A new, green air-conditioning system manages without nasty gases

And has few moving parts at its core

In a warming world it helps to stay cool. But doing so also threatens
the planet. Most air conditioners use refrigerant gases called
hydrofluorocarbons (hfcs). Though these do not deplete Earth’s
ozone layer in the way the chlorofluorocarbons they replaced back in
the mid-1990s did, they are hundreds of times more effective at
trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide is. Less-potent
greenhouse gases are now being phased in as refrigerants, but these
are not without problems of their own. They can be expensive, and
some are inflammable.
Researchers have long sought ways to produce cooling systems that
do without these troublesome gases, but none has come close to being
a direct replacement. A small Irish company, however, now claims to
have come up with an answer. Exergyn, based in Dublin, has
developed a new type of air conditioning which not only avoids hfcs,
but also has the benefit of having few moving parts at its core.

Exergyn has been working secretly on the project for two years, in
collaboration with a multinational company which it is not at liberty
to name (though its partner is understood to be Carrier, a giant
American manufacturer of heating and cooling equipment). The two
firms are currently testing a 60kw version, which would have the
capacity to cool 15-20 apartments. Exergyn has also begun talks with
carmakers and aerospace companies about setting up similar joint-
development projects. With cars, and some small aircraft, going
electric, it is not just cooling the cabin that manufacturers are having
to think about, but also cooling the batteries.

Squeeze me
Exergyn’s system uses a substance called a shape-memory alloy.
smas, as they are known for short, are a group of materials with the
unusual ability to return to a predetermined shape when heated. They
are sometimes employed to make spectacle frames, and also in
medical implants such as stents. Nitinol, the sma chosen by Exergyn,
is a blend of nickel and titanium.

All smas release heat when deformed by compression, and then

absorb it when the pressure is released and they return to their
original shape. But Exergyn’s version of nitinol displays this property
to a remarkable degree. For its prototype, the company produced
4cm-square plates of the alloy, each pierced by holes intended to
permit the passage of a heat-carrying liquid or gaseous medium. A
range of benign substances can be employed in that role. The firm’s
engineers have tested water, brine, glycol and air, all with success.
To build a refrigerator involves assembling these plates into stacks of
50 or more. Four stacks make a unit. The stacks are compressed in
turn by hydraulic rams or electric actuators, in a sequence that works
a bit like a four-stroke engine, explains Kevin O’Toole, Exergyn’s
managing director. At any given moment, one stack is being
compressed, one released, one preheated and one pre-cooled.

To cool a room involves passing two circuits of the heat-carrying

fluid through this four-stack unit. Fluid in a “cold” circuit first travels
through a heat exchanger in the room to be cooled down, absorbing
warmth as it does so (see diagram). It is then directed by a series of
valves and pumps into whichever core is undergoing its relaxation
stroke. The relaxing nitinol absorbs the heat burden and the fluid is
pumped back to the heat exchanger for the cycle to be repeated.

Heat thus accumulated is removed by the passage through the stack

of fluid from the second, “hot”, circuit during the compression stroke.
It is then dumped to the outside world via an external cooling unit.
Using four stacks permits both the hot and the cold circuits to run
continuously.

Tony Ennis, Exergyn’s chairman, reckons this method of cooling is

not only more environmentally friendly than an hfc set-up, but will
also be less expensive to buy and 30-40% cheaper to run. It will be
lighter and smaller, too—an important requirement, not least because
air-conditioning units often have to go up lift shafts to be installed.
As for reliability, he says the prototype’s performance suggests the
unit at its core could operate for more than 40 years without a
problem.

When Dr O’Toole, an expert in memory materials, co-founded

Exergyn in 2012, his intention was to use nitinol to create a system
that would generate electricity from low-grade waste heat. But the
challenges presented by hfcs persuaded him that air conditioning
would be a quicker way to bring the technology to market.
Development is still continuing, but products may be only a few
years away.

His thoughts of a generator have not diminished, though. Nor has

interest in other products that could use the technology. These
include refrigerators, and also heat pumps to extract warmth from the
ground for domestic heating. When time allows, Dr O’Toole and his
colleagues hope to get to work on those ideas, too. ■

What is JavaScript? The dynamic

programming language for websites,
explained
While you may not be actively aware of it,
JavaScript is used in nearly every website on
the internet these days. It's a programming
language that is simple to learn and incredibly
versatile.

What is JavaScript?
JavaScript is a text-based, object-oriented
programming language used to make
webpages and apps more dynamic and
interactive for visitors.

Used on both the client and server side,

JavaScript offers enhanced abilities that basic
languages like HTML and CSS can't, such as
refreshing a Twitter feed, embedded YouTube
videos, and more. In other words, JavaScript-
enhanced webpages are more dynamic and
user-focused, which can keep users coming
back to the site.
That said, JavaScript is meant to be used with
other programming languages rather than as a
replacement for them.

For instance, websites and apps will still need

to use HTML for basic structure, while CSS
is required for formatting and layout
preferences as well as controlling how the
text, images, and other content on a webpage
is presented. From there, JavaScript can
enhance those elements, taking them from
being static features to interactive and
exciting ones.
What JavaScript is used for
Javascript allows webpages to become more
interactive in many ways including displaying
animations, making functional drop-down
menus, zooming in and out of webpage
images, or even changing button colors when
the user's mouse hovers over it.
Developers often use JavaScript frameworks
such as Vue, React, and Angular when
creating web and mobile apps as they allow
the use of routine tasks and features that many
apps have in common. These features include
search buttons and category selection options,
just to name a few.
JavaScript is widely used in game
development, particularly for new developers
who want to practice and refine their skills.
Some developers also choose to use Node.js,
a back-end JavaScript infrastructure, to create
basic web servers and to build on a site's
infrastructure.
The advantages of using JavaScript
Interactivity: JavaScript websites are more
interactive and appealing to users since the
language creates richer and more attractive
interfaces.
Speed: Websites will load and operate at
higher speed since JavaScript can be run
immediately in the browser, thereby reducing
demand on the server.
Ease: It's simple to implement and often takes
only a basic level of knowledge to utilize.
Integration: JavaScript works well with most
other programming languages, making it
possible to integrate into a host of different
applications.
Popularity: It's incredibly popular — most
websites use JavaScript in some form
regardless of the nature of the website.
There aren't many disadvantages to using
JavaScript; the primary issue is that there is
the potential for client-side security breaches
in Javascript code, since it's viewable to users.
Despite that, Javascript remains the most
popular programming language at the
moment, and given that it's a native
programming language for web browsers, it's
worth it for new programmers to learn the
basics and use them in projects.

Elon Musk's Neuralink wants to embed

microchips in people's skulls and get robots to
perform brain surgery
Elon Musk is known for his high-profile
companies like Tesla and SpaceX, but the
billionaire also has a handful of unusual
ventures. One them, he says, he started to one
day achieve "symbiosis" between the human
brain and artificial intelligence.

Neuralink is Musk's neural interface

technology company. The company is
building a device that could be embedded in a
person's brain, where it could both record
brain activity and potentially stimulate it.
Musk has compared the technology to a
"FitBit in your skull."

While Musk likes to talk up his futuristic

vision for the technology, the tech has plenty
of near-term potential medical applications.

Here's everything you need to know about

Neuralink:
Neuralink was founded under-the-radar in
2016.
Neuralink first became publicly known in
2017 when the Wall Street Journal reported
on its existence.

The company's first major public outing didn't

come until 2019, when Elon Musk and other
members of the executive team showed off
Neuralink's designs in a livestreamed
presentation.
Neuralink is developing two bits of
equipment. The first is a chip that would be
implanted in a person's skull, with electrodes
fanning out into their brain.
Neuralink chip
The chip sits behind the ear, while electrodes
are threaded into the brain.
Neuralink/YouTube
The chip Neuralink is developing is about the
size of a coin, and would be embedded in a
patients' skull. From the chip an array of tiny
wires, each roughly 20 times thinner than a
human hair, fan out into the patient's brain.

The wires are equipped with 1,024 electrodes

which are able to both monitor brain activity
and, theoretically, electrically stimulate the
brain. This data is all transmitted wirelessly
via the chip to computers where it can be
studied by researchers.

The second is a robot that could automatically

implant the chip.
Neuralink surgical robot
Neuralink surgical robot. Woke Studios
The robot would work by using a stiff needle
to punch the flexible wires emanating from a
Neuralink chip into a person's brain, a bit like
a sewing machine.

Neuralink released a video showcasing the

robot in January 2021.
Musk has claimed the machine could make
implanting Neuralink's electrodes as easy as
LASIK eye surgery. While this is a bold
claim, neuroscientists previously told Insider
in 2019 that the machine has some very
promising features.

Professor Andrew Hires highlighted a feature,

which would automatically adjust the needle
to compensate for the movement of a patient's
brain, as the brain moves during surgery
along with a person's breathing and heartbeat.

The robot as it currently stands is eight feet

tall, and while Neuralink is developing its
underlying technology its design was crafted
by Woke Studios.
In 2020, the company showed off one of its
chips working in a pig named Gertrude during
a live demo.
Gertrude Neuralink
The Neuralink device in Gertrude's brain
transmitted data live during the demo as she
snuffled around. Neuralink/YouTube
The demonstration was proof of concept, and
showed how the chip was able to accurately
predict the positioning of Gertrude's limbs
when she was walking on a treadmill, as well
as recording neural activity when the pig
snuffled about for food. Musk said the pig
had been living with the chip embedded in her
skull for two months.
"In terms of their technology, 1,024 channels
is not that impressive these days, but the
electronics to relay them wirelessly is state-
of-the-art, and the robotic implantation is
nice," said Professor Andrew Jackson, an
expert in neural interfaces at Newcastle
University.

"This is solid engineering but mediocre

neuroscience," he said.

Jackson told Insider following the 2020

presentation that the wireless relay from the
Neuralink chip could potentially have a big
impact on the welfare of animal test subjects
in science, as most neural interfaces currently
in use on test animals involve wires poking
out through the skin.

"Even if the technology doesn't do anything

more than we're able to do at the moment —
in terms of number of channels or whatever
— just from a welfare aspect for the animals,
I think if you can do experiments with
something that doesn't involve wires coming
through the skin, that's going to improve the
welfare of animals," he said.
The company went a step further with its
animal demonstrations in April 2021, when it
showed off a monkey playing video games
with its mind.
Neuralink released video of a macaque
monkey named Pager playing video games
such as "Pong" for banana-smoothie rewards.
Pager played the games using a joystick that
was disconnected from the games console,
meaning he was controlling the cursor using
his brain signals as his arm moved.
Elon Musk likes to boast Neuralink can let
monkeys control computers with their brain
signals, but neuroscientists don't see this as a
big deal.
Elon Musk excitedly announced back in 2019
presentation that the company had
successfully implanted its chip into a monkey.
"A monkey has been able to control a
computer with its brain, just FYI," he said,
which appeared to take Neuralink president
Max Hodak by surprise. "I didn't realize we
were running that result today, but there it
goes," said Hodak.

Musk re-iterated the claim in February 2021,

two months ahead of the video demonstration.

Neuroscientists speaking to Insider in 2019

said that while the claim might grab the
attention of readers, they did not find it
surprising or even particularly impressive.

"The monkey is not surfing the internet. The

monkey is probably moving a cursor to move
a little ball to try to match a target,"said
Professor Andrew Hires, an assistant
professor of neurobiology at the University of
California said in 2019.

Implanting primates with neural-brain

interfaces that let them control objects on
screens has been done before. Professor
Andrew Jackson of the University of
Newcastle told Insider in April 2021
researchers first pioneered this kind of tech in
2002 — but arguably its origins go all the
way back to the 1960s.
Although none of the tech Neuralink has
showcased so far has been particularly
groundbreaking, neuroscientists are impressed
with how well it's been able to bundle up
existing technologies.
"All the technology that he showed has been
already developed in some way or form, [...]
Essentially what they've done is just package
it into a nice little form that then sends data
wirelessly," Dr. Jason Shepherd, an associate
professor of neurobiology at the University of
Utah, told Insider following the 2020
demonstration.

"If you just watched this presentation, you

would think that it's coming out of nowhere,
that Musk is doing this magic, but in reality,
he's really copied and pasted a lot of work
from many, many labs that have been
working on this," he added.
Elon Musk has said human testing could start
by the end of this year, but he also said that
last year.
Elon Musk said during an appearance on the
"Joe Rogan Experience" podcast in May 2020
that Neuralink could begin testing on human
subjects within a year. He made the same
claim during an interview on Clubhouse in
February 2021.

Previously in 2019 Musk said the company

hoped to get a chip into a human patient by
the end of 2020.

Experts voiced doubt about this timeline at

the time, as part of safety testing a neural
interface device involves implanting it in an
animal test subject (normally a primate) and
leaving it there for an extended amount of
time to test its longevity — as any chip would
have to stay in a human patient's brain for a
lifetime.

"You can't accelerate that process. You just

have to wait — and see how long the
electrodes last. And if the goal is for these to
last decades, it's hard to imagine how you're
going to be able to test this without waiting
long periods of time to see how well the
devices perform," Jacob Robinson, a
neuroengineer at Rice University, told STAT
News in 2019.
In the near-term, a chip in someone's brain
could help treat neurological disorders like
Parkinson's.
Improved neural interface technology like
Neuralink's could help better study and treat
severe neurological conditions such as
Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.

Prof. Andrew Hires told Insider another

application could be allowing people to
control robotic prostheses with their minds.
"The first application you can imagine is
better mental control for a robotic arm for
someone who's paralyzed," Hires said in a
2019 interview with Insider, saying that the
electrodes in a patient's brain could
potentially reproduce the sensation of touch,
allowing the patient to exert finer motor
control over a prosthetic limb.
The company hinted its chip's first real-world
application would be giving quadriplegic
people the ability to control phones and
laptop.
Neuralink announced it had raised a $205
million series C funding round from investors
including Google's GV (formerly Google
Ventures) on July 29, 2021.

As part of its announcement, the company

said its chip's first commercial application
could be to help quadriplegic people.
Quadriplegic is paralysis in all four limbs.

"The first indication this device is intended

for is to help quadriplegics regain their digital
freedom by allowing users to interact with
their computers or phones in a high
bandwidth and naturalistic way. The funds
from the round will be used to take
Neuralink's first product to market and
accelerate the research and development of
future products," Neuralink said in a blog
post.
Elon Musk also says in the long-term the chip
could be used to meld human consciousness
with artificial intelligence — though experts
are skeptical of this.
Although Musk has touted the near-term
applications of Neuralink, he often links the
company up with his fears about artificial
intelligence. Musk has said that he thinks
humanity will be able to achieve "symbiosis
with artificial intelligence" using technology
developed by Neuralink.

Musk told "Artificial Intelligence" podcast

host Lex Fridman in 2019 that Neuralink was
"intended to address the existential risk
associated with digital superintelligence."

"We will not be able to be smarter than a

digital supercomputer, so, therefore, if you
cannot beat 'em, join 'em," Musk added.

Musk has made lots of fanciful claims about

the enhanced abilities Neuralink could confer.
In 2020 Musk said people would "save and
replay memories" like in "Black Mirror," or
telepathically summon their car.

Experts have expressed doubts about these

claims.

"Not to say that that won't happen, but I think

that the underlying neuroscience is much
more shaky. We understand much less about
how those processes work in the brain, and
just because you can predict the position of
the pig's leg when it's walking on a treadmill,
that doesn't then automatically mean you'll be
able to read thoughts," Prof. Andrew Jackson
told Insider in 2020.

In 2019 Prof. Andrew Hires said Musk's

claims about merging with AI is where he
goes off into "aspirational fantasy land."

Musk's also made dubious claims about its

medical applications. At one point he also
claimed the technology could "solve autism."
During an appearance on the "Artificial
Intelligence" podcast with Lex Fridman in
November 2019, Elon Musk said Neuralink
could in future "solve a lot of brain-related
diseases," and named autism and
schizophrenia as examples.

Autism is classified as a developmental

disorder, not a disease, and the World Health
Organization describes schizophrenia as a
mental disorder.
One neuroscientist told Insider there are big
ethical problems with the idea of performing
brain surgery for anything other than essential
treatment.
Dr. Rylie Green of Imperial College London
told Insider in 2019 that the notion of
performing brain surgery on a healthy person
is deeply troubling.

"To get any of these devices into your brain

[...] is very, very high-risk surgery," she said.
"People do it because they have severe
limitations and there is a potential there to
improve their life. Doing it for fun is not a
great idea," she added.