Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17

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Tectonophysics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Review Article

A review of brittle compressional wedge models

Susanne J.H. Buiter ⁎
Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway
Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Sem Selands vei 24, 0316 Oslo, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges form by compression of sedimentary sequences and base-
Received 13 July 2011 ment rocks into forward and backward thrusts, folds, nappes, and duplexes. For over a century, models
Received in revised form 1 December 2011 have been used to investigate the essential characteristics of such brittle wedges. Here I review model studies
Accepted 10 December 2011
of brittle thrust wedges in orthogonal compression, focussing on critical taper theory, analogue and numer-
Available online 23 December 2011
ical techniques for modelling brittle behaviour, and the most commonly investigated variations in wedge
Keywords:
model studies, those in basal dip, basal strength, internal strength, and surface processes. Many model results
Critical taper theory can be placed in the context of critical taper theory, which provides analytical solutions for wedge taper angle
Accretionary wedges and slip line orientations for a homogeneous material on the verge of failure throughout. Dynamic forward
Fold-and-thrust belts models have confirmed critical taper predictions of decreasing surface dip for increasing basal dip, wider
Analogue models wedges with steeper forward thrusts and shallower backward thrusts for decreasing basal strength, narrower
Numerical models wedges and enhanced exhumation for surface erosion, and decreasing surface dip for increasing internal
Plasticity strength. But analogue and numerical models have been able to take these results a step further by investi-
gating the evolution of non-critical thrust wedges and the effects of non-homogeneous materials with décol-
lement layers and strain-weakening shear zones. These results have highlighted the strong impact of
heterogeneous materials on the internal structures of thrust wedges and raise the question whether the com-
plexity of structures that are observed in many natural fold-and-thrust belts requires that lithological layer-
ing, inherited faults, or a wide range of rheologies need to be included in forward models of brittle thrust
wedges.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Critical taper theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Modelling brittle deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Analogue modelling of brittle deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Numerical modelling of brittle deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Models of brittle compressional wedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1. The set-up of wedge models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1.1. Model techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1.2. Model set-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2. Quantification of model results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3. Examples of wedge model sensitivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.1. The role of basal dip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3.2. The role of basal strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.3. The role of surface processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.4. The role of internal strength variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

⁎ Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway. Tel.: + 47 73904265.
E-mail address: susanne.buiter@ngu.no.

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.12.018
2 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
1. Introduction
Compressional, thrust or Coulomb wedges are general terms that
describe fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges with perhaps
a slight model flavour. Fold-and-thrust belts (FTBs) form in the fore-
land of an orogen and include sedimentary sequences, which often
derive from a former passive margin, and a variable amount of base-
ment rocks. The latter determines whether an FTB is thin-skinned,
mainly involving sediments and only shallow levels of basement, or
thick-skinned, where thrusts and folds affect the entire upper crust
and possibly the lower crust (Coward, 1983; Pfiffner, 2006; Rodgers,
1949). Examples can be found, among others, in the Appalachians,
the Canadian Rocky Mountains, the European Alps, and Taiwan (e.g.,
Davis et al., 1983; Pfiffner, 2006; Poblet and Lisle, 2011; Price, 1981)
(Fig. 1a). FTBs are typically associated with ocean–continent conver-
gence, terrane accretion, continent–continent collision, or intraconti-
nental shortening. They display top-to-the foreland thrusts (which
may bound nappes or form duplex structures), fault-related folds, de-
tachment zones, triangle zones, back-thrusts, or out-of-sequence
thrusting (Butler, 1982; Pfiffner, 2006; Poblet and Lisle, 2011). Accre-
tionary wedges (AWs) can be seen as a subset of fold-and-thrust
belts. They are formed by continent-derived or oceanic sediments off-
scraped from the subducting plate at an active margin and are usually
submarine. Sediments can be incorporated into an AW by frontal ac-
cretion near the toe of the wedge or through basal accretion after
being taken partway down the subduction channel (Glodny et al.,
2005; Gutscher et al., 1998a; Von Huene and Scholl, 1991). Examples
of accretionary wedges can be found, among others, in Nankai, Mak-
ran, the Lesser Antilles, and Barbados (Moore and Silver, 1987;
Morgan and Karig, 1995; Morley et al., 2011; Westbrook et al.,
1982; Westbrook et al., 1988) (Fig. 1b). AWs and thin-skinned FTBs
show considerable variability owing to the variations in their tectonic
setting, evolution and mechanical properties, but a few common ob-
servations are (e.g., Chapple, 1978): (1) a relatively weak basal de-
tachment or décollement which dips towards the interior of the
orogen and below which there is little deformation, (2) large horizon-
tal shortening above the basal detachment, (3) thrusts which dip to-
wards the hinterland (i.e., the orogen for FTBs or the overriding plate
for AWs) and which systematically become younger towards the
foreland, and (4) a characteristic wedge shape, which tapers towards
the foreland.
Fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges are relatively ac-
cessible and many geological and geophysical observations have
helped to obtain a good understanding of their structures. This pro-
vides direct input into studies of topography evolution, feedback rela-
tions between topography and climate, landslide risk, and active
margin processes. An additional motivation for detailed studies of
a)
W
0
time (s)
16
b) W
sediments
reflection time (s)
8 wedge
sediments
10
Fig. 1. a) Cross-section through the Canadian Rocky Mountains fold-and-thrust belt, redrawn from Bally et al. (1966). b) Cross-section through the Lesser Antilles acrretionary
wedge, redrawn from Westbrook et al. (1982).
FTBs has come from their association with hydrocarbons, such as in
the Zagros, Andes and Caucasus (Cooper, 2007), and for AWs from
their association with sources of large earthquakes and related tsu-
namis. These case studies have been complemented by analytical, nu-
merical and analogue studies of compressional wedges. The analytical
critical taper theory of Coulomb wedges has been very successful in
describing the geometry of wedges in response to accretion, changes
in internal strength, and variations in basal strength (Dahlen, 1984;
Dahlen et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983). However, this theory only pro-
vides a ‘static’ view of wedges that assumes constant stress conditions
and a wedge at the verge of failure everywhere. Insight into the dy-
namic evolution of wedges and their non-critical behaviour can be
obtained by analogue and numerical model studies.
Analogue, or laboratory, models are scaled experiments that use
low strength materials such as sand, clay, wax and silicone putty to
simulate tectonic processes (e.g. Cadell, 1890; Hubbert, 1937; Koyi
and Mancktelow, 2001; Willis, 1893). The models are intrinsically 3-
D and allow direct observations of the experiment, while deformation
may be quantified using image analysis (e.g., Particle Image Veloci-
metry), laser scanning (miniature laser altimetry), and volumetric
scanning using computerised X-ray tomography (Adam et al., 2005;
Colletta et al., 1991). However, although experiments can be repeated
with similar results, exact reproducibility does not exist. Moreover,
laboratories that do not have access to tomographic techniques can
only monitor the outside boundary of models, with observation of in-
ternal structures limited to cutting the model open at the end of the
experiment. Numerical experiments are exactly reproducible (unless
they are seeded by random noise). They allow great flexibility in
choice of geometries and material properties, and can quantify a
large range of parameters directly, such as, stress, strain, velocity,
and energy dissipation. Their resolution in 3-D may still be limited,
but this is improving rapidly (e.g., Braun and Yamato, 2010; Gerya,
2010; Popov and Sobolev, 2008).
In this paper, I will review numerical and analogue studies of
compressional wedges focussing on the roles of parameters that
are often investigated: basal dip, basal strength, surface processes,
and internal strength variations. I have limited my review to wedges
of brittle materials that are shortened in orthogonal compression
and mainly respond by forming brittle structures. Examples of vis-
cous wedges can be found in, for example, Emerman and Turcotte
(1983), Rossetti et al. (2000), Medvedev (2002), and Luján et al.
(2010), while McClay et al. (2004) and Del Castello et al. (2005)
show examples of oblique wedges. In the next sections I first de-
scribe the analytical theory of critical tapers, followed by a discus-
sion of numerical and analogue techniques for modelling brittle
behaviour, before finally reviewing dynamic models of brittle
wedges.
E
0 5 10 km
E
detachment
0 5 10 km
 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17 3

2. Critical taper theory
In a series of influential papers in the early 1980s it was shown
that insight into the overall structural evolution of thin-skinned
fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges can be obtained by
considering them analogous to wedges of snow in front of a moving
bulldozer (Dahlen, 1984; Dahlen et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983)
(Fig. 2a). The material in front of the bulldozer will deform until it
reaches a so-called critical taper. If no further material is encountered,
the wedge will slide stably along the base, without internal deforma-
tion. If new material is encountered, the wedge will grow self-
similarly at its critical taper value. Critical taper theory is successful
at explaining the overall geometry of wedges, as defined by their sur-
face slope and basal dip, the orientation of slip lines, and the depen-
dence of these properties on internal and basal strength. Critical
taper theory uses the following assumptions: a) The wedge consists
of brittle material which is on the verge of failure everywhere (i.e.,
static stress conditions); b) Rock strength is time-invariable and de-
termined by the Coulomb criterion:
jτj ¼ C þ μ ð1−λÞσ n ¼ C þ tan ϕð1−λÞσ n ð1Þ
τ is shear stress, σn normal stress, C cohesion, μ friction coefficient,
μ = tan ϕ, ϕ angle of internal friction, and λ the pore fluid factor de-
fined as the ratio of pore fluid pressure to normal stress (Hubbert
and Rubey, 1959); c) The setting is 2-D plane strain and sidewall fric-
tion is not considered; d) Material properties are constant in time, ho-
mogeneous in space, and isotropic; e) The base is cohesionless; and
f) The strength of the base cannot exceed the strength of the interior.
Here compression is taken as positive. The critical taper equation can
be derived from the equations of stress equilibrium, the Coulomb
criterion, and the boundary conditions of a shear stress free top and

a) b)
ρw
D α ψ0 x

α+β z
θf
ψb θb

σ1 β ρ
σ3
c)
30o d)
w2 critical taper
20o λ=0
unstable
surface slope α

10o field o
21.8
0 o w1
stable field
-10o w2
o
-20
critical taper
-30o λ = 0.3
w1 4.6
o

-10o 0o 10o 20o 30o 40o 50o 60o 70o 80o 90o
basal slope β
e) f)
40 o 40o
angle of repose 40o
Variation in φb Variation in φ
surface slope α
surface slope α

20 o 20o 34o
32 o
17 o
2 o

o
0 0o
18o

-20 o -20o
φ = 34o φb = 17o
λ=0 λ=0
-40 o -40o
-20 o
0 o
20 o
40o
60 o
80 o
-20o 0o 20o 40o 60o 80o
basal slope β basal slope β

Fig. 2. a) Cartoon illustrating stable sliding of a snow wedge before an accretion event (top) and an actively accreting snow wedge deforming to reach its critical taper (bottom),
After Dahlen and Suppe (1988). b) Cross-section through a wedge with a critical taper angle α + β. ψb is the angle between the maximum compressive stress σ1 and the base of the
wedge, ψ0 the angle between σ1 and the top of the wedge, θf the dip angle of forward thrusts with the base of the wedge, θb the dip angle of backward thrusts with the base of the
wedge, ρ wedge density, ρw water density, and D local water depth. After Dahlen and Suppe (1988). c) Wedge stability field for ϕ = 34°, ϕb = 17°, and λ = λb = 0.3 (grey field) or
λ = λb = 0 (dotted lines). d) Two examples of critical wedges with a horizontal basal slope (values as in c) with λ = λb = 0.3). Wedge w1 deforms by reverse faulting, whereas the
wedge w2 deforms by normal faulting. e) An increase in basal friction angle ϕb decreases the wedge stability field, leading to an increase in the lower critical taper angle and a
decrease in the upper taper angle. f) An increase in the angle of internal friction ϕ increases the wedge stability field.
4 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17

a prescribed friction on the base (Barcilon, 1987; Dahlen, 1984; the base (θf) and backward thrusts 35.3° (θb) (w1 in Fig. 2d). This
Dahlen et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983; Dahlen, 1990): wedge has a sharp taper angle and fails by thrusting. The second crit-
ical surface slope (and taper angle) is 21.8°. For this wedge,
α þ β ¼ ψb −ψ0 ð2Þ ψb = 65.7°, ψ0 = 43.9°, θf = − 37.7°, and θb = 93.7° (w2 in Fig. 2d).
This wedge fails by normal faulting. Wedges that are built from ini-
α is the surface slope, β the basal slope and their sum the taper angle,
tially quasi-horizontal strata will in most cases first achieve the
which should be positive (Fig. 2b). ψb and ψ0 are the angles between
lower critical taper angle (e.g., w1 in Fig. 2c and d) and might then
the maximum principal stress σ1 and the base and top of the wedge,
further adjust their geometry by building tapers consistent with this
respectively. For a cohesionless wedge:
critical taper solution.
! " Critical taper theory can be used to understand the effects of var-
1 sinϕ′b 1 ′
ψb ¼ arcsin − ϕb ð3Þ iations in basal strength, basal dip, internal wedge strength, erosion,
2 sinϕ 2
and sedimentation. An increase in basal friction ϕb will decrease the
! " stability field (Fig. 2e), by narrowing it vertically and widening it hor-
1 sinα ′ 1 ′
ψ0 ¼ arcsin − α ð4Þ izontally. This means that a critically-tapered wedge can find itself in
2 sinϕ 2
the unstable field and will need to adjust its taper angle. Dahlen
! " (1984) shows that this can be accompanied by a change in tectonic
1−λb
tan ϕ′b ¼ tan ϕb ð5Þ style within the wedge or even the need to form a new basal décolle-
1−λ
ment. For wedges at the lower critical taper value (e.g., the w1 wedge
!! " " in Fig. 2d), an increase in basal friction causes an increase in the angle
′ 1−ρw =ρ
α ¼ arctan tan α ð6Þ that the maximum compressive stress makes with the base of the
1−λ
wedge (ψb), an increase in taper angle, shallower forward thrusts,
ϕb is the angle of basal friction, ρ density, ρw density of water, λ the and steeper backward thrusts. An increase in internal wedge strength
generalised pore fluid factor in the wedge, and λb the generalised ϕ increases the stability field (Fig. 2f), by widening it vertically, there-
basal pore fluid factor: by decreasing the lower critical taper angle (and increasing the upper
one). An increase in internal wedge strength has a similar effect as a
P−ρw gD relative decrease in basal strength, i.e., a vertical widening of the sta-
λ¼ ð7Þ
σ z −ρw gD bility field (Fig. 2e, f). If material is removed from the surface by ero-
sion in a pattern that changes taper angle (e.g., height-dependent
P b −ρw gD erosion rate), wedges at the lower critical taper angle will need to de-
λb ¼ ð8Þ
σ z −ρw gD form to maintain their critical taper. Dahlen and Suppe (1988) (see
also Dahlen and Barr, 1989) show that wedges achieve a flux
P is pressure, Pb pore fluid pressure on the basal detachment, σz ver- steady-state (Willett and Brandon, 2002) if erosion balances the ac-
tical stress, g gravitational acceleration, and D local waterdepth for cretion of new material at the toe of the wedge. In that case, relatively
submarine wedges. For subaerial wedges, the above equations simpli- high erosion rates (∼5–10 mm yr −1) are expected to lead to narrow
fy by D = ρw = 0. In the coordinate system of Dahlen (1984), σz is ap- mountain belts (50–200 km), such as in Taiwan and New Zealand,
proximately equal to σn for small taper angles. Wang et al. (2006) whereas relatively low erosion rates (∼0.5 mm yr −1) might explain
show how the expression for λb can be adjusted to avoid a stress dis- wide belts (>500 km), such as the Central Andean Altiplano.
continuity at the base of the wedge for taper angles above ca. 10°. The Critical taper theory captures an average state of a fold-and-thrust
angle of thrust faults with
# the
$ maximum compressive stress σ1 in a belt and has a number of limitations: First, it is assumed that wedges
Coulomb material is % π4 − ϕ2 (Coulomb, 1773). The dip angle of for- are at the verge of failure everywhere and the theory can, therefore,
ward thrusts, θf, and backward thrusts, θb, relative to the base of the not account for wedges that are partly or transiently not at failure
wedge is then (Fig. 2b): (Lohrmann et al., 2003; Simpson, 2011; Stockmal et al., 2007; Wang
and Hu, 2006). Second, materials are assumed homogeneous and iso-
π ϕ
θf ¼ − −ψb ð9Þ tropic and memory effects through, for example, reactivation of
4 2
strain-weakened fault planes are not considered. Third, the stress
π ϕ state for wedges in the stable field is not defined, but could be ap-
θb ¼ − þ ψb ð10Þ proximated by assuming linear elasticity (Wang and Hu, 2006).
4 2
Fourth, critical taper theory explains the present-day state and overall
Critical cohesionless wedges are self-similar and have constant geometry of wedges, but does not show how the structures evolved
taper angle and stress orientation throughout their interior. This is to this state. Thrust wedges need finite deformation, averaging over
still the case for cohesive wedges which have a cohesion that in- individual deformation events, to reach a long-term state. Wang and
creases linearly with depth (Zhao et al., 1986). Wedges with a con- Hu (2006) suggest that the actively deforming, seaward part of accre-
stant cohesion have, however, a slightly concave upper surface tionary wedges cycles through critical and stable states triggered by
(Dahlen et al., 1984). An example of critical taper values for cohesion- large earthquakes and interseismic periods, respectively. The surface
less rock and sand wedges is shown in Fig. 2c. It can be seen that two slope of this outer wedge is determined by the peak basal stress in
branches exist, with a lower and an upper surface ‘critical’ slope value large earthquakes and will be established over many earthquake cy-
for any given basal dip. The maximum surface slope for dry (λ = 0) cles. In addition, the exact cohesionless solution of Dahlen (1984) re-
and subaerial wedges is the angle of repose, αmax = ϕ (Dahlen, laxes the constraint that σ1 is parallel to the wedge surface (this is
1984). Wedges that plot in the area between the two branches are possible as σ1–σ3 vanishes along the surface). For this reason, slip
stable, whereas wedges in the fields outside will deform in order to lines are planar surfaces in the exact solution (Fig. 3a). If σ1 is parallel
reach the critical taper value. Many analogue and numerical thrust to the wedge surface, however, faults become listric with dip
wedge models use a horizontal base, β = 0°. I here illustrate an exam- angle increasing upwards (Dahlen et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983)
ple for a wet subaerial wedge with ϕ = 34° (e.g., (Byerlee, 1978), λ = (see also Hafner, 1951; Hubbert, 1951) (Fig. 3b). The degree to
λb = 0.3, and ϕb = 17° (taken as ϕ/2) (Fig. 2c). For β = 0°, α is 4.6° and which faults are listric depends on basal friction. A very weak base
the critical taper angle (α + β) is therefore also 4.6°. ψb = 7.3° and (ϕb ≪ ϕ) leads to almost planar surfaces, whereas high basal friction
ψ0 = 2.6° (Eqs. 3 and 4). Forward thrusts make a 20.7° angle with (ϕb→ ϕ) results in listric faults (Fig. 3b, c). Despite the above
 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
σ1
a) Dahlen (1984)
ψ0
α = 17.8o
ψb
σ1
b) Davis et al. (1983) - high basal friction σ1
α = 17.8o
ψb
σ1
c) Davis et al. (1983) - low basal friction
σ1
α = 3.4o
σ1
Fig. 3. a) The exact cohesionless wedge solution of Dahlen (1984) has a constant stress
field throughout the wedge, relaxing the constraint that σ1 should be parallel to the
surface. This results in planar potential fault surfaces (sliplines). This example has
Φ = 30∘, Φb = 29.9∘ and β = 0∘. b) If σ1 is parallel to the upper surface, a wedge with
high basal friction will have curved fault surfaces. Φ = 30∘ and Φb = 29.9∘. c) Wedges
with low basal friction have an almost constant direction for σ1 throughout the
wedge, also in case σ1 is constrained to be parallel to the upper surface. This results
in nearly planar potential fault surfaces. Φ = 30∘ and Φb = 10∘.
limitations, the analytical solutions are powerful and fast tools to
grasp the first-order behaviour of compressional wedges.
3. Modelling brittle deformation
3.1. Analogue modelling of brittle deformation
Analogue models of brittle deformation typically use anorganic or
artificial granular materials, such as quartz sand, corundum sand,
microbeads, microspheres, but also a range of organic materials,
such as, wheat flour or crushed walnut shells (e.g. Cruz et al., 2008;
Hubbert, 1951; Lohrmann et al., 2003; Panien et al., 2006; Rossi and
Storti, 2003; Schreurs et al., 2006). The widespread use of sand as a
rock analogue is reflected in the term ‘sandbox’ model for this type
of experimental approach. Also clay has been shown to successfully
reproduce brittle structures of the Earth's crust at laboratory scales
(e.g., Cloos, 1955; Withjack and Jamison, 1986). Eisenstadt and Sims
(2005) show that dry sand and wet clay produce similar deformation
patterns, but with differences in faulting structures that might be at-
tributed to the higher cohesion and smaller grain size of wet clays rel-
ative to dry sands. The frictional properties of analogue brittle
materials at low stresses equivalent to laboratory conditions (i.e., a
few kPa) can be inferred from measurements with a ring-shear tester
(Panien et al., 2006; Schulze, 1994) or a Hubbert-type shear box
(Hubbert, 1951; Krantz, 1991; Schellart, 2000). Both approaches de-
termine the friction coefficient and cohesion from measurements of
material strength as a function of normal load, as the slope and axis
intercept, respectively, of the data in Mohr space. In general, mea-
surements with a ring-shear tester are faster and may be more pre-
cise (Lohrmann et al., 2003). Upon loading, most granular materials
that are typically used in sandbox-type modelling show limited elas-
tic deformation (since their bulk moduli are on the order of GPa), fol-
lowed by strain-hardening before failure at peak strength, after which
5
softening occurs until an often stable dynamic strength is reached
(Han and Drescher, 1993; Lohrmann et al., 2003; Panien et al.,
2006; Schanz and Vermeer, 1996) (Fig. 4a). This behaviour resembles
the stress–strain curves of rocks in compression tests (Jaeger et al.,
2007) and, together with common friction coefficients on the order
of ca. 0.6–0.7, is the main argument for macroscopic similarity be-
tween the mechanics of sandbox models and Earth's crust. Initial
compaction of a granular sample under the imposed shear deforma-
tion is followed by dilation with formation of shear bands close to
the peak strength and maximum dilation rate. The dynamic stable
state is associated with decreased decompaction rates.
The frictional properties of granular materials used in analogue
modelling experiments have large variations as shown by a survey
of sands and glassbeads used in modelling laboratories around the
world by Klinkmüller (2011). Under identical laboratory measure-
ment conditions, this study found peak angles of internal friction
which varied between 26° and 41°, and dynamic stable angles of in-
ternal friction varying between 22° and 35°. As the angles of internal
friction and strain softening impact shear zone dip angles and strain
localisation, these variations illustrate the importance of accurate
measurements of the properties of granular materials used in an ex-
periment. In addition, the peak angle of internal friction has been
shown to vary with material density, grain shape, and handling tech-
nique (Krantz, 1991; Lohrmann et al., 2003; Mair et al., 2002; Schanz
and Vermeer, 1996; Schellart, 2000). Sifted or sprinkled granular ma-
terials have a higher angle of peak friction and show more strain-
softening than poured materials. This is because sifting or sprinkling
will result in a denser packing and, therefore, higher density than
pouring (Krantz, 1991). A denser packing allows less compaction
when the material is initially loaded, but well-compacted sifted
sands show more dilation associated with the formation of a shear
band, and a larger degree of strain-softening (Lohrmann et al.,
2003) (Fig. 4a). Poured granular materials in contrast show substan-
tial initial compaction with limited decompaction in the shear band.
As a result, the dynamic stable angle of friction seems not to depend
on the handling technique, while the peak angle of friction does
(Lohrmann et al., 2003).
Cohesion is generally obtained from shear-tests by extrapolation
of the measurements towards zero normal stress using a linear re-
gression model. This may lead to high cohesion values. However,
some studies have found that the failure envelope has a convex out-
ward shape at low normal stresses (below ca. 400 Pa) and a cohesion
of 0 Pa at zero normal stress has been inferred for at least some sands
(Richard and Krantz, 1991; Schellart, 2000) (Fig. 4b). Alternatively,
Mourgues and Cobbold (2003) show that sidewall friction between
the granular material and the container can cause an overestimation
of the cohesion (and an underestimation of the coefficient of friction).
The true cohesion might be lower than reported in many shear-tests.
Panien et al. (2006) found that the dip angle of extensional shear
zones in quartz sand close to the surface would agree with a convex
outward yield envelope. However, because principal stresses are
higher in contraction (the minimum principal stress, σ3, being equal
to the overburden stress), the exact shape of the yield envelope at
low stresses will be less likely to strongly affect shear zone dip angles
in compressional-type experiments. In contraction, therefore, the ex-
trapolated cohesion probably captures the relevant part of the failure
envelope adequately.
The width of shear bands that develop after failure depends on
grain size and is observed to be between 10 and 16 times the grain di-
ameter (Hermann, 2001; Mühlhaus and Vardoulakis, 1987; Panien
et al., 2006). In granular media, the dip angle of shear bands with
the maximum compressive stress σ1 has been shown to vary between
the Roscoe (1970) angle:
θR ¼ 45−ψ=2 ð11Þ
6 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
a)
shear stress
peak strength
compacted
softening
dynamic stable strength
loose
variation of sample thickness
(compacted sand)
shear strain
Fig. 4. a) Schematic illustration of stress–strain curves for dense and loose granular materials with a compaction–decompaction curve for dense (compacted) materials superposed.
After Lohrmann et al. (2003), Panien et al. (2006) and Vermeer (1990). b) Mohr diagram for a sand-like material in contraction. σ3 is vertical and corresponds to the overburden
stress, σ1 is the maximum compressive stress, σn normal stress, τ shear stress, Φ angle of internal friction, C0 is cohesion obtained by extrapolating the Mohr yield envelope to zero
normal stress. Some sands may have zero cohesion at zero normal stress, as indicated by the dashed line.
the Coulomb (1773) angle:
θC ¼ 45−ϕ=2
and the intermediate Arthur et al. (1977) angle (see also Vardoulakis,
1980):
θA ¼ 45−ðϕ þ ψÞ=4
ψ is the angle of dilation (Roscoe, 1970):
ε_ 1 þ ε_ 3
sin ψ ¼
ε_ 3 −ε_ 1
Shear bands at the Coulomb angle follow the stress characteristics
and coincide with maximum shear stress to normal stress ratio.
Roscoe shear bands coincide with velocity characteristics (velocity
discontinuities). Coulomb angles tend to occur in fine sands, whereas
Roscoe angles are observed in coarse sands, but all shear band incli-
nations between the Coulomb and Roscoe solutions are possible
(Vermeer, 1990). These shear band dip angle solutions are valid for
initial stages, as later deformation may rotate shear bands to a differ-
ent angle. In addition, Hubbert (1951) already pointed out that shear
zone dip angle may differ between the interior of an experiment and
the sidewalls, due to friction along the sidewalls.
3.2. Numerical modelling of brittle deformation
As thrusts are a characteristic feature of wedges, numerical
models of deforming wedges need to be able to form shear zones fol-
lowing a failure criterion. This makes techniques that prescribe fault
locations a priori (e.g., through node splitting, Melosh and Williams,
1989) less suitable for these type of problems. Shear bands have
been shown to form successfully in the particle-based distinct-
element method (DEM) and in continuum methods, such as the
finite-element method (FEM) and finite-difference method (FDM).
DEM techniques simulate a material as an assembly of particles and
could, therefore, be considered intrinsically suited to model granular
materials, such as sand (Cundall and Strack, 1979). Dilation effects
(Fig. 4a) are, for example, included implicitly. However, usually the
resolution of DEM models is such that one particle in the model
b)
σ3
σ3
τ
σn 90 - θ σ1
θ
σ1
τ
C0
2θ
tanφ
σ3 σ1 σn
corresponds to several grains in an analogue model and particles
should, therefore, not be equated with grains. In addition, the macro-
ð12Þ scopic frictional properties have to be determined through calibration
experiments on the particle assembly. This latter limitation is over-
come in the stress-based DEM from Egholm (2007) where Mohr–
Coulomb failure is prescribed at the particle level. DEM models of
ð13Þ shear bands have illustrated how the nature of deformation within
shear zones depends on sorting, particle size, and particle rotations
(Antonellini and Pollard, 1995; Bardet and Proubet, 1991; Morgan
and Boettcher, 1999). The friction coefficient within shear zones in-
creases with angularity of the grains, as is shown in the 3-D DEM
ð14Þ
models with breakable grains of Abe and Mair (2009). Similar to
shear zone width depending on grain size in laboratory experiments,
shear zone width in DEM models also depends on particle size. Unfor-
tunately, it seems that the dip angle of shear bands in DEM models
has so far not been systematically addressed. It is, therefore, not
known whether in DEM models a finer particle assembly would result
in Coulomb dip angles (Eq. 12) and coarser assemblies in Roscoe dip
angles (Eq. 11), similar to what has been shown for sands in the
laboratory.
Continuum numerical methods often use a smooth version of the
(angular) Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion, in the form of the Drucker–
Prager criterion which can be written in coordinate-independent stress
invariants as:
σ e ¼ P sin ϕ þ C cos ϕ ð15Þ
σe is the effective stress
# as determined
$1 by the second invariant of the
1 2
stress tensor, σe = σ σ
2 ij ij , and dynamic pressure P is the mean
stress. Parts of the model that are not (yet) at failure behave viscous
or viscoelastic. The behaviour of material that is at yield is specified
with a plastic flow-rule that can be associated (ϕ = ψ) or non-
associated (ϕ ≠ ψ). Shear bands in continuum models depend on ele-
ment size or node spacing, but have no intrinsic length scale. This
means that shear bands can become very narrow for very fine grids.
Several solutions that introduce a length scale to shear bands have
been proposed (de Borst and Sluys, 1991; Mühlhaus and Vardoulakis,
1987; Wang et al., 1996), but these techniques have not been investi-
gated systematically for geodynamic problems. The dip angle of shear
zones in continuum models has been shown to vary between the
 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
theoretically admissible Roscoe, Arthur and Coulomb dip angles (Eqs.
11–13) and has in fact been a topic of debate for some time (Kaus,
2010; Lemiale et al., 2008; Moresi and Mühlhaus, 2006; Popov and
Sobolev, 2008; Vermeer, 1990). Lemiale et al. (2008) illustrate that a
fine numerical mesh is required to achieve the Coulomb dip angle. In
addition, Kaus (2010) shows that the heterogeneity, which is used to
initiate a shear band, needs to be well resolved (with 5–20 elements)
for Coulomb angles. This implies that shear zones that initiate from
small heterogeneities or numerical noise will have orientations close
to the Arthur or Roscoe angle. The rheology of unyielded parts was
found to be less important, though viscoelastic–plastic models in com-
pression obtain higher strain rates inside the shear bands than visco-
plastic models (Kaus, 2010).
I illustrate the sensitivity of numerical shear zone dip angle to
mesh size and inclusion size in Fig. 5 for four simple compression
a) Model set-up
free surface
60 km
2x10-11 m/s 15 km φ = 30o 15o -2x10-11 m/s
C = 10 MPa
seed
b) Reference model
c) Coarse grid 5 km
d) Small seed
e) Lithostatic pressure
strain-rate inv (1/s)
0 5e-14 1e-14
Fig. 5. Numerical sensitivity of shear zone dip angles in compression. a) The model is
60 km wide by 15 km high and is shortened by a velocity of 2 × 10−11 m s−1 at each
side. The material is incompressible (ψ = 0°) with an angle of internal friction ϕ of
30° softening to 15° and a cohesion of 10 MPa. The inclusion is viscous with ϕ = 0°. Fur-
ther input values are in Table 1. The Coulomb dip angle for this model is 30°, the Arthur
dip angle 37.5°, and the Roscoe dip angle 45°. The results are obtained with SULEC (de-
veloped by Susanne Buiter and Susan Ellis) which is an arbitrary Langrangian Eulerian
finite-element code. The quadrilateral elements are linear in velocity and constant in
pressure. Pressure is solved with an iterative penalty formulation (Cuvelier et al.,
1986). b) The ‘reference’ set-up has a resolution of 480 × 120 elements (horizontal × -
vertical), an inclusion size of 500 × 500 m (4 × 4 elements), and uses dynamic pressure
in the Drucker–Prager failure criterion (Eq. 15). The shear-zone dip angle after 25 time
steps is 31° which is very close to the Coulomb dip angle of 30°. c) A coarse grid of
100 × 25 elements results in a Roscoe dip angle of 45°. d) A smaller inclusion size of
125 × 125 m (1 × 1 elements) results in a dip angle of 37° which is as good as identical
to the Arthur dip angle. e) The use of lithostatic pressure instead of dynamic pressure in
the failure criterion results in shear zones with a Roscoe dip angle (45°).
7
models. Model details are in Table 1. Fig. 5b shows that a fine mesh
and a well-resolved heterogeneity to initiate the shear bands result
in a shear zone dip angle which is very close to the Coulomb dip
angle. A coarser mesh and a smaller inclusion lead to steeper dip an-
gles, which follows the results of Lemiale et al. (2008) and Kaus
(2010). A Roscoe dip angle results for a rather coarse mesh (Fig. 5c),
whereas a small, 1 × 1 element inclusion gives an Arthur dip angle
(Fig. 5d). The use of lithostatic pressure instead of dynamic pressure
in the Drucker–Prager failure criterion (Eq. 15) results in Roscoe
shear zone dip angles (Fig. 5e). In continuum numerical models, a
Coulomb dip angle for shear zones therefore requires a fine mesh,
heterogeneities that are well resolved, and the use of dynamic pres-
sure (mean stress) instead of lithostatic pressure in the failure
criterion.
4. Models of brittle compressional wedges
4.1. The set-up of wedge models
4.1.1. Model techniques
Models of brittle compressional wedges usually simulate a sedi-
mentary/upper crustal domain which is some kilometres thick and
several tens of kilometres wide. Analogue models need therefore to
scale up from the cm-scale of the lab to the km-scale of a natural pro-
totype. Hubbert (1937) discusses the geometric, kinematic and dy-
namic similarity relationships that need to be observed when
scaling to natural dimensions. In a brittle regime, stresses can be
scaled by requiring that the ratio of frictional strength to lithostatic
pressure is the same for model and nature:
! " ! "
σe σe
¼ ð16Þ
ρgh model ρgh nature
σe is the effective stress, ρ density, g gravitational acceleration, and h
a length scale. For example, if a length of 1 cm in a model corresponds
to 1 km in nature, angle of internal friction and density are similar for
the model and the natural prototype, and the experiment is run at
normal gravity, 10 Pa in the model would correspond to ca. 1 MPa
in nature. Numerical models can be dimensionless, at km-scale, or
at cm-scale for direct comparisons to laboratory models. Analogue
models are built by sprinkling, sifting or pouring of a granular mate-
rial into the modelling apparatus. Density, angle of internal friction
and the degree of strain-softening are not only determined by
the choice of material, but also by this handling technique (see
Section 3.1). Variations in basal friction can be obtained by using dif-
ferent materials for the base of the apparatus, such as wood, a plastic
sheet or sandpaper, or by inserting a layer of different properties (e.g.,
microbeads or viscous silicone putty) directly above the base. Numer-
ical models of brittle deformation solve for conservation of mass and
momentum, most commonly under the assumption of quasi steady-
state, which means that acceleration terms are neglected. Conserva-
tion of mass is given by:
∂ρ
þ ∇⋅ðρuÞ ¼ 0 ð17Þ
∂t
u is the velocity. An assumption that is often used is of incompressi-
bility, in which case ∂ρ∂t
= 0, and the equation reduces to ∇ ⋅ u = 0.
This implies that dilation ψ = 0, which affects the dip angle of Roscoe
and Arthur type shear bands (Eqs. 11 and 13). The equilibrium equa-
tion for slow deformation is:
′
∇ ⋅ σ þ ∇P−ρg ¼ 0 ð18Þ
σ ′ is the deviatoric stress and P is dynamic pressure. These equations
can be solved with different numerical techniques (e.g., finite ele-
ment, finite difference, or distinct element techniques) and with
8 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17

Table 1 2001; Simpson, 2009; Smit et al., 2003; Teixell and Koyi, 2003). The
Model values for the shear zone experiment of Fig. 5. wedge builds in front of the mobile wall and especially the first stages
Parameter Value of deformation will be sensitive to the shape of the strong wall, to the
presence or absence of an exit slot beneath the mobile wall and, for
Width 60 km
Height 15 km numerical models, to the accuracy of the pressure solution at
Element size 125 × 125 m the basal corner velocity discontinuity. A pre-existing wedge (e.g.,
Angle of internal friction ϕ 30° → 15° Fig. 7a) may help to form the first thrusts away from the mobile
Cohesion C 10 MPa
wall, though results point to varying success (Buiter et al., 2006;
Density 2700 kg m−3
Background viscosity 1025 Pa s Cubas et al., 2010; Schreurs et al., 2006). The wall acts as a rigid back-
Penalty (compressibility) factor 1032 Pa s stop and plays the role of an analogue to the bulldozer in the critical
Inclusion width 500 m taper theory (Fig. 2a). It represents material that is stronger than
Inclusion height 500 m the incoming sediments and could, for example, be identified with a
Inclusion angle of internal friction 0°
crystalline part of the overriding plate or with sediments that were
Inclusion viscosity 1020 Pas
Gravitational acceleration 10 m s−2 accreted in earlier phases and that are (partly) lithified (Byrne et al.,
Maximum yield stress 1 kPa 1993). The impact of the vertical backstop has been investigated in
Maximum yield stress 1000 MPa experiments that vary the backstop shape (Persson, 2001) or that at-
Strain weakening interval 0–0.1
tach plates of various thickness to the mobile wall thus placing the
Velocity V (each side) 2 × 10−11 m s−1
Time step 10 kyr basal velocity discontinuity outwards (Haq and Davis, 2008; Smart
and Couzens-Schultz, 2001). In the latter case, thrusts will form
away from the mobile wall and material can be (back-)thrust over
different resolution of the discretisation of the spatial domain. This the indentor (depending on the indentor height), forming a two-
will impact shear band width and dip angle (Section 3.2). Also, differ- sided or double-vergent wedge. As Koons (1990) pointed out, this
ent techniques can be used to apply boundary friction, for example, may be a more realistic condition than an indentor that is much
incorporating frictional layers explicitly within the model domain or higher than the thickness of the incoming material. For thin sheets at-
iterating to keep boundary shear stresses at yield (e.g., Buiter et al., tached to the mobile wall, the set-up becomes similar to a S-point ex-
2006). The results of such boundary friction techniques have so far periment (see below).
not been compared directly. In conveyor-type (pull-type) experiments, material is dragged
towards the backstop (Fig. 6b) (e.g. Agarwal and Agrawal, 2002;
4.1.2. Model set-ups Byrne et al., 1993; Davis et al., 1983; Gutscher et al., 1998b;
Fig. 6 shows examples of set-ups that are commonly used in brittle Konstantinovskaia and Malavieille, 2005; Kukowski et al., 2002;
wedge modelling. Push-type experiments (Fig. 6a) achieve shorten- Lallemand et al., 1994; Stockmal et al., 2007). The model domain in
ing by moving a mobile wall into the deformable model domain. these experiments is often much longer and more convergence can
This is probably the first type of set-up that was used in analogue ex- therefore be achieved then in a push-type experiment. Thrusts
periments of brittle thrust wedges (e.g. Cadell, 1890) and is still fre- again first form at the backstop and model results will be sensitive
quently used in analogue and numerical studies (e.g. Burbidge and to the shape of the backstop, its height, its deformability, and the
Braun, 2002; Costa and Vendeville, 2002; Cruz et al., 2010; Koyi, presence of an exit slot, similar to the situation for the push-type ex-
1995; Marques and Cobbold, 2002; Marshak and Wilkerson, 1992; periments. It is important to realise that the difference between a
Miyakawa et al., 2010; Nilforoushan and Koyi, 2007; Schreurs et al., push and a pull-type of set-up is in principle only a question of

Thrust wedge set-ups Model examples

a) Push experiment
2 km
v

b) Conveyor belt experiment

c) S-point experiment
Retro-side Pro-side
5 cm

S v

Fig. 6. Examples of set-ups used in numerical and analogue models of thrust wedges. Schematic set-ups in the left column, examples of model studies in the right column. a) In a
push-type experiment, a mobile wall is moved into the model domain. The example from Miyakawa et al. (2010) shows a distinct-element model result after 22.5 km shortening of
a 1 km thick sand-like material over a low friction base. b) In a conveyor belt experiment, material is pulled towards the backstop. The example from Simpson (2011) shows a finite-
element model after 35% convergence of a strain-weakening elastic-plastic material that is initially 5 km thick. c) In an S-point experiment, material is pulled towards a basal dis-
continuity (the S-point). The example from McClay et al. (2004) shows 51 cm shortening of a quartz sand pack initially 2.5 cm thick. All figures in the right column are reproduced
with permission from Elsevier.
 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17 9

a) Set-up of the shortening experiment Mobile

10 cm vertical wall

10o
sand

1.0 cm sand
0.5 cm sand
1.0 cm sand
0.5 cm microbeads
0.5 cm sand Velocity
discontinuity

b) Numerical results c) Analogue results

Univ. Bern

I2ELVIS

Univ. Parma
LAPEX-2D

Univ. Pavia
Microfem

PFC2D by Kyoto IFP Rueil-Malmaison

Univ. Toronto

Sopale

-40 -30 -20 cm -40 -30 -20 cm

Fig. 7. Results of the GeoMod2004 thrust wedge comparison experiment (Buiter et al., 2006; Schreurs et al., 2006). a) A 3.5 cm high sand package with an embedded microbeads
layer is shortened by a mobile wall moving into the model domain (push-type experiment, Fig. 6a). A pre-existing wedge of sand with a surface slope of 10° lies on top of the sand
layers, next to the mobile wall. b) Numerical results after 14 cm of shortening. I2ELVIS is a finite-difference model, LAPEX-2D a FLAC-type finite-difference model, Microfem and
SOPALE arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian finite-element models, and PFC2D a distinct-element model. A description of the codes is in Buiter et al. (2006). c) Analogue results after
14 cm of shortening. The sections of Bern and IFP are CT scans through the centre of the model domain, whereas the sections of Parma, Pavia and Toronto are sidewall observations.
More details of the analogue models can be found in Schreurs et al. (2006). Figures slightly modified from Buiter et al. (2006) (with permission for reproduction of the original
figure from the Geological Society of London).

reference frame in 2-D, but that boundary conditions at the lateral
walls, parallel to the shortening direction, play a role in 3-D. If the lat-
eral boundaries are held fixed, the surface strike of thrusts in a push
experiment will be convex with respect to the backstop (mobile
wall), but concave for conveyor experiments (Cubas et al., 2010;
Schreurs et al., 2006). This is caused by rotation of stresses at the lat-
eral walls, which exert a drag on the model material. 3-D push exper-
iments will as a result have steeper surface slopes at the lateral walls,
whereas conveyor experiments have shallower surface slopes at the
lateral walls, compared to the interior. The influence of the lateral
walls reduces towards the interior of the experiments. Cubas et al.
(2010) find that lateral effects disappear at ca. 8 cm from the walls,
for their analogue experiments of wedge formation in quartz sand
in a model domain of 37 × 28 × 2.6 cm. The distance of influence of
the lateral walls will depend on the model material, the sidewall fric-
tion, and the model set-up.
S-point experiments were introduced to mimic a convergent mar-
gin setting and, as a result, models often consider the entire crust
with part of the lithospheric mantle (Beaumont et al., 1999; Selzer
et al., 2008; Willett et al., 1993). This then requires that
temperature-dependent viscous creep is considered for the deeper
parts of the model. However, S-point experiments have also been
used on a shallower scale for mainly brittle models (e.g., Bigi et al.,
2010; Hoth et al., 2006; McClay et al., 2004; Naylor et al., 2005;
10 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
Simpson, 2010b; Storti et al., 2000) (Fig. 6c). In these experiments,
material is dragged towards a discontinuity (the S-point). The set-
up has as advantage that deformation occurs away from the end
walls, though the location of the first thrusts will now be controlled
by the S-point. In addition, the set-up can be modified, both in nu-
merical and analogue models, to include the effects of isostasy
(Hoth et al., 2006; Simpson, 2010b) and subduction of material out
of the model domain (Beaumont et al., 1999). I would like to empha-
sise that none of the set-up types discussed here is necessarily better
than another as this entirely depends on the research hypothesis that
is to be tested. As always, it is important to keep experimental limita-
tions in geometry and boundary conditions in mind when designing
an analogue or numerical experiment.
4.2. Quantification of model results
The discussion in the previous sections points to several model re-
sults that may be compared to geological and geophysical observa-
tions and to other models: surface slope and/or taper value, thrust
dip angle, thrust spacing, wedge width, and deformation style. The
latter is a somewhat vague description that includes characteristics
such as toe accretion versus basal accretion, out-of-sequence thrust
development, the development of long versus short thrust sheets,
and whether deformation is accommodated by a few or by multiple
thrusts. So far there seems to be no general agreement on how to
measure thrust wedge surface slopes. The surface slope of wedges
can be measured as an envelope (e.g., Davis et al., 1983), or from a
line through the tops of thrust sheets (e.g., Buiter et al., 2006;
Nieuwland et al., 2000; Schreurs et al., 2006), whereas Stockmal
et al. (2007) show that for their finite-element models a best fit to
the critical taper solution is obtained by drawing a line through the
valleys between the thrust breaks at the surface. Measuring the sur-
face slope as a line through the tops of thrust sheets, Buiter et al.
(2006) report an average difference of 3° for measurements by two
measurers. Thrusts in wedge models can be listric in shape with an
increasing dip angle upwards. This is in contrast with the constant
dip angle that is predicted in the exact solution of critical taper theory
(Dahlen, 1984). The latter theory relaxes the constraint of σ1 parallel
to the wedge surface. In models that have σ1 parallel to the surface
and that have moderate to high basal friction, listric faults are to be
expected (Section 2) (Dahlen et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983; Hafner,
1951; Hubbert, 1951). In addition, theoretical dip angles (Coulomb,
Arthur, or Roscoe, Eqs. 11–13) are relative to the direction of the max-
imum compressive stress (σ1), which is not necessarily horizontal
and this should be taken into account when comparing model thrust
dip angles to theoretical predictions. Shear zone spacing has been
found to increase with model thickness (Gutscher et al., 1998b;
Marshak and Wilkerson, 1992). This could in part be explained by
thrusts developing through reflection of shear bands between the
surface and the base of the model, as proposed by Panian and
Wiltschko (2007). In this case, thrust spacing will also depend on
thrust dip angle. The strength of the material at the base of the
model also exerts a control on thrust spacing, as a strong base leads
to short wedges with closely spaced thrusts (Mulugeta, 1988). For
numerical models, resolution also plays a role and continuum models
with finer resolution show in general more thrusts and smaller thrust
spacing than models with coarser resolution (Buiter et al., 2006). In
addition to the above results that can be determined for analogue
and numerical models, numerical models can visualise the evolution
of strain-rate, strain, stress and pressure fields inside the models,
compare values of gravitational rate of work and the internal rate of
dissipation of energy between models, and obtain flow fields and
pressure–temperature–time paths.
The comparison experiments of Schreurs et al. (2006) and Buiter
et al. (2006) illustrate the variability that can result when the same
set-up is modelled with different laboratory apparatus and different
sands, or with different numerical techniques (Fig. 7). The results of
the compressional wedge experiment show variability in the number
of shear zones that develop, shear zone dip angle, and shear zone
spacing. These ‘observables’ were measured in the same manner, by
two of the authors, and then averaged. The values of the dip angles
differed on average 2° between the measurers, with a maximum dif-
ference of 5–6°. Cubas et al. (2010) report a typical difference of 3° for
repeated dip angle measurements by the same or different mea-
surers. In the comparison experiment of Fig. 7, variability was also ob-
served in deformation style, something which is confirmed in more
recent comparison experiments which followed more strictly defined
set-ups and used identical materials (Buiter et al., 2010; Schreurs
et al., 2010). This variability in style makes it more difficult to com-
pare experiments directly, as thrusts may initiate in different places
and influence shear zone dip angle and spacing. The variability also
raises the question how the style of an experiment could be captured
in a statistically meaningful manner that would enable quantitative
comparisons.
4.3. Examples of wedge model sensitivities
4.3.1. The role of basal dip
Already in one of the early wedge mechanics papers, Davis et al.
(1983) showed that critical analogue sand models follow the theoret-
ical prediction that an increase in basal dip angle will be accompanied
by a decrease in surface dip angle. This is true for low values of surface
and basal slope (the lower of the two critical taper branches, see also
Fig. 2), for which an increase in basal dip is accompanied by a de-
crease in surface slope and an increase in taper angle. The dip angle
of potential forward and backward thrusts relative to the base re-
mains the same (Eqs. 3 and 10), but relative to a horizontal reference
surface, forward sliplines become steeper, while the potential back-
ward thrusts become shallower. Referenced to a horizontal surface,
the difference in dip between forward and backward thrusts there-
fore reduces. This may influence thrust activation and deformation
style, though few studies have systematically investigated thrust be-
haviour above a varying basal incline. Smit et al. (2003) found a
change in deformation style for brittle sand wedges that build above
basal dips between 0.75° and 3.0°. A shallow base created a wide
wedge with mainly forward thrusts, while a slightly steeper base
led to a shorter wedge dominated by forward and backward thrusts.
In their set-up, initial model thickness also increased with increasing
basal dip and it can therefore not be determined if the change in
thrusting style would not partly be related to the change in model
thickness. A thicker model may lead to larger thrust spacing
(Marshak and Wilkerson, 1992; Panian and Wiltschko, 2007), though
this would not explain the increased tendency for backthrusting with
increasing basal dip.
Boyer (1995) drew attention to the wedge building phase before
criticality is reached. Wedges that need to grow to reach a critical
taper will tend to be less wide than wedges that are critical or stable
in an earlier phase. If wedges are growing above a pre-existing in-
clined base, shallow basal dips could be associated with short
wedges as more shortening is taken up by internal deformation,
whereas steeper dips lead to long wedges. In nature, the dip angle
of the wedge base can be expected to adjust isostatically to the in-
creasing overburden during wedge building. Isostatic compensation
has been included in numerical and analogue models (Beaumont et
al., 1999; Hoth et al., 2006; Simpson, 2010b; Stockmal et al., 2007).
For these types of models, the critical state will vary during model
evolution. Stockmal et al. (2007) find that longer thrust sheets de-
velop in their finite-element model with an isostatic base relative
to an identical model without isostasy. These models also point in
the direction of a sensitivity of wedge deformation style to changes
in basal dip angle.
 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
4.3.2. The role of basal strength
Natural fold-and-thrust belts are generally characterised by a
weak basal layer (Chapple, 1978), but the character of this weak
base could vary between a shear zone or basal detachment (such as
the subduction zone fault underlying accretionary wedges), a layer
with high fluid pressure, or a weak lithological layer (such as salt in
the Zagros Mountains). The thickness, strength, and rheology (fric-
tional or viscous) of the weak base influence the deformation style
of the overlying rocks. Models with discrete or thin basal detach-
ments have mainly been used to investigate the response of brittle
wedges to changes in frictional strength of the base. This type of
models can be compared with critical taper theory, as the theory
approximates the weak base of thrust wedges by a discrete frictional
interface. I will discuss these below. Wedge models with a viscous
basal layer often have a low basal strength and many aspects of
their deformation style can be understood from a simple comparison
to wedges building above a weak discrete base. However, in models
that build above a viscous layer, the velocity-dependence of the
viscous stresses and deformation of the viscous detachment itself
may also influence the wedge model (Bonini, 2007; Costa and
Vendeville, 2002; Smit et al., 2003). In addition, most models assume
a rather abrupt change in strength between the wedge and its base, as
an analogue to a transition from natural wedge rocks to a basal de-
tachment or a weak lithological base. More gradual transitions in
strength (lithological or rheological in character) seem mainly con-
fined to larger-scale (crust- to lithosphere-scale) models (e.g.,
Beaumont et al., 1999; Selzer et al., 2008; Willett, 1999b).
A decrease in the value of basal friction in critical wedges leads to a
decrease in taper angle (which implies a shallower wedge for models
with a horizontal base), steeper forward thrusts, and shallower back-
ward thrusts (Section 2). Wedges with a weak base can therefore
expected to be wide, with a more-or-less symmetric style of thrusting
(Davis and Engelder, 1985; Huiqi et al., 1992), whereas wedges with a
strong base are narrow and dominated by forward thrusts (Fig. 8).
Several analogue and numerical models confirm that a decrease in
basal strength decreases the critical taper (Burbidge and Braun,
2002; Gutscher et al., 1998b; Koyi and Vendeville, 2003; Lallemand
et al., 1994; Mulugeta, 1988; Naylor et al., 2005; Nieuwland et al.,
2000; Nilforoushan et al., 2008; Teixell and Koyi, 2003; Willett,
1992). Quantitatively, several of these model results can be shown to
fit the predictions of critical taper theory (Fig. 9). The analytical curves
in Fig. 9 are for a dry, cohesionless wedge, whereas 7 of the 20 model
results are for a cohesive material, with cohesion varying between 20
and 200 Pa (cm-scale). The discrepancy or agreement to the analytical
b) Intermediate basal friction
5 cm
c) Low basal friction
Fig. 8. Example of the effect of basal friction on a sand wedge, redrawn from Huiqi et al. (1992). a) Basal friction 29°, basal cohesion 71 Pa, 66% contraction, b) basal friction 25°, basal
cohesion 25 Pa, 44% contraction c) basal friction 20°, basal cohesion 19 Pa, 26.5% contraction. The sand has an internal angle of friction of 29° and a cohesion of 190 Pa.
11
curves is not notably different for these cohesive results in comparison
with the cohesionless results. This may be because differences in sur-
face slope for cohesive materials relative to cohesionless materials
could be of similar magnitude as errors in surface slope measurements
or variations caused by non-stable surface slopes. The distinct-
element models of Burbidge and Braun (2002) show the largest dis-
crepancy between model results and analytical predictions. As
Nilforoushan et al. (2008) also point out for their sand models, this
may be caused by changing properties of the particle assembly (e.g.,
compaction) during model evolution or by a situation in which surface
slope has not stabilised yet and more convergence would be needed to
reach a critical taper.
The style of deformation also changes with basal friction as
backward thrusts have been shown to be more abundant for a
weak base in comparison with a strong base (Huiqi et al., 1992;
Lallemand et al., 1994; Mulugeta, 1988). Also, thrust planes are
expected to become increasingly listric with increasing basal friction
(Section 2), but this seems not to have been investigated systemati-
cally. Burbidge and Braun (2002) found that basal friction in addition
influences the style of accretion, with frontal accretion occurring for
low basal friction values and underthrusting for higher basal friction
values (see also Gutscher et al., 1998b). In their models, underthrust-
ing mainly seems to occur for wedges that have ϕb > ϕ and which are
therefore outside the existence field of the analytical theory of critical
wedges. I would speculate that the underthrusting regime occurs
when models build an internal basal thrust that would reduce the
basal friction experienced by the wedge above it to ϕb = ϕ. However,
because a weak basal detachment is one of the assumptions of critical
taper theory, this case can only be compared to the theory once the
new basal thrust is weakened by, for example, strain-softening.
Basal friction in models of accretionary wedges is an approx-
imation of the subduction interface behaviour which cycles through
stick-and-slip events (Brace and Byerlee, 1966). Wang and Hu
(2006) speculate that the topography of the outer, most seaward,
wedge is set during large earthquakes, when friction on this
velocity-strengthening portion of the subduction fault is high. In
that case, topography and taper angle might not be directly represen-
tative of a time-averaged basal friction value, but instead relate to the
maximum basal friction value experienced on the underlying subduc-
tion interface.
In summary, the effect of variations in strength of the basal de-
tachment seems to be relatively well understood. A weak base leads
to a wedge built through frontal accretion with a shallow taper
angle and a more symmetric deformation style in which the
a) High basal friction
12 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17

0o 10o 20o 30o 40o

18o
b) B27
o B39
o

o
M19

35 o

40 o

45 o
25 o

30 o
o
14

15o

20 o
o
B11
surface slope α

o
N17
o
M19 M25
o

10o
o
Bi29
o
B39 o o
18o
Ni30 K30
a) 20o 25o 30o 35o 40o 45o
o
B39 o o
N17 H29
o
14 φ = 15 o

surface slope α
6o
o
10o
N17
o
o K30
S12 o
Si30 B27 6o
o

2o B27
o
β = 0o
o λ=0
2
C=0
0o 10o 20o 30o 0o 10o 20o 30o 40o
φb φb

Fig. 9. a) Surface slope versus basal friction for a cohesionless dry critical wedge with a horizontal base. The curves are labelled for increasing values (from left to right) of angle of
internal friction. The lowest of the two permissible critical taper angles is plotted (Fig. 2). b) Numerical and analogue model results plotted on the diagram of a). Letters denote the
study: B = distinct-element models of Burbidge and Braun (2002) with C = 0 Pa, Bi = analogue model of Bigi et al. (2010) with C = 0 Pa, H = analogue model of Huiqi et al. (1992)
with C = 190 Pa (ϕ softening from 29° to 27°), K = analogue models of Konstantinovskaia and Malavieille (2005) with C = 20 Pa, M = analogue models of Mulugeta (1988) with
C = 0 Pa except C = 176 Pa for M25°, N = distinct-element models of Naylor et al. (2005) (with unknown cohesion), Ni = analogue model of Nilforoushan et al. (2008) with
C = 140 Pa, S = finite-element model of Selzer et al. (2007) with C = 10 MPa (model is on km-scale and C is approximately 100 Pa on cm-scale; ϕ softening from 12° to 6°), and
Si = finite-element model of Simpson (2011) with C = 20 MPa strain-weakening to 0 MPa (model on km-scale, C is approximately 200 Pa on cm-scale). The number after each letter
gives the angle of internal friction ϕ of the model experiment, which is constant unless otherwise noted. All surface slope measurements taken from the respective studies, except
for Burbidge and Braun (2002), where I measured surface slope from a line connecting the topographic lows.

difference in dip angle between forward and backward thrusts is re- overburden. Erosion and sedimentation may both lower the wedge
duced. In contrast, a strong base may cause underthrusting and taper angle and bring a wedge into the unstable field. The wedge
leads to a steep wedge with shallow forward thrusts and steep back- will then need to deform, possibly through out-of-sequence thrust-
ward thrusts. ing, to return to its critical taper angle.
The response of brittle thrust wedges to various types of surface
4.3.3. The role of surface processes processes has been investigated in several analogue and numerical
Erosion and sedimentation of surface materials directly change to- model studies that have resulted in a fairly good understanding of
pography and have been shown to have a feedback effect on internal the above controlling factors (Fig. 10). Erosion and sedimentation
deformation (Beaumont et al., 1992; Hilley and Strecker, 2004; processes are necessarily simplified in models and perhaps most so
Koons, 1990; Willett, 1999a). This feedback occurs through different in analogue studies that simulate discrete erosion and sedimentation
mechanisms. Firstly, surface processes affect gravitational stresses events. However, as pointed out by Hoth et al. (2006), also in nature
through a change of the overburden. For brittle wedges, this can erosion may often be non-continuous and episodic (for example,
lead to an increase in basal stresses for sedimentation (and a decrease through landslides and floods). Analogue wedge models have
for the case of erosion). Changes in the gravitational stresses also in- employed inclined (Konstantinovskaia and Malavieille, 2005) or hor-
fluence brittle strength through the associated change in dynamic izontal (Bigi et al., 2010; Persson and Sokoutis, 2002) erosion planes,
pressure. Erosion reduces dynamic pressure and can be seen as a erosion rate linearly increasing with elevation (Hoth et al., 2006) or
weakening process, whereas sedimentation is strengthening. Second- following a non-linear fluvial bedrock incision rule (Cruz et al.,
ly, surface processes can change the taper angle of brittle wedges, 2010). Numerical wedge models have used slope-dependent erosion
through the addition or removal of material at the surface and models (Stockmal et al., 2007), erosion rate depending on slope and
through an isostatic response of the base to changes in the discharge (Willett, 1999a), diffusive erosion and sedimentation

a) Effect of sedimentation (Storti and McClay, 1995) b) Effect of erosion (Cruz et al., 2010)
1) No sedimentation 1) No erosion

5 cm 1 cm

2) Intermediate sedimentation
2) High erosion

Fig. 10. a) Example of the effects of syntectonic sedimentation on a thrust wedge model. Alternate layers of quartz sand (ϕ = 29°) and mica flakes (ϕ = 23°) are shortened against a
backstop in a conveyor-belt set-up (Fig. 6b). Basal friction is 25°. Sand sediments (light grey) were added every centrimetre of contraction. Top model without sedimentation (at
57% contraction), below model with intermediate sedimentation (at 32% contraction). Redrawn from Storti and McClay (1995). Yellow layer is a marker layer for visualisation
added in the redrawing. b) Example of syntectonic erosion on a thrust wedge in a mobile backstop experiment (Fig. 6a). The model consists of 28 mm of quartz sand (ϕ = 33°)
overlying 2 mm of glass beads (ϕb = 25°). Erosion is applied every 7 cm of displacement by following a bedrock incision rule (Hilley et al., 2004). Model with negligible erosion
at top and model with high erosion intensity at the bottom. Both models at 50 cm displacement. Redrawn from Cruz et al. (2010).
 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
(Selzer et al., 2007; Simpson, 2006), and sedimentation that fills or
overfills basins (Simpson, 2010a; Stockmal et al., 2007). The appro-
priate choice of surface process law is not trivial as the location and
intensity of erosion and sedimentation exert an important control
on wedge deformation style (Cruz et al., 2008; Hoth et al., 2006;
Simpson, 2006; Storti and McClay, 1995).
Brittle thrust wedge models have shown that erosion maintains
shear zone activity, localises deformation in the eroding domain
(Bigi et al., 2010; Konstantinovskaia and Malavieille, 2005;
Konstantinovskaya and Malavieille, 2011; Selzer et al., 2007; Willett,
1999a), reduces wedge width (Cruz et al., 2010; Dahlen and Suppe,
1988), and focuses particle trajectories and exhumation (Fig. 10b).
Doubly-vergent wedges that develop over velocity discontinuities il-
lustrate how exhumation patterns focus towards the pro-side for
pro-wedge erosion and towards the retro-side for retro-wedge ero-
sion (see Fig. 6c for a definition of pro- and retro-sides) (Cruz et al.,
2008; Hoth et al., 2006; Willett, 1999a; Willett et al., 1993). Sedimen-
tation in turn has a delocalising effect on deformation through
strengthening of brittle material under increasing overburden
(Selzer et al., 2007). In contrast, analogue mobile backstop models
have found that sedimentation focuses deformation towards the
backstop (Storti and McClay, 1995). This is not necessarily in dis-
agreement with the expected delocalisation, as the area with shear
zones near the backstop may be the weaker region relative to the ad-
jacent undeformed domain that is covered with sediments (Fig. 10a).
This again illustrates that wedge evolution will not only be sensitive
to the amount of erosion or sedimentation, but also to where erosion
or sedimentation occurs.
4.3.4. The role of internal strength variations
An increase in bulk strength increases the stability field for critical
wedges, thereby reducing the lower critical surface slope and increasing
the higher critical surface slope value (Fig. 2f). As most wedges have
small tapers following the lower critical taper solution, this means that
wedges can support a larger taper angle as they become weaker. This
may perhaps be counterintuitive, but can be understood by considering
a decrease in internal strength as a relative increase in basal strength
(Section 4.3.2).
Internal strength variations in fold-and-thrust belts and accre-
tionary wedges may occur because of variations in lithology (e.g.,
evaporite or shale layers), rheology (brittle or viscous), degree of
compaction, lithification, and fluid pressures. Material compacts as
it is further incorporated into a wedge, which causes an increase in
wedge strength through an increase in cohesion. Zhao et al. (1986)
show that this would be accompanied by a reduction in critical
taper angle and, therefore, the creation of a wedge with a convex
shape. In their application to the Barbados wedge, Zhao et al. (1986)
derive a lateral increase in cohesion from negligible at the wedge
toe to ca. 15 MPa at 50–70 km away from the toe, where wedge thick-
ness is about 3 km. The role of cohesion will depend on the magni-
tude of the frictional strength, the reduction of frictional strength by
pore fluid pressures, and the depth interval under consideration. For
example, using dry elastic–plastic finite-element models, Simpson
(2011) finds only a minimal influence of cohesion on deformation
on the scale of the entire fold-and-thrust belt.
Compaction and dilation also affect the frictional strength of loose
granular materials (Fig. 4). Lohrmann et al. (2003) infer that the bulk
strength of critical wedge segments is controlled by the frictional
strength of its weakest part, which are the faults that have reached
their stable sliding strength. This then implies that comparisons of
model results to critical taper theory should really be made using the sta-
ble sliding value for angle of internal friction instead of the peak value
which is often used. As the properties of analogue brittle materials de-
pend on material type and handling, a certain degree of variability is to
be expected for models that use similar set-ups, but different materials
(Lohrmann et al., 2003; Mulugeta, 1988; Schreurs et al., 2006). In
13
addition, pre-existing heterogeneities may localise deformation and in-
fluence thrusting style (Sassi et al., 1993; Selzer et al., 2007).
Fluids have the effect of lowering effective stress, which promotes the
onset of failure. Wet wedges are therefore expected to be weaker, with a
higher taper angle. Strayer et al. (2001) coupled a fluid flow model to a
compressional finite-element model of thrust wedge formation. They
find that the presence of water facilitates failure in the wedge, reduces
basal friction and, focusses fluids within fault zones, which is in agree-
ment with analytical predictions. Cobbold et al. (2001) and Mourgues
and Cobbold (2006) pioneered the inclusion of fluids in analogue sand
models, using compressed air as a pore fluid. Their results show that de-
tachments form beneath sealing layers of low permeability, where large
fluid pressures reduce brittle strength. Décollement levels were found to
be of less importance in the S-point sand models of Hoth et al. (2007),
but drastically influence deformation style in the analogue and numerical
models of, among others, Kukowski et al. (2002); Selzer et al. (2007);
Stockmal et al. (2007) and Konstantinovskaya and Malavieille (2011).
Yamato et al. (2011) show how several internal weak layers, represent-
ing evaporites or shales, within a brittle layer bring their model to a
folding-dominated mode, as opposed to thrust-dominated for brittle
models which have a weak layer only at their base. As a general rule, a
décollement needs to be weaker than the base in order to be activated.
Other factors that may influence the activation of décollements are
their strength difference relative to the surrounding materials, their
thickness, and their orientation with respect to the stress field. Models
with décollements can show alternate activation between the internal
weak layer and the base, accompanied by basal and frontal accretion,
flat-ramp-flat shear zone geometries, duplexes, and anti-formal stacks
(Fig. 11). These structures cannot be captured by critical taper theory,
which describes an overall, average behaviour of fold-and-thrust belts,
nor by analogue and numerical models of homogeneous, isotropic mate-
rials. Results of inhomogeneous dynamic models illustrate how some of
the complex internal behaviour that is observed in natural fold-and-
thrust belts can be captured and investigated with numerical and ana-
logue models.
5. Concluding remarks
A review of brittle thrust wedge models can hardly do justice to
the rich literature that this topic has generated. Scaled analogue ex-
periments have been used to investigate brittle compressional tec-
tonics for over a century (Cadell, 1890; Willis, 1893) and are still
actively used as testified by recent research papers (e.g., Bigi et al.,
2010; Cruz et al., 2010; Cubas et al., 2010). It may in fact seem that an-
alogue models are a preferred tool, as the number of numerical stud-
ies of brittle thrust wedges is lagging behind the number of analogue
studies. This may perhaps be for a historical reason as analogue
models build on a long tradition of 3-D scaled experiments, whereas
numerical models that can accurately resolve shear zones along
which deformation can be accommodated have only become avail-
able in the last few decades (see examples in Buiter et al., 2006;
Ellis et al., 2004; Miyakawa et al., 2010; Simpson, 2011; Stockmal et
al., 2007). Numerical and analogue models could be combined to mu-
tual benefit, merging the ease of 3-D experiments in the laboratory
with accurate sensitivity analyses in numerical models.
Many aspects of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges
can be understood from the analytical critical taper theory, which
considers wedge formation in a homogeneous material that is on
the verge of brittle failure throughout. Analogue and numerical stud-
ies of thrust wedges have confirmed predictions from critical taper
theory that (see Section 4.3 and references therein):
• an increase in basal dip angle causes a decrease in surface dip angle,
• a decrease in basal strength leads to a shallower wedge and a more
symmetric thrust style through steeper forward thrusts, and shal-
lower backward thrusts,
14 S.J.H. Buiter / Tectonophysics 530-531 (2012) 1–17
a) Basal detachment layer
b) Basal and internal detachment layers
Fig. 11. Example of two finite-element models from Stockmal et al. (2007) that illustrate the influence of an internal detachment layer. A 5 km thick viscous-plastic layer (ϕ = 38°,
C = 2 MPa) is dragged over a weak base (ϕ = 3.5°, C = 2 MPa) towards a rigid backstop to the left. Basal flexure develops in response to the increasing overburden. a) Model with a
basal detachment layer. b) Model with a basal detachment in combination with an internal detachment (ϕ = 1°, C = 2 MPa). The internal detachment layer favours the formation of
longer thrust sheets. Convergence is 240 km in both models. Figures reproduced from Stockmal et al. (2007) with permission from the Geological Society of America.
• erosion promotes narrower thrust belts and exhumation, and
• an increase in bulk strength decreases surface dip angle
These trends are, therefore, robust results of wedge studies that
can confidently be used in interpretations of natural processes. A
comparison of the wedge studies discussed in this review indicates
that thrust vergence, thrust sheet length, surface slope, basal dip
angle, and wedge width could be classified as fairly reliable model
outcomes, whereas detailed thrust dip angle, number of thrusts, and
thrust spacing are variable between models, depending not only on
the physics of the problem, but also on the analogue material and nu-
merical resolution (see also Buiter et al., 2006; Schreurs et al., 2006).
As critical taper theory describes an average, long-term behaviour
of thrust wedges, analogue and numerical models can be used to
take the field a step further by analysing transient behaviour, non-
homogeneous materials, and internal deformation styles. Modelling
studies have, for example, (a) investigated wedges beyond the
existence field of critical taper solutions (Burbidge and Braun,
2002), (b) illustrated the role of internal detachment layers and ma-
terial heterogeneities (Konstantinovskaya and Malavieille, 2011;
Kukowski et al., 2002; Selzer et al., 2007; Stockmal et al., 2007), (c)
shown that surface erosion localises deformation, maintains shear
zone activity, and promotes steep shear zones (e.g., Bigi et al., 2010;
Cruz et al., 2010; Konstantinovskaia and Malavieille, 2005; Willett,
1999a), (d) found changes in thrust style with basal dip changes
(Smit et al., 2003; Stockmal et al., 2007), and (e) shown that a certain
amount of convergence may be needed (which may perhaps vary per
method) to achieve a critical taper.
Some open questions that seem to have been little addressed so
far in wedge dynamics studies concern:
• the role of basal cohesion (if any) in wedge deformation,
• whether thrusts are indeed more listric for higher basal friction,
• whether there is a dependence of shear zone dip angles in distinct-
element models on particle size,
• if different numerical techniques for implementing basal and side
friction result in the same behaviour (i.e., a benchmark study),
• which factors and processes control thrust sheet length and the role
of isostasy therein, and
• the level of model complexity that is required to reproduce struc-
tures in natural wedges.
Many thrust wedges are built on former passive margins, with
pre-existing normal faults, and lateral and vertical variations in lithol-
ogies. Does the complexity of structures that are observed in many
natural fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges require
lithological layering, pre-existing structures, and a wide range of
rheologies?
20 km
detachments
The steadily improving resemblance to internal structures of nat-
ural thrust wedges that is achieved by increasingly complex numeri-
cal and analogue studies raises the question whether a ‘minimum set’
of requirements could be found that would capture the average
longer-term behaviour of wedges (as in critical taper theory) simulta-
neously with bridging the scale between detailed upper crustal struc-
tures and larger-scale lithosphere and mantle behaviour. This would
then perhaps allow us to take the field a step further and use observa-
tions of natural wedges to constrain the deformational processes that
are involved in creating thrust belts and accretionary wedges.
Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge funding by the Norwegian Research
Council (NFR project 180449). I would like to thank Fabrizio Storti
and Timothy Horscroft for the manuscript invitation, Guido Schreurs
for many discussions on brittle wedges and analogue modelling tech-
niques, and Steffen Abe, David Egholm, Marc-André Gutscher, Boris
Kaus, Vincent Lemiale, Louis Moresi, and Tim Redfield for discussions
on various aspects of brittle behaviour. Matthias Klinkmüller send a
preprint of his manuscript on analogue material properties, and
Ayumu Miyakawa and Guy Simpson provided images of their pub-
lished model results reproduced in Fig. 6. Many thanks to Matthias
Rosenau and Boris Kaus for their constructive reviews.
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