THE MODERATING ROLE OF SOCIAL

NETWORKING USE ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF

SUBJECTIVE LONELINESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
WELL-BEING AMONG GENERATION Z ADULTS
DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL

2022
Volume: 5
Issue: 1
Pages: 416-422
Document ID: 2022PEMJ331
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7295530
Manuscript Accepted: 2022-06-11
Psych Educ, 2022, 5(1): 416-422, Document ID: 2022PEMJ0, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.7295530 , ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

The Moderating Role of Social Networking Use on the Relationship of Subjective

Loneliness and Psychological Well-Being Among Generation Z Adults
During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Jade Ibhar V. Cuambot*
For affiliations and correspondence, see the last page.

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic drastically affected the lives of the people in an adverse manner.
Government and non-government agencies across the globe have taken protective measures and
protocols just for them to protect the public against the threat of the virus. Such protocols and
measures were the announcement on putting many places all over the world in total lockdown for the
virus to be controlled and to avoid further increase of damage. In line with this, people began to
experience increase level of loneliness since they have been physically separated with their
colleagues, peers, family, and loved ones for quite some time. It must be noted that such experience
does take a toll on their overall psychological well-being as they slowly suffer from impeded personal
self-growth, self-acceptance, purpose in life, establishment of positive and meaningful relationship
towards other people, decreased environmental mastery, and hindered autonomy. With the causal
relationship shared by the loneliness and psychological well-being variables, it is then the aim of the
current study to further expand one’s comprehension regarding the said association. The social
networking use will be utilized as a construct that could possibly moderate the identified relationship.
To conduct the study, online survey questionnaires was used among 123 Filipino Generation Z adults.
The gathered data was analyzed using SPSS. In line with the hypothesis, results showed that the
social networking use variable successfully moderated the causal relationship of loneliness and
psychological well-being.

Keywords: social networking use, loneliness, psychological well-being, interaction theory

Introduction reached a cumulative number of 3,663,059 cases,

The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic
The Coronavirus disease, also known as COVID-19, is
an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered
coronavirus. The first case of the said disease was
reported in late 2019 (World Health Organization,
2020). Since then, the said disease has spread across
nations and countries, and was officially declared a
global health crisis on March 11, 2020 (Ducharme,
2020).
At first, numerous people took the COVID-19
pandemic lightly. Even though the said disease was
already declared a pandemic, many individuals were
still complacent which made them to continue living
their lives as if there is no existing threat in their
environment. Moreover, the virus spread rapidly and
swiftly became a pandemic, so most countries were
not prepared enough to deal with the ramifications.
Hence, with the lack of preparation, the reported
number of COVID-19 cases increase continuously
along with the passage of time. Globally, as of March
2, 2022, the number of confirmed cases already
reached 437,333,859 including 5,960,972 deaths. In
the Philippines alone, from January 3, 2020, to March
2, 2022, the number of infected individuals already
while the number of COVID-19 related deaths reached
an amassed number of 56,451 (World Health
Organization, 2020). The huge number of COVID-19
cases, in consort with the dreadful number of deaths
due to the said disease, caused people to panic, be
anxious, and experience other forms of mental and
psychological problems (Nicomedes & Avila, 2020;
Lee, 2020; Hau & Minn, 2020; World Health
Organization, 2020). With such situation, The
Philippines, among many countries and nations, have
issued numerous directives prohibiting close contact
with other people, and orders which forbids the whole
at large to go out in public areas and stay only in the
comfort of their homes to further prevent the spread of
the virus. However, with such orders going on for
quite some time, people grew to be tired and lonely.
Loneliness
Being weary and forlorn are common among people
who have been socially isolated for a long period of
time. In fact, this condition has been a common
concern among many as a result of the combined
consequences of the drastic and damaging effects of
the COVID-19 pandemic and the social limitations and
restrictions brought by the orders and rules set by the
national authorities (Mäkiniemi et al., 2021). Such a
massive scale of social distancing and isolation,

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indeed, has a significant impact on an individual’s
need for social love and belongingness. Such claims
have been supported by empirical studies. For
example, a study has shown that people in Japan, both
young and old individuals, have suffered from
increased rate of loneliness in line with the
precautionary measures and uncertainties surrounding
the COVID-19 pandemic (Khan & Kadoya, 2021).
Moreover, among Finnish university employees, it was
identified that the level of loneliness certainly
increased as a result of the negative impact of the
COVID-19. The same experience was also observed
among Dutch older adults (van Tilburg et al., 2020).
Similarly, such phenomenon of suffering from an
increased level of loneliness has been empirically
noted down in over a hundred countries across the
globe since the COVID-19 outburst (O’Sullivan et al.,
2021). With such occurrence, it can’t be helped but to
investigate how an increased rate of loneliness due to
COVID-19 will affect an individual.
Loneliness is defined as the distressing subjective
feeling of lacking a social network or companion and
refers to a perception that one’s social relationships are
inadequate considering one’s preferences (Mäkiniemi
et al., 2021). Such idea can severely affect in
individual in many ways. Aligned with this, numerous
studies have shown that one’s loneliness affects the
health of a person in general (Creese et al., 2020;
Dossey, 2020; Ercole & Parr, 2019; Richard et al.,
2017). More than just the physical health, the
increased degree of loneliness due to COVID-19 is
also deemed to give significant negative effects on
one’s mental health as well (Barber, 2018; Creese et
al., 2020; Loades et al., 2020). Aside from the
established relationship of loneliness and physical and
mental health, loneliness is also said to have a
detrimental effect on one’s psychological wellbeing
(Bhagchandani, 2017).
Psychological Well-Being
In a philosophical context, Psychological Well-Being
is commonly conceptualized as a combination of
positive affective states of an individual such as
happiness and functioning with optimal effectiveness
in both individual and social life (Deci & Ryan, 2006).
Hence, such perception on the said variable identifies
that it both construe a hedonistic and eudaimonic
essence. In line with this, psychological well-being,
therefor, is about living one’s life in a well manner
which promotes a combination of feeling good and
functioning effectively (Winefield et al., 2012). On the
other end, by considering the identified variable on a
more technical and psychological perspective, it
Jade Ibhar V. Cuambot
should be noted that psychological well-being, as a
construct, should be seen from two viewpoints, the
Cognitive and Affective perspectives (Bhagchandani,
2017). The Cognitive evaluation includes information-
based appraisal. This means that the evaluation is
mostly fact based, about the amount of satisfaction that
a person has with his current life status. On the other
hand, the Affective evaluation is the indulgent kind. It
is mostly a feeling-based evaluation. This kind of
evaluation includes how many times a person
experiences the feelings of happiness and sadness. The
assumption behind this is that people give a lot of
importance to good and bad. Ergo, they evaluate and
categorize their life in the same way, either good or
bad. Therefore, people with high psychological well-
being report feeling happy, capable, well-supported,
satisfied with life, and so on.
In a less technical point of view, psychological well-
being generally pertains on how people subjectively
evaluate their own life. It basically tackles a person’s
own perspective regarding their social life,
relationships, job satisfaction, and many more. Thus,
one can consolidate the idea that one’s psychological
well-being can be affected by numerous accounts and
factors. One of which is the construct of loneliness.
Relationship of Loneliness and Psychological Well-
Being
Past studies showed and proved that a causal
relationship does exist between loneliness and
psychological well-being. Empirical evidence revealed
that whenever a person suffers from a high level of
loneliness, it affects an individual’s psychological
well-being and triggers its level to significantly
decrease (Bhagchandani, 2017). Therefore, the people
who suffers from a low level of psychological well-
being because of a high rate of loneliness usually
exhibit negative emotions, feeling of being powerless,
being incompetent, and many more.
Although the causal relationship of loneliness and
psychological well-being have already been
established, there is only a limited number of research
and studies conducted on the identified variables.
Thus, making the existing discoveries and knowledge
on the said relationship narrow and futile. Henceforth,
it is then one of the main goals of this study to dig
deeper and further investigate the relationship of
loneliness and psychological well-being.
Social Networking Usage
Social networking usage, by definition, refers to the
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online space that is used by people to connect, share,
communicate, establish, or maintain connection with
others for different purposes such as for academic,
entertainment, socialization, and more (Gupta, &
Bashir, 2018). Social networking as a medium of
communication is rising quickly in terms of various
aspects such as in the prosperous increase of
applications for mobile devices. More than what is
being stated, the use of social networking has
increased popularity among people. As a matter of
fact, as of January 2022, the population engaged in
social media usage have significantly increased in
roughly 10.1% as compared to last year. Among the
group of people who are engaged in social networking
are the young adults, individuals who ages from 20 to
29. In fact, such group of individuals was recorded as
the ones to be the most active users of social
networking. To be specific, male users are deemed to
be more active than their female counterparts (Kemp,
2022).
People, especially young adults, are significantly and
heavily engaged in social networking usage mainly
because of the convenience it promises and offers.
People in general become familiar with sharing their
everyday lives and experiences, and keeping in touch
with their teachers, peers, and family through online
means. Many people even use the said platform to
even release their stress. With this regard, the construct
of Social Networking Usage will be utilized for this
study to check whether it will be able to influence,
control, or curb the negatively proportional and causal
effect of loneliness on an individual’s psychological
well-being.
Methodology
The participants rate each item on a 4-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Often), giving a
potential range of 20-1cccc00. Empirical evidence
showed high internal consistency 0.96 and a test-retest
correlation over a two-month period of 0 .73.
Concurrent and preliminary construct validity are
indicated by correlations with self-reports of current
loneliness and related emotional states, and by
volunteering for a “loneliness clinic.”
The Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff and Keyes,
1995) is an 18-item self-report Likert scale which
allows the participants to rate the level of their
psychological well-being from five possible options,
ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly
disagree), giving a potential range of 18-126. Out of
eighteen items, six items are reverse scored. The
scores of the items that correspond to the negative
poles are reversed prior to calculating the total score,
so that the higher the total scores, the higher the level
of reported well-being. Studies revealed that the
instrument garnered a reliability score of 0.89.
The Social Networking Usage Questionnaire (SNUQ;
Gupta, & Bashir, 2018) is a 19-item self-report scale
of social networking usage which covers the following
factors – academic, socialization, entertainment, and
informativeness. The first subscale, confidence,
measures athletes’ belief in their own abilities to
achieve goals. The second subscale, constancy, reflects
determination, personal responsibility, and ability to
concentrate, while the third subscale, control, is
concerned with the perception of bringing about
desired outcomes with reference to controlling
emotions.
Procedure

The approval for the study was obtained from

Population
University of Santo Tomas, Graduate School,
Research and Ethics Committee. Recruited participants
A total of 123 participants were randomly pooled in
were given a link which led them to an online version
this study. Their age ranges from 18 to 25 years old (M
of the informed consent form and the questionnaires.
= 20.88; SD = 1.871). Of these 123 participants,
They were instructed to read all the necessary
80.49% were female participants and 19.51% were
information which they need to know about the study,
male. All participants were Filipino and could
including the informed consent and ethical
understand both the English and Filipino language.
considerations. Afterwards, they were asked for some
demographic information and were instructed to
Instruments
answer a battery of tests containing the (1) Revised
The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell, Peplau, UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell, Peplau, & Cutrona,
& Cutrona, 1980) is a 20-item self-report scale 1980), (2) Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff and
designed to measure one’s subjective feelings of
loneliness as well as feelings of social isolation.

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Keyes, 1995), and (3) Social Networking Usage

Questionnaire (SNUQ; Gupta, & Bashir, 2018). The
data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the
Correlation and Linear Regression Analysis
Social Sciences (SPSS) for statistical computing.
To examine the strength of association and direction of
Data Analysis
the relationship of the variables used in the study, a
one-tailed Pearson Correlation analysis was used.
After gathering the data, preliminary analyses were
Results revealed that there was a negative association
initially done. Included in the preliminary analyses
between loneliness and psychological well-being (r = -
were the following – Descriptive Statistics, Pearson
.296; p = <.001). Refer to Table 2.
Correlation Analysis, and Simple Linear Regression.
The Descriptive Statistics was done to simply get a Table 2. Correlation Analysis of Loneliness and
brief descriptive coefficient that summarizes the
Psychological Well-Being.
gathered data set. Moreover, the Pearson Correlation
Analysis and the Simple Linear Regression were
considered perquisite analyses that must be primarily
done to secure that a significant relationship between
the independent and dependent variables exist. Once
the existence of the relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables have been
verified, a moderation analysis was conducted to
analyze the possible moderating effect of Social In line with this, a simple linear regression analysis
Networking Usage towards the relationship of was done to check if the independent variable,
Loneliness and Psychological Well-Being. loneliness, has a significant effect towards the
dependent variable, psychological well-being. Indeed,
results showed that the variables involved shared a
Results significant linear relationship wherein the level of
loneliness affects the level of one’s psychological
well-being. Such result is synchronous with the claims
Preliminary Statistics of the past studies. Refer to Table 3.

To compare the ratings in the different scales used, the Table 3. Regression Analysis of Loneliness and
typical response of a participant on an item in a scale Psychological Well-Being
was used in the analysis. This was estimated using the
average scores and standard deviations of the typical
response of a participant on an item on each of the
instrument. Thus, the means shown in the table 1 are
the average of the typical ratings of the participants in
each scale.

The scores on loneliness ranged from 1.25 to 3.70 Moderation Analysis

points (M = 2.07; SD = .60); psychological well-being,
1.83 to 6.11 (M = 4.48; SD = 1.02); and on social
networking usage, 1.37 to 4.68 (M = .2.52; SD = .80).
Refer to Table 1.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the variables.
After ensuring that the independent and dependent
variables share a significant causal relationship with
one another, a moderation analysis was conducted to
identify if the social networking usage variable can
possibly moderate the relationship between loneliness
and psychological well-being constructs. The result of
the moderation analysis revealed that social
networking usage (B = 1.62; p = <.001) significantly
moderated the said relationship. Refer to Table 4.

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Table 4. Moderation Analysis
Discussion
The present study sought to extend the findings
regarding on how a high level of loneliness leads to
poor psychological well-being among the participants
during the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Consistent and coherent with past studies, the result of
the data analysis of the current study indeed showed
that the level of one’s perceived loneliness has a causal
relationship towards one’s psychological well-being. If
one’s level of loneliness is high, as a result, the
tendency is for that person’s level of psychological
well-being to be low. This result, at some point, was
already expected provided that the restrictions imposed
by the national and local government units as response
to the threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic
undeniably cause people to be physically separated
and apart from one another. In accordance with this,
such ordinance caused people to not only suffer in a
social essence but to also undergo an agonizing
experience of increased level of loneliness.
Consequently, such level of loneliness triggers a
considerable amount of undesirable and adverse
effects towards many aspects of an individual’s
psychological well-being such as the obstruction of
one’s personal growth, self-acceptance, confusion
regarding one’s purpose in life, hindrance in
establishing positive and meaningful relationship
towards other people, obstruction in one’s
environmental mastery, and autonomy.
With the goal of further understanding the causal
relationship of loneliness and psychological well-
being, the social networking usage construct was
utilized as a variable that could possibly moderate the
adverse effects of the independent variable towards the
dependent variable. Such moderating factor was
considered provided that the number of people who
were using different social media platforms heavily
increased for the past years (Kemp, 2022). This,
perhaps, was the response of the people since everyone
is generally prohibited to socialize in-person due to the
threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. People
Jade Ibhar V. Cuambot
resort to the use of social media to fill-in their needs to
socialize and connect with their colleagues, peers,
family, and loved ones. Thus, the researcher
hypothesized that with the presence of social
networking usage, it will be able to decrease the direct
adverse effect of loneliness on an individual’s
psychological well-being. Consistent with the raised
hypothesis, the result of the data analysis showcased
that the construct of social networking usage does
successfully moderates the relationship of loneliness
and psychological well-being.
In the time of the COVID-19 pandemic, people’s
general actions are restricted. Many cannot easily and
freely go out in public areas due to many reasons such
as the mandates of the law. Hence, with such intense
restrictions, people feel that they are slowly losing
their freedom. In sequence with such notion, people
feel that they are trapped given that they cannot
properly interact with other people. Ergo, with
heightened restrictions, people resort to the use of
social networking which consequently give them
several benefits such as to satisfy and satiate their
social and interaction needs, a manner of reconnecting
not only with their peers and colleagues but also to the
world in general, and a means for them to temporarily
escape the deleterious effects of the COVID-19
pandemic. Henceforward, in the context of the
COVID-19 pandemic, social networking use is
deemed an effective method to alleviate and assuage
the undesirable and discouraging effects of loneliness
towards one’s psychological well-being.
Limitations and Recommendations
Several limitations of the study should be considered
to produce sound suggestions for future research. The
first limitation that should be considered in the study
was the lack of data on male participants which makes
the result of the study unfeasible to be applied on both
genders. Moreover, the ethnicity and nationality of the
respondents are Filipino. Hence, it cannot be
generalized on people of different race and ethnicity. It
is suggested for the researchers who will duplicate the
study to balance their participants in terms of the
number of the males and females. Also, it will be
better if race of the participants will be diverse for the
results to be generalized to different groups of people.
Significance
Regardless of these limitations, the study also has
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strong points. First, the identification of the social
networking use as a construct that may moderate the
adverse effects of loneliness towards an individual’s
psychological well-being may be utilized by
professionals, such as counselors, in creating a therapy
plan among people who are currently suffering of
loneliness due to the COVID-19 pandemic or other
similar cases. Second, the results of the current study,
aside from being used as a significant addition in the
body of knowledge of the field of social sciences,
provides a new angle in dealing and understanding the
interaction process of people. In a nutshell, the past
studies failed to see the positive effects of social
networking use in one’s psychological well-being. For
example, past studies stated that the social interaction
being experienced by the people through social
networking use does not have enough power to
mitigate the negative effects of one’s subjective
loneliness towards psychological well-being. To add
on this, they claimed that face-to-face social
interaction offers and provides a more positive
impression and overall experience as compared to the
people who engages to online means of socialization
(Okdie et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2021). Their
findings were supported by the Interaction Theory (IT)
which mainly states that the whole essence of
interaction or socialization cannot be understood by a
mere theoretical interface or simulation. Rather, it
stated that the minds of others are better
comprehended primarily through one’s embodied
interactive relations (Froese & Gallagher, 2012). Ergo,
the overall process of interaction which includes keen
observation of non-verbal behavior and a two-way
communication between the people involved in the
process are necessary and important. Such vital
elements are said to be lacking when people engage in
interaction through social networking which
eventually results for it to have lessened impact to
mollify the harmful effects of loneliness towards one’s
psychological well-being. Nonetheless, with the results
of the current study, it sheds new knowledge and
understanding that in the time of the pandemic, when
people literally have few options at hand, the use of
social networking indeed has enough power to satisfy
the participant’s social needs and defend one’s
psychological well-being against the negative and
harmful effects of loneliness due to COVID-19
pandemic.
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Affiliations and Corresponding Information

Winefield, H. R., Gill, T. K., Taylor, A. W., & Pilkington, R. M. Jade Ibhar V. Cuambot
(2012). Psychological well-being and psychological distress: Is it University of Santo Tomas - Philippines
necessary to measure both? Psychology of Well-Being: Theory,
Research and Practice, 2(1), 3.

study among Dutch older adults. The Journals of Gerontology:

Series B, 76(7).

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