of the high-level weak zone, whereas flat-bottomed grabens
bounded by planar faults characterise the longitudinal margins of
the basin (Fig. 52b,c).
Although the gross architectures of pull-apart basins that formed
under pure strike slip and transtension with brittle and brittle ductile
stratigraphies are similar, there are some important differences. Wu
et al. (2009) noted that the basins produced in transtension are
wider and broader, commonly possess dual-depocentre geometries,
have basin sidewall–fault systems that are commonly en echelon in
nature prior to hard linkage, and that the PDZs are composed of
in-line grabens. All these differences are seen in the transtensional
models shown in Figs. 48 to 52. The in-line grabens above the PDZs
commonly resemble models of highly oblique rifts. Our models also
illustrate that the 3-D geometry of the brittle–ductile transition has
a major impact on the internal deformation within the basin and
the localization of intrabasin subsidence (Figs. 48, 21). In the

Fig. 46. Line drawing of a symmetric pull-apart basin model showing outer basin sidewalls and an inner spindle-shaped basin along a releasing bend geometry.
Redrawn from Basile and Brun (1999).
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 47. Experimental setups for (a) single-layer, (b) dual-layer, and (c) dual-layer model with local topography along the brittle–ductile transition zone. Master faults were cut 5°
oblique to the direction of transport. (d–f) Stratigraphy of the three models.
transtensional Coso Geothermal field in eastern California, the effects
of localised topography on brittle–ductile transition has had a clear
influence on intrabasin deformation, with intrabasin extension fo-
cused along the Coso Wash CBF system (Dooley et al., 2007; see
Section 7.5 for further details). This fault system is localised by the
presence of shallow magma chambers (4–6 km, Monastero et al.,
2005; Unruh et al., 2008). The high dilatency associated with major
intrabasin extension in these transtensional pull-apart structures is
likely to enhance hydrothermal convection where shallow magma
systems are present, such as that in the Coso Geothermal System
(Monastero et al., 2005).
6. Analogue modelling of restraining stepovers or bends
Popups and transpressional uplifts formed at restraining stepovers
or bends (Fig. 30) are also an integral part of intraplate and interplate
strike-slip fault zones (e.g., Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Mann,
2007; Sylvester, 1988; Sylvester and Smith, 1976; Zolnai, 1991). Large
intraplate strike-slip systems, such as the San Andreas fault system
39
(e.g., Brown and Sibson, 1989; Harding, 1974; Sylvester, 1988;
Sylvester and Smith, 1976; Wesnousky and Jones, 1994) and the Altai
fault system in Mongolia (Cunningham et al., 1996; Mann, 2007), dis-
play many large-scale uplifts associated with restraining bends and
stepovers. These structures typically form anticlinal uplifts, commonly
with doubly plunging arrangements of folds, and are of limited strike
extent (McClay and Bonora, 2001). Like the plan forms of pull-apart ba-
sins, these popups are commonly lozenge shaped to rhomboidal in
form. In cross section they are commonly bounded by convex-up faults
that flatten upward toward the surface, forming positive flower or palm
tree structures (e.g., Sylvester, 1988). We follow the nomenclature of
McClay and Bonora (2001) and use the general term popup to describe
a domal uplift that has both positive structural and topographic relief.
Mann (2007) documented 79 active restraining bend systems, a num-
ber significantly less than the 160 documented active and ancient
pull-apart systems. Aydin and Schultz (1989) similarly documented sig-
nificantly more releasing stepovers along the Garlock, Dead Sea, and
North Anatolian fault zones (73) than restraining stepovers (11). The
greater number of pull-apart basins found along strike-slip systems
40 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 48. Overhead views of transtensional pull-apart basin models after 7.5-cm displacement. (a) Single-layer model, (b) dual-layer model, and (c) dual-layer model, with locally
elevated brittle ductile. Time-lapse videos of the three models are shown in d–f (Supplementary files).

may reflect the fact that small-scale restraining stepovers are more
transient, local features that develop early in the history of a
strike-slip fault zone and are subsequently removed by earthquake rup-
tures (e.g., Wesnousky, 1988).
Although restraining stepovers or bends have not received as
much attention in physical modelling studies as studies on releasing
stepovers, several authors have adequately described their general
geometries and kinematics (e.g., Dooley et al., 1999; McClay and
Bonora, 2001; Mitra and Paul, 2011; Richard et al., 1995). The model-
ling apparatus used for our experiments is similar to that used for
pull-apart-basin models, except that the baseplates are typically off-
set prior to deformation (Fig. 32b). After deformation, the gap be-
tween the plates is closed, requiring shortening in the prekinematic
sand pack to accommodate this volume loss. In the following two sec-
tions we examine the evolution and general geometries of physical
models of restraining stepovers, as well as some of the primary con-
trols on their geometries.
6.1. Evolution and geometries of popups
Dooley et al. (2009) described the progressive evolution of
strike-slip popup structures above offset master faults (Fig. 53). At
2-cm displacement, left-stepping Riedel shears developed above the
offset PDZs and flank a broad, low-amplitude uplift (Fig. 53a). With
increasing displacement, this broad uplift zone became better defined
as oblique-reverse faults propagated in from the Riedel shear arrays
to form the popup margins (Fig. 53b). Further displacement resulted
in the formation of synthetic, low-angle shears and high-angle anti-
thetic shears that dissected the uplift (Fig. 53c,d). These high-angle
shears were geometric and kinematic equivalents to R′ shears and ac-
commodated high-level internal rotation of the uplifted block
(Fig. 53d; Dooley et al., 1999). The final geometry of the popup
consisted of a rhomboidal uplift, heavily dissected by an anastomos-
ing array of synthetic and antithetic shears and bounded by
oblique-reverse faults (Fig. 53e). Despite uplift and shortening within
the popup, the flanking PDZs consisted of narrow, negative flower
structures (Fig. 53e).
Vertical sections of the popup reveal the rapidly changing geom-
etry along strike (Fig. 54). The structure of the popup displayed sym-
metry reversal along strike (Fig. 54), a feature also characteristic of
pull-apart models (see Figs. 37, 41, 50). At the centre of the popup,
the geometry was that of a symmetric box-shaped uplift bounded
by reverse faults with moderate dips (Fig. 54, Section 32). This geom-
etry changed rapidly along strike to positive flower structures that
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 41

Fig. 49. 3-D reconstructions of a prekinematic marker layer located 5 mm below the upper prekinematic surface in (a) the dual-layer model, and (b) the dual-layer model with
locally elevated brittle–ductile transition. See text for details.

exhibited opposite vergence at either end of the popup (Fig. 54, Sec-
tions 24 and 40). The active portions of the PDZs were narrow, neg-
ative flower structures, flanked by inactive Riedel shears (Fig. 54,
Section 6). Antithetic faults within the popup were generally shal-
lowly rooted (e.g., AF1–3, Fig. 53, Section 32 in Fig. 54), or detached
atop upwardly flattening, oblique-reverse faults as they accommo-
dated rotation of the hanging-wall blocks (Dooley et al., 1999). A
depth slice through the popup reveals the anticlinal geometry of
the bounding oblique-reverse faults (Fig. 55). The fault systems
broadened into the popup from the relatively narrow PDZs, and
cross-popup faults cut across the crest of the system (Fig. 55; see fig-
ure 9 of McClay and Bonora, 2001).
Experiments described in Richard et al. (1995) corroborate the
evolutionary sequence described earlier (Fig. 56). As in our model,
deformation began by Riedel shear formation above the master fault
tips, followed by formation of uplift-bounding, oblique-reverse faults,
and finally dissection of the popup by the high-angle antithetic Riedel
shears that accommodated internal rotation of detached hanging
walls (Richard et al., 1995). Clay models presented in Mitra and
Paul (2011) document similar geometries and fault sequencing for a
90° restraining-bend model (see their figure 16).
6.2. Primary controls on popup geometry
As seen in pull-apart-basin experiments (e.g., Fig. 33), popup
geometry is strongly dependent on the degree of over- and underlap
of the master-fault segments (McClay and Bonora, 2001; Mitra
and Paul, 2011). Underlapping master faults generated elongate,
lozenge-shaped popups in sand and clay experiments (see figure 3
of McClay and Bonora, 2001, and figures 14 and 15 of Mitra and Paul,
2011). The Cerro de la Mica restraining stepover has a plan form and
fault architecture that closely resemble popups formed in restraining
42 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 50. (a) Virtual depth slice, (b) virtual displacement-parallel section, and (c) displacement-normal section of the single-layer model. See text for details.

stepovers with underlapping master faults (see figure 21 of McClay
and Bonora, 2001). Rhomboidal or box-shaped popups are typical of
restraining stepovers formed above transverse (A = 90°) stepovers
(Figs. 53, 56; see figure 13 of McClay and Bonora, 2001, and figures
16 and 17 of Mitra and Paul, 2011). Examples of these include the
Echo Hills restraining stepover in southeastern Nevada (Campagna
and Aydin, 1991) and the Owl Lake popup in Wyoming (Paylor and
Yin, 1993). Highly overlapping master-fault geometries (A > 100°)
produce sigmoidal antiformal popups (McClay and Bonora, 2001,
their figure 7) or rectangular uplifts (Mitra and Paul, 2011; see their
figure 20 for a comparison of all three master-fault setups). McClay
and Bonora (2001) also documented a higher degree of internal rota-
tion with an increase in master-fault overlap.
Stepover width is also important in determining popup shape for a
given master-fault geometry. Richard et al. (1995) conducted three
experiments with the same stepover geometry and sand-pack thick-
ness but varied the fault separation (S). Fig. 57 shows the results of
their models for experiments with S values of 2, 5, and 20 cm and a

Fig. 51. (a) Virtual depth slice, (b) virtual displacement-parallel section, and (c) displacement-normal section of the dual-layer model. See text for details.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 43

Fig. 52. (a) Virtual depth slice, (b) virtual displacement-parallel section, and (c) displacement-normal section of the dual-layer model with the locally elevated brittle–ductile tran-
sition. See text for details.

transverse (A = 90°) master-fault geometry. At low S values, the in the Confidence Hills positive flower structure in southern Death
popup is elongate with an axis roughly subparallel to the basement Valley, where spacing between the flanking faults is small (Dooley
master fault strike (Fig. 57a). This type of fault-parallel uplift is seen and McClay, 1996). With increasing separation, the popups gradually

Fig. 53. Overhead views of a model showing the progressive evolution of a rhombic ‘popup’ developed above a restraining stepover, with A= 90° and S = 10 cm (see figure TD3 for
details of rig design). Note the development of antithetic R′ shears at surface that accommodate rotation and a developing cross-popup fault zone. (a) 2-cm displacement, (b) 4-cm
displacement, (c) 6-cm displacement, (d) 8-cm displacement, and (e) 10-cm displacement.
Modified from Dooley et al. (1999).
44 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 54. Cross sections of the popup model. Locations of sections shown in Fig. 53e. Sections run from north to south. The popup is symmetric in the middle, becoming asymmetric at
either end. Antithetic faults commonly terminate at a shallow level.
Modified from Dooley et al. (1999).

take on rhomboidal geometries, and the degree of high-angle faulting
within the uplift increases (Fig. 57b–c). McClay and Bonora (2001)
documented similar results but showed that baseplates with high A
values (A > 100°) retained a rhomboidal shape even at low S values
(see their figure 17).
7. Effect of crustal weak zones on strike-slip
fault-zone segmentation
As discussed in Section 5, limitations of the experimental design of
the majority of segmented strike-slip-fault models are problematic

Fig. 55. Horizontal section of a popup developed above a restraining stepover, with A = 90° and S = 10 cm. See text for details.
Modified from Dooley et al. (1999).
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
owing to the rigid nature of the baseplates. This experimental setup
requires the cover to deform to the imposed “basement” geometry
and precludes any form of true basin or popup extinction due to as-
perity cutoff. In this section we present some new models that inves-
tigate the role of crustal weak zones in promoting segmentation along
strike-slip fault zones. Interaction of a propagating strike-slip fault
with a preexisting crustal heterogeneity is one of the models pro-
posed for the origin of solitary or arrays of stepovers (see Mann,
2007; Mann et al., 2007, for full details). Mann (2007) further devel-
oped this model of the influence of crustal heterogeneity into the
paired-bend model (Fig. 58). In this scenario a propagating
strike-slip fault intersects a preexisting oblique crustal structure or
weak zone that nucleates a restraining stepover (Fig. 58a–b). Contin-
ued propagation of the fault zone then forms a releasing bend, and
eventual asperity cutoff by a shortcut fault renders the stepovers in-
active (Fig. 58c–d). The releasing stepover forms to maintain a vol-
ume balance in the deforming crust (Mann, 2007). Paired-bend
systems have been described from the San Andreas, North Anatolian,
Enriquillo-Plantain Garden, and Dead Sea–Lebanon fault zones (see
figure 11 of Mann, 2007, and figure 1 of Mann et al., 2007, for details).
Models investigating the influence of crustal weak zones were run
in both pure and divergent (transtensional) strike slip (Table 4).
Other workers have studied the effects of crustal weak zones or het-
erogeneities on the development of strike-slip systems. Corti et al.
(2005) and Roman-Berdiel et al. (1997) studied the emplacement of
magmas along strike-slip fault zones and the relationship between
the intrusion shape and surface faulting. Holohan et al. (2008) docu-
mented experiments on caldera collapse along strike-slip systems
and their influence on surface faulting, including the formation of
local depressions and uplifts (see their figure 9). Koyi et al. (2008)
Fig. 56. Line drawings showing sequential development of a popup above a restraining
stepover, with A = 90°.
Redrawn from Richard et al. (1995).
45
and Letouzey and Sherkati (2004) investigated the influence of salt
diapirs on the localization of thrust and strike-slip faulting, with em-
phasis on the Zagros fold-thrust belt.
7.1. Model design
All the models in this section (Table 4) were run in a deformation
with dimensions of 2.5 × 1.5 m (Fig. 59). A regional layer of PDMS
(SGM-36; see Section 2.4) was overlain on the precut baseplates.
The strike-slip basement fault was linear and was cut to simulate ei-
ther a pure strike-slip environment (the fault parallels the displace-
ment vector) or a divergent strike-slip system (transtensional,
where the fault is oblique to the displacement vector—Fig. 59a).
High-level weak zones were emplaced on top of the basal weak
zone in the orientations shown in Table 4 and covered with a layered
sand pack (see Fig. 47f for typical model stratigraphy). Computer-
controlled stepper motors drove the dextral displacement of the
plates at a rate of 3 cm/h −1. Three weak-body configurations are
presented in this section (Table 4). These configurations were
designed to promote the formation of either a restraining stepover
or a releasing stepover, depending on its orientation with respect to
the basement fault trace (Table 4).
7.2. Linear weak zones with long axis oriented 45° counterclockwise
oblique to the basement fault
7.2.1. Pure strike slip
The evolution of Model A is illustrated by line drawings (Fig. 60a–d)
and in a time-lapse movie (Fig. 60e—Supplementary movie file). At low
Fig. 57. Line drawings of popup models showing effects of master-fault separation on
the geometry of the resultant popup.
Redrawn from Richard et al. (1995).
46
Fig. 58. Model for formation and eventual extinction of adjacent releasing and
restraining ‘paired bends.’ See text for details.
Diagram redrawn and modified from Mann (2007).
Fig. 59. Model setup for experiments presented in this section. (a) Regional ductile layer overlying the basement fault, which is divergent (transtensional) in this setup.
(b) High-level weak body placed above the regional ductile layer and buried with layered sand.
T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
displacements, Riedel shear arrays gradually propagated in from the
model edge toward the weak zone (Fig. 60a,e). As these Riedel shear ar-
rays approached the weak zone, they demonstrated an increase in their
formation angles from 24° to 28° (see Fig. 60a,e). Linkage of these Riedel
shears formed fault zones that diverged from the strike of the
basement-fault system to form a restraining stepover centred on the
weak zone (Figs. 60, 61). Shortening across the stepover accommodated
dextral displacement along the offset segments of the PDZ (Fig. 60e).
The offset segments of the PDZ terminated as oblique-reverse faults at
the margins of the weak body. Shortcut fault systems cut across the
popup in the latter stages of model evolution (Fig. 60d–e).
The final overhead view, a surface laser scan illustrating model to-
pography, and representative cross sections of Model A are shown in
Fig. 61. The final popup geometry – lazy S shaped – was cut by a
shortcut fault system that linked the offset PDZs (Fig. 61a–b). In
cross section the uplift is symmetric in the centre of the popup and
became asymmetric along strike (Fig. 61c). This change in symmetry
is similar to that of geometries seen in the popup experiments in
Figs. 53 and 54. The popup was bounded by oblique-reverse faults,
and its roof was thinned by outer-arc extension between the shortcut
system and these reverse faults at the popup margins (Figs. 60e, 61).
At depth the pinched stem of the weak zone formed the fault zone
(Fig. 61c). The weak body was squeezed, resulting in upward flow
of ductile material that was accommodated by uplift and outer-arc
extension. Narrow negative flower structures characterised deforma-
tion along the flanking PDZs (Fig. 61c).
7.2.2. Divergent strike slip
Fig. 62 illustrates line drawings showing evolution of the early
stage of Model B. As seen in Model A the early-formed Riedel shear
arrays demonstrated clockwise rotation (22°–27°) as they propagated
toward the weak body (Fig. 62a–b, e—Supplementary time-lapse
video file). Linkage of the early-formed R shears occurred along
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 47

lower angle Y and P shears to form a PDZ with a left step that was
centred on the weak body (Fig. 62a–b). Shortcut faults (Y and P orien-
tations) cut this uplift at a relatively early stage in the evolution of the
model (Fig. 62c,e). At 3.5-cm dextral displacement, the PDZs became
highly transtensional (Fig. 62d,e). Shortening within the stepover ac-
commodated the greater dextral displacement seen on the passive
grid flanking the stepover (Fig. 62a–e).
The final geometry of Model B consisted of a popup structure
centred on the weak body, flanked by transtensional PDZs that
formed a minor left step (restraining) around the weak body
(Fig. 63a–b). The popup structure was dissected by a shortcut fault
system that connected the left-stepping PDZs (Fig. 63b). In this
transtensional model, the uplift of the popup was not as great nor
was it as large in area as Model A (compare Figs. 61b and 63b).
Cross sections of Model B illustrate the changing geometry of the
popup structure along strike (Fig. 63c). In the centre of the popup,
the weak body formed the core of a symmetric uplift (Fig. 63c). At ei-
ther end of the popup, the uplifts were asymmetric and verged to-
ward one another on oblique-reverse faults that formed the offset
PDZs (Fig. 63c). The flanking PDZs consist of negative flower struc-
tures (Fig. 63c).
7.3. Linear weak zones with long axis oriented 45° clockwise oblique to
the basement fault
7.3.1. Pure strike slip
In Model C initial dextral displacement generated left-stepping
Riedel shears that propagated toward the weak body (Fig. 64a–b).
Formation angles of these R shears demonstrated a clockwise rotation
of from 22° to approximately 30° as the weak body was approached.
As in Models A and B, linkage and propagation of these fault arrays
generated a segmented PDZ system with a restraining stepover

Fig. 60. Evolution of Model A at (a) 1.8-, (b) 2.0-, (c) 2.5-, and (d) 5.0-cm combined displacements on the basement master fault. (e) Time-lapse video of the evolution of Model A
(Supplementary file).
48 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 61. (a) Overhead view of final geometry of Model A. (b) Laser-scan image showing topography of Model A. (c) Cross sections of Model A. Locations shown in a.

geometry centred on the weak body (Fig. 64c,e—Supplementary the weak body (Fig. 64e). At an early stage in this model, high-angle
video file). The PDZs initially terminated as reverse faults on the R′ shears formed above the stepover to accommodate high-level rota-
north and south sides of the weak body. With increasing displace- tion (Fig. 64), similar to those observed in published models of popup
ment, a shortcut fault system breached the brittle sequence above formation (Fig. 53; Dooley et al., 1999; McClay and Bonora, 2001).

Table 4
Table illustrating the geometries of weak zones examined in Section 7 and their roles and possible natural analogues.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 62. Evolution of Model B at (a) 1.7-, (b) 3.0-, (c) 4.0-, and (d) 5.0-cm combined displacements on the basement master fault. (e) Time-lapse video of the evolution of Model B
(Supplementary file).
The final geometry of Model C consisted of a major rhomboidal
popup centred above the weak body between left-stepping segments
of the PDZ (Fig. 65a–b). The PDZs consisted of narrow fault zones
flanked by inactive Riedel shear arrays (Fig. 65a–b). The centre of
the popup was a symmetric uplift flanked by faults with oblique-
reverse kinematics (Fig. 65c). Along strike the popup became asym-
metric, similar to the models discussed in Section 6. The roof of the
popup was thinned by outer-arc extension (Figs. 64e, 65c). Corti et
al. (2005) also noted the development of extensional faults above ris-
ing polymer injected into the fault zone during strike-slip displace-
ment (see their Fig. 3).
7.3.2. Divergent strike slip
Model D had an early evolutionary history similar to that of Model C,
with Riedel shears gradually propagating in toward the oblique weak
body (Fig. 66a,e—Supplementary video file). Riedel shear formation
angle gradually increased from 20° to 27° as the weak body was
49
approached. Linkage of Riedel shears was accomplished by the forma-
tion of P and Y shears forming two fault zones that initially formed a
restraining stepover centred on the weak body (Fig. 66a–b). After
2.5-cm dextral displacement, the subsequent evolution of this model
differed significantly from that of Model C. P shears propagated from
the tips of both linked Riedel arrays to form a fault-bounded lazy-Z
pull-apart structure by 4- to 5-cm displacement (Fig. 66c–e). Extension
and counterclockwise block rotation along R′ shears within the
pull-apart structure dissected the early high (Fig. 66e). A clockwise ro-
tation of up to 30° was recorded in the fault-bounded lozenge (Fig. 66e).
The final geometry of Model D consisted of an elongate,
lazy-Z-shaped, fault-bounded pull-apart-basin structure centred
above the weak body (Fig. 67a–b). The sidewalls of the pull-apart
basin consisted of two releasing bend systems that flanked the tilted
floor of the basin (Fig. 67a–b). Serial sections of the model illustrate
major along-strike changes. The top prekinematic regional level indi-
cates that there was subsidence throughout much of the structure,
50 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 63. (a) Overhead view of final geometry of Model B. (b) Laser-scan image showing topography. (c) Cross sections of Model B. Locations shown in a.
although the top of the weak body is, in places, above its original re-
gional level, reflecting early uplift within the short-lived restraining
stepover (Fig. 67c). On the left side of the basin, the structure
consisted of a simple negative flower structure (Fig. 67c; Section
S1). As the basin widened, the geometry changed to a box graben
(Fig. 67c, Section S2). In the centre of the basin, the weak body was
still above its original regional level, but significant thinning of the
roof sequence had occurred (Fig. 67c; Section S3). The basin was
also asymmetric, its floor dipping to the south towards the more
dominant fault segment, producing a half-graben geometry in Sec-
tions S4 and S5 (Fig. 67).
7.4. Double-cylinder weak-body array tangential to basement-fault trace
7.4.1. Pure strike slip
In the early stages of Model E, Riedel shear arrays propagated to-
ward the weak zone array to form an initially broad zone of faulting
that diverged from the basement fault strike (Fig. 68a,b,e). As in
Models A through D, the angle of formation of these Riedel shears
increased from 20° to 28° as they propagated toward the centre
of the model (Fig. 68a,b,e). The linked Riedel shears formed a
broad restraining stepover that encompassed the weak-body array
(Fig. 68b). With increasing displacement, the stepover region was
breached by Y shears that weaved between the weak bodies
(Fig. 68c). At a late stage, a negative flower structure formed in a
small releasing bend between the uplifts (Fig. 68e).
The final plan-view geometry of Model E consisted of two distinc-
tive uplifts above the weak zones that flanked a narrow, fault-
bounded depression (Fig. 69a,b). Cross sections show asymmetric
uplifts that verged toward one another (Fig. 69c). The narrow
depression between the weak body array defined a narrow negative
flower structure in cross section (Fig. 69c, Section S2).
7.4.2. Divergent strike slip
The initial evolutionary stages of Model F were almost identical to
those of Model E. Riedel shear arrays propagated in from either side of
the model towards the weak-body array (Fig. 70a,e—Supplementary
movie file). These fault arrays demonstrated a gradual increase in for-
mation angle – from 15° to 30° – as they approached the weak zones
(Fig. 70a). These two linked Riedel arrays initially defined a broad
restraining stepover in the system. Minor uplift was recorded above
the two weak bodies (see Fig. 47b). The restraining stepover was rap-
idly breached by lower-angle (14°) R shears that formed between the
weak bodies (Fig. 70b). A through-going fault zone formed between
the weak-body array with subsequent displacement. This fault zone
formed a releasing double-bend geometry that generated extension
and subsidence between the weak bodies (Fig. 70d,e). The narrow
pull-apart structure broadened over time as extensional faults propa-
gated out from the primary strike-slip zone to form the outer basin
sidewalls (Fig. 47d,e).
The final overhead view illustrates a pull-apart structure devel-
oped along a gentle releasing bend in the through-going fault zone
that weaved between the weak zone array (Fig. 71a). Late-stage
broadening of the basin along en echelon extensional faults occurred
as a result of the deepening of the inner basin and steepening of its
flanks (Fig. 71a,b). The oblique laser-scan image clearly shows the
early-formed, minor uplifts above the weak layers and the gentle re-
leasing bend along the PDZ (Fig. 71b). Cross sections illustrate the
negative flower structures that flanked the weak layers (Fig. 71; Sec-
tions S1, S3). The depression widened into the centre of the pull-apart
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 64. Evolution of Model C at (a) 2.0-, (b) 3.0-, (c) 4.0-, and (d) 6.0-cm combined displacements on the basement master fault. (e) Time-lapse video of the evolution of Model C
(Supplementary file).
structure between the two weak bodies (Fig. 71; Section S2). In this
central zone, the pull-apart basin consisted of a well-defined inner
basin flanked by basinward-tilted blocks. The cross section of the
transtensional PDZ illustrates a fault-bounded lozenge bounded by
narrow negative flower structures (Fig. 71c; Section S4).
7.5. Summary of Section 7 Section 7
The models described in this section demonstrated that the pres-
ence of a weak body along a developing strike-slip fault zone has a
profound influence on segmentation. In all these models, synthetic
Riedel shears displayed an increase in formation angle, with respect
to the basement fault, as the weak body was approached (Fig. 72a).
The net result of this clockwise rotation was the formation, through
linkage, of fault segments that diverged from the surface trace of
the basement fault to form an initial left-stepping (restraining)
stepover centred on the weak body or weak-body array (Fig. 72b).
The subsequent evolution of the fault system was governed by the ge-
ometry of the weak body and the presence or absence of a degree of
transtension in the system.
In pure strike-slip models, where the weak body was both 45°
counterclockwise-oblique and 45° clockwise-oblique of the basement
51
fault, restraining bends or stepovers formed that produced popups
around the weak body (Figs. 60, 64). In Model A the geometry of
the popup was sigmoidal, resembling models run with underlapping
(A = 30°–60°) baseplate geometries documented by McClay and
Bonora (2001, see their figures 3, 10) and by Mitra and Paul (2011,
see their figures 14, 15). In contrast, Model C produced a popup that
was a squat rhomboid (Fig. 65a–b). These differing geometries are
the result of the geometry of the weak zone (Fig. 72c). In Model A,
the PDZs on either side of the weak body linked and propagated to
the margins of the weak body to form an underlapping restraining
stepover (Fig. 72c). The same evolutionary process in Model C pro-
duced a restraining stepover with an overlapping geometry, owing
to the orientation of the weak body (Fig. 72d). The shape of the
popup in Model C is consistent with those found above transverse
or overlapping master-fault geometries (see Figs. 53, 56; see also fig-
ures 17, 19 of Mitra and Paul, 2011, and figures 5, 7 of McClay and
Bonora, 2001). The formation of high-angle R′ faults above the
stepover in Model C (Fig. 64a–e) was consistent with increased inter-
nal rotation documented in physical models with transverse (A = 90°,
Fig. 32) or overlapping master-fault geometries (A > 100°, Fig. 32;
McClay and Bonora, 2001). Despite the transtension present in
Model B, a popup was generated above the weak body by the same
52 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 65. (a) Final overhead view, (b) laser-scan image showing topography, and (c) cross sections of Model C. Cross-section locations shown in a.
processes described earlier. However, this popup was a smaller struc-
ture in areal extent, displayed far less uplift, and was heavily dissect-
ed by shortcut faults at a relatively early stage (compare Figs. 61 and
63). A view of the underside of Model B illustrates shortening of the
weak layer along the axis that was orthogonal to the contractional
quadrant in strike-slip mode (Fig. 73a). A possible example of the in-
fluence of a high-level crustal weak zone on fault segmentation is il-
lustrated in Fig. 74, which shows an uplifted and shortened salt
diapir in the Great Kavir of Northern Iran (Diapir 53 of Jackson
et al., 1990), located in a restraining stepover along a strike-slip
tear-fault system. As in Models A through C, the strike-slip faults de-
viate from their NW–SE trend to a N–S trend as they approach the di-
apir to form a left step in the fault zone centred on the diapir
(compare Figs. 61 and 74).
In transtension, the 45° clockwise-oblique weak-body geometry
produced an entirely different result. This model formed a
fault-bounded, lazy-Z-shaped, pull-apart basin (Fig. 67a–b). The
early stages of the model evolution was similar to that of Models A
through C, with surface deformation consisting of Riedel shears prop-
agating toward the weak body and diverging away from the surface
trace of the master fault (Fig. 75a). Mild uplift occurred between the
two fault zones that stepped to the left across the weak zone
(Figs. 66e, 67b, 75b). From this point on, Model D deviated from the
evolutionary patterns seen in Models A through C. P shears propagat-
ed from the tips of these linked faults to link with the offset PDZs to
create a fault-bounded, lazy-Z-shaped, pull-apart basin (Figs. 67a–b,
75c). Why did this setup produce a pull-apart basin? There are two
reasons. First, the long axis of the weak zone was orthogonal to the
extensional quadrant of strike-slip deformation, and, thus, suitably
oriented to be extended and rotated during deformation. The view
of the underside of the model after deformation confirms this fact
(Fig. 73b). Second, the divergent nature of the model enhanced this
stretching, overwhelming the initial restraining stepover geometry.
Discussing their physical models, Holohan et al. (2008) noted that
magma-body analogues localised marginal or basin sidewall faults
when subjected to regional transtension. This model may also pro-
vide an explanation for the origin of the Coso pull-apart system pre-
viously discussed in Section 5.2 (Fig. 76). Prior to the onset of
NW-directed transtension (>3 Ma), the Coso region underwent E–
W extension, creating N–S-oriented fabrics (Fig. 76; Dewey et al.,
2008; Unruh et al., 2003). During subsequent transtension, these N–
S fabrics were oriented in a fashion similar to that of the weak layer
in Model D with respect to the imposed transtensional deformation.
These fabrics, combined with elevated heat flow due to the presence
of shallow magma chambers (~4 km depth, Unruh et al., 2008) and
the transtensional deformation field may have induced stepover
formation in a manner seen in Fig. 75. Within the Coso pull-apart
complex internal deformation in the form of clockwise and counter-
clockwise rotations was documented by Dewey et al. (2008), similar
to the rotations seen in our models. In the Qom basin in the central
plateau of Iran, several small pull-apart structures along a dominantly
transpressional dextral fault zone were documented by Talbot and
Aftabi (2004). All these pull-apart structures are centred on salt dia-
pirs that were unroofed by local extension and have extruded salt gla-
ciers (Talbot and Aftabi, 2004). The origin of these structures might be
explained by the presence of high-level crustal weak zones, in this
case, salt diapirs, coupled with local transtension that induced
stepover formation.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 66. Evolution of Model D at (a) 2.5-, (b) 3.2-, (c) 3.8-, and (d) 4.8-cm combined displacements on the basement master fault. (e) Time-lapse video of the evolution of Model D
(Supplementary file).
Right-stepping arrays of tangential weak bodies also perturbed
the normal sequence of strike-slip fault formation, propagation, and
linkage. Initially these models evolved in a similar fashion to that of
Models A through D, to form a restraining stepover centred on the
weak-body array (Figs. 68, 70). Unlike Models A through D, the
weak body did not lie directly on the basement fault trace, and,
thus, a through-going fault zone could potentially cut the entire over-
burden, dissecting the initial stepover. Within the weak-body array,
lower-angle R shears formed and began to take up some vertical dis-
placements owing to their obliquity to the displacement. In both
models, this oblique structure linked with the flanking PDZs to
form narrow releasing bends or offsets (see Figs. 69, 71). In the
transtensional model, this process was greatly enhanced, and a clear-
ly discernible releasing bend and associated basin formed (Fig. 71).
The narrow inner basin is flanked by higher-angle extensional faults
that form the outer basin sidewalls, similar to the pull-apart struc-
tures described in Section 5.1.2. A possible example of this type of
process is illustrated in a bathymetric map that shows a pull-apart
basin on the seafloor in the northern Gulf of Mexico in Fig. 77. The
minibasin indicated in Fig. 77 may be foundering into a feeder (salt
diapir) that is supplying salt to the shallow salt canopy. It is possible
that another feeder or diapir exists directly north of the pull-apart
basin, and, if so, then this basin developed between tangential,
right-stepping diapirs or weak zones in the same manner as that of
Models E and F (Fig. 77); 3-D seismic data would be required to val-
idate this explanation.
53
8. Strike-slip and transpressional reactivation of
extensional basins
In this section, we present new analogue models of strike-slip
and transpressional reactivation of extensional basins. In the exper-
iments, a first phase of distributed extension is followed by a second
phase of either strike slip or transpression. Our aim was to investi-
gate the role exerted by preexisting normal faults (formed during
extension) during subsequent strike slip or transpressional defor-
mation. In contrast to previous studies (e.g., Mattioni et al., 2006),
neither a rigid footwall nor basal velocity discontinuity is present
in our models. Instead, deformation was distributed at the base of
the model during both phases of deformation. We used a
mechanically-layered stratigraphy consisting of viscous PDMS and
dry granular materials (quartz sand, corundum sand, and glass pow-
der with angles of internal friction of resp. 35°, 36°, and 39°). The ex-
perimental apparatus was the same as presented in Fig. 25c–d. The
two baseplates were overlain by an alternation of Plexiglas and
foam bars. Before the model was constructed, the assemblage of
Plexiglas and foam bars was shortened by 4 cm by displacing the
longitudinal sidewalls. The brittle–viscous model was then built on
top, consisting of a 1-cm-thick layer of PDMS overlain by three alternat-
ing layers of granular materials, each 1 cm thick. The long dimension of
each model was 70 cm, and rubber sheets provided transverse confine-
ment of the model. Outward movement of both longitudinal sidewalls
produced extension.
54 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 67. (a) Final overhead view, (b) laser-scan image showing topography, and (c) cross sections of Model D. Cross-section locations shown in a.
During extension the foam bars “decompressed,” and deformation
was distributed at the base of the model. The presence of the basal
viscous PDMS layer prevented localization of deformation above the
discontinuities in the model basement. At 1.5, 2.3, and 3.0 cm of ex-
tension, granular material was sieved into the developing grabens
to simulate synrift sedimentation. After 3 cm of extension, the exper-
iment was halted, and an additional 1-cm-thick layer of granular ma-
terial was added as a postrift sequence.
The second phase of deformation involved either distributed
strike slip or convergent distributed strike slip. In the case of distrib-
uted strike slip, one of the two baseplates was moved past the other,
the Plexiglas and foam bars slipped past one another, and the initial
rectangular configuration changed into a parallelogram. In the case
of distributed transpression, the strike-slip shear was combined
with transverse shortening by displacing the longitudinal sidewalls.
Table 5 lists the experimental parameters for the two experiments.
8.1. Extension followed by distributed strike slip
During extension, major grabens formed, whose overall strike was
parallel to the longitudinal walls. The dip of the extensional faults was
typically 60° to 67°. Surface views and cross sections of the model be-
fore the onset of distributed strike-slip shear are shown in Fig. 78a
and Fig. 78f (Supplementary video file), and horizontal sections are
shown in Fig. 78g (Supplementary video file). The surface evolution
of the model from the end of extension (but before postrift sedimen-
tation) through the final stage of distributed strike slip is shown in
Fig. 78h (Supplementary video file).
During the initial stages of dextral bulk strike slip, en echelon dex-
tral strike-slip faults (R shears) appeared at the surface (Fig. 78b,c).
Their surface strike ranged between 17° and 23°, with respect to the
longitudinal wall. Domains with a slight vertical relief (push-up
zones) appeared in the area between two left-stepping R shears. As
individual R shears propagated along strike, they overlapped with ad-
jacent left-stepping R shears, and the propagating fault segments ac-
quired gentler dips (Fig. 78c,d). Strike-slip faults merged at depth
with the preexisting normal faults, resulting in the local formation
of tulip structures, as seen in cross sections, with fault dips steepening
upward in the postrift sequence (Fig. 78f - Supplementary video file).
Coalescence of en echelon strike-slip faults and graben-bounding nor-
mal faults resulted in the formation of major anastomosing fault
zones that were subparallel to the longitudinal wall (Fig. 78d,h).
Fig. 78g,j (Supplementary video file) shows cross sections and hori-
zontal sections of the final stage of distributed strike-slip shear, re-
spectively, after 7 cm of displacement along the baseplate.
8.2. Extension followed by distributed transpression
During extension, grabens formed parallel to the longitudinal wall
form, with fault dips between 60° and 70°. The angle of oblique con-
vergence during distributed transpression was 15°. Surface views,
cross sections, and horizontal sections before the onset of trans-
pression are shown in Fig. 79a,f,g (with Fig. 79f,g being Supple-
mentary video files), respectively. The surface evolution of the
transpressional phase is shown in Fig. 79h (Supplementary video
file). As in the previous experiment, strike-slip faults formed during
the early phases of distributed transpression (Fig. 79b,h). However,
their surface strike formed at larger angles, ranging between 30°
and 35°. The faults are arranged in a left-stepping en echelon pattern
at the surface and cut across the preexisting graben. With increasing
transpression, push-up zones appear between two left-stepping
strike-slip faults (Fig. 79c,d). As these faults propagated along strike,
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 55

Fig. 68. Evolution of Model E at (a) 2.0-, (b) 3.0-, (c) 4.0-, and (d) 4.5-cm combined displacements on the basement master fault. (e) Time-lapse video of the evolution of Model E
(Supplementary file).

their surface strike and their dip angles decreased slightly in the area thinning of the ductile layer at depth beneath the graben during the
of overlap. Locally these faults coalesced at depth with the extensional phase strongly localised thrust faults that formed in the
graben-bounding normal faults (Fig. 79e; Fig.i,j - Supplementary transpressional experiment, resulting in minor basin inversion in
video files). stepovers.

8.3. Summary of Section 8 Section 8 9. Concluding statements

In these experiments, only limited basin inversion occurred during
strike-slip deformation. The initial fault pattern that evolved during
the second phase of deformation was primarily controlled by the
far-field stress system, even in the presence of precursor structures.
Thus, orientations of the early-formed strike-slip faults were similar
to those observed in distributed strike slip and transpression experi-
ments without preexisting extensional structures (Schreurs and
Colletta, 1998, 2003). However, the precursor graben did serve to lo-
calise some of the deformation during the strike-slip stage. Local
9.1. Current status
Analogue-model experiments have significantly contributed to
our understanding of strike-slip tectonics. Despite their inherent lim-
itations and simplifications, they have proved especially useful in de-
veloping kinematic models because they provide the opportunity to
study the evolution of complex 3-D fault geometries that form in
strike-slip-related deformation zones in detail. This opportunity is of
special value in areas where field and/or geophysical data are only
56 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 69. (a) Final overhead view, (b) laser-scan image showing topography, and (c) cross sections of Model E. Cross-section locations shown in a.
fragmentary or where the current structural geometry is only a single
snapshot of the evolutionary history of the fault system. Initial struc-
tures in strike-slip-dominated experiments will form as a result of
overall stress conditions (“far-field” or “regional” stress). Once these
structures have formed, they will provoke local stress-field modifica-
tions, creating structures that may vary considerably in strike and dip
with respect to earlier formed structures, and they may even lead
to partitioning of fault motion. Therefore, reconstruction of the over-
all stress state on the basis of the final stage of strike-slip or
oblique-slip deformation can be difficult because early faults and
folds may have propagated and rotated and later structures may
have formed at progressively different orientations.
Published modelling studies that use the classical Riedel experi-
mental setup (i.e., pure strike slip along a vertical basement fault)
show first-order similarities, such as development of synthetic Riedel
shears rooting in the basement fault and a principal displacement
zone consisting of anastomosing synthetic shears parallel to the
shear direction. Nevertheless, differences are marked between
models related notably to the analogue material used (e.g., dry gran-
ular materials versus wet clay), the mechanical stratigraphy of the
model, and model thickness. In the case of convergent strike slip
(transpression), flower structures form in the overburden. In the
case of divergent strike slip (transtension), the deformation zone nar-
rows, and synthetic Riedel shears form at lower angles than in pure
strike-slip models.
Fault patterns in distributed strike-slip shear experiments are
very different from those seen in the Riedel experiments. In models
undergoing distributed strike-slip shear, initial R shears form in re-
sponse to far-field stresses, and with progressive shearing, several
major anastomosing synthetic shear zones form, whose spacing in-
creases with model thickness and whose orientations are at an
angle of approximately 10° to 15° to the bulk shear direction. These
major, through-going fault zones produce secondary faults, such as
lower-angle synthetic and antithetic shears in between, which
reflect local stress-field modifications. Fault and block rotations
occur in distributed strike-slip shear experiments, in which lateral-
boundaries-model material can move sideways during shearing. Dis-
tributed transpression experiments with low angles of obliquity
(≤15°) generate initial strike-slip faults, whose surface strike is at
higher angles than those of R shears in distributed strike-slip shear
experiments. Once these first faults have formed, additional deforma-
tion is then taken up by oblique slip along favourably oriented,
preexisting faults. Secondary faults form in between major primary
faults zones in response to local stress-field modifications, whose ki-
nematics depend on the angle of obliquity. In distributed shear with
transtension, initial faults form with a lower angle to the imposed
shear direction to accommodate horizontal displacements. With con-
tinued deformation, faults with dominantly extensional throws de-
velop that parallel strike-slip faults.
Models that used rigid baseplates to simulate stepovers generate
pull-apart structures and popups that have similar geometries in
most published studies. Variations in pull-apart and popup geome-
tries are due to (1) the degree of over- and underlap of master faults,
(2) separation between master faults, (3) the presence or absence of a
basal ductile unit, (4) the presence of an upper ductile unit, and (5)
sand-pack thickness with respect to master-fault separation. Models
of transtensional pull-apart structures generate basins that are gross-
ly similar in geometry to those formed under pure strike slip. Howev-
er, deformation and subsidence patterns within the pull-apart
structure are greatly influenced by the geometry and topography of
the ductile unit. A local rise in the brittle–ductile transition tends to
focus intrabasinal subsidence onto this high-level weak layer.
New modelling results suggest that weak crustal bodies signifi-
cantly influence segmentation along developing strike-slip zones.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 70. Evolution of Model F at (a) 2.0, (b) 3.0, (c) 4.5, and (d) 6.8 cm combined displacements on the basement master fault. (e) Time-lapse video of the evolution of Model F
(Supplementary file).
These weak bodies form rupture barriers that influence formation an-
gles of the initial synthetic Riedel shears as the weak layers are
approached by the developing Riedel arrays. Models suggest that
restraining stepovers are common for a variety of weak zone shapes
and orientations. Releasing stepovers, at least thus far, are more diffi-
cult to form and require specific weak-body orientation, combined
with a degree of divergence, to develop to any appreciable degree.
Further modelling of a variety of arrays of weak bodies is required
to test what geometries promote releasing and restraining stepovers
and whether these arrays would promote the formation of a paired-
bend system, as described by Mann (2007).
Distributed strike slip and transpressional shear (angle of
obliquity ≤ 15°) of preexisting extensional basins trending parallel
to the shear component of deformation produce only limited
reactivation of preexisting basin-related faults. Instead, the far-field
stresses produce initially strike-slip faults striking at angles of be-
tween 17° and 35° to the longitudinal edge of the model. Precursor
grabens serve to focus deformation during the strike-slip stage.
57
Graben boundaries are locally reactivated as oblique-reverse faults
in stepovers between the main strike-slip fault segments.
9.2. Future work
Future challenges in analogue modelling are related to combining
innovative experimental setups, new modelling materials, full 3-D
visualisation of models over time, and 3-D strain quantification
techniques. In reality, however, it will be extremely difficult to satis-
factorily combine all of these in one ultimate “analogue Earth
model,” and there will always be a trade-off between what is techni-
cally, analytically, and experimentally feasible.
To date, analogue-modelling studies have investigated the influ-
ence of a considerable number of primary experimental parameters
thought to exert a strong control on the resulting structures in
strike-slip tectonics. However, despite all this work, various parame-
ters have not yet been investigated in detail, mostly for practical
reasons or for lack of suitable analogue materials. For example, the
58 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71
Fig. 71. (a) Final overhead view, (b) laser-scan image showing topography, and (c) cross sections of Model F. Cross-section locations shown in a.
influence of temperature-dependent rheologies, isostasy, or
pore-fluid pressure still needs to be explored in strike-slip modelling
experiments. In addition, the interactions between tectonics, erosion,
and sedimentation in strike-slip-dominated tectonic settings have
not yet been investigated in detail by analogue-modelling studies, al-
though Le Guerroué and Cobbold (2006) presented some simple
models on the effects of erosion and sedimentation rate on the devel-
opment of positive flower structures. Graveleau and Dominguez
(2008) and Graveleau et al. (2011) recently developed a new
granular-modelling material to experimentally study landscape evo-
lution and tested it in a thrust experiment. The material is a
water-saturated composite material that deforms brittly, according
to the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion. During experimental thrust-
ing, surface processes were activated by sprinkling water micro-
droplets on the model surface (see Graveleau and Dominguez, 2008,
for further details). The analogue-model material was eroded by
channelised processes (fluvial-like incision) and hill-slope processes
(mass landslides), whereas transport and deposition resulted in
fan-shaped sedimentary objects (Graveleau et al., 2011). Note, how-
ever, that geomorphic rates in the model are probably not properly
scaled (Graveleau et al., 2011).
Full 3-D visualisation of analogue models at successive time steps
using modern medical X-ray-computed tomography is now possible
and is of particular importance for studying how faults at depth inter-
act, connect, and evolve with time. However, detailed X-ray CT visu-
alisation of internal structures in analogue models depends not only
on the thickness and width of the analogue model, but also on the
type of material used. For example, structures in dry granular mate-
rials are much better visualised than those in wet clays. In
larger-scale models, closely spaced serial sections can now be rou-
tinely converted to 3-D volumes that can be interrogated by standard
seismic interpretation packages. This conversion results in a far better
understanding of the 3-D geometry of the fault system. However, it is
a destructive technique, requiring time-consuming reruns of models
to successively greater strains in order to build up the 4-D evolution
of these structures (see Wu et al., 2009).
Surface-topography monitoring using high-resolution laser scan-
ners (e.g., Dooley et al., 2007, 2009; Wu et al., 2009) or laser interfer-
ometers (e.g., Graveleau et al., 2011) is useful for detailed monitoring
of areas of subsidence and/or uplift in physical models. However, the
application of nonintrusive optical-strain monitoring to analogue
experiments (Adam et al., 2005) represents an even greater step for-
ward in quantifying the 3-D deformation of analogue-model surfaces
using digital stereoscopic photographs and the 2-D deformation of
sectional views using digital photographs taken through transparent
sidewalls. The power of digital image correlation is shown by
shear-strain analysis of Model D from Section 7 (see Figs. 66–67 for
model details) in Fig. 80. Although these maps were derived from ar-
chival digital imagery and are thus limited to 2-D analysis, they beau-
tifully illustrate the evolution of shear strain in the model. The next
step would be to apply optical-strain-monitoring techniques on suc-
cessive 3-D volumetric X-ray CT image data sets of analogue models
to quantify the 3-D spatial and temporal patterns of strain accumula-
tion. Strain quantification in scaled models is of particular importance
when making comparisons with natural settings and with numerical
models.
Scaled physical models have proven useful in providing graphic
insights into the progressive evolution and 3-D geometries of a varie-
ty of strike-slip systems. Despite the plethora of studies, there is still
much to do. As stated earlier, further work is required to explore
the origins of segmentation along strike-slip fault zones and their
subsequent evolution. Preliminary experiments on the influence of
crustal weak bodies are promising and deserve further study. In addi-
tion, a greater use of mechanically layered stratigraphies is required
to develop the full range of secondary structures related to
strike-slip deformation, e.g., wrench folds.
 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 59

Fig. 72. Summary diagram illustrating typical restraining stepover geometry formed across weak bodies. (a) Riedel shears propagate toward the weak body and gradually diverge
from the trace of the basement fault. (b) Linked faults form restraining stepover centred on the weak body. (c) Weak bodies oriented 45° counterclockwise-oblique to the basement
fault approximate popups formed above underlapping master-fault geometries. (d) Weak bodies oriented 45° clockwise-oblique to the basement fault approximate popups formed
above overlapping master-fault geometries.

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http:// Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences, The Uni-
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.05.030. versity of Texas at Austin.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank Chris Morley and an anonymous reviewer for
their constructive criticism on an earlier draft of this manuscript. The
authors also wish to thank Timothy Horscroft and Fabrizio Storti for
encouraging us to write this review paper. The manuscript was edited
by Lana Dieterich. TD acknowledges financial support from the
Fault Dynamics Research Group at Royal Holloway University of
London, the U.S. Navy Geothermal Program Office, and the Applied
Geodynamics Laboratory at The University of Texas at Austin. His
models were conducted at both Royal Holloway University of London,
UK, and at the Bureau of Economic Geology in Austin, Texas, USA.
He thanks Ken McClay for introducing him to physical modelling
and numerous colleagues over the years for stimulating discussions.
GS gratefully acknowledges support from the Swiss National Foun-
dation 2000-055411.98, 2000-067952.02, 200020-109320/1, and
200020-122143/1 and warmly thanks Bernard Colletta for introduc-
ing him to the world of analogue modelling, Jean Letouzey and
Jean-Marc Daniel of the Institut Français du Pétrole (now “IFP Energies
Nouvelles”) for providing access to analogue-modelling facilities, and
Marie-Thèrese Bieber, François Lamy, and Jean-Marie Mengus for
technical assistance. Publication was authorised by the Director,
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Fig. 78. Fault evolution in distributed strike-slip shear reactivation of basins (exp. 1377). (a) Surface photograph of grabens with corresponding vertical sections. Note that in sec-
tions syn- and postrift sediments have been added. (b–d) Fault pattern in surface view and in cross section. (e) Surface view during dextral distributed strike-slip shear, after 7 cm
of displacement of base plate; width of model is 29 cm. The rectangle indicates the area analysed by X-ray CT. To the right: 3-D-perspective block diagram of deformation stage
shown in e, with horizontal sections of postrift sequence (left-hand side) and at depth (right-hand side), and three vertical sections. Note tulip structures in vertical sections.
(f–j) Supplementary movies. (f) Movie of serial vertical sections of exp. 1377 before the onset of distributed strike slip. Sections show graben structures with syn- and postrift sed-
iments. (g) Movie of serial horizontal sections of same stage as f showing location of grabens below postrift sediments. (h) Movie showing surface evolution from the end of ex-
tension through the final stage of distributed strike-slip shear deformation. (i) Movie illustrating fault pattern in vertical sections in exp. 1377 after 70 mm of distributed strike-slip
deformation. (j) Movie showing horizontal sections of model at same stage as that in i.
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68 T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71

Fig. 79. Fault evolution in distributed transpressional reactivation of graben structures (exp. 1378). (a) Surface photograph of grabens filled with synrift sediments with correspond-
ing vertical sections. Note that in sections postrift sediments have been added. (b–d) Fault pattern in surface view and in cross section. (e) Surface view during dextral distributed
transpression, after 7 cm of displacement of base plate and 1.75 cm of shortening by transverse movement of longitudinal sidewall; width of model is 27.25 cm. The rectangle in-
dicates the area analysed by X-ray CT. To the right: 3-D-perspective block diagram of deformation stage shown in e, with horizontal sections of postrift sequence (left-hand side)
and at depth (right-hand side), and four cross sections. Three frontal cross sections show how a subvertical strike-slip fault cuts across the preexisting graben. (f–j) Supplementary
movies. (f) Movie of serial vertical sections of exp. 1378 before the onset of distributed transpression. Sections show graben structures with syn- and postrift sediments. (g) Movie
of serial horizontal sections of same stage as that in a, illustrating the position of grabens below postrift sediments. (h) Movie showing surface evolution from the end of extension
through the final stage of distributed transpression. (i) Movie illustrating fault pattern in horizontal sections in exp. 1378 after 7 cm of displacement of base plate and 1.75 cm of
shortening by transverse movement of longitudinal sidewall. (j) Movie illustrating fault pattern in vertical sections in exp. 1378 at same stage as that in Fig. 79i.
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Fig. 80. (a–e) Evolution of shear strain in Model D from Section 7. Shear strain was calculated using archival model imagery using the digital image correlation (DIC) software DaVis
8 by LaVision Inc. Note how shear strain was initially concentrated above the evolving PDZs with a local high developed above the weak body (a). Intrabasin shear strain was
highest above the deforming weak layer (d–e). (f) Supplementary time-lapse movie illustrating shear strain evolution in this model.
T.P. Dooley, G. Schreurs / Tectonophysics 574–575 (2012) 1–71 71