FEM 3101

Developmental Psychology : Children and

Adolescents

SEMESTER 1 (2021/2022)
1

DR. NELLIE BINTI ISMAIL

nellie@upm.edu.my/03-97697081
Assessment 2

%
Test 1 20
Quiz 5
Report 1 (Theory) 5
Report 2 (Prenatal Development) 5
Report 3 (Early Childhood) 20
Report 4 (Middle Childhood/Adolescents) 15
Final Exam 30
TOTAL 100
Synopsis 3

Kursus ini merangkumi proses pertumbuhan dan

perkembangan fizikal, kognitif, sosial dan emosi dari
persenyawaan sehingga remaja. Aspek utama setiap peringkat
perkembangan termasuk proses dan kesan interaksi kanak-
kanak dan remaja dengan persekitaran juga diberi penekanan.

This course covers the processes of physical, cognitive, social

and emotional growth and development from conception
through adolescence. Major aspects of each stage of
development including the processes and outcomes of
interaction between the child and adolescent and the
environment are also emphasized.
Learning Outcome 4

• Students are able to:

• Describes the ecological processes of growth and
physical, cognitive & socio-emotional development
in children and adolescents.
• Describe the effects of heredity, environment and
the interaction of heredity and environment on
children’s and adolescents’ development.
• Analyze the impact of the interaction of children
and adolescents with environment on the growth
and development of children and adolescents.
Course content 5

1. Introduction
2. Prenatal Development
3. Post-natal Development
4. Physical Development in Children
5. Intellectual Development in Children
6. Language Development in Children
7. Values & Social Development in Children
8. Adolescent (definition & physical development)
9. Cognitive Development in Adolescent
10. Socio-emotional Development in Adolescent
11. Vocational & Career Development in Adolescent
References 6

• Berk, L.E. (2013). Child Development (9th Ed.). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
• Feldman, R.S. (2011). Child Development (6th Ed.). New York:
Pearson Education.
• Hauser-Cram, P., Nugent, J.K.,& Travers, J.F. (2014). Development
of Children and Adolescents. Denvers: John Wiley & Sons.
• Shaffer, D.R. & Ripp, K. (2014). Developmental Psychology-
Childhood and Adolescence (9th Ed.). Belment: Wadsworth Cencase
Learning.
• Steinberg, L. (2014). Adolescence (10th Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill
Education.
Psychology 7

What is Psychology?
◦ Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes.
 Behavior – outward/overt actions and reactions that one can
observes.
 Mental Process – internal process/covert activities of our
mind such as thoughts, feelings etc. - that cannot be observe.
Why study Psychology?
◦ The study will give you new ways to look at and interpret your
world and the people who inhabit it.
What is Child Psychology?
◦ Childhood psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on
children, mainly their development and behavior.
What is Child Development? 8

Child development is a field of study that seeks to

understand all aspects (domain)of human growth and
development from birth until end of adolescents.
• Physical, cognitive, social & emotional changes that
occur in human beings
◦ Change in the child that occurs over time.
◦ Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves
toward greater complexity and enhances survival.
 What is Child Development? 9

• Child development is a process every child goes through

changes  started from the conception until
adolescents.
• It involves the process of learning and mastering skills
like sitting, walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes.
• As children grow and develop, they will learns many
skills at a predictable time period – known as the
developmental milestones
 DEFINITION OF CONCEPT 10

What is GROWTH (Pertumbuhan)?

What is DEVELOPMENT (Perkembangan)?
Growth 11

• Growth refers to the process of quantitative changes

• Eg. Changes in weight/height – i.e. changes in size
and structure, physical and mental aspects.
• Changes can be measured & assess – from one stage to
the other.
• Growth will reach its peak once a person mature.
Development 12

Development refers to qualitative changes

experienced by an individual.
◦ Life span (continuous) process  from Conception
till Death
◦ Changes can be observed  compare a child
ability/progress from the previous stage, e.g.:
 Newborn  ability?????
 5 months old infant  ability?????
 12 months old  ability?????
Thus..Child Development is… 13

Change in the child that occurs over time  Changes

follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater
complexity and enhances survival.
A scientific study of understanding all aspects of
human constancy and change from conception
through adolescence.
A part of a larger discipline known as developmental
psychology or human development, which includes all
changes experienced throughout the lifespan.
The Study Of Childhood: Basic
Concepts 14
• Developmental Processes: Changes and Stability
• Quantitative change (growth) – Involve changes in size or
amount, such as height, weight.
• Qualitative change – a change in types, structure, or
organization, such as the ability for verbal communication,
motor skill ability.
• Changes cannot be ‘measured’ but can be observed and
compared with earlier development. E.g.: ability of a
newborn & 5 months old baby
• Stability – constancy or enduring characteristics
• Changes in development is continues  from one stage
to the other  but maintaining a pattern
• Specific characteristics  Cephalacaudal, proximodistal,
mass to specific
Developmental Stages 15
 Prenatal period (Pralahir)
 Infancy [Bayi] = 0-12 months
 Toddlerhood [Kanak-kanak Bertatih] = 12-36 months
 Early childhood [Kanak-kanak Awal/prasekolah] = 3-6 years
 Middle childhood [Kanak-kanak Pertengahan/Sekolah rendah] = 6-11years old
 Adolescence
◦ Early (12-14)
◦ Middle (15-17)
◦ Late (18-19)
 Adulthood (Above 20)
◦ Early (20-30’s)
◦ Middle (40-50’s)
◦ Late (60’s)
Domains of Development 17

 Physical development (Biological/physiological)

 Body size & proportions, appearance, brain, function of body
systems, health, perceptual & motor skills

 Cognitive development
Intellectual abilities, learning, memory, language, thinking,
moral reasoning

 Psychosocial development (Socio-emotional Development)

 Personality, emotions, communication, self-understanding,
knowledge about others, interpersonal skills & social
relationships, moral reasoning & behavior

 All the domains are interrelated throughout development

Influences on Development 18

• Factors that can influence development are:-

• Nature (sejadi)
• Warisan/baka/genetik
• Nurture (asuhan)
• Environment
• Nutrition
• Health
THEORIES 19
What is a Theory? 20

• A THEORY is a set of logically related concepts or

statements, which seeks to describe and explain
development and predict what kinds of behavior
may occur under certain conditions.
• HYPOTHESES are tentative explanations or
predictions that can be tested by research.
Theory 21

An orderly, integrated set of statements that:

• Describes
Behavior • Explains
• Predicts

Benefits of theories in Developmental Psychology

◦ Explain the meaning of an event/facts
◦ Able to relate these facts
Theories 22

Psychoanalytic
◦ Psychosexual (S. Freud)
◦ Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
Behaviorism
◦ Behavioral Learning
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
◦ Social Learning (A. Bandura)
◦ Social Cognitive Learning (A. Bandura)
Cognitive
◦ Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget)
◦ Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky)
◦ Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg)
Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)
PSYCHOANALITIC 23
Psychoanalytic 24

• Psychosexual (S. Freud) • Psychosocial (E. Erickson)

*Psychosexual stages * 8 stages of development

• Trust versus mistrust (0-1)

• Autonomy vs shame (1-2)
• Initiative vs guilt (3-5)
• Industry vs Inferiority (6-11)
• Oral stage
• • Identity vs Identity Confusion (12-19)
Anal stage
• Phallic • Intimacy versus isolation (20’s-30’s)
• Latency • Generativity vs stagnation (40’s-50’s)
• Genital • Integrity vs despair (60 above)
Psycoanalytic 25

• Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality develops through

humans' conflict between their instinctual drives and the demands of
society.
• Freud identified three parts of the personality that become
integrated during five stages of development
• ID (unconscious element) - the largest portion  is the source of
basic biological needs and desires.
• EGO (pre-conscious element) - partly conscious and partly
unconscious  rational part of the personality, emerges in early
infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in
acceptable ways
• SUPEREGO (partly conscious & mostly unconscious - function on
the basis of morality) - the conscience that develops between
ages 3 - 6 through interactions with parents, who insist that the
child conform to the values of society.
26
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 27
Late Adulthood (60 above) Integrity vs Despair

Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s) Generativity vs

Stagnation
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s) Intimacy vs
Isolation
Adolescent (12-19) Identity vs Role Confusion

Middle childhood (6-11) Industry vs Inferiority

Early Childhood (3-5) Initiative vs Guilt

Toddler (1-2) Autonomy vs

Shame/doubt
Infancy (0-1) Trust vs
Distrust
BEHAVIORISM 28
Behaviorism & Social Learning 29

• Development results from learning

• Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory
• Continuous change
• Quantitative change
• Importance of the environment
• Associative learning
Behaviorism 30

Classical Conditioning • Stimulus – Response

(Pavlov)

Operant Conditioning • Reinforcers (Reward) and

(Skinner) Punishments

Social Learning • Modeling

(Bandura)

Social Cognitive • Modeling, Self Efficacy (Personal +

Learning (Bandura) Behavior+ Environment)
Behavioral Learning 31

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

• Stimulus & Response

• Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not
ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that
does elicit the response

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

• Learning based on reinforcement or punishment

• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment
• Behavior modification
Behavioral Theory
Albert Bandura 32

Social Learning Theory

• Observe  Copy
• Modelling (Role model)
• Behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models
• Observational learning
• Models
• Importance of values and thoughts in imitating behavior of a
model

Social Cognitive Theory

• Derived from Social learning theory.
• Emphasis on individual self efficacy
• Learning - interaction between person, environment and
behavior.
COGNITIVE 33
Cognitive Theory 34

Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget )

• Sensory motor (0-2)

• Preoperational (2-6)
• Concrete Operational (6-11)
• Formal Operation (11-adulthood)

Socio-Cultural Theory (L. Vygotsky)

• Community & culture influence on development  Focus is the social, cultural, and
historical complex of which the child is part.
• Social interaction necessary to learn culture
• Social Interaction:
• Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do alone
and with help
• Scaffolding – Temporary support to help a child master a task.
Moral Theory 35

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

Paras 1: Moraliti Pra-konvensional (4-9 tahun)
◦ Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat
◦ Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik
Paras 2: Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun)
◦ Moraliti “budak baik”
◦ Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti
Paras 3: Peringkat Pasca Konvensional
◦ Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang secara
demokrasi
◦ Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan beretika
SYSTEM 36
 The Ecological-System Approach 37
Human Ecological System
(U. Bronfenbrenner)
• Environment (social) influence
child development:
• Microsystem
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem
• Chronosystem

Bio-ecological theory/The Process–Person–Context–Time Model

(PPCT)
• Gene-environment interactions in human development i.e.
understanding the processes and contexts of development
• Placed greater emphasis on processes and the role of the biological
person.
RESEARCH METHODS IN
STUDYING CHILDREN 38
How theory and research work
together? 39

• Which theory is generally accepted today?

• What is the relationship between theory and research?
Research Methods 40
• QUALITATIVE and QUANTITATIVE research
• Scientific method – system of established principles and processes
of scientific inquiry
• Identifying a problem
• Problem statement - justify
• Objective
• Formulating hypotheses
• Methodology
• Data Collection (research
design/sampling/method/tools)
• Data analysis
• Conclusion
• Disseminating findings
Sampling 41

• Groups of participants chosen to represent the entire

population
• The sample should adequately represent the population
under study
• Generalization
• Random selection
Research Technique 42

 OBSERVATIONS
 Naturalistic and laboratory survey
 INTERVIEW
 In-depth Interview
◦ Guideline questions
 Structured interview
◦ Questionnaire
 Open ended
 Close ended
 PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
Systematic Observation 43

 Observation on respondent:
 NATURALISTIC Observation
 In the “field” or natural environment where behavior
happens
 STRUCTURED observation
 Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest
 All participants have equal chance to display behavior
 PARTICIPANT observation
 Incognito
 Record data
 Audio
 Video
 Manual
Interviews 44

In-depth Interview

• Flexible, conversational style

• Probes for participant’s point of view

Structured Interview

• Each participant is asked same questions in same way

• May use questionnaires, get answers from groups
Psychophysiological Methods 45

• Measures of autonomic nervous system activity

• Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils,
stress hormones
• Measures of Brain Function
• EEG
• Functional brain
imaging (fMRI)
Basic research designs 46

• Qualitative & Quantitative

• Case studies
• Collect various information about a subject
to be studied (people/event)
• Make a conclusion about subject
understudied.
• Ethnographic studies
• Participant observation
• Correlational studies
• Experimental Studies
Correlational Studies 47

• To examine the relationship between 2 variables

(independent and dependent variables)
• Research intended to discover whether a statistical
relationship between two variables exists
• Problems of control and interpretation of
causality
• Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on
certain issues
• Use Questionnaires/Structured interview
schedule
Experimental studies 48

• To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena

understudied
• Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which
the researcher manipulates variables to assess the
effect of one on the other.
• Independent variable - the condition over which
the experimenter has direct control
• Dependent variable - the condition that may or
may not change as a result of changes in the
independent variable
• Experimental group and control group
Independent and Dependent
Variables 49

Independent Dependent

Experimenter measures,
Experimenter changes,
but does not
or manipulates
manipulate

Expected to cause Expected to be

changes in another influenced by the
variable. independent variable
Modified Experiments 50

Field Experiments Natural Experiment

Compare differences in
treatment that already
Use rare opportunities exist
for natural assignment
in natural settings Groups chosen to match
characteristics as much
as possible