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To cite this article: D. Tao (2005) Role of Bubble Size in Flotation of Coarse and Fine Particles—A Review, Separation
Science and Technology, 39:4, 741-760, DOI: 10.1081/SS-120028444
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SEPARATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 741–760, 2004
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D. Tao*
ABSTRACT
741
742 Tao
flotation efficiency are discussed and the most recent findings are
reviewed. The low flotation recovery of fine particles is mainly due to
the low probability of bubble –particle collision, while the main reason
for poor flotation recovery of coarse particles is the high probability of
detachment of particles from the bubble surface. Fundamental analysis
indicated that use of smaller bubbles is the most effective approach to
increase the probability of collision and reduce the probability of
detachment.
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INTRODUCTION
Froth flotation is the most widely used physical separation process for
minerals processing. The vast majority of minerals are beneficiated by
flotation due to its high separation efficiency and cost effectiveness. In this
process hydrophobic particles captured by air bubbles ascend to the top of
the pulp zone and eventually report to the froth product, whereas hydrophilic
particles remain in the pulp and are discharged as tailings. However, its high
process efficiency is limited to a very narrow particle size range, which is
usually 10 –100 mm.[1 – 5] The low flotation efficiency of fine particles is
mainly due to the low probability of bubble– particle collision, while the main
reason for poor flotation recovery of coarse particles is the high probability of
detachment of particles from the bubble surface.[6 – 10] Since most ores require
fine grinding for liberation that results in the production of large quantities of
micron or submicron fine particles, most of the earlier studies on the effect of
particle size on flotation have been focused on fine or ultrafine particles. In
contrast, the flotation behavior of coarse particles was essentially overlooked
until very recently.[8,11 – 17]
FLOTATION FUNDAMENTALS
3Dp
Pc ¼ (1)
Db
where Db is the bubble size and Dp the particle size. This model is valid only
when bubbles are very large and water in a flotation cell is nonviscous, neither
of which is realistic. As a result, it cannot be used to accurately describe the
flotation process.
Gaudin[23] developed a model for very small bubbles under the Stoke’s
flow condition:
3 Dp 2
Pc ¼ (2)
2 Db
ORDER REPRINTS
744 Tao
using the stream function for the Stokes flow. Equation (2) is quite accurate
when bubble size is smaller than approximately 100 mm, above which
Gaudin’s model significantly underestimates the collision probability.
Neither Sutherland’s nor Gaudin’s model can be applied to flotation
processes that take place using intermediate bubble sizes not covered by
Eqs. (1) and (2). For the intermediate range of Reynolds numbers of bubbles,
Weber and Paddock[18,19] developed the following expression using analytical
and numerical methods:
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2
(3=16)Re0:72
3 Dp
Pc ¼ 1þ 0:56
(3)
2 1 þ 0:249Re Db
which is similar to Eq. (3) with slightly different coefficient. In fact, Yoon and
Luttrell[20] showed experimentally that both Eqs. (3) and (4) gave accurate
prediction of Pc as a function of Db. An important conclusion derived from
Eqs. (3) and (4) is that Pc increases with the square of the ratio of particle size
to bubble size; it also depends on the bubble Reynolds number.
The aforementioned models are all based on the interceptional collision
model that neglects particle inertial forces. A more comprehensive colli-
sion model was proposed by Schulze[24] who considers that the overall
collision probability is the sum of three different effects, i.e., interceptional
(Pic g in
c ), gravitational (Pc ), and inertial (Pc ). Schulze
[24]
suggested that
the interceptional and gravitational collision probabilities be determined
using the Weber–Paddock collision model and the inertial probability, (Pin c ),
using the Plate model:[24,25]
b
1 K
Pin
c ¼ (1 þ Dp =Db )2 (5)
1 þ vp =vb Kþa
where K is the Stokes number, vb is the rising velocity of the bubble, vp is the
settling velocity of the particle, and the constants a and b are Reynolds
number-dependent coefficients whose values are shown in Table 1.
The influence of inertial forces on collision efficiency depends on the
Stokes number K. If K is substantially larger than the critical value (Kcr) for a
particle to reach the surface of a bubble, inertial deposition of particles onto
ORDER REPRINTS
the bubble surface is the main collision mechanism and the collision process
can be described mainly by the Langmuir– Blodgett model:[26,27]
2
K
Pc ¼ (6)
K þ 0:2
when K Kcr, the interception is the main collision mechanism and Eq. (3) or
(4) applies. However, the flotation conditions in most industrial flotation cells
are in the intermediate range of the Stokes number and, therefore, both the
interceptional and the inertial collision probabilities should be considered. A
more detailed discussion of significance of inertial forces in collision can be
found elsewhere.[9]
All particle – bubble collision models described previously show that Pc
increases with increasing particle size and decreasing bubble size. Fine
particles have low probability of collision with bubbles and are thus difficult to
catch by bubbles, particularly by large bubbles. This is the main reason for the
low flotation rate of fine particles.
There are a number of other models that describe particle –bubble
collision in flotation. They include the Flint – Howarth model, the Anfruns –
Kitchener model, the Nguyen – Van model, the Dukhin or GSE model, etc.
A thorough review of these models is provided by Dai et al.[28]
746 Tao
45 þ 8Re0:72 ub ti
Pa ¼ sin2 2tanÿ1 exp ÿ (8)
15Db (Db =Dp þ 1)
where ti is the induction time and ub is the bubble rise velocity. Equation (8)
was obtained under the presumption that particle– bubble collision occurs
uniformly over the entire upper half of the bubble surface, which may not
be correct.[25] Ralston et al.[31,32] derived a more general equation for
calculating Pa:
where
12Db rf 1
b¼ (10)
Dp rp ÿ rf Re
All particles attached to air bubbles do not report to the froth phase. Some
of them detach from the bubble surface and drop back into the pulp phase.
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748 Tao
(Fp þ Fe ) ÿ Fw ¼ 0 (16)
reduce coarse particle detachment and increase the upper flotation limit. This
finding is significant, since it proves from the viewpoint of flotation
fundamentals that flotation recovery of coarse particles can be enhanced using
smaller rather than larger bubbles.
Under turbulent conditions, the upper size limit in flotation is reached
when the dynamic stress on the bubble –particle aggregate is greater than the
energy required for detachment. Schulze[35] found that the upper flotation size
limit in the turbulent field is only a fraction of that in the quiescent field, which
is supported by several experimental studies.[36 – 39] The detachment process is
an overriding factor in the flotation of coarse particles in a turbulent field. An
effective approach to improve coarse particle flotation is to minimize
turbulence in flotation cells. From this point of view, the flotation column is
much more favorable than the mechanical flotation cell for the flotation of
coarse particles.
The probability of detachment (Pd) may be described by Eq. (17):
1
Pd ¼ (17)
1 þ Fat =Fde
where Fat represents the total attachment force and Fde the total detachment
force. Equation (17) suggests that Pd ¼ 0.5 when Fa ¼ Fd; Pd ¼ 0 when
Fa Fd; and Pd ¼ 1 when Fa Fd. Using Eqs. (11) – (13) and neglecting the
drag force, one obtains:
Fat 3(1 ÿ cos ud )g 1 þ Dp =Db
(18)
Fde g(rp ÿ rw (1=2 þ 3=4 cos (ud =2))) D2p
It can be readily seen from Eqs. (17) and (18) that Fat/Fde decreases and Pd
increases with increasing Dp and increasing Db. This conclusion is in
agreement with the empirical correlation of Deglon et al.[40] that shows that
the detachment rate constant for flotation increases with increasing Db and Dp.
Therefore, coarse particles are more likely to detach from air bubbles and use
of small bubbles will increase flotation recovery of coarse particles.
It should be noted that most of the models discussed previously are based
on a single bubble– single particle system, which does not represent the real
ORDER REPRINTS
750 Tao
Flotation Kinetics
The first order flotation rate constant (k) is determined by:[6,40 – 44]
3Vg 1
k¼ P ¼ Sb P (19)
2Db 4
P ¼ Pc Pa (1 ÿ Pd ) (20)
Levitation
that affects flotation performance. Tao et al.[46] examined the effect of froth
stability on column flotation and concluded that separation efficiency can be
improved if froth stability is properly controlled. Tomlinson and Fleming[47]
and Feteris et al.[48] showed that the flotation rate constant is directly
proportional to the probability that a particle survives the cleaning action of
the froth zone and reports to the froth product. Mineral particles have been
reported to show pronounced effects on froth stability. However, controversy
exists on whether particles stabilize or destabilize the froth. Szatkowski and
Freyberger[49] observed that fine quartz particles rendered bubbles to be more
resistant to coalescence and promoted the stable froth. Livshits and
Dudenkov[50] believed that only coarse particles are able to act as buffers
between bubbles and prevent bubble coalescence, consequently strengthening
the stability of the froth. Klassen[51] reported that more hydrophobic particles
had greater stabilizing effects on the froth. Johansson and Pugh[52] showed that
particles of intermediate hydrophobicity (contact angle u 658) would
enhance froth stability but more hydrophobic particles (u . 908) would
destabilize the froth, while more hydrophilic particles (u , 408) would not
influence the froth properties. Moudgil et al.[12] suggested that coarse
phosphate particles destabilize the froth. Tao et al.[46] concluded that particles
could stabilize or destabilize the froth, depending on their size, surface
hydrophobicity, and concentration.
Wiegel and Lawver[53] found that selectivity and recovery of coarse
phosphate decrease as the height of the froth increases. Contini et al.[54]
showed direct evidence that the transfer of particles from the collection zone
to the froth zone in a flotation column decreases drastically with increasing
particle size. Soto and Barbery[39] and Soto[55] reported that the absence of
a froth phase improves coarse particle recovery and developed a very short
column with only a 55-cm collection zone for coarse phosphate flotation.
Soto[55] also found that use of negative bias (i.e., the tailings flow is smaller
than the feed flow) in column flotation increases the flotation recovery of
coarse particles. A negative bias reduces or even eliminates the froth layer,
enhancing the probability of coarse particles reporting to the froth product.
Oteyaka and Soto[8] developed a mathematical model for coarse particle
flotation in columns with negative bias, and their simulation results indicate
ORDER REPRINTS
752 Tao
Tiny bubbles or gas nuclei of less than 1 mm and as large as 13.5 mm,
referred to as picobubbles, naturally exist in liquids such as seawater and
distilled water.[56,57] Picobubbles attach more readily to particles than large
bubbles due to their lower ascending velocity and rebound velocity from the
surface and higher surface free energy to be satisfied. More efficient
attachment of particles and improved flotation rate have been observed when
tiny bubbles co-exist with air bubbles commonly used in flotation cells.[58,59]
Klassen and Mokrousov[51] showed that the combined flotation by gas nuclei
from air supersaturation and by mechanically generated bubbles produced
higher flotation recovery than by either of them alone. Gas nuclei or pico-
bubbles on a particle surface activate flotation by promoting the attachment of
larger bubbles (as shown in Fig. 3) since attachment between gas nuclei or
picobubbles and large bubbles is more favored than bubble –solid attachment.
In other words, picobubbles act as a secondary collector for particles, reducing
flotation collector dosage, enhancing particle attachment probability, and
Hydrodynamic Cavitation
754 Tao
from the particle, the cavitation bubbles, particularly those underneath the
particle, will push the particle upward, facilitating particle recovery.
Without cavitation-generated bubbles, particles will detach from the
bubble surface when the capillary force and other attachment forces are
exceeded by detachment forces, such as the viscous or drag force (Fd),
the gravitational force, and the hydrostatic pressure. It should be noted that the
drag force is velocity dependent, as shown in Eqs. (21) and (22):
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1
P þ rU 2 ¼ C (constant) (23)
2
in which U is the water flow velocity at a point where the pressure is P, r is the
liquid density. Rearranging Eq. (23) yields:
2P 2C
U2 þ ¼ (24)
r r
ORDER REPRINTS
which indicates
pffiffiffiffiffiffithat
ffiffiffiffi the pressure will be negative when the water flow velocity
U exceeds 2C=r.
The venturi tube shown in Fig. 5 is the most widely used hydrodynamic
cavitation device. Liquid flow accelerates in the conical convergent zone due
to the narrowing diameter. The liquid in the cylindrical throat is higher in flow
velocity and lower in pressure than liquid in the entrance cylinder, resulting in
cavitation. The differential pressure between the entrance cylinder and the
cylindrical throat measured by the manometers is indicative of cavitation
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CONCLUSIONS
756 Tao
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758 Tao
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