Purposive Communication

The word communication comes from commun which implies “something in common”

and ication which suggests “understanding.” So, communication means a common understanding of
something.

The communication process involves eight parts:

1. Source
2. Message
3. Encoding
4. Channel
5. Decoding
6. Receiver
7. Feedback
8. Context

Source. This is you, the sender of the message. To be a good sender, you have to know exactly what
information you want to communicate, why you have chosen that particular information, and what
result you expect from that message.

Message. This is the information you want to convey; without it, you have no reason for communicating.
The details of the information should be very clear to you before you communicate it.

Encoding. This is the process of converting your idea or thoughts of the information into verbal and/or
nonverbal symbols that can be understood by the receiver of the message. Your symbols must be in the
language that is not foreign to the receiver. 

Channel. This is the manner in which your message or information is conveyed. It may be done through

face-to-face conversation, telephone call, video conference, or written communication

Decoding. This is the receiver’s mental processing of your message into the meaning suggested by the
verbal and/or nonverbal symbols you use as sender. To be able to do this, he needs to get an accurate
picture of the message.

Receiver. This is the person or group of people who will get your message.

Feedback. This is the receiver’s response to your message. If you get your desired result, the

communication is successful; otherwise, the communication fails. When this happens, you have to find
out why it is unsuccessful, learn from your mistakes, and strive to do better next time.

Context. This refers to the situation in which the communication takes place. It includes:

A. environment (the location, time of the day, temperature) 
B. the relationship between the communicators
C. cultural backgrounds
D. topic

Elements of Communication
 1. Sender (who the source is)
2. Message (what the idea being communicated says)
3. Channel (through what medium the message is relayed)
4. Receiver (to whom it is directed)
5. Effect (what the desired result of the communication is)

Key Principles of Communication

1. Interpersonal communication is inescapable. 

It is not possible for anyone not to communicate. Even one’s poker face as you listen to somebody
means a lot. 

2. Interpersonal communication is irreversible. 

“Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again.” – Russian proverb

3. Interpersonal communication is complicated.

Whenever you communicate with anyone, you simultaneously interpret both his verbal and
nonverbal language, and that is often both confounding and demanding.

What makes communication even more complicated? You are actually communicating with at least

six “people.”
The person whom you think you are.
 The person whom you think the other person is.
 The person whom you think the other person thinks you are.
 The person whom you think the other person thinks he is.
 The person whom the other person thinks you think you are.
 The person whom the other person thinks you think he is.

4. Interpersonal communication is contextual.

Communication is affected by several factors:
A. Psychological contexts. (Your desire, values, beliefs, and personality)
B. Relational contexts. (Your reactions to other person based on your relationships- boss,
colleague, friend, sibling.)
C. Situational context. It deals with the psycho-social “where” you are communicating.
An interaction that takes place in a classroom, which is quite formal, will be very different from
one that takes place in a bar, which is very informal.
D. Environmental context. It refers to the physical “where” you are communicating- objects in the
room and their arrangement, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day.
E. Cultural context. It includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. (body
movement, facial expression, gesture, distance, and eye contact vary in different cultures.)

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION
Difference between morals and ethics
Morals are personal codes while ethics are societal.

Morals are our own set of rules, so others are neither expected nor required to follow them.

Ethics, on the other hand, are rules accepted and approved by society, so they are imposed upon
everyone.

Ten Ethics in Communication

1. Mutuality. Pay attention to the needs of others as well as yours.

2. Individual dignity. Do not cause other person embarrassment or a loss of dignity.

3. Accuracy. Ensure that others have accurate information. Tell them everything they have a right
and need to know, not just what is true.

4. Access to information. Never bolster the impact of your communication by preventing people

from communicating with one another or by hindering access to the supporting information.

5. Accountability. Be responsible and accountable for the consequences of your relationships

and communication.

6. Audience. As audience or receiver of information, you also have ethical responsibilities. A good

rule is the “200% rule” where both the sender and the receiver have full or 100% responsibility
to ensure that the message is understood, and that ethics are followed. 

7. Relative truth. As either sender or receiver of information, remember that your own point
of view may not be shared by others and that your conclusions are relative to your perspectives,
so allow others to respectfully disagree or see it differently. 

8. Ends vs. means. Be sure that the end goal of your communication and the means of getting to
that end are both ethical although no rule can be applied without reservation to any situation.

9. Use of power. In situations where you have more power than others, you also have
the responsibility for the outcome.

10. Rights vs. responsibilities. Balance your rights against your responsibilities even if you live in a
wonderful society where your rights are protected by law; not everything you have a right to do
is ethical.

Communication and Globalization

Globalization – it is the process of bringing people together and making them interact and
exchange ideas across traditional borders. (Nowaczyk, 2017)

Globalization is the increasing economic, political, and cultural integration and interdependence

of diverse cultures. (Gamble and Gamble 2013)

Culture is the learned and shared behavior of a community of interacting human beings.

Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms that affect the
behaviors of a relatively large people.

The preceding definitions mean that we are all part of various “groups” and “subgroups” that can be
characterized by:
A. nationality             
B. language               
C. gender       
D. age or generation
E. ethnicity
F. religion 
G. social class
H. region
I. profession

Characteristics of Culture
1. Cultures are learned, not innate. We think and act as Filipinos because our parents brought us
up this way. We acquired knowledge and understanding of our cultural norms from our parents,
teachers, relatives and friends.
2. Cultures are shared. We act as members of our own cultural group, not as individuals, because
belong to a culture means following the norms of the group. Fitting into a group means
acceptance and fellowship, and it provides us members with feelings of security and love.

3. Cultures are multifaceted. We are surrounded by cultural norms that affect language, religion,

basic world view, education, technology, social organization, politics and law, all interacting with
one another. Behaviors and things common to people who live together in social groups are
considered cultural universals, but the performance of these activities and things differs
dramatically from culture to culture.

4. Cultures are dynamic. Cultures constantly change as cultural contact increases,

new technologies emerge, and economic conditions vary. Globalization has greatly
changed relationships of nations and governments. Cell phones have drastically changed
interpersonal communication, and the availability of the Internet has affected how people of
varied cultures recognize and respect their differences.

5. Cultural identities are overlapping. We belong to multiple, overlapping cultures as we interact

with one another. Some of these cultures work together while others clash. We all belong to
national, regional, social class, ethnic, professional, religious, and gender cultures. 
Adaptation to New Cultures
 1. Cultural integration is a form of cultural exchange in which one group assumes the beliefs,
practices of another group without sacrificing the characteristics of its own culture. 

2. Cultural assimilation occurs when members of one cultural group adopt the language, practices,

and beliefs of another group, often losing aspects of their traditional culture in the process.
Ex:
Immigrants voluntarily adopt their new country’s language.

The counterpart of cultural assimilation is multiculturalism, in which cultural diversity is encouraged and
valued as beneficial to the society.

Multiculturalism is the belief that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those of minority groups,
should be accorded special acknowledgment of their differences within a dominant political culture. 

3. Cultural accommodation refers to the process by which individuals may take on values

and beliefs of the host culture and accommodate them in the public sphere while maintaining
the parent culture in the private sphere. 
Ex:
Filipinos who migrate to another country speak their native language at home but outside, they use the

language of the receiving country. 

The Nature of Common Cultural Differences

1. Leadership. The key characteristic of leadership is power or influence – the right to manipulate
the outcome of health, welfare, and critical decisions of protection. 
In a high-power group leadership, the few in power formulate policy and activity of the many.
Ex: Dictator
Chief
Minister
2. Work Productivity. A bipolar characteristic of being masculine or feminine exists in the work
force or a family organization.
Masculine culture = aggressive, competitive, assertive
 winning is rewarder with honor

Feminine culture = gives importance to modesty, quality of life, tenderness

 rewards are given for work satisfaction
 salaries are determined based on needs, not on 
          production
3. Group allegiance. A bipolar characteristic of individual and group orientation exists. In an
individual orientation (individualism), an individual can change the standards of culture.
Ex: Mohandas Gandhi
Martin Luther King
Adolf Hitler
Lee Kuan Yew
Ferdinand Marcos
Benigno Aquino
Group orientation (collectivism) puts emphasis on the group, and sacrificing everything for the sake of
the group can change the future. 
Example: Suicide terrorists.

Individualistic culture focuses on the “I.”

Collectivist culture focuses on “we.”

4. Task commitment. The focus is on elements controlling the group, such as tradition and
commitment to the group (high context culture) versus the individual (low-context culture). 
High context culture resists change.
Low context culture work for the good of the cause, not the welfare of the group.

COMMUNICATION ACROSS CULTURES
Communication within and across Cultures
Kinds of Responses
1. Avoiding. We refuse to comply or do business in cultures that operate according to ethical
principles that differ from ours.
2. Accommodating. We can accept the different ethical system and conform to practices different
from ours.

3. Forcing. We can insist on doing business in a way we believe is ethically proper.

4. Educating-Persuading. We can try to convince the people with whom we want to do business
why our ethical principle is more appropriate.

5. Negotiating – Compromising.  We and the other party can each give up something to negotiate
a settlement.

6. Collaboration – Problem Solving. We can work with the other party to face the problem directly
and reach a mutually satisfying solution.

Guidelines on Developing Intercultural Competence

1. Widen your field of experience by making new contacts. Getting to know people coming from
your targeted group whose culture differs from yours make you understand the group and
their culture better.

2. Learn about the history and the experiences and aspirations of people from different
cultures. Taking a course or reading books about people of diverse cultures makes you
experience their cultures vicariously, allowing you to understand and appreciate them more. 

3. Examine yourself for possible stereotypes. Stereotypes and biases result from ignorance about
the targeted group. Being fair-minded and unprejudiced makes you realize the possibility that
some of your judgments are unfair and wrong.
 4. Look at the world from someone else’s way of looking at and thinking about something, not
just yours. Be emphatic; try to understand other’s perspective-how they make sense of their
world-and try to experience what and how they feel.

5. Work on becoming more self-confident. The better we feel about ourselves, the more likely we
are to feel good about others, too, and the more able we are not only to understand them but
also to learn from them.

6. Appreciate cultural similarities and differences. Use cultural resources to do this. It allows you

to understand the members of different cultural groups and helps you establish better
intercultural relationships and interactions.

7. Acknowledge the essential equality and value of all cultures. Never feel superior to people
belonging to any other cultural group, even a minority one.

8. Be sensitive and interpret cultural styles of communication. Develop the ability to understand

the communication symbols of the target culture-its verbal language, signs, gestures, body
language, and customs.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

1. Ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that a person’s culture (his “in-group”
culture), is much better than any other group’s culture (“out-group” culture), and the tendency
is for that person to judge any “out-group culture by using the norms of his “in-group” culture. 
If our ethnocentricity is high, the effect is negative.
If it is low, the effect is positive. You are interested to interact with those belonging to the “out-group.”

2. Stereotypes and prejudices. Stereotyping and being prejudiced against cultural groups are
the main barriers to intercultural communication. The negative characteristics attributed to
one group can cause beliefs and feelings that lead to biases and discrimination against that
group. The discriminated group often suffers from being rejected and avoided in cross-
cultural interactions.

3. Stereotypes are often generalized negative traits assigned to a group of people (race,

nationality, social class, sexual orientation, age, gender) even if these traits may only reflect a
selected few of the group. Simply said, a stereotype is a generalization of a group or people
based on a small sample of these people. Stereotyping or classifying an entire group of people
or culture with defining characteristics, which are usually unfair and untrue, is much easier
than explaining the complexities of the uniqueness of specific situations and the individual
differences essential in each event.

4. Prejudice, an offshoot of stereotypes, is an unfair thought, belief, or feeling of dislike for a

person or group because of race, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, age, religion, and so on.
It is a negative preconceived opinion held by one group toward members of another group that
biases perception and provides a reason for discrimination.

5. Assumed similarities. An assumption of similarity is a baseless, unreasonable refusal to see

cultural differences where they exist. This happens when members of one group assume that all
 groups behave the same way that what is true to their culture is also true to all other cultures.
This results in insensitivity to cultural differences.

6. Anxiety. Intercultural communication anxiety is the fear or apprehension associated with either

real or anticipated communication with people from another cultural group. The fear is often
caused by differences in language ability, verbal and nonverbal communication styles, and
expression of emotions. Both “in-group” and “out-group” cultures may experience feelings of
impatience, frustration, and suspicion, while communicating or even in anticipation of the
interaction, which can then increase anxiety in both parties.

Impact of Technology on Communication

1. Technology provides us with unlimited information. Internet provides convenient and
fast means of getting information.

2. It creates opportunities for meeting new people. Many online applications enable us to meet

new people anytime anywhere in the world.

3. It helps us keep in touch with family and friends anywhere in the world. Computers,

smartphones, iPads, and email allow us to communicate quickly and easily.

4. It brings new diversity to our culture and our lives. The pace of change caused by technology
is simply amazing. Google recipes, and you can put sumptuous meals on the dining table. Your
cellphone, with its digital camera, has replaced the film camera.

5. It fosters better cooperation among different cultural groups. New technologies help

companies extend participation on a project to an ever-greater number of people, allowing
firms to tap into a wide body of knowledge and expertise.

6. It isolates us. Cellphones take us away from the people we love.

7. It can make us create second lives. Millions of people find solace in virtual communities where
they have found a second life. You might have heard of Sim City, Farmville, and Cities Skylines. In
these social networking sites, users create or choose avatars to interact with other users in
anywhere in the world.
 LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS
Culturally Appropriate Terms, Expressions, Images

“Every country has its own way of saying things. The important thing is that which lies behind
people’s words.” (Freya Stark, n.d.)

Cultural differences result in misunderstanding, and “language, more than anything else, is at the

heart of culture.”

The previous statement implies that being proficient in English does not guarantee our being able to
understand what another speaker of English is trying to communicate unless we become fully aware of
how that speaker uses English based on his own culture.

American English British English

first floor ground floor
second floor first floor
elevator lift
apartment flat
parking lot car park
diaper nappy

Differences are also found along:

1. Pronunciation
2. Spelling 

The Inner Circle covers the native English-speaking countries such as:

 England
 USA
 Canada
 Australia
 New Zealand

The Outer Circle comprises the former colonies such as:

India Malaysia
Africa Singapore
Nigeria Philippines
Pakistan Bangladesh

The Expanding Circle consists of countries such as:

China Saudi Arabia
Japan Korea
Germany Taiwan
Turkey
Egypt
Israel
When turning to other circles, the question of what counts as a language and what may be considered a
variety of English is somewhat intricate. Pidgins and Creoles belong to this issue.
Pidgins are used as lingua franca for trade or any other practical interaction. 

A pidgin uses words from the languages of communicators to understand each other, but it is not the
language of either communicator. The pidgin is a “little more than strings of nouns, verbs and adjectives,
often arranged to place old, shared information first and new information later in the sentence.”

The language providing vocabulary is called lexifier, and the language that provides the
syntactic structure is call the substrate. After an extended period of using a pidgin in a community, when
the pidgin becomes more fully developed and serves as the language community, it becomes a “creole.”

In Philippine English, we hear many Filipinos saying sentences like the following:

1. I already ate. (Kumain na ako.)
2. He will come with us, isn’t it? (Sasama siya sa atin, hindi ba?)
3. One of my class-mate is inside. (Isa sa mga kaklase ko ay nasa loob.)
4. They will come there. (Pupunta sila doon)

In standard American or British English, tag questions are formed by using the subject of
the independent clause and an appropriate modal auxiliary such as: 
1. You have taken my book, haven’t you?
2. You are soon going home, aren’t you?

Indian culture on grammatical rules is also evident in the use of “may” in Indian English. 
Indian English: “These mistakes may please be corrected.”
Standard English: “These mistakes must be corrected.”

LINGUISTIC PREFERENCES AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

Variations in the way different cultures use language – like linguistic preferences and nonverbal
behaviors – also cause miscommunication. Nuances in linguistic preferences provide hints about
behavior, manners, and thinking as a cultural group.
Examples:
 Spaniards and Italians prefer eloquence and expressiveness to exactness, tend to be
flowery with their language.
 The English are very polite, use understatement to avoid confrontation, hence, sometimes end
up being ambiguous.
 Asians, including the Japanese and Chinese, consider harmony an important virtue, so to avoid
confrontation, they often say “yes” to many things with the understanding of “Yes, I hear you”
or “Yes, I understand,” and not necessarily “Yes, I agree.
 People in Latin America, and Southern Europe are not comfortable with ambiguity because they
are conditioned to expect absolute truths.
 Scandinavians tend to be reserved; they are completely focused, dedicated listeners.
 Germans, on the other hand, are very logical in both manner and words.

Edward T. Hall called nonverbal behaviors “the silent language.”

Nonverbal behaviors are expressive human attributes that impart feelings, attitudes, reactions, and
judgment which need to be given continued attention because they are acquired mainly through
acculturation.

DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

Australia:  Thumbs up means obscene
V sign with palm facing toward the 
speaker is the obscene “up yours”
insult.

France:   Your hands should be visible at all     

times even when seated at a table.

Germany: It is impolite to put your hands in

your pockets. Show respect; be 
punctual.

Hong Kong: Maintain a two-arm’s-length distance

with the person. Touching and patting
are taboo. When you are seated, your 
your feet should be facing the ground;
the soles of your shoes should not be
shown.

Indonesia: When you are in a private home or 

mosque, be sure to remove your shoes. 
Position them by pointing them toward
the door from which you entered.

Japan:  The bow is still the tradition in greetings. 

Bend your body a 30-degree angle from
the waist. For men: Palms should be face up,
toward the knee. For women: Hands should
be folded in front of you as you bow.

Saudi Arabia:  Expect greeting to be very emotional.

They consist of a “salaam alaykum”
(“May God be with you”) followed by
a handshake and then a “keef halak”
(“How are you?”). *

Singapore:  Gesture with your entire hand in 

conversation. Pointing with one or two
finger is rude. Avoid showing the 
soles of your shoes.
Your feet should be used for walking –
nothing else. *
South Korea:  When meeting someone, slight bow is 
appropriate.
It is considered good manners to 
acknowledge an older person by
standing when the person enters the 
room.

United Kingdom:  When meeting someone, 

respect space by maintaining 
a two arm’s length distance.
Men should wait for a British
woman to extend her hand
before shaking hands. *
 EVALUATING MESSAGES AND/OR TEXT
The Text or Message
Message is the information conveyed in the communication process. It comprises verbal and/or
nonverbal content, which may be spoken, written or manual (for sign language).

In this lesson, message refers to any recorded message such as writing, audio recording, audio and

video recording that is physically independent of its sender or receiver

Medium includes such broad categories as speech and writing or print and broadcasting, or relate
to specific technical forms with the mass media (radio, television, newspapers, magazines, photographs,
films and records).

In order to produce quality text, you need to consider the following:

 Text type
 Purpose
 Audience
These factors have implications for structure, language, and presentation

Structure refers to how the information is organized. You may use text genres (kinds of texts based
on its development): texts using logical order such as exposition – ex: cause and effect, comparison,
analogy, definition, classification, problem-solution, persuasion.

Texts using chronological or time order:

 Narration
 Process
Texts using spatial or space order:
 description

Language is the means by which the information is expressed verbally and/or nonverbally. 

Ideas may be conveyed using any of the five language registers: very formal, formal, neutral,

informal, or very informal.

The formality of vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics needed are dictated by the register you are to
use.

Presentation covers the layout, format, length, oral delivery (voice, body language, timing) and any

other conventions, such as spelling and referencing.

SEMIOTIC AND TEXT ANALYSIS

Semiotics is concerned with “everything that can be taken as a sign.”
 It involves the study not only of what we refer to as “signs” in everyday speech, but of anything which
stands for something else; in a sense, signs take the form of words, images, sounds, gestures, and
objects.

Signs consist of signifiers (sounds and images) and signifier (concepts). The sign is the whole that results

from the association of the signifier with the signified. 
The relationship between the signifier and the signified is referred to as signification.

For example, if you hear the sounds represented by the letters “b-o-y” or a picture of a boy (the
signifier), you think of a concept “male child” (the signified)

Together, the sounds of the word (or the picture) and the concept created by the sounds form a sign.

Semiosis, a term borrowed from Charles Sanders Peirce, is the process by which a culture produces signs
and/or assigns meaning to signs.

Semiotics can be understood as the “mental concept it represents, which is common to all members of

the same culture, who share the same language.”

Semiotics, therefore refers to a kind of social interaction among individuals who try to make sense out

of the different interpretation possibilities of the sign.

Language, as a sign, creates misunderstanding when used by second language users.

Errors are often seen in translation.

Ex:
“Come Alive with the Pepsi Generation” was literally translated in Germany as “Rise from the grave
with Pepsi.

In China, it was translated as “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave.”

MASS MEDIA AND MULTIMODAL TEXTS

A text is multimodal when it combines two or more of the five semiotic system.

1. Linguistic or textual system, comprising aspects, such as vocabulary, generic structure, and the

grammar of oral and written language.

2. Visual system, consisting of aspects, such as color, vectors, and viewpoint in still and moving
images.

3. Audio system, with aspects, such as volume, pitch, and rhythm of music and sound effect.

4. Gestural system, including aspects, such as movement, speed, and stillness in facial expression

and body language.

5. Spatial system, covering aspects, such as proximity, direction, position of layout, and

organization of objects in space. 

Examples of multimodal texts which be delivered via different media or technologies:

1. Picture book, in which the textual and visual elements are arranged on individual pages
that contribute to an overall set of bound pages
2. Web page, in which elements, such as sound effects, oral language, written language, music,
and still or moving images are combined.

3. Live ballet performance, in which gesture, music, and space are the main elements.