See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/264760584

Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy [LMM]

Book · August 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3846.8486

CITATIONS READS
0 2,210

1 author:

Jonathan Darrel Price

Midwestern State University
80 PUBLICATIONS 674 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Optical mineralogy View project

Subsurface Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic rocks of the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen from Deep Drilling Penetrations View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Jonathan Darrel Price on 15 August 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy [LMM]
Jonathan D. Price
GEOS 3134 Fall 2014
Midwestern State University

Symmetry A4
of the Tower

mm m m mmm
4mm
1A4 8m
Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy [LMM]
©2014 Jonathan D. Price
Geosciences, Midwestern State University
Contents
Contents
Preface to the LMM
Introduction ....................................................... 3
Websites .......................................................... 3
Texts ................................................................ 3
Supplies needed for the lab assignments ........... 4
Lab 1 - The Symmetry Lab
Some Elements of symmetry ............................. 5
Rotation ........................................................... 5
Reflection ........................................................ 5
Inversion .......................................................... 6
Rotoinversion (3D) .......................................... 6
Orders of symmetry on inorganic crystals ......... 6
Getting oriented ................................................. 6
Writing it down.................................................. 7
Hermann-Mauguin Notation ............................ 8
Crystal habit and Euclidian geometry ................ 9
Combining forms ............................................. 9
Triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic forms . 11
3-, 4-, and 6-fold prisms (all have open base and
top)..................................................................... 11
3-, 4-, and 6-fold pyramids (all have an open base)
........................................................................... 12
3-, 4-, and 6-fold dipyramids (all closed) .......... 12
Scalenohedra and Trapezohedra (all closed) ..... 13
Tetartoidal, Gyroidal and Diploidal Forms (all
closed)................................................................ 13
Hextetrahedral Forms (all closed)...................... 14
Hexoctahedral Forms ......................................... 14
Assignment 1 Defining symmetry ..................... 17
die hölzerne Blöcke ....................................... 17
Isometric ........................................................ 18
Hexagonal or trigonal .................................... 19
Tetragonal ...................................................... 20
Orthorhombic................................................. 21
1 Monoclinic ..................................................... 22
3 Triclinic ......................................................... 23
Lab 2 - Lattices and symmetry 25
Unit Cell ............................................................ 25
Packing .............................................................. 25
Orientation ......................................................... 25
5 The planes – more orientation ........................... 25
Make your own goniometer. .............................. 27
Assignment 2 – Lattices and symmetry ............. 29
Lab 3 - 3D Symmetry on 2D paper 35
Spatial representation ........................................ 35
Get Oriented ...................................................... 35
Face up............................................................... 36
Elements of symmetry ....................................... 36
Assignment 3: Netting the Wulff ....................... 36
Lab 4 – The properties of minerals 41
The name game.................................................. 41
Specimens .......................................................... 41
Crystal Habit ...................................................... 42
Hardness ............................................................ 42
Breaking minerals .............................................. 43
Cleavage and fracture .................................... 43
Mohs hardness scale .......................................... 43
Tenacity ............................................................. 44
Specific gravity .................................................. 44
Streak ................................................................. 44
Color .................................................................. 44
Luster ................................................................. 44
Diaphaneity........................................................ 45
Magnetism ......................................................... 45
Effervescence from reaction with acid .............. 45
Taste and Odor................................................... 45
Identification procedure ..................................... 46
Assignment 4 – Properties exploration .............. 47
2

Lab 5 – Optical Mineralogy 51 Sulfates (SO4) .................................................... 83

Minerals are typically small............................... 51 Assignment 9 – carbonates and sulfates ............ 84
Optical Relief..................................................... 52 Lab 10 - Halides, Phosphates, Tungstates,
Retardation ........................................................ 53 Vanadates, Arsenates, and Molybdenates 85

Interference ........................................................ 54 Halides (Cl,F) .................................................... 85

The interference figure (uniaxial and biaxial) ... 55 Phosphates (PO4) ............................................. 85

Assignment 5 - The microscope and minerals ... 59 Tungstates (WO4) ............................................. 85

Part 1 – The polarized light microscope (PLM) Vanadates (VO4) ............................................... 86

....................................................................... 59 Arsenates (AsO4) .............................................. 86
Part 2 - The thin section ................................. 60 Borates ............................................................... 86
Part 3- Optical mineralogy............................. 61 Assignment 10 – other ‘ides and ‘ates ............... 87
Lab 6 - Framework (tecto) and Sheet (phyllo) Lab 11 – Physics is your Phriend 89
Silicates 65
Fluorescence ...................................................... 89
Framework silicates ........................................... 65
The LIBS ....................................................... 89
General categories: ........................................ 65
Diffraction ......................................................... 89
Sheet silicates .................................................... 67
Assignment 11- Applying physics to minerals .. 91
Clays .............................................................. 68
Lab 12 - Real Minerals and Symmetry 95
Assignment 6 – Framework and sheet silicates . 69
Assignment 12 – finding the symmetry in mineral
Mineral discrimination................................... 69 grains ................................................................. 95
Extinction angles and plagioclase composition Atoms Assignment A 96
....................................................................... 69
Some conceptual questions about atoms........ 96
Binary diagram – melting and solid solutions 71
Atoms Assignment B 99
Lab 7 - Simple (neso-), Double (soro-), Ring (cyclo-
More conceptual questions about atoms and
), and Chain (ino-) Silicates 73
bonding .......................................................... 99
Nesosilicates ...................................................... 73
Index of minerals covered by this book 103
Double silicates.................................................. 74
Ring silicates ..................................................... 74
Chain silicates .................................................... 74
Assignment 7 – the rest of the silicates.............. 76
A ternary and tie-lines ................................... 76
Lab 8 – Ore Minerals 79
Noble species and Common Ores ...................... 79
Replacement .................................................. 79
Native elements (Noble species)........................ 79
Common ores..................................................... 79
Sulfides (S) ........................................................ 79
Oxides (O) and hydroxides (OH)....................... 80
Assignment 8 – ores .......................................... 82
Lab 9 - Carbonates and Sulfates 83
Carbonates (CO3) ............................................... 83
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 3

Preface to the LMM

Introduction
Mineralogy is a curious mix of concept and practice. Lectures attempt to cover the concepts; labs emphasize these
concepts through hands-on practice of crystallographic analysis and mineral identification. Most of you have had an
introductory geology course, in which you were asked to learn the properties of a trivial set of minerals. In this class
we expand that set, extensively. But more importantly this lab exposes to new tools that increase your view into
earth materials. Geology is largely a practice of seeing what is obscured: the Earth’s interior, its past, or irresolvable
details large and small. The concepts and practices acquired in mineralogy should open the door for evaluating the
earth beyond what is easily seen.
If you pursue lab correctly, you will find that it will consume a significant amount of your time. This is pretty typical
in any earth science program; mineralogy lab requires much effort, and can be demanding of all students. Identifying
symmetry, evaluating structure, and classifying minerals requires practice of all. To aid you, I’ve costructed a fairly
complete laboratory book that highlights my expectations of the lab. But keep in mind that it’s only useful if you
read it; please make sure you arrive at each lab having read the material.
MSU is home to a very impressive and diverse mineralogy sample collection. As I understand it, this is largely the
work of Dr. J. Lloyd Watkins, professor from (1958-2004), as well as
contributions from Dr. John Kocurko, Professor Emeritus. The specimens in the
lab are a good mix of practical examples with some more aesthetically pleasing It should be noted your
pieces. Further, more intriguing specimens can be found throughout the first professor finds writing to
floor of Bolin Hall. You’re lucky to have access to such a collection, most be a strenuous endeavor
geology programs lack such a robust set – try to value it. – so if it is on the page,
you should probably read
The content of this manual is largely the result of my efforts, unless otherwise it.
noted. I’ve drawn heavily on your textbooks as well as other sources, some of
which you may find helpful. These include:
Websites
 Mineralogical Society of America (www.minsocam.org)
 Mindat (www.mindat.org)
 Teaching Mineralogy: A Digital Collection of Teaching Materials
(http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/mineralogy/index.html).
 Webmineral Database (http://webmineral.com/)
 Athena Mineralogy (athena.unige.ch/athena/mineral/mineral.html)
 RRUFF mineral spectral and chemistry data on minerals (http://rruff.info/)
Texts
Dyar, M. D., Gunter, M.E., and Tasa, D., 2008, Mineralogy And Optical Mineralogy, Mineralogical Society of
America, 708 p.
Greenwood, N.N. and Earnshaw, A., 2005, Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed), Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
1341 p.
Keer, P.F., 1977, Optical Mineralogy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 492 p.
Klein, C., and Dutrow, B., 2007, Manual of Mineral Science (Manual of Mineralogy 23rd ed), Wiley, New York,
716 p.
McNamee, B.D., and Gunter, M.E., 2014, Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy Lab Manual, http://bit.ly/1q6XEcD
Neese, W. E., 2003, Introduction to Optical Mineralogy, Oxford University Press, London, 370 p.
Also I drew heavily from other mineralogy courses. Particularly formative were those of David London at the
University of Oklahoma, E. Bruce Watson at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and Don Parker at Baylor University.
To these diverse and useful sources, I incorporated my own knowledge on the subject, gleaned from research on
petrology and crystallization, and from work utilizing analytical instruments to characterize mineral grains.
4

In addition to a sharp mind and a dedicated spirit, you will need a few other tools to aid your work in the lab.
Supplies needed for the lab assignments
o Hand lens or magnifier
o Scientific calculator
o Thumb tack
o Loose pencil erasers (to cover tack points)
o Ruler
o Protractor
o Good pencils
o Good erasers
o Tracing paper
o Colored pencils (at least 6 colors)
o Access to a computer
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 5

Lab 1 - The Symmetry Lab

Covered in chapter 4 in textbook (Wenk and Bulakh)
Minerals naturally express a limited number of forms, known as habit, and may break along discrete planes,
known as cleavage. Fluorite, for example, commonly exhibits a cubic habit and breaks along octahedral
planes. This is all a function of its lattice, the arrangement of atoms in the crystal.
Lattices are, by definition, geometric arrangements of atoms into a repeating structure. Repeating means that
the same structure is found throughout the mole’s worth of atoms needed to make a crystal. Repeating also
means that the structure is symmetrical – and that the atomic sites in the lattice are related to one‐another
through geometry. This is manifested in the macroscopic samples as habit and cleavage, so that symmetry is
expressed on a the scale of a hand specimen.
As it turns out, we’re fans of symmetry. Human beings are grossly symmetrical – our left exterior mirrors the
right. While we all depart from having purely symmetrical features, like those on our faces, numerous
biometrically‐based sociology studies have concluded that we generally find most attractive those faces that
more closely approach perfect left‐right symmetry. So despite our lack of conscious thought on the matter,
symmetry speaks to us.
Given the limits of three‐dimensional organization and the relatively straightforward math needed to explore
these, crystal symmetry has been explored for centuries, By 1908, we’d pretty much discovered all there is to
know about the geometries of crystals. However, because the lattice controls the properties of minerals, this
knowledge is a robust framework on which we can evaluate their behavior in natural systems.
The study of mineral structure is part of a broader subject of crystallography. Its application extends to all
latticed materials, and aspects of it are conveyed to students of solid‐state physics, inorganic chemistry,
metallurgy, and ceramics engineering. The majority of solid materials are crystalline, so understanding the
predictability of their internal structure and external form holds great value.
Some Elements of symmetry
We’ll examine external symmetry in this lab. Only three elements and one combination term are required to
describe the external symmetry of a crystal. Symmetry is applicable to two (2D) or three dimensional (3D)
patterns (or motifs). Minerals are 3D, but we will first consider two dimensional
elements, which can be faithfully rendered in simple illustrations. We will then
move on two 3D models.
Rotation
A rotational axis is a line (or in 2D a point) around which an object may be
rotated such that the features are repeated more than once in 360o (or 2π
radians). For example, if an object can be rotated 180o and appears the same as
previous, the object has two‐fold rotational symmetry. In contrast, if an object can The image on most of the
be rotated to 120o and appears the same as it did previously, and then may be standard face cards has a 2-
fold rotational axis.
rotated another 120o, and again appears as it did the previous two times, the
object has three‐fold rotational symmetry.
Symbol for rotational axis: uppercase A with a subscript indicating order
number, n (e.g. A2) or just the order number (e.g. 2)
Reflection
An image is reflected by a mirror plane (3D) or line (2D). For every point on one
side of the mirror plane or line, there exists a point on the other side at equal
distance. A reflection across a mirror
line. Note that the two fish
As mentioned above, your body generally exhibits reflection symmetry. If you silhouettes are not
hold your hands out in front of you, you can imagine a line bisecting the distance superimposable – they have
between them. Note that reflection changes the orientation of the features: your different dextralities
thumb on your left hand is on the opposite side of that on your right. This is
known as dextrality or handedness. Reflections have a predictable change in
6

orientation.
Symbol for mirror plane (line): A lowercase m
Inversion
Just like a mirror plane, an inversion point relates two identical points at equal
distance from the symmetry element. Whereas mirror planes change the
dextrality, an inversion center completely flips the orientation. Think of an optical Inversion of an image
lens – at the correct distance the image is identical but inverted (see diagram). through a lens
The focus point is the point where the object and its image converge. However,
unlike a lens, a true inversion point is equal distance from both the original and
inverted object. We refer to such points as a “center of symmetry.’
Symbol for an inversion point: A lowercase i
Rotoinversion (3D)
This fourth element is just a combination of rotation and inversion, but is strictly Inversion symmetry
3D. A rotoinversion axis occurs when you are able to rotate an object to an angle connects every point
less that 180o, invert it, and end up with it looking the same as it did at the through a single point of
convergence.
starting point. Note that a 2‐fold axis of rotoinversion is perpendicular to any
mirror plane; we note only the mirror plane because the rotoinversion axis is
redundant.
Symbol for an axis of rotoinversion: an A or number like a rotational axis, but with a macron (Ā4 or4).
When said aloud, we use the word “bar” to denote the macron (“A bar 4” or “bar 4”).

Orders of symmetry on inorganic crystals

Every macroscopic object has at least 1-fold rotational symmetry. The most irregular
shape can be rotated 360° to look the same. This simplest symmetry is shared by all
lattices. 1-fold is lowest symmetry, but is contained in all other higher forms of
A hexagon looks the same
symmetry. For example, an object with a 2-fold rotation axis (looks the same every once every 60°, 120°, and
180°) also looks the same every 360°. The same holds for a 3-fold axis. So we only need 360° rotation. We only
to note 1-fold symmetry when higher orders are absent. If a higher-order element note the higher order
contains a lower order one, then we need note only the higher order element. As a because the others proceed
from it.
further example, a hexagon looks the same every 120° (3-fold) AND every 60° (6-fold),
but we would note only that it has 6-fold symmetry, as the 3-fold is implicit.
In inorganic crystals, there are only 32 combinations of symmetry elements, called crystal classes, and they exhibit
1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, or 6-fold rotational symmetries. “Higher-order” axes is a name applied to those with more than 2-fold
symmetry (3, 4, or 6). Of the 32 classes, there 8 with no higher-order axes, 21 with one higher-order axis, and 3 with
two higher-order axes. The three classes of this latter group are known as isometric crystals.

Getting oriented
Symmetry is geometric – orientation is important. To aid us, we will be thinking of crystals a 3D objects that can be
assessed in 3D space –left-right (X), back-forth (Y), up-down (Z). You are probably already familiar with Cartesian
space, where these equally-scaled axes are applied at right angles (orthogonal) to each other. This works great for
objects with two higher order axes (the three isometric classes). But for the others, we need to change the scaling
and orientation of the axes. In mineralogy, X, Y, and Z become a, b, and c. For classes with one higher-order axis
we will use two scales for these; and for those with no higher-order axes, we use 3. And for those classes with low
symmetry, we will also consider one or all of the axes to be non-orthogonal, but instead follow the inclinations of
the structure.
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 7

Class systems
 No higher-order axes
o Triclinic - three inclined axes, a, b, and c at different scales. Exhibits lowest symmetry
o Monoclinic – one inclined axes a, b, and c at different scales. A two-fold axis, a mirror plane, or
both.
o Orthorhombic – orthogonal axes a, b, and c at different scales. 3 two-fold rotations and/or 3 mirror
planes
 One higher order axis
o Hexagonal (Trigonal) - a 6-fold or 3-fold axis (can be mapped with orthogonal axes, but we’ll use
a four axis system a1, a2, a3, and c with a two scales; the a’s are the same scale)
o Tetragonal - orthogonal axes a1, a2, and c, the latter is scaled differently. These exhibit either 4-
fold rotation or rotinversion.
 Two higher order axes
o Isometric – orthogonal axes a1, a2, and a3 all at the same scale. Has four 3-fold axes.
This may read as somewhat confusing, but it turns out to be a very natural way to deal with these geometric forms. It
means that intersections between the planes exhibited on a crystal can be treated as in a straightforward and
consistent fashion.
Because we are fans of symmetry (not just human faces – but think also art and architecture), the higher symmetry
forms are typically those most easily grasped. I advise you to start with those.

Writing it down
2D representation of a 3D object
There is a symbolic system used by crystallographers for recording the symmetry
elements of an object. You will find the following notations and symbols useful
for documenting symmetry.
Element Notation Symbol Side view
Rotational Axes
2-fold A2
3-fold A3
4-fold A4
6-fold A6
Rotoinversion Axes Top/base view
3-fold A3 Symmetry
4-fold A4 i 1A6 6A2 7m
6-fold A6
Mirror planes m
Inversion point i

Examine the image above right. Sizing up this form, we see it has a six sided column (a hexagonal prism),
capped off with a six sided point on either end (a hexagonal dipyramid). Looking at the top or base, one can
rotate it six times in a full circle and see the same pattern of edges and faces – a six‐fold rotational axis. This is
a hexagonal form. The distance from point to point is greater than that from one side of the prism to its
parallel face – we will refer the axis that runs from point to point as crystallographic axis c. It is also
coincident with the six‐fold axis of rotation.
It has one six‐fold axis of rotation. It can also be rotated twice in a circle on axes through each of the prism
faces AND axes through each of the prism edges. The form is mirrored through the center of the prism, but
also through each edge (3x) and the c‐parallel middle of each prism face (3x); for a total of seven mirror
planes. And there is a point of inversion in the center – for each edge of the prism is equal distant from the
8

center, as are the faces, and the faces and edges of the dipyramids – every feature has its duplicate across the
center on the other side. Using symbols, we write "i 1A6 6A2 7m" – note that the center of symmetry is listed
first, followed by the highest‐order rotational (or rotoinversion axes), followed by the next‐highest order,
followed by mirror planes. Coefficients in front of each element symbol tell us how many of each are present
on the form.
Hermann-Mauguin Notation
This is a geometric notation system for 3D objects that briefly conveys all of the symmetry with a unique
identifier for all 32 crystal classes. The notation system only denotes non­equivalent rotational axes and
mirror planes with 3 or less placeholders. The placeholder for a rotational axis is noted only by the fold
number, n (an A2 is 2); rotoinversion is noted by the fold number with a macron (an Ā3 is 3 . Mirror planes
are m. If the rotational axis has a perpendicular mirror plane, then the placeholder is written as a fraction,
n/m (2/m denotes a 2‐fold axis of rotation that has a perpendicular mirror plane).
Hermann‐Mauguin notation denotes each of the 32 crystal classes as a unique identifier.
 For those without higher‐order axes (triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic), the notation
accommodates up to three different non‐equivalent elements.
 For those with one higher‐order axis (hexagonal and tetragonal)
o the first placeholder in the notation is the primary direction assigned to the highest‐order
axis,
o the second placeholder is symmetrically equivalent secondary directions perpendicular to
the c axis. These can be 2, m, or 2/m.
o the third placeholder is symmetrically equivalent tertiary directions, that pass between
secondary directions, and are also 2, m, or 2/m.
 For those with two higher‐order axes (isometric)
o the first placeholder is for axes in the directions of coordinates a, b, and c
o the second is reserved for diagonal 3‐fold axes (including rotoinversion)
o the third for any diagonal directions between any two coordinate axes.

Let's take the i, 1A6 6A2 7m example illustrated on the previous page. It has a single
higher‐order axis, a 6‐fold rotational axis, and we note it as “6”. It has a single
mirror plane perpendicular to it, which makes the first placeholder “6/m”.
The second position is for perpendicular axes. There six 2‐fold axes radiating out
1A6 6m
from the center. However, of these six axes, only two are non‐equivalent. Why?
Compare the dashed 2‐fold axes to the solid ones in the diagram. Observe that the
dashed lines are merely the solid lines repeated through 6‐fold rotation – the four
dashed lines are equivalent to the two solid lines through the A6.
The selection of the secondary element is rather arbitrary for this class, but let’s
specify that the axis intersecting the faces is the secondary axis, meaning the one
Base Symmetry
that intersects the corners passes between these, and is tertiary. Each has a
perpendicular mirror plane, making the full Hermann‐Mauguin Notation “6/m 2/m 6mm
2/m”.
Lastly, the inversion point at the center of this object is merely the product of the intersection of the 6‐fold
axis with the 2‐fold axes, and does not need to be noted in the Hermann‐Mauguin notation (the notation for a
center of symmetry when non‐equivalent is 1, and that happens only in the triclinic system).
To solidify this concept, let’s consider a slightly different case, where the object lacks 2‐fold rotational axes
(shown on right) because it only has one pyramidal termination. The resulting symmetry is 1A6 6m. In this
example, there isn't a perpendicular mirror to the A6, but there are 6 mirror planes parallel to this axis. Four
mirror planes (dashed lines) are again created by the six‐fold rotation of the other two mirror planes (solid
lines) – secondary and tertiary. The resulting notation is 6mm.
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 9

Crystal habit and Euclidian geometry

The form of crystal may be quite distinctive. When crystals grow,
they assume symmetrical forms based on their internal atomic Steno’s Law (Constancy of
structure. These forms are exhibited by the faces (natural facets) Interfacial Angles): ". . . in the plane
on crystals, and the same forms can describe the arrangement of of the [crystal] axis both the
atoms in the crystalline structure. number and the length of the sides
The angles between each face are constant for each mineral. In are changed in various ways
1669, Niels Stensen (Nicolaus Steno) articulated this observation without changing the angles." [Intra
Solidum Naturaliter Contento —
on crystalline forms, providing the fundamental framework for all Dissertationis Prodromus (Provisional
crystallography. Like all scientific laws, this was based on report on solid bodies naturally embedded
repeatable empirical observations. in other solids), English translation of 1916.]

Look at a prismatic sample of quartz. The distinctive column and

spire shape of this crystal is its natural form. Looking at this specimen, one realizes that it would be useful to
be able to describe their external morphology in a consistent method applicable to all crystal forms. For that,
you will need to recall the names of three‐dimensional forms (and perhaps learn a few new ones). For
minerals there are only 48 forms used. To see examples of these, turn to Figure 4.14 in your text, and find
these on the pages following this lab.
There are two types of forms – closed and open. Closed geometric forms are completely surrounded by faces.
The cube is a common example – six sides of equal dimensions completely enclose the space they surround.
Open forms on the other hand are those that require additional forms to fully enclose space.
Combining forms
Closed forms may be all that you need to describe some crystals. Fluorite samples are commonly comprised
of one form, a cube. Garnets may be defined by a single form, too – the dodecahedron.
Open forms must be combined to make a whole. And some crystals are combinations of intersecting closed
forms. The quartz crystal’s shape is an example of the former. The column is a prism, and perhaps you might
erroneous conclude that it is a hexagonal prism (you wouldn’t be the first). However, the adjacent faces on
the column are not connected by the same angle (a subtlety that is unobservable in many specimens without
making detailed measurements), required for a hexagonal prism. But every‐other face on the column is
separated by a 30° angle, that’s a trigonal prism. The merger of the two prisms into this six‐sided column it is
a ditrigonal prism.
The spire looks like a hexagonal pyramid, but if the adjacent column sides are separated disproportionate
angles, so are the adjacent baselines of the spire. To make
matters worse, some (most) quartz crystals are missing
information ‐ quartz crystals ideally have two identical ends,
although most do not show it because growth typically starts
on outwardly from the edge of the crystal cavity. With both
ends present, you might conclude that the quartz spires are a
trigonal dipyramid (Fig 4.14, second page, first row). But
careful measurement would reveal the distance between any
two opposing corners are equal to the distance between the top
and bottom points, less the length of the prism. Thus the spire
is two rhombohedrons combined together (r, z). There are also
two smaller faces repeated through three‐fold symmetry –
these are a trigonal trepezohedron (x) and a trigonal dipyramid
(s). And some quartz crystals have a left‐ward projection to the
point, and others are rightward. This is known as dextrality in
quartz (left handed vs. right handed) and reflects a slight shift
in the lattice.
Although quartz is distinctive and familiar, the forms of quartz Dexterity or handedness of quartz. The difference is
are difficult to grasp. So if you are puzzled by the above subtle (Klein and Dutrow, 2007).
10

description, don't worry. Many crystalline forms are complicated, and most large specimens (ones you can
see without a microscope) do not exhibit their ideal forms due to the accumulation of small defects in their
structure. To start with, we will examine some forms that are easier to comprehend and do so with idealized
forms using carefully constructed models.
The 48 Special Crystal Forms (from Steven Dutch, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay)
Triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic forms
Open forms

Closed forms

3­, 4­, and 6­fold prisms (all have open base and top)
12

3­, 4­, and 6­fold pyramids (all have an open base)

3­, 4­, and 6­fold dipyramids (all closed)

GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 13

Scalenohedra and Trapezohedra (all closed)

Tetartoidal, Gyroidal and Diploidal Forms (all closed)

14

Hextetrahedral Forms (all closed)

Hexoctahedral Forms
Assignment 1 Defining symmetry
1. Mark the diagrams below with mirror lines and rotational points. Additionally, use the
shorthand notation to describe all of the marked elements.

W S
die hölzerne Blöcke
2. Examine the wooden blocks that represent examples of the 48 crystal forms.

3. Look at model 80, a quartz – what is its dextrality?

4. Work through the samples of wooden blocks (3D model ­ precision crafted in Deutschland).
You need to do one example from each of the 6 systems.
 Determine all of the elements of symmetry for the block and determine all of the
forms that the block exhibits.
 Write down the number of the block and list the symmetry attributes.
 Write the Hermann­Mauguin symmetry notation for the block’s crystal class.
 List the forms
 Draw an illustration of the block. Make your drawing large and neat (use a
straightedge).
 annotate the illustration with the correct symbols for the symmetry elements, and
label each form.
Feel free to work in groups – but everyone needs to construct an individual answer sheet.
18

Isometric
Block #:

Symmetry attributes:

Crystal class (Hermann­Mauguin):

Forms:

Annotated Drawing:
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 19

Hexagonal or trigonal
Block #:

Symmetry attributes:

Crystal class (Hermann­Mauguin):

Forms:

Annotated Drawing:
20

Tetragonal
Block #:

Symmetry attributes:

Crystal class (Hermann­Mauguin):

Forms:

Annotated Drawing:
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 21

Orthorhombic
Block #:

Symmetry attributes:

Crystal class (Hermann­Mauguin):

Forms:

Annotated Drawing:
22

Monoclinic
Block #:

Symmetry attributes:

Crystal class (Hermann­Mauguin):

Forms:

Annotated Drawing:
GEOS 3134 Laboratory Manual for Mineralogy 23

Triclinic
Block #:

Symmetry attributes:

Crystal class (Hermann­Mauguin):

Forms:

Annotated Drawing:
 Lab 2 - Lattices and symmetry

Unit Cell fact, once we recognize the differences in

distances between the atoms, we may scale each
Minerals are crystallographic solids and therefore axis to conveniently fit the atomic spacing, so that
are made of atoms arranged into lattices. The each atom is one unit apart on its respective axis.
average size hand specimen is made on the scale Additionally, because in the systems that have the
of 1023 atoms, so the lattice of a single crystal is same spacing in two or more directions
spatially extensive. To simplify, we need to only (tetragonal, hexagonal, rhombohedral, and
show enough of the lattice to understand the isometric), we may refer to the equivalent axes all
repeating pattern. Thus most minerals are defined
structurally by a simple subset of the lattice
known as the unit cell.
Packing
As it turns out, there aren’t that many ways to
bring atoms together. There are three basic
structures and a series of derivative structures
associated with them. These can be easily
modeled as rigid spheres.
Note too that we can also think of spaces within
the simple and closest packing models. Atoms are
not all the same size, and in some instances the
packing model best describes one or more of the
elements of a polyatomic compound. We may
consider configurations where cations are
modeled by imaginary spheres within some of the
interstices between the spheres.
The 14 configurations known as the Bravais lattices
(see last page of this lab) define all possible
as a axes, because you can’t tell them apart.
symmetries for the arrangement of atoms in nature.
All of this means we can orient ourselves quickly
regardless of which lattice we are discussing. At
left is an example of labeling positions for the
Cubic I (body‐centered cubic) lattice. All of the
labels follow an (a,b,c) or (a1, a2, a3) format.

The planes – more orientation

Orientation
Look carefully at the Bravais lattice diagrams.
Note that the spatial axes a, b, and c are
conveniently altered to fit the space needed to
define the lattice. For example, the triclinic axes
are defined to be non‐perpendicular; the value of
each angle depends on the lattice arrangement. In
the hexagonal example, we may even invoke three
axes normal to the up‐down c axis to more easily
define the relationships between the atoms. In
The sides of the lattices form planes, and there are
planes to be found by “connecting the dots” in a
number of directions. The planes turn out be
incredibly useful features for two reasons: 1).
Lattice planes may manifest themselves at the
macroscopic scale as facets and cleavage planes,
and 2). X‐rays will diffract at specific angles as
controlled by the internal planar structure of the

View publication stats