
Introduction
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Symbiosis - relationship between two
unlike/different organisms and their interaction.
(from different species/genera)
o Literally means “living together”
 Parasitism – a type of symbiotic relationship
where one organism(parasite) benefits at the
expense of another(host).
o Parasite has an intimate relationship with
its host – lives inside the host or lives on
the body surface of the host (ex. Ticks or
fleas). Host may die.
 Predation – symbiotic relationship where
predator benefits at the expense of the prey.
o Predator comes to the prey only during
eating time. (ex. Mosquitoes [female] are
considered micropredators)
 Commensalism – can be an intimate
relationship. Commensal benefits from its host
without harming it, but the host gets no benefit
from the commensal, but is not harmed.
 Mutualism – both parties benefit from the
relationship. Called mutualists.
 Endoparasite – parasite that lives inside the
body of the host. (ex. Helminths)
 Ectoparasite – parasite that lives on the body
surface of the host. (ex. Ticks, fleas, mites, lies)
 Infection – refers to having an endoparasite.
 Infestation – refers to having an ectoparasite.
 Pathogen – anything that is able to cause
disease. Not all parasites are necessarily
pathogenic.
o Qualifies as disease if there are clinical
manifestations. There may be damage
without clinical manifestations – not called
a disease even if there is tissue damage.
PARASITES
 Obligate parasite – organism where at least
one life stage has to be parasitic otherwise it
would not complete its development (no other
option).
 Facultative parasite – organism that has the
potential to be parasitic and free-living. Can
complete a life cycle where all life stages are
free-living (not dependent on host), but have the
option to be parasitic in certain stages or
conditions.
 Accidental parasite – parasite of one host
accidentally infects another animal/human that
is not its usual host.
Permanent parasite – organism where all the
life stages are parasitic. Can be obligate or
facultative.
 Temporary parasite – organism where part of
the life cycle is parasitic. Can be obligate or
facultative. All life stages are parasitic has the
option to be free living.
-all parasites could potentially be an accidental
parasite.
 Spurious parasite – a free living organism
that may be mistaken as a parasite (may be
accidentally ingested and seen in the
sample). Not really a parasite.
HOSTS (Based on role in life cycle)
 Definitive host – also referred to as “final host”.
Harbors the parasite in its adult stage and/or
during sexual reproduction.
 Intermediate host – harbors the parasite in its
larval stage and/or asexual reproduction.
-definitive hosts and intermediate hosts are called
only when there are two or more hosts in the life
cycle with different roles. Also, the parasite while
inside the host should be developing or participating
in reproduction. Without both criteria they are
referred to simply as “hosts”.
 Paratenic host – host that harbors the parasite
that does not undergo any developmental
change or participate in reproduction. The stage
that entered the host leaves in the same stage.
 Reservior host – animal or plant (not a human)
that is a continuous source of infection for
humans.
 Carrier – infected human being that is a source
of infection for other humans.
Asymptomatic/Silent carriers have no clinical
manifestation, but have the capability of infecting
others.
VECTORS
-small animal (usually arthropods) that serve as a vehicle
for transmission of disease.
2 Major Classifications
 Biologic vector – vector that serves as a host
(definitive or intermediate).
 Mechanical vector/Phoretic vector – only a
vehicle but not an actual host. (ex. sticking to the
feet and they land on the food item we ingest)
EXPOSURE AND INFECTION
 Exposure – coming in contact with the parasite
which may not have established a foothold in the
body.
 o If organism entered but dies
immediately, it is considered exposure.
 Infection – parasite was able to establish itself
(find suitable environment, feeding,
development, replication).
 Incubation period
o Clinical incubation – period of time
between the (start)point of infection and
the (end) appearance of clinical
manifestations.
o Biological incubation – also referred to
as “prepatent period”. Period of time
between point of infection and the first
appearance of the diagnostic stage (ex.
egg/ova, larva, adult) (stage which is a
sign of parasitic infection whether there
be clinical manifestations or not).
-either incubation types could be longer that the other
depending on the type of infection.
 Autoinfection – happens when a person
infected is re-infected, but the source is
him/herself.
 Superinfection – an infection on top of a pre-
existing infection (ex. pinworm infected person
infected also with ascaris)
 Hyperinfection – state where a host/person as
an unusually high level of infection. More than
the usual parasitic load.
o Factors that can contribute are
autoinfection and immunodeficiency.
SOURCES OF INFECTION
Most common sources:
 Soil (fecal material)
 Water (fecal material)
 Food (contaminated with contaminated w/
soil/water, may serve as hosts for parasitic
development or when vectors come in contact)
 Vectors
 Human-to-human (sexual, blood, direct contact,
transplacental)
 Animal-to-human (zoonoses (particularly
vertebrates) – live or flesh)
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
 Ingestion
 Inhalation
 Skin penetration
 Vector transmission
 Congenital
 Transmammary
 Sexual transmission
 Blood transfusion
 Organ transplants
HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIPS
 Perpetuation of a species of parasite depends
on its ability to ensure transmission from one
host to the next.
o Dependent on:
 Availability of suitable hosts
 Protection from host’s defenses
 *survival in external
environment before transferring
to another host.
EFFECTS ON THE HOST
 Mechanisms that cause injury:
o elaboration of substances that interfere
with the host’s vital processes (ex.
inhibits enzymes)
o invasion and/or mechanical destruction
of host tissue
o stimulation of adverse immune response
o depriving the host of essential nutrients
o obstruction (due to parasite itself or due
to inflammatory reaction)
EFFECTS ON THE PARASITE
 specific immune response is predominantly of
the cell-mediated branch
 IgG and IgM production is generally ineffective
(no protective immunity, but minimize the
severity to a degree)
 Some parasites induce IgE production and
eosinophilia (increased IgE may indicate
parasitic infection) – hypersensitivity reaction
 Absolute immunity occurs rarely
 Acquired immunity may only modify the severity
of disease.
GROUPS OF PARASITES
 Protozoa – single celled –ex amoeba,
malarial parasites
 Nematodes (round worms) –ex. ascaris,
hookworms
 Cestodes (tape worms)
 Trematodes (flukes)
 Arthropods – ex. lice, mites, ticks