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Emotional and psychological well-

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being in children: the development
and validation of the Stirling Children’s
Well-being Scale
a a
Ian Liddle & Greg F.A. Carter
a
Stirling Council Educational Psychology Service, Stirling Council,
Stirling, UK
Published online: 18 Mar 2015.

To cite this article: Ian Liddle & Greg F.A. Carter (2015) Emotional and psychological well-being in
children: the development and validation of the Stirling Children’s Well-being Scale, Educational
Psychology in Practice: theory, research and practice in educational psychology, 31:2, 174-185, DOI:
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 Educational Psychology in Practice, 2015
Vol. 31, No. 2, 174–185, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2015.1008409

Emotional and psychological well-being in children: the

development and validation of the Stirling Children’s Well-being
Scale
Ian Liddle* and Greg F.A. Carter

Stirling Council Educational Psychology Service, Stirling Council, Stirling, UK

The Stirling Children’s Well-being Scale (SCWBS) was developed by the

Stirling Council Educational Psychology Service (UK) as a holistic, positively
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worded measure of emotional and psychological well-being in children aged

eight to 15 years. Drawing on current theories of well-being and Positive
Psychology, the aim was to provide a means of measuring the effectiveness of
interventions and projects designed to promote children’s well-being and
emotional development.

A total of 18 schools and 1849 children participated in the construction and

validation of the scale, which ultimately emerged as a short, robust measure
comprising 12 items. The scale is offered for use by educational and health pro-
fessionals interested in promoting and measuring the emotional development and
well-being of children and the effectiveness of interventions.
Keywords: children’s well-being; scale construction; evaluation; emotional
development; positive psychology

Introduction
The Stirling Children’s Well-being Scale (SCWBS) was initiated by the Stirling
Council Educational Psychology Service with the objective of creating a holistic,
positively worded scale measuring emotional and psychological well-being (PWB)
in children aged eight to 15 years.
Arising from research and practice by Stirling Council Educational Psychology
Service over several years involving children’s emotional and psychological
development, there appeared a manifest need for a positively-framed measure that
could gauge the effectiveness of interventions and projects promoting children’s
well-being. The majority of currently available scales tend to focus on mental illness
rather than on well-being (van Dierendonck, 2004; Keyes, 2002; McDowell, 2009;
Ryan & Deci, 2001; Springer & Hauser, 2006; Tennant et al., 2007). In addition,
current well-being scales are rarely applicable to a child population.
Historically the understanding of what constitutes well-being has been a very
long and lively debate, essentially focusing on two predominant views; the hedonic
and the eudaimonic perspectives (van Dierendonck, 2004; Keyes, 2002; McDowell,
2009; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Springer & Hauser, 2006; Tennant et al., 2007). Ryan

*Corresponding author. Present address: Ian Liddle, 9 Scott Drive, Cumbernauld G67 4LB,
UK. Email: liddle.ian@gmail.com

© 2015 Association of Educational Psychologists

 Educational Psychology in Practice 175

and Deci (2001) described the distinction thus: hedonic well-being is primarily
concerned with the immediate states of pleasure and happiness, and eudaimonic with
the actualization of human potential. The modern encapsulation of hedonic
well-being can be seen in what is often termed “subjective well-being” (SWB) (van
Dierendonck, 2004; McDowell, 2009; Springer & Hauser, 2006; Tennant et al.,
2007). SWB is seen to comprise life satisfaction, the presence of positive mood, and
the absence of negative mood (Ryan & Deci, 2001). PWB, however, is based on the
eudaimonic perspective and is seen as having the components of autonomy, personal
growth, self-acceptance, life purpose, mastery, and positive relatedness (Ryff &
Keyes, 1995). Thus, there have been conflicting approaches to the concept of well-
being, and therefore to its measurement. Neither can claim to have encapsulated a
concept which has universal acceptance. Additionally, there has been a dearth of
research into the concept as it applies to children and young people.
Although historically these have been perceived by some to be opposing per-
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spectives, there is a growing consensus that it is the combination of the earlier men-
tioned that constitutes a more complete understanding of general PWB (van
Dierendonck, 2004; Keyes, 2002; McDowell, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Springer &
Hauser, 2006).
This can be evidenced in the World Health Organisation’s (WHO’s) definition of
positive mental health, which is “a state of well-being in which every individual
realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his commu-
nity’ (WHO, 2014, p. 1). Positive mental health is often interchangeably used with
PWB to connote overall well-being. Therefore, for the sake of clarity, the holistic
view of well-being incorporating both SWB and PWB will simply be described as
“psychological well-being (PWB)” in this paper.
It is worth exploring the WHO’s use of the phrase positive mental health further
as it highlights a key issue in today’s psychology. Exponents of Positive Psychology
have argued that much of modern psychology is deficit-based (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) and is excessively focused on researching the prevention or
“cure” of mental illnesses. They contend that there is a need to understand and pro-
mote positive emotion, positive character and positive institutions, and to focus on
well-being as a positive measure of healthy functioning (van Dierendonck, 2004;
McDowell, 2009; Springer & Hauser, 2006; Tennant et al., 2007). Further research
into well-being has provided some evidence to support the notion that PWB is on a
separate dimension to mental illness rather than at the opposite end of a continuum
(McDowell, 2009; Keyes, 2002).
In the development of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale
(WEMWBS) (Tennant et al., 2007) and the WHO (five) Well-being Index (Bech,
2004) both highlight the importance of using positively worded questions in order to
measure positive aspects of PWB. The decision within Stirling Council Educational
Psychology Service to pursue the development of a scale of PWB for children also
arose directly from this thinking.
An additional consideration when extending such measures to a child population
is to take account of the possible susceptibility of some children to providing
answers that are socially desirable or that fall victim to response set (Long, 1972;
Merrell, 2007). The structure of the scale and the inclusion or exclusion of nega-
tively worded items will be explored further in the design section of the report. The
 176 I. Liddle and G.F.A. Carter

aim of the study was therefore to construct a scale that measured positive changes in
children’s well-being, and that was based on Positive Psychology principles.

Design of the SCWBS

In the development and validation of a scale there are a number of key requirements
that should be met, namely: face validity, construct validity, internal reliability,
external reliability, and sensitivity (Coolican, 2009). Face validity deals with whether
the scale looks as though it is measuring what it intends to measure. Construct valid-
ity indicates whether the scale measures what it is intending to measure and is nor-
mally tested by comparing the scale to an existing one. Internal reliability indicates
whether the items in the scale are consistently measuring the same construct, and
external reliability assesses whether the scale consistently measures the same con-
struct over time. Lastly the sensitivity of the scale indicates whether it can measure
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any changes or can discriminate between groups.

For there to be a good degree of face validity, not only does the scale need to
look like it measures what it intends to but there needs to be a clearly defined theo-
retical construct of what it is that is being measured. This normally entails drawing
upon current theoretical understanding and additionally undertaking qualitative
research in order to determine what people’s perception of that construct is.
In researching the theoretical underpinnings of PWB there appeared to be very lit-
tle background research into what constituted PWB for children, and how this might
evolve through the stages of development towards adulthood or even differ from
adulthood. The majority of the available research was focussed on adult models of
well-being or of mental illness in children. In order to form an initial theoretical
understanding of the possible components of PWB in children, adult models were
adapted into a scale suitable for children aged between eight and 15 years. In order to
ensure that the items were suitable and relevant to children’s well-being the items
were administered to children in an initial trial and then assessed in light of their feed-
back. Items that children found difficult or had meanings that were open to different
interpretations were altered or omitted. This ensured that the resulting scale was
understood by children and was perceived by children to be a measure of well-being.
In looking at the structure for the key components of well-being in children, the
study looked to the components of SWB and PWB. Researchers developing the
WEMWBS based their scale largely on a meta-analysis carried out in 1983 by
Kammann and Flett, where through regression analysis 10 aspects of well-being
were identified (Tennant et al., 2007). Tennant et al. (2007) have termed SWB and
PWB as mental well-being (MWB). The aspects identified were: confidence, useful-
ness, interest in life, problem solving, autonomy, positive relationships, thinking
clearly and creatively, energy, happiness, and optimism. Through their own analysis
Tennant et al. (2007) derived the following structure: positive affect comprising feel-
ings of optimism, cheerfulness, and relaxation; satisfying interpersonal relationships;
and positive functioning comprising of energy, clear thinking, self-acceptance, per-
sonal development, competence, and autonomy. The Tennant et al. (2007) analysis
presented itself as a neat breakdown of the components of a positive and holistic
approach to MWB. Considering the lack of available theory on children’s positive
well-being, these aspects were used as a basis for the SCWBS’s initial development.
Overall 24 statements were constructed for an initial scale. The scale items them-
selves were based on each of the earlier components and sub-components. A scale
 Educational Psychology in Practice 177

item consisted of a statement written in the first person that was designed to
encapsulate that component in language that is easily understood by a child with an
average reading age for an eight year old (Davis-Kean & Sandler, 2001). The state-
ments were to be rated on a five-point Likert scale with the first response being
“never” and the last response being “all of the time” (see Appendix 1 for Likert
scale ratings). A number of statements were created for each of the components in
order to allow for wastage.
Response set is more prevalent in younger children although studies have shown
that it only becomes a major detrimental factor to reliability for children aged below
eight years (Chambers & Johnston, 2002). In order to control for response set and
socially desirable responses, negatively worded questions were to be trialled. If they
were seen to be more linked to measures of mental illness, or weakened the
reliability of the scale, the incorporation of a Social Desirability indicator would be
considered as an alternative.
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Study design
A key objective in the study was to create a scale that was accessible to school-age
children. The method of delivery therefore was that an adult read out the statements
one at a time to groups of children, who responded either by pressing a button in
the electronic version, or circling their answer in the paper form. In addition the
scale was piloted with a small number of young children who gave individual feed-
back by providing their interpretations of the statements and suggestions on how to
make them clearer. These children also tested the ease of answering the statements
electronically.
Following this pilot stage, the study comprised two phases. Phase one of the
study looked in detail at the 24 item scale, with the objective of improving its inter-
nal reliability by reducing and refining the items. It would also assess the impact of
negatively-worded items on overall results. A second phase aimed to assess the con-
struct validity and internal reliability of the revised scale while further testing for
external reliability. The sensitivity of the scale could not be tested as this would
involve running a further study discriminating between two known groups, which
was beyond the time limits of the study.
At all stages consent to take part in the study was obtained through an opt-out
sampling method. An information pack containing a description of the study and its
aim, contact details of the researchers and an opt-out consent form was sent to all
children and parents in the selected schools, to be returned if they did not wish to
participate. Each child was assigned a unique participant number, which was the
only identifier known to the researchers. At no point were any child’s individual
results relayed back to teachers or parents. Children’s responses were kept in a
secure location. Where children were taking part in pre- and post- testing measures,
teachers were tasked with keeping a record of participation numbers for matching
purposes. Additionally, further verbal consent was obtained from all the children
before taking part in any session.

Phase one
The objective of Phase one was to construct the scale, to assess its internal reliability
and to make any necessary adjustments. The internal reliability of the scale was
 178 I. Liddle and G.F.A. Carter

determined by using factor analysis with a benchmark Cronbach’s alpha value set at
greater than 0.8.

Participants
The items forming the initial scale were administered to Primary 4 to Secondary
Year 4 (Year 3 to Year 10) children across 12 schools in the Stirling Council area.
All the children were administered the scale unless they or their parents opted out.
In the secondary school the participants were chosen by convenience of their respec-
tive class timetables. The schools ranged from rural to urban and from affluent to
deprived catchment areas, in order to reflect a representative cross-section of the
Stirling schools Population.

Procedure and materials

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The scale was administered to the participants using PowerVote, which is an elec-
tronic voting system where participants are able to assign values to the scale items
using a remote keypad. For the study a PowerPoint presentation was written that
incorporated the initial SCWBS. The presentation gave an overview of the study,
instructions on using the keypads and two practice questions in order for the partici-
pants to familiarise themselves with the keypads and the Likert ratings. The practice
questions were of lifestyle activities that related to the last two weeks but were not
measuring aspects of well-being. The practice statements comprised a positively
worded and a negatively worded statement. For the main part of the study each
statement of the SCWBS was then projected onto a white screen and read out to the
participants. The participants were again clearly told that the statements related to
the past two weeks both in and out from the school setting. The participants could
then rate their response to the statement using their keypads.

Results
The scale was administered to 1162 participants of whom 11 participants were shown
to have response set/socially desirable answers by answering only five, three, or one
for all of the items regardless of whether they were negative or positively worded
statements. The resulting sample size was equal to N = 1151. Of the 1151 participants
48% were female and 52% male. The breakdown of participants by age was seven
years = 7, eight years = 179, nine years = 238, 10 years = 243, 11 years = 264,
12 years = 45, 13 years = 58, 14 years = 45, 15 years = 69, and 16 years = 3.
Overall the distribution of scores showed a distribution with a small negative
skew and positive weighting (skewness −0.609, 0.072; kurtosis 0.342, 0.144) (see
Figure 1).
An initial inspection of the dispersion of scores for each item indicated that there
were ceiling effects occurring in some statements. It was decided to omit those state-
ments showing strong ceiling effects from the final scale in order to maximise the sen-
sitivity to positive changes and to promote a normal distribution. Seven items were
omitted. On further inspection when the items on the scale were broken down by age
there was a higher tendency for ceiling effects in responses from younger children.
An ad-hoc Pearson’s correlation between age and overall score on the initial SCWBS
showed a weak but significant negative correlation (r = −0.060, N = 1151, p = 0.02)
indicating that with the increase in age there was a decrease in the overall score.
 Educational Psychology in Practice 179
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Figure 1. Distribution of scores for the initial SCWBS scale.

Internal reliability. Factor analysis was run to test the scale’s internal reliability and
to assess whether any items could be omitted to improve the overall reliability of
the scale. In particular, negatively worded items appeared to lower reliability. The
decision was taken to remove negatively-worded items and consider the introduction
of a Social Desirability indicator at the secondary stage of the study. This reduced
the scale to 12 items ignoring items 2, 7 and 13 which do not measure children’s
well-being and can be computed seperately in all (see Appendix 1). The resulting
scale showed good internal reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.823, over the
benchmark of 0.8.

Phase two
The second phase of the study examined the 12 item scale’s internal reliability, con-
struct validity and external reliability. External reliability was assessed by conduct-
ing a test–retest analysis using a Pearson’s correlation with a benchmark correlation
greater than r = 0.7. The retest was administered one week after the initial test was
undertaken. The construct validity of the SCWBS was tested for the primary aged
school children using the WHO (five) and the secondary aged children using the
WHO (five) and the Dubois Self-esteem scale (Hirsch & Dubois, 1991).
A three-item Social Desirability indicator (items 2, 7 and 13) was incorporated
into the scale, to give an indication of any children perhaps lacking the necessary
discrimination to participate (see Appendix 3).
 180 I. Liddle and G.F.A. Carter

Participants
For the second phase the SCWBS including the Social Desirability indicator was
administered to 701 children again aged from eight to 15 (Year 3 to Year 10), across
six schools within the Stirling Council area, five primary and one secondary. A
record was kept by the class teachers of each child’s participant number based on
the keypad that they used, in order to match initial scores and retest scores, while
ensuring anonymity. All the primary school children between the years of Primary 4
and Primary 7 (Year 3 to Year 6) were administered the scale unless they had opted
out. In the secondary school the participants were chosen by convenience of their
respective class timetables. The schools again ranged from rural to urban and from
affluent to deprived catchment areas.

Procedure and materials

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All three scales (SCWBS, WHO (five), Dubois Self-esteem scale) were administered
to the participants using PowerVote and followed the same procedure as in the initial
study.

Results
The scale was administered to 701 children of whom 13 were excluded due to
response set/socially desirable responses determined by the scores on the Social
Desirability scale and a further visual inspection of the responses. The distribution
of scores again showed a somewhat negatively skewed and positively weighted
curve (skewness −0.446, 0.109; kurtosis 0.388, 0.217). The mean (M) score for the
SCWBS was M = 43.51 with a standard deviation (SD) = 6.66. There were no
indications of ceiling effects for the scale items.

Internal reliability. Using factor analysis the scale showed further signs of good
internal reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.847.

Construct validity. The construct validity was assessed by a Pearson correlation with
the existing scales, the WHO (five) and the Dubois Self-esteem scale. The SCWBS
had a strong significant positive correlation with the WHO (five) above 0.7 and a
strong significant positive correlation of 0.694 with the Dubois Self-esteem scale
(see Table 1). These results indicate that the resulting scale has good construct
validity.

External reliability. The external reliability of the scale was tested using the test–
retest method. A Pearson correlation was run between the initial test scores and the
retest scores taken a week later. The analysis showed a strong significant correlation
between the initial scores and the retest scores (r = 0.752, N = 232, p < 0.01) show-
ing that the scale had good external reliability.

Discussion
The authors readily accept that there is a continuing and unresolved debate about
both the nature and the measurement of PWB, and that designing an instrument to
gauge such a measure in children and young people is perhaps entering uncharted
 Educational Psychology in Practice 181

Table 1. Pearson correlations for construct validity.

Dubois
WHO Self-esteem
SCWBS (five) Scale
SCWBS Pearson correlation 1.000 0.742 0.692
significance 0.001 0.001
(two-tailed)
N 492 467 274
WHO (five) Pearson correlation 1.000 0.569
significance 0.001 0.001
(two-tailed)
N 562 274
Dubois Self-esteem Pearson correlation 1.000
Scale
significance 0.001
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(two-tailed)
N 274

territory. This said, using the WHO scales and the WEMWBS as a starting-point
and a two-phased process of refining and adapting items in a pragmatic way with
children was perhaps justified. The resulting scale consisted of 12 items covering
the originally hypothesised components of Positive Affect including optimism,
cheerfulness and relaxation; satisfying interpersonal relationships; and Positive
Functioning including clear thinking and competence (see Appendix 1). Closer
inspection suggested that the scale comprised two sub-components that could be
described as Positive Emotional State and Positive Outlook (see Appendix 2) which
would fit with the theory of there being two types of PWB, namely Subjective
(Hedonic) Well-being and Psychological (Eudaimonic) Well-being. Following the
removal of negatively worded items it was decided to include a social desirability
indicator in order to detect response set/socially desirable responses and to encour-
age active engagement with the items (see Appendix 3).
The 12-item scale showed good internal reliability, construct validity and exter-
nal reliability. The distribution showed little in the way of ceiling effects allowing
for positive change to be measured. Overall the SCWBS looked to be a robust scale
that is easy to administer, and straightforward for children to complete.
Sensitivity to change is an area that unfortunately could not be assessed in this
study, and it is acknowledged that this is a major shortcoming in a study purporting
to develop a credible scale; however indications were good that the scale will be
sensitive and have a discriminant quality. This can be seen in the dispersion of
scores across age groups and a clustering of scores at the 30 value indicating a lack
of positive mental health and potentially poor mental health. In keeping with posi-
tive psychology principles, the scale is not primarily intended for use as a diagnostic
instrument; however the response set sub-scale does offer some safeguard, and it is
possible that children exhibiting low scores on the main scale could be given access
to further consultation. Further research would be necessary to establish the
parameters of this effect.
In terms of the initial aims of the project, the analyses completed to date can be
claimed to justify the use of the SCWBS as a suitable measure to establish levels of
well-being. In the educational context, the implications of having such a measure
 182 I. Liddle and G.F.A. Carter

are wide-ranging. Its ease of administration and scoring would lend itself to
whole-school or authority-wide surveys of PWB, monitoring of trends and inter-
group comparisons. For example, changes in children’s feelings of well-being over a
period of transition between primary and secondary education would be revealing.
A major application of the scale, additionally, would be in investigating the
effectiveness of educational interventions, in their broadest sense, on children’s
well-being and mental health and their relationship to educational attainment and
achievement. The impact of personal and social education (PSE) programmes, of
raising self-esteem interventions, of anti-bullying initiatives, and of peer support pro-
grammes, are some examples. The fact that the scale does not have connotations of
failure or negative self-concepts is a major advantage in its acceptance by the chil-
dren participating and by their parents. The scale stands alongside well-being mea-
sures such as the WHO (five) and the WEMWBS and should prove particularly
useful for educational and mental health professionals working with children and
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young people. (Details of the WHO (five) scale can be viewed on the WHO website
at http://www.pro-newsletter.com/images/PDF/qoln32.pdf.)

Conclusion
The SCWBS was founded on a positive psychological perspective measuring posi-
tive aspects of well-being as opposed to a deficit-based mental health model. It
proved to be a reliable and valid measure of well-being meeting the benchmark cri-
teria set out for validating measures. The resulting SCWBS consisted of 12 items
measuring emotional and PWB and three items forming a social desirability sub-
scale. With further research the scale’s sensitivity and discriminant validity may be
established from which some diagnostic features may emerge. Whilst its use elec-
tronically gave enhanced access to children with reading difficulties and younger
children, the scale is eminently suitable for paper and pencil testing, Overall the
scale should provide educational professionals with a concise and robust measure of
well-being in school-age populations, and an assessment of the effectiveness of pro-
jects and interventions for children aged from eight to 15 years.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the schools who agreed to participate in this study and the
children who engaged happily with the Scale at all stages. The authors would also like to
thank Stirling Council for permission to carry out the study in its schools. Disclosure
statement: Neither author has any financial interest or benefit arising from the direct applica-
tions of the research.

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Appendix 1. The Stirling Children’s Well-being Scale (SCWBS)

Here are some statements or descriptions about how you might have been feeling or thinking
about things over the past couple of weeks.
For each one, please circle the number which best describes your thoughts and feelings;
there are no right or wrong answers.

Not much Some of Quite a lot All of

Statements Never of the time the time of the time the time
1 I think good things will 1 2 3 4 5
happen in my life
2 I have always told the truth 1 2 3 4 5
3 I’ve been able to make 1 2 3 4 5
choices easily
4 I can find lots of fun things 1 2 3 4 5
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to do
5 I feel that I am good at 1 2 3 4 5
some things
6 I think lots of people care 1 2 3 4 5
about me
7 I like everyone I have met 1 2 3 4 5
8 I think there are many 1 2 3 4 5
things I can be proud of
9 I’ve been feeling calm 1 2 3 4 5
10 I’ve been in a good mood 1 2 3 4 5
11 I enjoy what each new day 1 2 3 4 5
brings
12 I’ve been getting on well 1 2 3 4 5
with people
13 I always share my sweets 1 2 3 4 5
14 I’ve been cheerful about 1 2 3 4 5
things
15 I’ve been feeling relaxed 1 2 3 4 5
Each item is scored one to five.
The minimum for the scale is 12 and the maximum 60. Currently the mean average score is
44 with 50% of all scores within the range of 39 and 48.
Items 2, 7 and 13 do not contribute to the SCWBS score.

Appendix 2. Key to SCWBS sub-components

Well-being sub-component
Positive emotional state
Positive outlook
Item Related item on the SCWBS
9 I’ve been feeling calm
14 I’ve been feeling cheerful about things
15 I’ve been feeling relaxed
10 I’ve been in a good mood
12 I’ve been getting on well with people
11 I enjoy what each new day brings
8 I think there are many things that I can be proud of
5 I feel that I am good at some things
1 I think good things will happen in my life
4 I can find lots of fun things to do
6 I think lots of people care for me
3 I’ve been able to make choices easily
 Educational Psychology in Practice 185

Appendix 3. Social desirability indicator

Item Related item on the SCWBS

2 I have always told the truth
7 I like everyone I have met
13 I always share my sweets
Each item is scored one to five.
Overall scores of three or 14/15 on this indicator would indicate that the participant’s
well-being scores should be treated with caution.
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