Sufism

and
Shar+ah
A Study of Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind+'s
Effort to Reform Sufism

Dr. Muhammad Abdul Haq Ansari

 CHAPTER ONE

The Life and Mission of

Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind+
Shaykh Ahmad was born at Sirhind. now in the state of
Puniab north-west of Delhi, on Friday the 4th Shaww 971
A.H 26th May 1564 AD, in a family with a long scholarih
tradition which traced its descent from the Caliph "Umar Fariq
He received his early education from his father, Shaykh Abi
-Ahad (927/1521-1007/1598) and memorised the Qurn He
was then sent to Sialkot, at present in Pakistan. Here he eamei
logic. philosophy and theology from Mullä Kaml Kashmin (d
1017/1608-9). a renowned scholar of rational disciplines
studied hadith with Shaykh Ya'qkb Sarf+ (d 1003/1594, the
author of a commentary on the Sah+h of al-Bukhrí and a Sui of
the Kubrawiyah order, and read some advanced texis of tarsa
and hadith with Qãd+ Bahlkl Badakhshn+. Sirhindi compieted
this education at the age of seventeen and returned bome.
Three years later he left for Agra, the capital of the great
Mughal Emperor, Akbar (63/1556-1014/1605), and estab-
lished contacts with the scholars of the court, such as the poet
laureate, Fayd+ (954/1547-1004/1595). and his younger
brother, Abk '1-Fadl (958/1551-1011/1602), a distinguished
writer and an informal secretary of the Emperor. It is said that
he helped the former at times in writing his commentary
on the Qur'än, Sawãti' -Iham which has the unique
distinction of being free from letters containing diacritics
With the latter, however, he found it difficut to camy on.
the
For though Abk '-Fadl believed in God, he denied
Shar+ ah, condemned
Decessity of prophecy, repudiated the
bad.
WOrship as hypocrisy, regarded every religion equally
as
 Safism ms Shri a
to
was not
the ony one
Surhindi studhed Sufi texts wrh his facher i pratisd uit
reason
Abi 1-Fadl like him
faith in others raversing the Sui way) nder bis direcDon ln hes Muhi w
and pinned crut had many
penple of
ideas the roval wre Ie
Ma i he speaks of his debt ao hus father l acqured the shr
have these when he
reterred to
thiS
situation

prpbety, deny the a om my ather who ad aqurad i n a rernd

Surhndi dea ot
the
ven prophet and
our tumes question
the claim of
a particular Suf. intenseBy asac nd fnous ir s mracies
Ials
estabishing trend is spreading devekoped t r spangatory works
a tate
possibility of SharT ah This partcalsr
refuse to folloa
the prophetc established
themselves in n praver rm my her who i i n is teacher, a C i s
s m e who have them in
and saint
in the peopie. and torturing
the "ulam After the death of Shavkh Abd Ahad n 1007 1507-8
are persecuting to mention. simply
power not like
which I wouki and believe in Sirhindi startad tor Ha On e *n. E a e wx
vanous wzys
of the prophets
follow he laws introducei to Khw~ah "Ad HBäi (971 1563-10121603 one
because they
them contested his ideas of the finst Nagshbank saints avme w naa Nashhendis
i t h Ab T-Fadl. Sirhind+ were noted tor comparadveiy Sticr aherme o he a r i ah
In a discussion former lost his temper
for prophey, the in their suit and were popuiar in the n s îum uder t
and argued the
case
Sirhind+ was very
of islm. Mughal nulers had come. Khujah 'Abd Bä_i. ammny
and abusei the grea scholars informed of
When his fatheT was known as Bä+ Biläh bad ame w Delhi only a ew moncs
sbocked and broke with him. took him home.
he came to Agra and previously. but even in this short period he had beme ven
Sirhindis disillusionment
of Shaykh Sultan. a popular. He persuaded Sirmind+ w spend svme ime with him
married him to the daughter
On the way he
at the latter's request Within a tew days Sirhind+
member of the nobilitry
at Thaneshwar.
like the
was impresead that he otlerad
the study of Sufi texts himself for bar'a and in the short period of nwo ani a hal
Back home Sirhindi took up of al-
al-Kal b dh+ (d. 3901000), the 4wäri months artainad the Naqshband+ ishr and then the real self.
Ta'ar of "1-°Arab+ (d. annihilation (fä -i-Aayiqi or ahsolute union giam am
Suhrawardi (d 632/1234), and
the Fusis of Ibn
father. He continued his suik ull be reaxhi the tae of
638/1240) under the guidance of his separation (far ba'd 7-jam), which the Khwäjah calked the
pRnn
"Abd -Ahad had sought to be
At an early age Shaykh
'Abd - end of human endeavour and the sage of pertection (mzii
initiated into Sufism by the great Chisht+ saint, Shaykh
ecstasies and iaimil).* The Khwjah was ery impresd by the wonderful
Quddüs of Gangoh (d. 991/1583). famous for his
him first progress of his disciple; in a letter to a friend he wrote:
his faith in wahdat 1-wyjid But the Shaykh advised
to study the Shar+ah and the had+th. Shaykh
'Abd '1-Ahad A man from Sirhind named Shaykh Ahmad has
rarenth
returned, took up study, visited various scholars and travelled come. He is very eaned and has great spiritual powers He
to a number of places. When he came back, the master had
has lived with me fo some days on the basis of what I have
died, and his son Shaykh Rukn "1-Din who was also highly seen of him in this period I hope that he will be in future a
ecstatic and a firm believer in wahdat T-wujkd guided him in lamp which will illuminate the worid
Qadirí and Chisht+ tariqahs and awarded him khirgah Shaykh
After the first meeting Sirhind+ retumed home. pursuei his
Abd -Ahad, too, believed in I wahdat 7-wujüd but, as
sayr and sulük as the Khwjah had suggested, and kept him
Sirhindi says, was not a blind follower of the doctrine. Some of
its concepts, he interpreted in his own way." Sirhind+ refers in informed of the visions and experiences he had. He visited the
one of his tracts to a book
Khwajah again and spent some tüme with him. When
of his father: Kanz -Haq iq. and he intended to return, the Khwjah asked him to teach the
his biographer,
work. Asrar
Muhammad Häshim
1-Tashahhud"
Kisham+, mentions another tarigah. and placed some disciples in his charge. Sirhind+
 Sufism amd Shari 'ah
14 Sufism and Shari'ah 15
but the Khwäjah
the responsibility,
was hesitant to takc up
Sirhind+ bowed to his This condition cxtended to months and ycars."
his suitability for the task.""
to death of the
testified
and started the
work. A httle betore the Sirhindi describes the next stages of his mystical develop-
judgement again. On this occasion the ment as follows:
1012/1603 he visited him After
master in
Some distance to a period
I had a new vision of
things which
Khwäjah
honoured his discipie byleftwalking
he cntrusted his sons to dominated my consciousness. But I hesitated at first to
welcome him. and
hen Sirhind+ revise my attitude towards tawhid
(wujüdî) in deference
guidance. to, rather than in disregard for that doctrine. I remained
him tor spuntual
has descnibed his mystical development at times in a state of indecision for a
long time. At last, I was
Sirhindi
detail. The following is a short account induced to renounce that doctrine. I was shown that
bnefly and at times in
tawhid (wujüdi) was a lower stage, and was asked to
of his first eapernenc* move to the stage of
zilliyat (i.e. the vision that things
wjiüd+ (i.e. wahdat 7-wujüd) from
in the tawhid are the shadows
of God and different from Him). But
I believed believed in the
the time 1 was a boy. My father apparently did not like to move from that
stage since many Sufis
doctrine, and used to cary on spiritual
exercises wujkdi
on
were stationed there. But I had no choice. I was
he able to maintain in his brought
to the stage of zilliyat, where I realised that I and the
lines. But in spite of that
was

the state of indeterminateness world were shadows.

innermost self (al-akhf)
son of a jurist is IwishedI had not moved again from that stage of
(martabah bi kayf). As the saying goes, the
half jurist. I knew the doctrine very well, appreciated and zill+yat
because it had an affinity with wahdat -wujüd
which still symbol
it. Later on, when God brought me to Shaykh Bq+ of perfection
was a for me. But it
enjoyed and happened that God by a pure act of grace and love
Billah, and he taught me the Naqshband+ tar+qah
attended closely to my development, the Unity of Being carried me beyond that stage and brought me to the stage
in of 'abdiyat (i.c. the vision that man is nothing more than
(tawhid wujüdi+) was revealed to me in a short period a servant of God, that things are merely His creation and
virtue of following the Naqshband+ tar+qah. I was
absorbed in that experience, and the ideas that He is absolutely other and different from the world).
completely At that time I realised the greatness of that stage and
associated with it began to pour in on me. There was hardly
scanned its lofty heights. I regretted my earlier
a truth that was not revealed to me. I was informed of
the
experiences, turmed to God and begged for His merey.
profoundest ideas of Shaykh Muhy+ '1-Din ibn '1-'Arab+'s Had I not been guided in this manner and shown the
philosophy and was blessed with the experience of Divine greatness of one stage after the other, I would have,
self-illumination (tajalli dhäan) which the author of the Fusus remained at the stage of tawhid (wujüd+) beca Ise in my
had said to be the culmination of spiritual ascent, and beyond view there was no stage higher than that. God alone
20
which there was nothing, according to him, except pure non- establishes the truth and shows the way.
being. I also came to know in detail the truths of that tajalli
which the Shaykh had claimed to be a privilege of the 'Seal T have quoted long passages in
these rather to order introduce
the reader to Sirhindi's account of
of Saints. I was so much engrossed in that tawhid and own
development. This will remove, I hope, the doubts which some
his mystical
intoxicated with it that in one of my letters to the KhwäjahI
wrote the following two couplets which were the product of writers of our times have raised about his experiences since
sheer intoxication (sukr). he does not fit their view of Sufism.
This Shar+ah is, alas, the way of the blind. Sirhind+ has characterised the three stages of
his experience
Our way is the way of infidels and
fire-worshippers.
Infidelity and faith are the lock and the face of that
in
metaphysical tems: the Unity of Being
shadowism
(tawhid wuyjidi
and creaturehood
(zilliyar) or
wahdat T-wujud);
beauty servanthood ('abdiyar). Put in purely mystical language they
In our way infidelity and faith are one. represent the stage of union (jam) or rather non-difference
 Sufism and Shar+'ah
16 Sufism and Shari'ah
17
(farg
union 1jam ), and
ba d
(pam
1-jam ). separation after Afghanistan andTurkistan, the lands of the first
ahsolute difference (arq mullaq). The first
two stages are
saints, and to 1abristan and ran. Naqshband+
Sufis, but the last is somewhat
Sirhind+ sent his deputies
common and widely attested by (khulafa ) to Shadman (lsphahan), Husayn Abdal (Kabul),
uncommon. though by no means rare.
for two
Kisham (Badakhshan), Berk (near Qandahar) and Taliqan. He
Sirhindi mentions these stages time and again kept himself constantuy in touch with
reasons: He wants first
to bring home to the mystics of his day, he heard about the
his deputies from whom
at the first stage or were stationed
problems they faced and the questions
which people asked them about the tar+qah, to which he
most of whom were moving
there is a higher stage of mystic experience
replied
at the second. that with advice and instructions. In these letters Sirhind+
at which one stops seeing
that man is one with God or that the mentions the distinctive features of the Naqshband+ tar+qah, in
realises instead that God is particular its strict adherence to the Sunnah. It avoids, he says,
world and God are One Being, and
different and absolutely other, that the world has musical sessions (sam ), dervish dances (raqs) and dhikr with
completely
nothing in common with God, and that man is simply a loud voice; it eschewS austere practices and severe exercises,
creature and a servant. Secondly, he
wants to underline that the and observes moderation in food, drink, sleep and dress. It
truth of God's absolute transcendence is not for him a matter of disparages ecstasy (wajd), visions (mushähadt) and
faith which a common believer has, nor
an intellectual illuminations (tajalliyt)' censures boastful claims and ecstatic
arrives, but fact of his own
a statements (shathat); and subjects mystical revelations
conclusion at which a theologian
(makshift) to the doctrines of the Shar'. It holds that the goal
experience to which he was brought against his wish and
of ta_awwuyf is neither union with God, nor participation in His
expectation.
'Abd "1-Bq+, Sirhind+ settled attributes, but simply to obey the Shar+"ah and to be a faithful
After the death of Khwjah servant of God. There is no stage higher than the stage of
down at Sirhind, and devoted himself for the rest of his life
single-mindedly to some great works. He seldom left Sirhind, servanthood ('abdiyal)
for the The propagation of the Naqshband+ far+qah and the
except a few times for Delhi and Agra, and then, too, purification of souls, however important that may be, was only
cause he struggled for.
a part of the task which Sirhind+ had set himself. 'I have not
The first task to which Sirhindi addressed himself was to
been created', he said, for the spiritual direction of the people
prcach and popularise the Naqshband+ tar+qah. People came to and their self-perfection. The purpose of my creation is
him and east
from different parts of India, north
west, seeking spiritual guidance. He instructed them and
south, and different, and I have adifferent mission."° He considered
to be more than a wali, a renovator (mujaddid) of
supervised their progress, and when they had attained a level of himself
perfection, sent them back to their native places to preach the religion, who had been commissioned to revive Islam at the
turn of its second millennium." Although he did not elaborate,
tariqah there. Those who were more gifted, he sent to
important cities of India such as Lahore, Delhi,
there is no doubt that he had a very clear conception of his
Agra, mission and what it required in his day. Judging from the work
Saharanpur, Badayun, Jawnpur, Allahabad, Manakpur, Patna, he did, we can safely say that his mission was to criticise
Mangalkot
them
(Bengal), Burhanpur (Deccan)
to spread the views and the
etc, and asked unbelief, heresy and false doctrines, and reaffirm faith
in
practices of the order prophecy, revelation and the religion
of the Prophet;
(silsilah). How popular the silsilah became can be ascertained and
to condemn evil, disobedience and innovation,
by a remark of Jahängir, (1014/1606-1037/1627), to
son and revive virtue, piety and adherence to the Sunnah; oppose
successor of Akbar which,he wrote sixteen Islamic institutions
had started his work: 'The
years after Sirhind+ anti-Islamic forces and powers and restore
disciples of the Shaykh have spread of mind and heart to
all over the cities and the towns and laws. Sirhind+ used all his powers
of India."" and tracts" wherein
The silsilah was not achieve these ends. He wrote books
confined to India. It spread to
 Sufism and Shar+ ah
8 of every sectio. Sufism and Shar+ 'ah 19
ideas and practices
he attacked the
emoncous
statcsmen explained
scholars, Sufis and necd for prophetic revelation by showing that human reason is
of society - and defended them on the
masses,
of establishing truths beyond the world of
and right piety incapable
what is true faith reason and sane Su perception, and that mystic kashf, which is another alternative,
and Sunnah,
of the Qur än
grounds personalities in
in every
every is not infallible, especially in view of the fact that such
He wrote letters to important
practices. cloisters (khnghsi revelations vary from one mystic to another. The only reliable
(madrasahs),
walk of life, in colleges refom the views source is the prophetiC wahy. So far as the establishment of a
amy and government,
unging them to and
their influence and to realise the
under particular claim to prophecy is concerned, Sirhind+ bases his
practices of
the people
which God placed
has on their shoulders in argument on the life, message and work of the prophet in
great responsibility and travelled to see addition to the miracles that he performs. In the case of
to them his emissaries,
this regard. He sent Muhammad, peace be upon him, his argument centres on the
considered it helpful. He used the
them personally when he
network of his throughout the whole of India
disciples, spread
Qur'n, his exemplary life, the perfection of his Shar+'ah and
to give up false beliefs and
its impact on society. The Defence of Prophecy is a concise,
and outside India, to urge people
evil innovations, to follow the
Shar+'ah and adhere to the cogent and forceful work on the subject. In this and other
Sunnah of the Prophet. He had several copies of his letters (the theological discussions scattered over many of his letters
Sirhind+ draws upon the whole theological tradition of Islm,
medium for the propagation of his ideas) made and distributed
above all the Mturid+ theology (kalm) prevailing in Central
I will review briefly
among the people. In the following pages Asia. But one also comes across many fresh insights and new
the work that Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind+ did.
arguments particularly in discussions on the essence and
A section of the society, small in number yet quite
attributes of God, freedom of wil, and responsibility for belief
influential, was that of the scholars at the royal court. I have
in God before revelation, not to mention his theosophical
already mentioned Abk 1-Fadl; besides him there was his
doctrine of wahdat "-shuhid, to which I have devoted a
father, Mull Mubak Ngawri (d. 100111593) who initiated separate section.
Akbar into heterodoxy," Fath Alläh Sh+räz+ (d. 997/1588) who
Along with prophecy the honour of the Companions
headeda committee to examine the rationality of the sahbah) of the Prophet was also under attack. A campaign
Shar+f ah," Sharif Amuli whom Akbar deputed later in Bengal of vilification was launched by Sh+'ahs throughout the
to preach his new
religion,"" just to mention a few. These country with renewed vigour, following the revival of
people had learned Greek philosophy and acquainted
themselves to some extent with Indian thought similar activity in ran, against the first three caliphs for
contact with Hindu
mostly by their depriving "Ali, as they said, of the right to succeed the Prophet,
pundits at the court. They objected to the and against 'A'ishah, Talhah, Zubayr and Mu'wiyah who
belief in prophecy and revelation, and denied
the need for a
Divine Sharf ah. To counteract this trend opposed and fought 'Al+ afterwards. Those who supported
first book, Defence of Sirhind+ wrote his these Companions were also cursed; this amounted to
was at Agra. After a
Prophecy (lhbät T-Nubkwah), when he the condemnation of the entire community of Companions
brief mention of the situation
court, from which I have at the except a few members of "Al+'s house and his supporters.
into a detailed already quoted, Sirhind+ enters The campaign at the Agra court was carried out by Sh+'ah
discussion of the nature, function
necessity of prophecy, and the method and scholars headed by Qdi Nkrullh Shkshtari;" in the south it
claim of a to establish the
of particular prophet. He upholds the
was led by the successors of Burhn Nizm Shh (1508-53)
a
super-rationaBway to knowledge possibility who had recently employed hundreds of people in order
phenomena ofdream and mystic by referring to the to abuse the Companions and kill those who resisted them;
kashf," and underlines the in the north Kashmir was another centre for this campaign.
The scholars at Agra published a book refuting the criticism
 Sufism and Shari'ah
Shar+ 'ah 21
Sufism and
20 scholars of Central Asi
them by the Sunni and cultures of India. Ignorant of
levelled against their own position. Thie with the polytheistic religions
7-Nahr). and
vindicat1ng in the religious rites of the
(Manara achievement and was used o their faith, Muslims participated
projected as a great and gods for various
book was non-Muslims, and prayed to their idolstheir
strengthen the campaign. purposes; women,
in particular, sought protection against
book, Radd-i-Rawänd
Sirhind+ reviewed
this work in his smallpox."" They joined Hindu festivals such
position. In it
and other letters36 diseases such as

substantiated the Sunní and celebrated the latter by lighting

and show that the Sh+ah as räkhi and dipávali;
Sirhindí tries to it as a present in coloured pots
dealing with the subject Companions of the lamps, cooking rice and sending
and vilitying the and friends as the Hindus used to do on that
practice of condemning and disastrous. First, it is not
to relatives
to other
Prophet is mistaken. degrading
and the occasion."" The influence of Indian culture had spread Kh n-i-
nominated 'Al+ to succeed him, talents at the court of
true that the Prophet classes too; a poet of great
his nomination are forged. Second, for instance, had adopted kufri" (the lover
so-called ahd+th telling of Khänn in Deccan,
tirst three caliphs to
it is against the knon practice of the of kufr) as his poetic name (takhallus)
violate the Prophet's decree, as it is against the dignity of 'Ali The other cause of the religious degeneration
of the Muslim
their authority and falsify thereby his masses was the
influence of ignorant andmisguided Sufis. At
to subject himself to
to saints
claim, if the Prophet had nominated him. Third, if the Sh+'ah their bidding they made votive offerings (nadhr)
are condemned, it and offered sacrifices their graves. Women
position is accepted and the Companions
on
(mash'ikh) even their wives,
would seriously affect the credibility of the Qur'n which they usually fasted in the name of Sufi teachers, For instance,
had collected, and undermine the authenticity of the whole rituals in this connection.
and observed various
corpus of had+th which they had transmitted;
it would furtherT they would not break their
fast except with the food they
did not need it." Both
discredit the work of the Prophet if he had spent his whole life collected by begging, even though they
violated the will of their leader made special efforts to celebrate the tenth day
instructing men who en masse men and women
the twenty-
when he closed his eyes.In the case of the Companions who of Muharram, the fifteenth night of Sha'bän,
of the same
opposed 'Ali later on, Sirhind+ states clearly that in their feuds seventh day of Rajab, and the first Friday night
and offered
the truth was with Al+, and his opponents were in the wrong, month, which they called Laylat 1-Ragh'ib,
it to be a highly
but their opposition was due to an error in judgement, as many prayer (salt) in assembly, considering
46
scholars have pointed out, regarding the right course of action, meritorious act."
rather than caused by personal motives."" Hence they deserve Most Sufis held musical sessions (sam ), indulged in
the birth of the Prophet;"
not to be condemned, but to be excused. If anybody thinks that spiritual dances (raqs) and celebrated
not mind attending the
this explanation clears Talhah, Zubayr and "Äishah, but not even the sons of Sirhind+'s preceptor did
Mu'awiyah whom Sirhind+ would not except, even then the cared more for
music and songs on Thursday nights."" They
practice of vilification against him after his death is and sunnah, indulged
dhikr and contemplation (fikr) than fard
degrading," particularly when he had rendered a number of (a special
înat course of
in spiritual exercises such as arba
valuable services to Islm. and neglected prayers in
Sirhindr's Radd-i-Rawfid was well received; an indication forty days of supererogatory acts), on Fridays."
19

at) the weekly prayers

of its popularity is that almost a assembly (ba jam even
ideas about their masters:
Allah's calibre chose to write a
century later, a scholar of Wal+ The novices had developed strange
to deprive them of their
popularise its ideas. commentary on it and they believed that they had power and to secure
The life of the Muslim masses spiritual attainments" if they became angry,
bid'at (unauthorised
was ridden with shirk and God's pardon for their misdeeds if they were pleased."
innovation), due, first, to their contact 'l-wujid cared little for
Those who subscribed to wahdat
 Sufism amd Sharl'ah
Suflsm anud Sharl'ah 23
the Shari'ah was to
They believed
that the goalof hey are innovations in religion (din) and must he rejected
the Shari'ah. realised the truth of wahdat
hence if anyone the Shar
32 But the ncts which were done as part of habit and custom, we
attain knowledge: the duties of
have to performbecause it differentiated do not regard deviations from them as innovation, and do not
7-ww'ind he did
not

Some of them disparaged salàr proscribe them. For they do not belong to rcligion (din); their
others cqualed resurrection Cxistence or dinappearance depcnds upon the custom of
between God and the servant;
denied judgement and sOocicty rather than religion."
with the Sufi experience of
fan , and faces and
cven loved
to gaze at beautiful If we review the practices which Sirhindi has condemned as
punishment." Some manifestation of the bid'ah we find that they introduce things into religion (din)
because they were the
hear sweet voices,
which have no textual support, which change the relative
Eternal Beauty in his letters priorities among the rules of the Shar+' ah, which increase the
Sirhindi referred to
these ideas and practices
them as and bid'at. He urged Sufi
shirk, kufr imporlance of a thing beyond what the Shar has itsclff
and denounced provided, and which specify time, place and ways for doing
to discard these evil practices and
teachers and mashä ikh
reform their lives. To a Sufi
teacher at Thaneshwar, for things which have been commended by the Shur' but without
those specifications. Every bid'a, Sirhindí says, changes the
instance, he wrote:
of doing things, and replaces the
halfof the night in recommended course

T delay the 'ish' prayer till the second Sunnah.*

cder to make the casy is
salt-j-tahajud highly
Sirhindi laments that the 'ulamä' of the time who are the
objectionable; it has been condemned as makrüh tahr+mi by guardians of religion and whose duty is to save the masses
the fugah'... This practice must be stopped and the
Hanafi from shirk and bid'at are themselves involved in those
earlier prayers must be repeated. You should never

practices. The world is drowned, he says, 'in the sea of bid'at

. .

recommend the water that you have used in ablution (wulii')

to the people for drinking; because the water spilt in ablution and delights in its black acts; the "ulamä' of our time have
is dirty according to Abk Han+fah. The fugah' have become the preachers of bid'at and destroycrs of the Sunnah.
forbidden its use. . . I have come to know from a reliable No one has the courage to speak against the
bid'at and revive
Sunnah. Most of the 'ulamä' lead people to bid'a, and prove
source that the disciples
of your
deputies (khulafä) prostrate
that they arc commended and desirable'.
before them, and are not satisfied with simply bowing their
heads. This is reprehensible, and should be strongly The 'ulama' did not stop at bid'at, they moved to change the
condemned and forbidden. who was the
very face of religion. One ülim, for instance,
Sirhindi did not distinguish between good and bad innova-
highest authority on religion in the country issued a fatwã
tion: he
saying that the {lajj was no longer incumbent as the journey
denounced every innovation (bid'al, il
belonged to the field of religion. In a letter to a disciple he provided to Makkah was unsafe. Other "ulamá" at Lahore ruled that
charging interest"" was legal; still others came out with the
explained his views as follows: verdict that prostration before the king for honour was quite
You have asked how it is that I forbid dhikr with
loud voice proper. One crown of the gnostics úrifn), using his
(iaj 7-
and condemn ît as bid'at, but do not
condemn many other insight into wahdat 7-wujüd, supported on the
tis verdict
things which had not existed at the time of the Prophet such
as the shirt
ground that "the king was one witn God, nothing less'." The
open in front (libs farji) and
pyjamas. Please cousin of another gnostic ruled that shaving onc's beard was
note that the acts of the said
Prophet were of two kinds: those that the inhabitants of Paradise were
perlectly in order because
were
performed as ibdah, an act of worship, and those that
were done as
to be beardless youths."
'urf and 'dah, habits and custom_. The acts Sirhindi deplores these acts as sheer distortion of religion
which were done as
them to be evil
'ibdah, we consider deviations from and condemns their perpetrators. He calls them the robbers
innovations, and condemn them strongly, for
 Suflhm und Nhart'ah
'ah
nfinm m l huut
His wrath is particularly directod lomulated that
of religion (huss-i-dim) hy a religiom Thin Divine Roligion was
ew
reapomsibilit
court who shared the
against the
'ulamá' ofthe
Mubárak and Aba 7-Fndl lor lendin il inonpolecd crecds,
viles
a muticeN fom every religion
wIth heretics like Mullá linduisan, 7moantrinnisn, Btudedhim aned (hristianity exuept
and incompetent, they could n very inleroating, nit I shall ot discu
Akhar swzy Supcrficial IslAm Js detaila 4e

defend Isläm against the Iree-thinkCrn, Cil-eckIng anel arrow em here Vor oxept its oniginal
aulunn d u few moe

munded. they dicredited hetween

religion by fighting betwcen diwiples, ) a Cigcen, ) o lk
e" elgion seriously,
nnd kaflr, and tle Tperor
themselves and condemning cach other an Jasg nd these a e
lclions thul the eadrient,
corrup and mean, they degraded themsclves by using thelr bimself, cCased to he erious slnut il allerwads. I is alo
authority to amass wealth weth oting th»t Sirhindi lu counternoted Ak bar's other
Sirhindi apealed to the (jod-fcaring ulaná' ol thc cuntry
1o realise their responsibility in the ituation, and to condemn
proved a tolal lailure, however, il uCoeeded in highlighting the
the evils wtuch had infected the life of the masCN ad daunaged
rcliyious cdegcncsalon ad soctioismm ol the age
the image of Islám fe wartied that any complceney n lhe Sccond, ndmore importan, Akbur gathored at his cout
matter would be dinastrous. To an 'älim at Lahorc, for inlance, mcn wh) criticied,
ouled nd ridieuled Ialamie beliets,
wheTe wTe scholars had leyaliwed interest on thc plea of nced he ntarted secking for
practices nd peronmalities Originally,
truth in dillerent religons, but the ambitioms ol sone sell-
ihtyij)
auments
he
wrote a kmy etter whercin he refulcd heir
at length, and urged him to realine hin duty of sccking mcholars unod he rivialriCs o narrOW 11inded ulama
in CGod
cnyoinung god and forbidding evil (amr hi -ma 'raf wa nahy turncd the qucsl into a campagn against Isläm. Faith
crcation of the
ani1-munhar In anvother letter which he wrote to Mulla WH sclainncd, bul cverything cle
wian rejectod:
Ahymad Barki (d. 1026/1617), his deputy at Berk, he wged: world, cx intence ofangels, resurrection of the body.
the
Try to spre the kwvwledge of the Sharil' ah and the rules of evelalion and prophecy, lenity o the world and
The lile ol he
figh at piaes where igonare prevails and hid 'at rules, and do tranigration of thc nul were instead aflimed.
expunged from individual
it wth the vane ummern and love which,
by the yrace of Ciod, Prophet was criticincd, hin name was
ind injunctions
you have for your friends Prepare yourelf for the task and anes, slal and oher iles wcre layed,
disharye the duty of enjoining god and forbidding cvil which lawlul (halal) and unlawlul (uram) werc
comccrning thonw who reluncd to
you have trwards the penple there, and do idiculed
ridiculcd Things dd not end here:
pieasure of od
for the i only humilated, imprioned and
comply and dared to object
7
were

In 7579 vme vcholars of the MMclimcH cxlemiated

royal ourt preparcd a
change the laws
tevirnxmy (muhdar) A igped by it others and Third, and most important, Akbar acted to

They testifed that Akhar was the mostprexentcd

it
o Akbar
isttulions ol the country based on Shar'ah. e
the
kredyahle and mt just, most aabolshed zukal und lzyuh, wildrew the prohibilion o
ave the mujtuhuds, arvd (d-feasing',
that as such he ranked
and yambling, forbade marriugex betwecn
cousins
that he had the drinking
matters whh they differed
in authority to rule in allowed the Sharl'ah, proncribed more than one marriage,
Aktas within the next Armed with this in
two decades did three testimony, hut, ironically enoupli, removed
ceure n prontitution,
had
fat-1taung thinys which banncd slauphter of the cow, prohibited killing
of animals on
he wununtinent HeumwquenKes launched
for Jslám and
Muslins in the name of the Prophet
lahiy drafwd y Mulla a
new Divine many days of the ycar, dropped
He and tns Mubárak" and his wn Reliyjon (Din-1 und hin (Companions Irom lriday semons; dincomtinucd the
koyal vhvolars Abu 1-Fa|1 king lhc ew

unnpkd a thxmaydentertained iri calendar, introduced com new

t the idca that since Inlamic
Isläm thc sludy ol Ambic and
ife opars f a reliyan in yeas, of it life (the millennium; discouraped
their view) it natural
ought to he
replaccd
 Sufism and Shar+'ah
Sufism and Shari ah 27
educed govermment
aid to Arabio
discrplincs: stopped
or to act promptly. To the Sadr-i-Jahn (d. 1027/1618) who had
seck to till the
Isl mic posts which fell
tutored Jahngir before and enjoyed his confidence as the
schools and did
not

vacant
6
that Isläm ceased even to
highest religious authority, he wrote: Now that things have
measures was changed and the hostility of the people has subsided, it is the
Thc effect of these was constricted and
other religions: it duty of the leaders of Isläm, the Sadr-i-Islm and the 'ulama'
be a religion among northern India by the
of Hinduism in ofIslm that they work for the implementation of the Shari'ah.
castigated. The revival made the condition worse. At several
followers of Chaytanya The institutions of Isläm which have been demolished must be
Muslims were threatened, mosques were quickly restored; delay is not at all good, it makes us very
places the lives of rites obstructed
observance of Isl mic uneasy.. . Ifthe king is not enthusiastic to implement the rules
demolished. and the
in several letters: "In the earlier of the Prophet, peace be upon him, and if his confidants also
Sirhindi laments the situation
pertormed their religious rites excuse themselves, and like to pass their days in peace, life will
generation non-Muslims freely
in Muslim towns,
but Muslims could not practise Islm; if they become difficult and miserable for Muslims who have no
iared. theywere put to death. *The non-Muslims of India are means.0 To Khn-i-Jahn (d. 1040/1630) another official of
to demolish mosques and erect temples
in their the court, he wrote: "Since the king listens to your words and
not afraid
For instance. in Kurukshetra there was a mosque and the gives them weight, it would be really great if you could explain
place.
tomb of a saint. They have been demolished and in these places to him briefly or in detail, as you like, the beliefs of the Ahl-i
non-Muslims Sunnat wa Jam 'at. Please inform him of the doctrines of the
a very big temple has been erected. Moreover,
their rituals, but Muslims are powerless to People of Truth (Ahl 7-Haqq) and look for every opportunity
openly cary out
fulfil the Islmic injunctions. During Ekadashi, Hindus fast and to talk about Isläm and the Muslims, defend the tenets of Islm
strive hard to see that in Muslim quarters no Muslim cooks or and condemn infidelity and heresy. When Jahäng+r desired
sells food on these days. On the other hand, during Ramadän to have four 'ulama' to advise him, he wrote to Shaykh Farid,
who played a leading role in securing the throne for Jah ngir,
they openly prepare and sell food, but owing to the weakness to pursuade him to have only one God-fearing and competent
of Isläm, nobody can interfere. Alas the ruler of the country is
one of us, but we are in such a miserable state.' alim, lest rivalries between the 'ulama' disgust him as they
Towards the end of Akbar's reign a struggle for had disgusted his father earlier.
succession Sirhindi also urged the high officials in the provinces to do
between his sons ensued. Sal+m secured the support of some
influential officials of the court who resented Akbar's religious what they could in their own spheres. He wrote letters to
Shaykh Murtad, the governor of Gujrat, Qul+ch Khän, the
policies. He promised"to defend the Shar+'ah, and ascended devout viceroy of Lahore, Ll Beg, the governor of Bihar,
the throne under the name of Jahngir when his father died in
Abd 1-Rah+m Kh n-i-Khänän, the commander-inchief of
1014/1605
Sirhindi delighted to hear about Jahng+r's accession.
was Deccan, and many other important dignitaries. He called upon
them to spread the teachings of Isläm, to defend the faith,
to
But he if Jahng+r had the will to carry out the
was not sure
institutions, and to
abolish un-lsl mic laws, to restore Islämic
promise, or knew how to do so. He therefore made it a
point told them of the great reward
that Jahang+r's commitment to the Shar+'ah was suppress anti-Isl mic forces. He
and that he received strengthened that awaited them in the Hereafter even for any small thing
proper advice on the matter. He was also
they would be doing the work of the
apprehensive of opposing elements that had by no means they could do, because
disappeared. With this reading of the
situation he WTote
prophets.83
married Nkr Jahn,
to officials close to Six years after his accession Jahng+r
and Muslims in theJahngir
to tell them of the plight of Islm talents established
who because of her beauty, culture and great
country and impress upon them the need
 Sufism and Shar+'
and by gettinp ufism and Shari ah
over her husband,
unlimited ascendancy father a n imoo
and her camp. for it provided him with the unique opportunity to
brother appointed as premier
secured full control of the governme peopie around him. In various sessions
member of the court,
Shi ah elcments at the court
nent
starte
preachto the king and
which he had with Jahängir. he read out the Qur än to him.
With her ascendancy the
Sunnis. As Sirh1ndí excrcised considerahi cxplained its message. discussed the principles of faith. and
working against the
section, they turned against him. The.
claborated the rules of the Shari ah. This seems to have had
influence on the Sunni
that because of his great followin its effect. A year later when Jahängir conquered the fort of
impressed upon Jahängir at the court andi Kangra he showed unusual enthusiasm to enforce some Islmic
throughout India. his contact with officers
to the kingdom." On th
laws in that quarter. The same year, he forbade the practice of
the provinces. Sirhind+ posed a threat marrying Muslim girls to non-Muslims in Kashmir. He
other hand. the Sufis whose ideas and practices Sirhind+ had
condemned and whose mash ikh he had criticised, were not reintroduced the Hijí calendar, engraved an Islämic emblem
on coins, rebuilt the mosques that had been demolished, and
happy with him. When some ot his over-enthusiastic disciples encouraged Arabic and Islämic learning"
and publicised his
began extolling his mystical attainments Sirhind+ spent three years at the camp, accompanied the king
they came out to denounce him on several campaigns and visited many places. When his health
VISIonar Acxpenences.
openly letter that Sirhindi had written to his preceptor
started to fail he returned to Sirhind, where he reduced his
sixteen years previously wherein he had mentioned that in al commitments and devoted himself to dhikr and prayer. On 28th
vision he went beyond the stage of Abk Bakr, aroused strong Safar 1034/10th December 1624 he met his Lord.
condemnation from various quarters. Some even called him an The work which I have discussed above is only a part of
infidel kafir) who deserved to be killed." what Shaykh Ahmad Sirhind+ did, and is by no means the best.
In 1028/1619 Jahng+r called upon Sirhind+ to explain the Far more important in many respects is his work concerning
charges levelled against him. In his Memoirs where he records tasawwuf and its relation with the Prophetic Islm. For the first
the cpisode. he says that he was not satisfied with Sirhindr's time in the history of of calibre came
Sufism, mystic
a
his to
answer, and to chastise
him and to pacify public sentiments he discuss mystic experience, elucidate the nature and
ordered his imprisonment." Other sources say that Jahngïr characteristics of its different stages, and assess their value and
was satisfied with Sirhind+'s answer, but since he did
not significance. Again for the first time, a Sufi of his eminence
prostrate in honour when he entered the court, Jahng+r sent clearly distinguished between the Prophetic way and the saintly
him to jail way to God and judged the latter in the light of the former.
Sirhindi bore the sufferings of his With an unusual boldness, Sirhind+ reviewed the whole history
imprisonment with of Sufism, explained what ideas and practices are within the
patience: he neither regretted his action nor made any effort to
secure release.
Believing that he would not have been bounds of the Shar+ ah and what must be condemned as
imprisoned had God not allowed it, he took it as a way of aberration. Nothing
deterred him from censuring any
Lord to bring him closer to Himself." the
He continued his work personality, however great, if he or she said or did anything
in prison with the same that went against the Shar+' ah. He particularly subjected the-
vigour as he had
Impressed by his life and preaching, hundreds ofdone outside. philosophy of wahdat T-wujüd to searching criticism, and-
convicts repented of heir non-Muslim
past deceds and embraced Islm." censured its consequences to Islmic beliefs, values an
A year later,
Jahängir set Sirhindi free, called him to the practices. Last but not least, he expounded a theosophy in plac
court, honoured him the highest mysti.
and offered him a
with a robe, returned
his
of wahdat -wujkd hat agreed onwith
the one hand, and t
to go home or
thousand rupees. He propertyy
gave him the option
experience of difference (farq),
stay with him in the Isl mic Shar+" ah on the other.
camp." Sirhind+ chose the