Unit 4

Teacher Planning II: The Instructional Planning Process and

Research on Teacher Planning
Overview

As you would have observed from the planning models discussed in unit 3, planning for
teaching consists of a more or less agreed upon number of steps or stages that presumes a
definite sequential pattern. Though on paper the steps involved in planning are presented
in a particular order it should never be assumed that in actuality when teachers are
planning they proceed in the same manner. The difficulty therefore with the main
planning model (that designed by Tyler for example) is that it has been rigidly
interpreted. Even if Tyler himself suggested that planning should commence with the
identification of objectives which will then inform the selection of content, the
organization of learning experiences and the evaluation of learning, if actual practice
suggest that this is unworkable then modifications will become necessary.

It is in this way that practice can be used to inform and refine theory. So though we will
look in a step by step manner at the different elements or components of the planning
process we do so mainly to establish what happens at each stage rather than to suggest
that planning happens in this linear way. In fact, planning is the very obverse of this
linear pattern and is usually characterized by a number of decisions and activities which
are taking place simultaneously. You should therefore keep this in mind as we examine
sequentially, the different elements in the instructional planning process in sessions 4.1
to 4.4 beginning with the selection of instructional objectives (session 4.1) before
considering the other elements – content, learning methods/activities (session 4.2) and
assessment – in turn (session 4.3). In session 4.4 we examine how unit and lesson plans
are developed taking all the elements discussed in the preceding sessions into account.

In the final session of this unit (session 4.5) we examine some research findings on
teacher planning with a view to establishing how teachers planning in practice compares
with the theoretical models examined and the principles of planning derived from them.

101
Some of the possible reasons for the dichotomy that exist between learning to plan and
how planning is done in practice are identified as we consider some of the issues and
challenges which teachers confront as they plan for teaching and teach in the varied and
diverse classrooms in which they work. More specifically, we will take into consideration
some of the reasons that are likely to influence the differences noted in the research
literature between experienced and beginning teachers where planning for teaching is
concerned

Objectives of Unit: At the end of the unit you will be able to:

Identify the different elements in the instructional planning process

Explain the meaning, features and significance of instructional objectives in the
instructional planning process

Examine the criteria that guide the selection of curriculum/ instructional content,
methods and learning activities

Explain the significance of evaluation to the instructional planning and teaching
process

Analyze the design features of an instructional unit and lesson plan

Examine some research findings on teacher planning and the implications for the
professional preparation of prospective teachers and for classroom practice

Readings
Evans, H. (1983). The first year of teaching: Teachers’ planning and their perspectives on
some aspects of teaching. Caribbean Journal of Education, 10(2 & 3), 103-122.

Kyriacou, C. (1998). Essential teaching skills, (2nd ed). Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.

Lang, H.R., McBeath, A., & Hêbert, J. (1995). Teaching strategies and methods for
student centered instruction. Toronto, Ontario: Harcourt Brace and Company
Canada Ltd.

102
McCutcheon, G., & Milner, H. R. (2002). A contemporary Study of teacher planning in
an high school English class. Teachers And Teaching: theory and practice, 8(1),
81-94

Yusuf-Khalil, Y. (1997). Writing lesson plans: Factors that deter Jamaican teachers.
Caribbean Journal of Education, (19)1, 131-143.

103
Session 4.1

Selecting instructional objectives

Objective for this Session:

• Explain the meaning, features and significance of

instructional objectives in the instructional planning
process

Our examination of the dominant planning models revealed that the curriculum designers
associated with some of those models believed that objectives are essential starting points
in the planning process. Tyler for example not only proposed that objectives be identified
to establish the purpose of planning, he suggested that there are three sources which
should inform the formulation of educational objectives. These sources he identified as
the learners themselves, the subject area, and contemporary society which we explored in
Unit 3 in our discussion of the planning models. Knowing that these sources are useful in
helping with the selection of appropriate instructional objectives, we can proceed to
examine how objectives have been defined. As you will note from the definitions below,
objectives are defined in a variety of ways. The essential thing to do is to identify the key
elements in the different definitions so that you can arrive at a basic understanding of
what objectives really are.

An educational objective… describes firstly, what a learner can do as a result of

having learned; and secondly, it describes what an observer (usually the teacher
but it could be any interested person) can see the learner doing so that he can
judge whether or not the objective has been successfully reached. And thirdly, the
objective, in describing what the learner will have achieved, also indicates what
educational experience he requires if he is to achieve the objective (Coltham &
Fines, 1976, pp. 3 – 4).

104

A learning objective is a precise statement that answers the question. “What
should the learner have learned or be able to do, relative to the subject content,
upon completing this topic or unit?” (Kemp, 1985, p.83).

Instructional outcomes are specific statements of what is to be accomplished and
how well, and are expressed in terms of observable, assessable student behaviour
(Gallagher, 1993, p.96).

Useful instructional objectives are clear statements that specify the knowledge,
skills, or attitudes and the level of performance that students should be able to
demonstrate as a result of one instructional session (Lang, McBeath and Hébert,
1995, p. 54).

An instructional objective is a collection of words and/or pictures and diagrams
intended to let others know what you intend for your students to achieve.
 It is related to intended outcomes, rather than the process for achieving
outcomes.
 It is specific and measurable, rather than broad and intangible.
 It is concerned with students not teachers (Mager, 1997, p.3).

Instructional objectives are statements describing what the student will be able to
do upon completion of the instructional experience (Kellough and Kellough,
2003, p.149).

According to Kemp (1985), instructional objectives should be open to the fewest

interpretations and should contain:

a) A statement about the learner

b) The learners’ behaviour
c) The topic at which the learners behaviour is directed
d) The consequences of the learning experience not the experience itself

Kemp (1985) noted also that instructional objectives consist of at least two essential and
two optional parts:

105
 The essential parts

e) Description of the students behaviour by means of an action verb

f) The subject content reference – the topic at which the learner’s behaviour
is directed.

The optional parts

g) Performance standard – indicates minimum acceptable accomplishment in

measurable terms and answer questions such as how well? How much?
How accurate?
h) Conditions/circumstances – under which conditions or circumstances will
the performance be demonstrated or the evaluation take place? (Kemp,
1985, pp.83-85).

Kellough and Kellough (2003) provided the mnemonics outlined below to help teachers
to focus on the key elements that should be included in the writing of instructional
objectives. They described the mnemonics as the ABCD of writing objectives which is a
way of making it easy to remember the different components that an instructional
objective should possess:

A – Refers to the audience, that is the student for whom the objective is intended

B – Stands for behaviour, which represents the learning target. The expected behaviour
should be written with verbs that are measurable, that is, action verbs, so that it is directly
observable that the objective, or target, has been reached.

C – This is the condition or setting in which the behaviour will be demonstrated by the
student and observed by the teacher (not often included by teachers)

D – Degree or level of expected performance. This is the ingredient that allows for the
assessment of student learning (Kellough and Kellough, 2003, p.151).

106
Based on our discussion above we have seen that objectives are statements about what
students or learners will be able to do after having been exposed to some learning
experiences which consists of the content of instruction. The definitions of objectives also
suggest that the behaviour that students will display after instruction should be both
measurable and observable. Objectives can also state the conditions under which the
knowledge to be learnt will be acquired and the minimum standard that learners should
achieve as an indicator that learning has taken place. To this discussion we can add the
contribution of Jacobsen, Eggen and Kauchak (2006) who have added that “Objectives
form the core of the lesson plan” and serve three functions:

They expand the unit goal by describing it in greater detail.

They specify what the students should know or be able to do at the end of the
lesson

They translate the content outline of the unit into measurable outcomes

In addition, objectives

Help teachers plan learning activities with precision

Help learners become self regulated, because they understand what is expected of
them (p.15)

If objectives, by their very nature, seem so essential to instructional planning why are
they not central to the planning activities of some teachers? Are they overrated? Consider
this as we examine the other elements in the instructional planning process.

Table 4.1 Activity 4.1

Topic Review

Review the features of instructional objectives and note when an objective is

fully stated, when it contains only the essential parts and the mnemonic that can
be used to ensure that an instructional objective contains all the elements of a
fully stated objective -----------------------------------------------------------------------

107
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Perspectives on Instructional/Behavioural Objectives

Behavioural objectives have been at the centre of heated arguments among theorists and
practitioners. The basic issue has been the extent to which it is either practicable or
desirable to express objectives in precise behavioural terms. The discussion commenced
with Ralph Tyler (1949) in a work on the school curriculum in which he argued for clear,
measurable objectives. His arguments are set out in his book ‘Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction’ in which he suggests that those planning curriculum and
educational programmes should commence with four questions identified earlier in this
session. In relation to the first question he identified, Tyler stated that objective should be
defined in terms of changes in student behaviour. He argued that the most useful form for
stating objectives is to include both the kind of behaviour to be developed and the content
or area of life in which this behaviour is to operate. The objectives he insists must be
defined clearly because they will provide the basis for evaluation. The essence of his
views is captured in his statement that:
…if an educational program is to be planned and if efforts for continued
improvement are to be made, it is necessary to have some conception of the goals
that are being aimed at. These educational objectives become the criteria by which
materials are selected, content is outlined, instructional procedure is developed
and tests and examinations are prepared (Tyler 1969, p.3).

Tyler’s concern with the purpose of the curriculum has led him to be seen as one of the
founding fathers of the aims and objectives model of curriculum planning.
So influential were his ideas that they were taken a step further by Bloom and his
colleagues in 1956 when they developed a handbook of educational objectives for the

108
cognitive domain. The idea for the taxonomy came during a meeting of examiners
attending the 1948 American Psychological Association Convention. Thereafter, Bloom
and his colleagues met over a five year period to discuss their taxonomy which was
written by a select committee of five members: Bloom himself along with Max
Englehart, Edward Furst, Walker Hill and David Krathwohl (Biehler & Snowman, 1997).

The taxonomy was intended to provide a theoretical framework which could be used to
facilitate communication among examiners. According to Bloom et al, the taxonomy was
intended to
provide for classification of the goals of our educational system. It is expected to
be of general help to all teachers, administrators, professional specialists, and
research workers who deal with curricular and evaluation problems. It is
especially intended to help them discuss these problems with greater precision”
(Bloom, et al, 1956, p.1).
The educational objectives described in the taxonomy were outlined in behavioural terms
and as such were concerned with the changes produced in learners as a result of
educational experiences.

In 1962, Mager in his work on instructional objectives argued that teachers/instructors

should be clear on what is worth teaching and that this should guide their preparation of
instructional objectives. In answering the question “why care about objectives?’ Mager
response was that they are tools for describing intended learning outcomes; they provide
a key component for making instruction successful and are useful in several ways. Mager
noted that when clearly defined objectives are lacking, there is no sound basis for the
selection of instructional materials and procedures. The existence of objectives, he
claimed provide the basis for instructor ingenuity which means that instructors can be
creative and flexible (1997, p.14).

According to Mager (1997) a useful objective include three characteristics (1)

performance which describes what the learner is to be able to do; (2) conditions which
describes the circumstances under which the performance is expected to occur; (3)

109
criterion which describes the level of competence that must be reached or surpassed (can
be expressed as speed, accuracy or quality). Mager is of the view that objectives should
be written in clear, unambiguous terms that any teacher or student can understand without
the need for explanation. Action verbs are therefore more useful than fuzzies or words
open to a wide range of interpretation in describing what the learner should be able to do.

A major departure from the perspectives on behavioural objectives can be seen in the
work of Elliot Eisner (1969) who argued for expressive objectives and against
behavioural objectives. He felt that instruction should invite students to respond
creatively and to demonstrate emergent rather than pre-specified behaviours. Eisner’s
view is that it is not always possible – or even desirable – to have highly specific
objectives. He argued that some activities that may be included in a curriculum cannot
have pre-determined objectives and that in these situations it is quite legitimate for the
objectives to be expressed in general terms and after teaching has taken place (Marsh &
Willis, 1999).

Norman Gronlund, another scholar well known for his writings on instructional
objectives argues that when instructional objectives are properly stated they serve a
number of purposes. He demonstrated this diagrammatical by showing that objectives can
be useful in teaching, student learning, assessment, informing others of our instructional
intent, and evaluating the effectiveness of our instruction (2004, p.7). Looking at
Gronlund suggestions in a little more details it is evident that he is also strongly in favour
of the use of instructional objectives. He argues therefore for objectives to be stated as
intended learning outcomes noting that they provide the basis for selecting the methods
and materials of instruction that are most likely to bring about learning.

With respect to the role of objectives in student learning, assessment, communicating

instructional intent to others and in evaluating instruction, Gronlund noted that:

If instructional objectives are shared with students at the beginning of instruction,
they provide students with clear achievement targets to work toward and clarify the
purpose of the various learning activities. This is motivating to students and it also

110
 makes it clear to them the complexity of the learning process.

Well-stated objectives make clear the type of performance to be assessed. They
describe what students should know and be able to do as a result of learning.
Assessment is then simply a matter of using an assessment instrument that best
measures that particular type of performance.

Instructional objectives also provide a basis for interpreting the results. When the
assessment is keyed directly to the objectives, it is possible to describe what specific
learning outcomes have been achieved and where review or remedial work is needed.

Instructional objectives that are stated as intended learning outcomes help clarify to
parents and others, how students will demonstrate what they have learned.

Clearly stated instructional objectives can help make clear the successes and failures
in our instruction. This enables us to look for the reasons for failure in the methods,
the materials, or the objectives themselves. In some cases we may need to change the
methods and materials of instructions…. In others, the objectives may need to be
modified, or made clearer to students (Gronlund, 2004, pp. 9-10).

111
Figure 4.1 Why use Instructional Objectives?

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Provide a focus for instruction

Provide guidelines for learning

Provide targets for assessment

Convey instructional intent to

others

Provide for evaluation of

instruction

Source: Gronlund, N. (2004). Writing objectives for teaching and assessment (7th ed).
(p.8). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Table 4.2 Activity 4.2

Review Activity

Review the contribution of Tyler (1949), Mager (1962), Eisner (1969) and Gronlund
(2004) to the discussion on instructional objectives. What are the specific contribution of
each to the discussion on what instructional objectives are and how they should be
written?

112
Ralph Tyler: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Robert Mager: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Elliot Eisner:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Norman Gronlund: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

113
Taxonomies of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor
Domains of Learning

Since 1956 and the publication of Benjamin Bloom’s ‘Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives’, the ways in which educators at all levels of the educational system think
about instruction and learning have been revolutionized. Bloom and his colleagues in
their attempt to provide a framework for the more specific statement of educational goals,
came up with a taxonomic system by which such goals would be broken down in more
specific terms to provide educators with a common language with which to speak when
discussing or assessing instructional outcomes. They identified three domains of learning
outcomes – the cognitive, which focuses on knowledge and intellectual skills, the
affective which concentrates on attitudes and values among other traits and the
psychomotor which concentrates on physical abilities and skills. Starting with the
cognitive domain, they developed a taxonomy, a hierarchical classificatory system, to
specify six levels of learning outcomes starting from the most simple to the most
complex. As was noted earlier, this taxonomy was written by Bloom along with others of
his colleagues. Needless to say although taxonomies were later developed for the other
two domains, it is the cognitive domain that has received the most attention from
educators and classroom practitioners alike.

The Cognitive Domain

For this domain the six levels identified by Bloom and colleagues have been used as a
guideline for identifying specific verbs which can be used to write behavioural objectives
at the different levels. The cognitive domain consist of two main types of knowledge,
declarative knowledge which is also referred to as informational knowledge to mean
knowledge of facts, and procedural knowledge or intellectual/cognitive skills which is
knowledge of how to do something. These are represented by the higher level objectives
within the domain.

The six levels identified by Bloom for the cognitive domain are:

 Knowledge: Recalling and remembering previously learned materials

114
  Comprehension: Understanding and grasping the meaning of something
 Application: Use of abstract ideas, rules, or generalized methods in novel,
concrete situations
 Analysis: Breaking down a communication into constituent parts or elements and
understanding the relationship among different elements
 Synthesis: Arranging and combining elements and parts into novel pattern or
structures
 Evaluation: Judging the quality, worth, or value of something according to
established criteria (e.g. determining the adequacy of evidence to support a
conclusion)

Below is a detailed list of verbs that can be used in the formulation of instructional
objectives for the different levels of the cognitive domain. We move next to an
examination of another domain of learning referred to as the affective domain.

115
 Table 4.3 Verbs Applicable to the Six Levels in the Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application

Recall of information Interpret information in one’s Apply knowledge or

own word generalization to new
situation
arrange name classify recognize apply operate

define order describe report choose prepare

duplicate recognize discuss restate demonstrate practice

label relate explain review dramatize schedule

list recall express select employ sketch

match repeat identify sort illustrate solve

memorize reproduce indicate tell interpret use

locate translate
4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation

Break down knowledge into parts and Bring together parts of Make judgements on
show relationship among parts knowledge to form a whole and basis of given criteria
build relationship for new
situations
analyze differentiate arrange manage appraise evaluate

appraise discriminate assemble organize argue judge

calculate distinguish collect plan assess predict

categorize examine compose prepare attack rate

compare experiment construct propose choose predict

contrast inventory create set up compare score

criticize question design synthesize defend select

diagram test formulate write estimate value

Source: Kemp, J. (1985).The *depending on the meaning for

Instructional Design Process. New use, some verbs may apply to
York: (p.84).Harper & Row Publishers more than one level.

116
Table 4.4 Activity 4.3

Practice Exercise
Following from the discussion of objectives above write at least five instructional
objectives in your subject area that contains both the essential and optional parts of an
instructional objective. In addition, test your understanding of how to write objectives at
the different levels of the cognitive domain by identifying them as recall, comprehension
etc as you write them. We will come back to this matter of writing objectives looking at
some examples when we complete our examination of the other domains. At that point
you will revisit the objectives you wrote to further refine the objective writing process as
you acquire additional information on how to do so.

Write at least five objectives from your subject area on any topic of your choice.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

117
The Affective Domain

Affective learning refers to the exhibition of “a wide variety of traits and dispositions that
are different from knowledge, reasoning and skills” (Hohn, 1995, cited in McMillan,
1997, p. 261). Although the term affect has a rather restrictive meaning, denoting
emotions and feelings, McMillan argues that attitudes, values, self-concept, citizenship
and other traits which are usually considered non-cognitive involve more than emotion or
feelings. He noted that most kind of student affect involve both emotion and cognitive
beliefs. But the term is widely used in the literature to refer to a range of affective
outcomes. It is for this reason therefore that it is more prudent to use the term affect to
write your lesson objectives as affective rather than the word attitude. McMillan provides
a useful and fuller explanation of the different affective traits, some of which are more
useful for our immediate purpose than other. These have been adapted and are presented
below. A summary of the range of affective traits and their definitions are also presented
in tabular form immediately following the explanations of some of these traits.

Attitudes

Internal states that influence what students are likely to do. The internal state is some
degree of positive/negative or favourable/unfavourable reaction toward an object,
situation, person, group of objects, general environment, or groups of people (1980).
We therefore think about attitudes toward something. In schools it may be attitude to
learning, subjects, teachers, other students, homework and other objects or persons.
Thus teachers can identify the positive or negative attitude to be fostered or
monitored.

Values

Generally refers either to end states of existence or to modes of conduct that are
desirable or sought (Rokeach, 1973, cited in McMillan, 1997, p. 264). End states
of existence are conditions and aspects of ourselves and our world that we want,
such as a safe life, world peace, freedom and happiness

118

In schools, the focus is usually on values which are related to academic learning
and what is needed to function effectively as citizens. McMillan believes however
that values can be a volatile area and thus suggest that teachers confine their
objectives for these affective traits to those which relatively uncontroversial and
are clearly related to academic learning such as honesty, integrity, justice,
freedom, respect, perseverance, courage, compassion, and tolerance

Motivation

Motivation can be defined as the extent to which students are involved in

trying to learn. This includes the students’ initiation of learning, their intensity
of effort, their commitment, and their persistence. In other words, motivation
is the purposeful engagement in learning to master knowledge or skills;
students take learning seriously and value opportunities to learn.

Social Relationships

This involves a complex set of interaction skills, including the identification

of and appropriate responses to social cues. Peer relationships, friendship,
functioning in groups, assertiveness, cooperation, prosocial
abeled
,
empathy, taking perspective, and conflict resolution are examples of social
relationships that can be specified as learning targets.

At the secondary level, interpersonal abilities are becoming more and more
important as schools work with the business community to identify and
promote the skills needed to be successful in the workplace.

Examples of how to identify learning targets in this area would be specifying
that learners should show interest in others, listen to peers, sharing, contribute
to group activities. Examples of cooperative skills would be sharing, listening,
volunteering ideas and suggestions, supporting and accepting others’ ideas,
taking turns and criticizing constructively.

119

In order to provide a good level of specificity in writing affective objectives
which are designed to develop social relationship skills McMillan suggest the
following as examples:
o Students will contribute to small group discussions
o Students will willingly share materials with other students
o Students will have sustained friendships with two or more students
o Students will demonstrate skills in helping other students solve a
problem
o Students will demonstrate that they are able to negotiate with others
and compromise.

From the points raised above, it can be stated by way of summary that the affective
domain is concerned with emotional development. It is for this reason that the objectives
to be written in this domain are those to do with attitudes, feelings and emotions which
vary according to the degree of internalization being sought (Moore, 2007). Like the
taxonomy for the cognitive domain, that for the affective domain is also hierarchically
arranged. This means that the major levels or categories which signifies affective
development begins with affective responses which are regarded as least internalized, that
is, in its early stage of formation to most internalized which means the particular affective
trait is more or less full developed and has been internalized or assimilated by the
individual to the point where it is reflected in their behaviours.

The categories therefore starts with the least internalized to the most internalized. In
ascending order from least internalized to most internalized is the category
abeled
receiving which indicates that the student is aware of the affective stimulus and beginning
to have feeling toward it. From being aware the next level is responding to the stimulus
by taking an interest in it and showing favourable response to it. At the next level in the
hierarchy is valuing which indicates that there is some demonstration of a tentative belief
in the value of the stimulus and some indications of commitment to it. The penultimate
category is organizing which is concerned with the building of a personal value system.
The highest level in the domain is internalizing which now means that the individual is

120
demonstrating beliefs and behaviours consistent with a way of life (Kellough &
Kellough, 2003).

It should come as no surprise that most teachers do not take these objectives into account
primarily because they tend to focus more on cognitive objectives but also because it is
difficult to write objectives for the affective domain. This is due in part to the challenges
involved in translating affective traits into overt observable behaviours. It is for this
reason that teachers need to be aware of the taxonomy that will, at the very least help in
the identification of suitable affective objectives. This is necessary if students are to be
exposed to learning experiences which are focused on their total development.

121
Table 4.5 Affective Traits
Traits Definitions
Attitudes Predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to specified situations,
concepts, objects, institutions, or persons

Interests Personal preferences for certain kind of activities

Values Importance, worth, or usefulness of modes or conduct and end states of existence

Opinions Beliefs about specific occurrences and situations

Preferences Desire or propensity to select one object over another

Motivation Desire and willingness to be engaged in behaviour and intensity of involvement
Academic Self- Self-perceptions of competence in school and learning
Concept
Self-Esteem Attitudes toward oneself; degree of self-respect, worthiness, or desirability of
self-concept

Locus of Control Self-perception of whether success and failure is controlled by the student or by
external influences

Emotional Growth, change, and awareness of emotions and ability to regulate emotional
Development expression

Social Nature of interpersonal interactions and functioning in group settings

Relationships

Altruism Willingness and propensity to help others

Moral Attainment of ethical principals that guide decision making and behavior
Development

Classroom Nature of feeling tones in a class

Environment

Source: McMillan, J. (1997), Classroom assessment. Principles and practices for effective
instruction. (p.262). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

122
Table 4.6 Activity 4.4
Review Activity

1. Write what you understand by affective learning and say why you think this type
of learning is not usually specifically targeted by teachers in their lessons. ---------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Examine the different affective traits and their definitions. Which do you believe
might be more difficult to teach for? Think of your subject area and write how
you could design instruction so as to incorporate and enhance the development of
the following affective traits into your instructional practices: (a) altruism (b)
emotional and moral development (c) classroom environment (d) academic self-
concept (e) social relationships: ------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

123
 3. Write at least three examples of affective objectives at the different levels as
shown in the taxonomy of educational objectives in the affective domain (to be
found in the appendix of the unit). Write the objectives to elicit the following
affective traits – receiving, responding and valuing. ------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Psychomotor Domain

Although educators believe that for students to benefit holistically from schooling
learning must take into account the three areas or domains identified it must also be
realized that some subject areas are more suited for the realization of learning in one or
more domain than others. This is another reason why educators should ensure that
planning for instruction is given the attention that is needed so that students derive
maximum benefit from the different subjects which makes up the total curriculum of
schools.

This means that subject specialist must have a sound knowledge not only of the content
of their disciplines but its structure as well so that these are taken into full consideration
when organizing for instruction. Why is all this necessary? Consider the nature of

124
subjects such as history and English language/literature. How relevant do you think the
psychomotor domain is to these areas of study? On the other hand, consider the relevance
of the psychomotor domain to physical education, music, vocational-technical education
subjects and perhaps to subjects such as biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics and
geography. These subject areas vary in the extent to which they are concerned minimally
or maximally with the development of muscular and motor skills. Learning in this
domain is focused on the development of skills - in this case muscular/motor skill - from
the most simple to the most complex as it is the case for the other domains.

Unlike the cognitive and affective domain, there was far less consensus about devising
the taxonomy for the psychomotor domain so two taxonomic classifications were
developed. We will now turn our attention to an examination of the taxonomy developed
by Simpson in 1972. That developed by Harrow in 1977/1979 is located in the appendix
of this unit.

Table 4.7 - Descriptions of the Major Categories in the Psychomotor Domain

E. J. Simpson (1972)

1. Perception. This first level is concerned with the use of the sense organ to obtain cues
that guide motor activity. This category ranges from sensory stimulation (awareness of a
stimulus), through cue selection (selecting task-relevant cues), to translation (relating cue
perception to action in performance).

2. Set. Refers to readiness to take a particular type of action. This category includes
mental set (mental readiness to act), physical set (physical readiness to act), and
emotional set (willingness to act). Perception of cues serves as an important prerequisite
for this level.

3. Guided Response. Is concerned with the early stages in learning a complex skill. It
includes imitation (repeating an act demonstrated by the instructor) and trial and error
(using a multiple-response approach to identify an appropriate response). Adequacy of
performance is judged by an instructor or by a suitable set of criteria.

125
4. Mechanism. Is concerned with performance acts where the learned responses have
become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and
proficiency. Learning outcomes at this level are concerned with performance skills of
various types, but the movement patterns are less complex than at the next higher level.

5. Complex Overt Response. Is concerned with the skillful performance of motor acts
that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth,
accurate performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes resolution
of uncertainty (performs without hesitation) and automatic performance (movements are
made with ease and good muscle control). Learning outcomes at this level include highly
coordinated motor activities.

6. Adaptation. Is concerned with skills that are so well developed that the individual can
modify movement patterns to fit special requirements or to meet a problem situation.

7. Origination. Refers to the creating of new movement patterns to fit a particular

situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes at this level emphasize creativity based
upon highly developed skills.

Source: Gronlund, N. (2004).Writing Instructional Objectives for Teaching and Assessment. (7th
ed.) (p.1). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson-Merrill Prentice Hall.

After examining the two taxonomies carefully (see the appendix for the taxonomy by
Harrow) it should be clear that the type of learning with which the psychomotor domain
is primarily concerned are those to do with motion, movement, action in keeping with the
root word ‘motor’ of the term psychomotor. These are all motor skills. But motor skills
represent only one type of skills, as educators according to Lang, McBeath and Hébert
(1995) have subdivided skills into three categories; cognitive skills, affective skills (both
mentioned earlier), and psychomotor skills. With respect to your subject areas consider
the applicability of the psychomotor domain to the development of knowledge and
understanding of subject matter. In other words does learning in your subject areas
include the development of psychomotor skills?

126
Table 4.8 Activity 4.5

Practice Exercise

1. In reading through the two taxonomies for the psychomotor domain, state
whether or not objectives for this domain are pertinent to your subject area. Note
that not all subject areas teach for the development of motor skills. ------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Write at least three objectives in the psychomotor domain (based on what you
have read irrespective if it applies to your subject area) from any three levels of
the taxonomy, developed by either Simpson or Harrow (the latter found in the
appendix) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

127
 Session 4.2
Selecting Content, Teaching Methods and Student Activities

Objective for this Session:

• Examine the criteria that guide the selection of curriculum/instructional
content, methods and learning activities

(a) Selecting content

Though the curriculum and instructional planning model convey the impression that the
selection of instructional objectives takes place prior to and must precede thoughts about
instructional content, methods and student activities, in actuality this is hardly what
happens when teachers are engaged in planning for teaching. The extent to which
teachers are able to pinpoint instructional objectives before considering the content to be
taught will be dependent on their knowledge of subject content and curriculum
specification for particular grade levels. In any event, it seems likely that a review of the
content, especially from newer and more recent sources might dictate a revisit of the
instructional objectives initially and perhaps tentatively identified.

The diagram below clearly shows that the first step in the instructional planning process
is that to do with content. It shows also that after stages 1 to 6 are completed, it is likely
that content will be determined to take into account new understandings and insights
gained from the process. This is consistent with Shulman’s model of the pedagogical
reasoning process (See unit 2). The diagram also depicts the questions that Moore (2007)
suggests should be asked sequentially when engaged in planning for teaching:
1. What content should be taught?
2. What are the desired learning outcomes?
3. What teaching materials will be needed?
4. What is the best way to introduce the subject?
5. What is the best instructional strategy for the intended learning outcome?
6. How should be lesson be closed?
7. How should the students be evaluated? (Moore, 2007, p.10)
128
Figure 4.2 Basic Seven-Step Planning Process:
Steps 1 and 7
Determine content
Redetermine
content

Step 6
Plan evaluation Step 2
Write objectives

Step 5
Plan closure Step 3
Plan introduction

Step 4
Select instructional
strategy

Source: Moore, K. (2007).Classroom teaching skills (7th ed) (p.10).Boston: McGraw

Hill.

The diagram above clearly shows that the first step in the instructional planning process
is that to do with content. It shows also that after stages 1 to 6 are completed, it is likely
that content will be determined to take into account new understandings and insights
gained from the process. This is consistent with Shulman’s model of the pedagogical
reasoning process (See unit 2). The diagram also depicts the questions that Moore (2007)
suggests should be asked sequentially when engaged in planning for teaching:
8. What content should be taught?
9. What are the desired learning outcomes?
10. What teaching materials will be needed?
11. What is the best way to introduce the subject?
12. What is the best instructional strategy for the intended learning outcome?
13. How should be lesson be closed?
14. How should the students be evaluated? (Moore, 2007, p.10).

129
Based on your reading of the diagram and the list of questions to be answered in making
decisions about the different aspects of the instructional planning process, you will no
doubt be convinced that the instructional planning process is a sequential and cyclical
process. Yet, this is not necessarily the case in practice and there is even some
disagreement as to which element of the instructional process is considered or decided on
first before other elements are selected. Moore’s depiction above highlights the primacy
of selecting instructional content before decisions about objectives can be made.
Gronlund (2004) on the other hand suggests that “Instructional objectives should be
prepared before selecting the methods and materials of instruction and the assessment
procedures” (p.36).

If you were to recall the nature of objectives however, you will understand that to write
objectives assumes some knowledge of content, as objectives are so named precisely
because they make reference to some content matter about which learners will
demonstrate some knowledge or understanding by the performance of behaviours which
are observable and measurable and expressed as action verbs. Apart from the fact
therefore that knowledge of content is what drives the development and formulation of
objectives, actual practice suggests that teachers, in particular experienced practitioners,
think about the different elements of the instructional process at one and the same time,
or simultaneously and not necessarily in a step by step, linear/sequential manner as the
different models examined in Unit 3 or even as some writers on the topic suggest.

Content describes the major ideas that a teacher plans to teach. Before teachers are able to
select content for instruction however, they must consult the curriculum document or
syllabus that provides information on the content that is to be taught. Bourdillon and
Storey (2002) draw our attention to the fact that even though content for teaching is
preselected and outlined in a syllabus what gets taught is dependent on the teachers’
interpretation of the syllabus. Thus the content taught for any particular topic from the
syllabus “will depend very largely on the teacher’s own subject knowledge, interest and
the availability of resources” (p.97). The content which is included in a syllabus is
usually selected from a wide range of possible content that can be included based on

130
some specific criteria. We will examine five of the more commonly mentioned criteria
that the content to be selected must satisfy, in this unit.

The criteria are as follow:

Criterion of significance: content to be learned is significant only to the degree to which
it contributes to the basic ideas, concepts, principles, generalizations, and so on of the
overall aims of the curriculum. Content should also consider the development of
particular learning abilities, skills, processes, and attitude formation.

Criterion of validity: validity refers to the authenticity of the content selected.

Knowledge selected for school content quickly becomes obsolete in this knowledge based
information age. As new knowledge is discovered, content assumed valid may become
misleading or even false. Validity must be verified at the initial selection of curriculum
content, but it must also be checked at regular intervals through the duration of the
curricular program to determine if content originally valid continues to be so.

Criterion of interest: this criterion is justified differently based on the particular

approach to curriculum design. Schools which embrace curriculum based on a learner
centred design for example would take the view that content must be meaningful to
students, that the child should be the source of the curriculum which in essence means
that their interest should determine the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) contend
that
The criterion of students’ interest should be weighed and adjusted to allow for
students’ maturity, their prior experiences, the educational and social value of
their interests, and the way they are expected to interact within society. Attending
to this criterion of interest means that, in selecting content or arranging for content
to be experienced or constructed, the educator must be sure that the content does
engage the individual. The content must contribute to the welfare of the student
(p.236).

131
Criterion of learnability: this criterion refers to the optimal placement and appropriate
organization and sequence of content. It also addresses the issue of appropriateness for
the intended student audience. It means in essence that whatever content is selected it
should be in keeping with the cognitive levels of the students by being age appropriate.

Criterion of feasibility: this criterion focuses on a number of issues that curriculum

planners must take into consideration in selecting content. Among the things to be
considered are the time and resources available, the expertise of current staff, [and] the
nature of the political climate among others. This suggests that there are limitations on
the choices that can be made by educators. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) reminds us that
“Even the number of days in the school calendar… limits what can be taught” as well as
“the size of the classroom and the personnel of the school” (p.237). The selection of
content must therefore be considered within the context of the existing reality (Ornstein
and Hunkins, 2009, pp. 235-237).

While the selection of content must be guided by specific criteria, there should also be
some consideration with respect to how the content selected is organized for presentation
to students. Tyler (1969) identified two basic criteria which should be observed when
organizing content. He noted therefore that “In order for educational experiences to
produce a cumulative effect, they must be so organized as to reinforce each other” (p.83).
The two types of organization to which Tyler refers are vertical and horizontal
organizations. The following extract from Tyler’s text should help you to understand the
concepts of vertical and horizontal organization.

When we examine the relationship between the experiences provided in fifth-grade

geography and in sixth-grade geography we are considering the vertical organization,
whereas when we consider the relationship between the experiences in fifth-grade
geography and fifth-grade history, we are considering the horizontal organization of
learning experiences. Both of these aspects of relationship are important in determining

132
the cumulative effects of educational experiences.

If the experiences provided in the sixth grade in geography properly build upon the
experiences provided in the fifth-grade, there will be greater depth and breadth in the
development of geographic concepts, skills, and the like. If the experiences in fifth-grade
geography are appropriately related to the experiences in the fifth-grade history they
may reinforce each other, provide for larger significance and greater unity of view, and
thus be a more effective educational program… (Tyler, 1969, p.84).

Reread the extract from Tyler above and you should gain from it the understanding that
vertical organization of content means how information in a particular subject area
becomes progressively more complex at each successive grade levels. So what is learnt in
grade seven for instance provides the foundation and preparation for what is to be done in
grade eight and so on. By horizontal organization is meant the selection of content such
that what is learnt in Geography, History, and English Literature for example, is
reinforced across these subjects at the same grade level. Students’ map reading skills
learnt in eighth grade geography should be put to good use in grade eight history lessons
and opportunity for deeper understanding of maps provided. Thus a lesson that involves
the study of a particular events (for example a war or revolution) should employ the use
of maps for students to identify and locate the places where specific events in the
war/revolution occurred. In this way the lessons in geography and history reinforces each
other thereby increasing the possibility that students’ understanding of map reading will
be enhanced.

(b) Selecting teaching methods and learning activities

In selecting content a decision is made about what to teach, whereas in selecting methods
and learning activities, the concern is with how to teach or the means by which the
content of instruction will be presented to students. In the written plan of instruction, the
methods of instruction and the activities in which students will engage in order to learn
the content, is usually presented under headings such as procedures, methods and

133
activities, methodology or even development depending on whether procedures is used as
the overarching heading to indicate how the lesson will proceed from beginning to end or
just to indicate the main body of the lesson during which phase the main ideas and
teaching/learning activities are done. However the lesson is designed, the learning
activities and teaching methods selected are determined by “the type of content to be
taught and the needs and abilities of the students” (Skowron, 2006, p.12).

The tables below provide a summary of three main teaching/learning strategies and the
teaching methods which are associated with them. Note the differences among these
strategies which range from teacher-centred to student centred. Teacher centred or direct
instructional strategies are those approaches to teaching which are generally dominated
by the teacher thereby leaving students in a passive, listening role. These strategies are
referred to as presentation strategies, but they are also referred to by other names which
captures the idea that the teacher assumes a dominant position during instruction. In such
a scenario instruction is usually focussed on the delivery of content rather than the use of
student activities which provides for active participation in their own learning.

You will no doubt come across a variety of terms which are used in the literature to
describe the means by which content is taught in classrooms. In some context, the term
strategy is defined in the same way as the word method is used in another context. Lang
and Evans (2006) draw attention to this potential confusion by noting bluntly that “The
literature on instruction is inconsistent in its use of the terms strategies, methods, and
skills.” They note also that they use the terms “in a hierarchy of broad (strategies) to
specific (skills) (p.336). Thus, they defined strategy as “a general approach (e.g., direct or
experiential)” while they defined an instructional method as “a specific approach (e.g.,
delivering a lecture or small-group report).” An instructional skill as defined by them, is a
“a specific teacher behaviour such as giving a demonstration, asking questions, giving
directions, varying presentations, using set, using closure, or using technology such as an
overhead projector or PowerPoint presentation” (Lang and Evans, 2006, pp.336 & 338).
The terms set and closure as used in this definition will be clarified later in the unit.

134
We can also understand the difference between strategy and method as used in this unit
(in keeping with the definitions provided by Lang and Evans, 2006), by thinking of the
word strategy as an overarching, umbrella or superordinate term which subsumes other
terms such as methods. The word strategy is also used interchangeably with the word
approach which means a way of doing something. Since there are several ways, these
different ways are differentiated or distinct from each other in terms of their specific
features. So it is with teaching methods. There are different methods of teaching which
might represent an overall strategy. So even though they differ, they all have a particular
feature or features in common which make them representative of one strategy rather than
another.

Teacher centred strategies are those approach to teaching which involves the teacher in
the delivery of a large body of instructional content, usually in the form of declarative
knowledge, to students. Declarative knowledge represents knowledge of facts,
information, concepts, ideas and generalizations (McMillan, 1997). Teacher centred
strategies are also given the label, direct instructional strategies or presentation
strategies.

Student centred strategies are those approaches to instruction in which students are
actively involved in doing activities designed for them by the teacher to get them
involved in constructing their own knowledge. There are three main types of student
centred strategies; (1) indirect instruction which “fosters student participation through
observation, investigation, drawing inferences from data, or forming a hypothesis (Lang
and Evans, 2006, p.369), (2) interactive/collaborative strategy and (3) experiential or
action strategy. Interactive or collaborative strategy “promotes active student
involvement in the learning process, and emphasizes discussion and sharing …[and] is
useful in groups that range in size from a whole class to small work units, triads or pairs”
(Lang, McBeath and Hébert, 1995, p.292). As a student centred instructional approach,
the interaction strategy:
…relies heavily on guided or open discussion and sharing, often involving
question-and-answer exchanges and cooperative small group-work. It encourages

135
 students to react and respond to the knowledge, experience, insights, and ideas of
their teachers and peers as well as to reflect on their own experiences (Seaman
and Fellenz, 1989, p.119, cited in Lang, McBeath and Hébert, 1995, p.293).

A further refinement of the interactive strategy includes the concept of collaboration. In

this regard, this strategy is defined as:
an approach to teaching and learning in which students interact to share ideas,
explore a question, and complete a project. Collaborative (interactive) instruction
methods range from class discussions through small-group methods or
cooperative learning to using the Internet when working on an assignment (Lang
and Evans, 2006, p. 401).

Experiential or action strategy involves experience and action as the name implies.
According to Lang and Evans (2006), “Instead of hearing, talking, or reading about
something, students participate in the context to be studied” (p.380). Thus, when students
are engaged in experiential learning they are “directly in touch with real things and
people” or are involved “in activities that simulate real activities and people” (Lang and
Evans, 2006, p.380). Experiential learning in essence requires that students have:
…direct encounter with the phenomenon being studied, instead of just thinking
about it or only considering the possibility of doing something with it. The
process is normally inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented. Personalized
reflection about an experience and plans to apply learning to other contexts are
critical. This is a critical part of the debriefing process in which students reflect on
or discuss what they have learned. (Lang and Evans, 2006, p.380).

Experiential learning is said to have occurred therefore, when learners “(a) participate in
an activity, (b) critically look back on the activity to surface learning and feelings, (c)
draw useful insights from analysis, and (d) put learning to work in new situations”
(Pfeiffer & Goodstein, 1982, cited in Lang and Evans, 2006, p.380). Lang, McBeath and
Hébert, (1995) explain that both indirect instruction and experiential strategy share some
characteristics in common. They noted therefore that both approaches to teaching are:

136
“learner-centered, integrated, less structured than direct instruction, and promotes
inductive and deductive reasoning.” Both strategies take
account of individual learning needs and styles, and can accommodate different
cultural interests and values. Learners often work cooperatively, combining
cooperative experiences with reflection, which encourages them to construct
personal meanings and apply their learning in new contexts (transfer). (Lang,
McBeath and Hébert, 1995, p.309).

The indirect, interactive/collaborative and experiential/action strategies discussed above

are similar to the extent that they are all learner-centred and require students to play some
active role in the construction of knowledge. They work with varying degrees of teacher
input, but for the most part the teacher’s role in the implementation stage of the lesson is
less didactic and more in line with that of a facilitator of learning. Student activities can
be largely intellectual such as when they are engaged in discussions and sharing or
mentally and physically active as when they engage in a simulation or role play or in
conducting an experiment. The features of the four broad instructional strategies are
presented below with examples of the methods which are associated with them. It should
be noted that the methods of instruction and the activities that students engage in are the
channels through which the content is delivered and the learning outcomes realized. Thus
the need to select appropriate instructional methods and student activities cannot be
overstated.

Table 4.9 Presentation/Direct Instructional Strategies

Features of Strategy Methods associated with the

Strategy

Purpose is to convey information usually to Demonstrations
individuals or groups.
Print Material

This strategy is ideal when the teacher need to
control the learning environment, especially Audiotape recording

when dealing with sensitive or volatile topics Cloze procedure

This approach is suited when there is a
Digital projector; PowerPoint

137
 considerable amount of information to be
communicated in a limited period of time or Debates; Panels; Symposiums

when there is the need to use time more Interviews

efficiently
Lectures; Tutorial

Learner usually passive

Control or responsibility for the learning rests Guest speaker
with the teacher or presenter
Research report; Assigned questions

Teacher need to be astute to motivate learning
given the lack of active learner participation Programmed learning; Computer assisted
learning

Movie/VCR/DVD

Practice and Drill

Source: Seaman, D.F. & Fellenz, R. (1989). Effective Strategies for Teaching Adults.
Merrill Publishing Co.

Table 4.10 Indirect Instructional Strategy

Features of Strategy Methods associated with the
strategy

Students are involved in discovery learning and Experiments

in conducting classroom inquiry
Concept mapping

The teacher’s role is that of clarifier and learning
Guided inquiry
facilitator who help students discover
information and structure meaning for Case studies
themselves by making inferences and
Decision mapping
generalization

This strategy consists of two main branches – Socratic questioning

guided inquiry and unguided inquiry Composing

This strategy requires considerable planning
Problem solving

138

This strategy is useful when the teacher wishes
Focused imaging
to stress cognitive of affective skills or processes
and when procedural learning is more important Guided inquiry
that content learning

The indirect strategy is appropriate when the
intent of instruction is to have students
“discover” or experience something rather than
just hear or read about it and when learning
goals involve decision making or creativity

(Lang, McBeath and Hébert, 1995, pp.279-281).

Table 4.11 Experiential/Action Strategies

Features of Strategy Methods associated
with the Strategy

Action strategies are teaching activities in which Case studies

the learners are physically as well as intellectually
Simulations
active during the learning process. It is learner
centred and is best used when the goal of
Role playing
instruction is to get students to use or evaluate
knowledge. Skits

In action strategies control comes through careful
Self-tests
preplanning of activities and through attention to
such elements as timing, selection of materials and
Field trips
interpersonal relations

Requires different teacher skills. These include Microteaching
patience, question posing skills, ability to analyze
processes affecting the learning situation as the Games

emphasis is on process rather than content.

Modeling
Teacher must also demonstrate group facilitating

139
 skills.
Conducting experiments

Action strategies require the expenditure of time
and efforts to find resources and carefully plan
Model building
each part of the learning activity.

The teacher assumes the role of learner facilitator
instead of leader or presenter.

Source: Seaman, D.F. & Fellenz, R. (1989). Effective Strategies for Teaching Adults.
Merrill Publishing Co.

Table 4.12 Interaction Strategies

Features of Strategy Methods associated
with the Strategy

These strategies rely heavily on discussion and sharing Debates

among learners.
Brainstorming

Students are active during the learning process in clarifying
their own thinking and sharing their ideas with one another Buzz groups

Is learner centred which means that teacher control is
1-3-6 grouping
reduced

Teacher control is maintained through planning the activity Guided discussion
by deciding on the strategy to be used and the topic for
Tutorial groups
discussion.

Teacher control the amount of time for discussion, the size, Investigative groups
composition and reporting techniques of the groups
Forums

Interaction strategies promote deep processing of
information and therefore lead to improve retention and Panels
recall. Role playing

Interaction strategies require the use of specific skills on
the part of the teacher – must be able to conceptualize the
Cooperative learning

140
 topic for the learning activity, must be able to anticipate the
possible directions that student discussion might take, Open discussions
teacher must be a good listener and observer, must function Problem solving groups
as a discussion leader or circulate in the room to keep a
check on the discussions.

Teacher must also attend to the group process going on
within the group discussion. In the debriefing stage the
teacher must be able to coordinate the content coming from
each group.

Source: Seaman, D.F. & Fellenz, R. (1989). Effective Strategies for Teaching Adults. Merrill
Publishing Co.

For the different methods identified do further research to learn about them so that
you can begin to use them if you currently teach and in preparation for you field
experience component of the programme.

Student Activities
Learning or student activities describe what students will do or the experiences they will
be provided with so that they will achieve the learning outcomes for the particular lesson.
Lang and Evans (2006) in describing what learning activities are, distinguishes them from
lesson objectives given that the two can be confused. They explain therefore that
“Activities are the learning experiences in which students participate to achieve
objectives.” Objectives, they then stated, “describe the knowledge, skill, or attitude
students should display as a result of participating in a lesson.” Activities are therefore
“the means to achieve objectives, whereas objectives are the ends” to be achieved but
made possible through the activities. (p.209).

Teachers must not only select activities for students to achieve the outcomes of
instruction, these must be selected so that they constitute the most developmentally
appropriate experiences for students. Bourdillon and Storey (2002) suggested therefore
that activities designed by teachers “need to take into accounts such issues as pupils’

141
prior learning and the attainment range of the class.” Teachers need also to design
learning activities which are varied and which take students interest as well as their
emotional and intellectual needs into account (p.100). Another important consideration
for selecting or designing learning activities and perhaps the first matter to be considered
is that to do with the structure of the lesson activities. Such activities should be carefully
planned and paced such that they progress from:
• the familiar to the unfamiliar
• the simple to the complex
• the easy to the difficult
• the known to the unknown (Bourdillon and Storey, 2002, p.102).

The teaching strategies and methods selected help to determine the nature of the learning
activities that students will engage in during an instructional period. According to
Skowron (2006) “Student learning may be categorized according to the type of thinking it
involves. She outlined four main types of learning that define the type of thinking
involved and hence the learning activities that can facilitate these forms of learning.

Table 4.13 Types of Learning Activities

Literal Learning. Literal learning includes relatively simple activities for acquiring
basic information and facts. The following are examples of literal learning activities:

State the steps in the scientific method.

Tell the name of the president of the United States during the Great Depression
Relational Learning. In relational learning, students relate or connect information from
one or more sources including their own background knowledge. Some examples of
relational learning activities are as follows:

Locate the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia on a modern-day map.

Predict the next action in a story
Transformational Learning. Transformational learning requires the student to
transcribe or apply learning in a different way. Some examples of transformational
learning activities are as follows:

142

Rewrite the ending of a story.

Demonstrate the operation of a simple machine.

Dramatize a historical event.
Extensional Learning. Extensional learning activities ask students to take their learning
and extend it using literal, relational, and transformational strategies to create, produce,
originate, evaluate, and in other ways exhibit their learning in a unique way. Some
examples are as follows:

Critique a novel

Design a rubric for a learning task and use it to assess the task

Justify the actions of the main character in a story (Skowron, 2006, p.14).

In view of the different types of thinking that students can engage in teachers should
design teaching/learning activities that will provide the opportunities for students to
engage in different levels and types of thinking. These no doubt will cater to the variety
of learning styles that students in any one classroom are likely to possess.

Table 4. 14 Activity 4.6

Review Activity
1. Recall briefly the criteria that curriculum developers and classroom teachers
should take into consideration in selecting content for instruction --------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

143
2. Differentiate between horizontal and vertical organization of curriculum content.
How far can you relate these two forms of content organization to the subject you
are currently teaching, to your learning experiences in school or to your current
programme of study? ------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Do some research on the different teaching methods identified in this section of
the unit and write notes on them for implementation in your classroom and in
preparation for your field or practicum experiences later on in the programme.

144
Session 4.3

Evaluation of Learning
Objective of this Session:
• Explain the significance of evaluation to the instructional
planning and teaching process.

If you were to make a literal interpretation of Tyler’s linear model, you would no doubt
be left to believe that evaluation of learning comes only at the end of the instructional
process. In definitional terms, Tyler (1949) not only provided an explanation of
evaluation as he used it, but also clarifies the different points at which evaluation should
take place. He noted therefore that “The process of evaluation is essentially the process of
determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being realized by the
program of curriculum and instruction” (1949, pp.105-106). Tyler also clarified why
evaluation needs to take place at different points during the instructional sequence since
as he stated, “educational objectives are essentially changes in human beings” which
means that “evaluation is the process for determining the degree to which these changes
in behaviour are actually taking place” (Tyler, 1949, p.106). Two implications follow
from this Tyler’s interpretation of evaluation. The first is that:
…it implies that evaluation must appraise the behaviour of students since it is
change in these behaviours which is sought in education. In the second place, it
implies that evaluation must involve more than a single appraisal at any one time
since to see whether change has taken place, it is necessary to make an appraisal
at an early point and other appraisals at other points to identify changes that may
be occurring (Tyler, 1949, p.106).

In his discussion of evaluation and following from the two implications he noted above,
Tyler (1969) argues that “one is not able to evaluate an instructional program by testing
students only at the end of the program” (p.106). For, as he acknowledged, it is not

145
possible to determine the extent to which changes have taken place as a result of
instruction if no knowledge exists about the status of the students’ knowledge at the
outset of instruction and if evaluation only takes place at the end of instruction. Tyler
therefore noted that “it is clear that an educational evaluation involves at least two
appraisals – one taking place in the early part of the educational program and the other at
some later point so that the change may be measured” (Tyler, 1969, p.106). He also
referred to the need to have another point at which evaluation is done, so that the
permanence of the learning can be determined. In this case he suggested that this
evaluation be done sometime after the instruction has been completed.

Tyler not only argues for evaluation to take place at different points in the instructional
program (lesson or unit at the level of the classroom) he also contends that evaluation
needs to take different forms since educational objectives are concerned with many types
of behavioural changes and not only cognitive behaviours. In this regard, paper and
pencil tests are not the only methods by which changes in behaviour should be measured
since there are other kinds of behaviours “that are not easily appraised by paper and
pencil device” (p. 107). Tyler therefore suggested other methods such as observations,
interviews, questionnaires and the collection of actual products made by students which
he argues “is sometimes a useful way of getting evidence of behaviour” (1969, p.108).

Since Tyler’s time, the field of assessment and evaluation has grown significantly. For
instance, the two points at which Tyler believed evaluation should take place can easily
be associated with what is now referred to as pre-test and post-test both used to determine
what students know before instruction and what they have learnt after instruction
respectively. In addition to this, assessment is the term most likely used in the literature to
describe the different methods used to measure learning against learning outcomes, while
the term evaluation is used in a more global sense to include not only the results of the
tests used to gather information on candidates but the judgement that is formed from an
interpretation of the test results.

146
An examination of how these terms are used in the literature shows that assessment is
defined as “the collection, interpretation, and use of information to help teachers make
better decisions” (McMillan, 1997, p.8). Assessment is based on the measurement of
performance using a variety of assessment techniques or testing instruments such as
multiple choice test, true/false, completion type test (all examples of objective type test)
and essay tests to name some of the most common type of tests used in schools.

Evaluation is defined as “the making of judgements about quality” (McMillan, 1997,

p.10) and as McMillan explained further:
Evaluation involves an interpretation of what has been gathered through
measurement, in which value judgments are made about performance… Teachers’
professional judgement plays a large role in evaluation. What is a “good” student
paper to one teacher may be only an “adequate” paper to another teacher
(McMillan, 1997, p.10).

Taking into account how evaluation is defined, you should be able to understand why
assessment precedes it since it provides the basis for the making of judgement about the
quality of students’ performance and by extension such teacher factors such as the quality
of instruction and invariably the suitability of the curriculum based on the extent to which
it meets specific criteria such as learnability. Although evaluation appears as the end
point of the instructional cycle keep in mind that it simultaneously informs the next or
succeeding phases of the cycle in an ongoing manner. Thus, John’s observation that
“The evaluative stage completes the planning cycle and is in many ways the most
essential aspect of the whole preparation process” (p. 73) implies a linear planning model.

In the implementation of instruction however, many opportunities are presented during a

lesson or unit for the teachers to make judgement about students’ performance. Thus,
assessment is integral to the whole planning/teaching process and therefore occurs
throughout the instructional process as we noted above. The point at which assessments
takes place also relate to the purposes for such assessment. It is therefore useful to know

147
the different purposes for which assessments are given and the different point in time that
assessment of student achievement can take place.

Purposes of assessment

To assist in student learning

To identify students’ strengths and weaknesses

To assess the effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy

To assess and improve the effectiveness of curriculum programs

To assess and improve teaching effectiveness

To provide data that assist in decision making about a student’s future

To provide data in order to communicate with and involve parents and guardians
in their children’s learning (Kellough & Kellough, 2003, p. 343).

Assessments also vary in terms of the point in time at which they are given and in the
form which they take. These too are linked to the purposes. Assessment takes place at any
time during the instructional process and can be informal as in teacher questioning and
observation or formal as in the administering of a written test or any other graded
activity. Assessment which occurs during the instructional period is referred to as
formative assessment while that which occurs at the end of a unit or term is referred to as
summative assessment. According to McMillan 91997) formative assessment provides
the teacher and student with ongoing feedback thereby providing “corrective actions as
instruction occurs to enhance student learning.” Formative assessment takes many forms
and includes “informal observations, questioning, student responses to questions,
homework, worksheets, and teacher feedback to the student” (McMillan, 1997, p.106).
Summative assessment on the other hand is a more formal type of assessment and its
“primary purpose id to document student performance after instruction is completed” and
comes in the form of terms papers, final examinations and research projects (McMillan,
1997, pp.106-107).

Based on the understanding that planning for instruction also involves planning for
assessment, Gronlund (2006) suggests that the following questions be used to serve as a

148
guide so that planning for assessment is seen as an integral part of the teaching-learning
process:

1. Is there a need for pretesting? By examining the content and methods of instruction,
you can judge whether prerequisite learning is necessary
2. What type of assessment is needed during instruction? If assessment is to be used to
monitor and improve learning, it must be planned during instructional planning. There
may be need for practice exercises, end-of-unit testing, observation and rating of
performance, or evaluation of students’ products (e.g., writing or a research project).
The nature of the assessment will be determined by the instructional objectives, the
instructional activities, and the need to provide feedback to students concerning their
learning progress. If properly planned, assessment during instruction can provide for
the improvement of student learning, which is the primary function of assessment.
3. What type of assessment is needed at the end of instruction? There is a need to
determine the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved so that
grades can be assigned or mastery certified. This assessment provides little
opportunity for improving learning, but feedback can help students understand their
strengths and weaknesses, and the information can help you determine if future
instructions needs to be modified (Gronlund, 2006, p.49-50).

Table 4.15 Activity 4.7

Review Activity
Review the different purposes of assessment and the distinction between assessment and
evaluation and formative and summative assessment. How can teachers use formative
assessment to inform instruction? -------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

149
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In the follow up year two course - EDTL2020 - assessment and evaluation are
examined in some more details.

We have examined the different stages in the instructional planning process. We move
now to an examination of how these stages are reflected in the actual plan for instruction
both at the unit planning and lesson planning stages.

150
 Session 4.4

The Anatomy of the Unit and Lesson Plan

Objective of this Session:

• Analyze the design features of an instructional unit and
lesson plan

Though variations do exist in terms of the details which are contained in a unit plan, most
units contain some common elements. These include
 Unit title
 Subject and grade level
 Rationale/Justification and broad purpose for the unit
 Prerequisite learning
 Goals
 Lessons
 Teaching Strategies, methods and student activities
 Teaching materials/resources
 Student assessment
 Professional development target
 Evaluation of unit

An explanation of what each component of a typical unit plan follows. Please note as you
examine these that unit plans vary in terms of the elements which are included in them,
but most typical plans include most if not all the elements identified here. There might
also be different emphasis on certain components across subject disciplines.

151
Table 4.16 Components of a Typical Unit Plan

 Subject:
 Unit title:
 Grade:
 Time allotment: indicate the duration of the sessions per week in hours and give an
approximation of the time needed to complete the unit
 Rationale: this statement gives the reason for studying the topic; this should be a convincing
statement expressing why the topic is important and why it is included in the curriculum
 Goal(s): this represents a statement about what students will learn at the completion of the
unit; it represents a general statement of the intended learning outcomes of the unit. The goal
must be consistent with the rationale
 Prerequisite student learning: this is a statement of the previous knowledge that students
must possess or what they know about the topic before the start of instruction
 Unit lessons: this represents the lesson topics to be taught in the unit - this is given in
sequential order.
 Teaching methods and student/learning activities: an outline of the different methods and
activities to be used throughout the unit
 Resources and materials: a list of all the reading material, instructional materials
developed or adapted by the teacher, teaching aids, media, and human resources (guest
presenters) to be used throughout the unit
 Assessment of student achievement: identification of the different ways in which students
performance will be appraised during and after instruction
 Professional development targets: this statement provides an opportunity for teachers to
monitor and take active control of their professional development and aids in the process of
reflective teaching. Teacher identifies a particular teaching or pedagogical skill to be
improved or developed and makes specific plans to monitor and assess their achievement of
the target in their lessons – examples can be questioning, an aspect of classroom
management, or the use of a particular teaching method.
 Teacher reflection and evaluation of unit effectiveness: This is a statement of how the unit
will be evaluated. This is based on teachers own reflection and self-evaluation as well as
students’ response to the lessons and the extent to which the unit goals and lessons objectives
were realized.

152
The lesson plan is similar in structure to the unit plan in that it provides descriptive data
in terms of the unit title, subject, and grade level, duration of the lesson, goal and specific
objectives. Planning for individual lessons also take place in three main stages; before,
during and after the lesson. These stages are also called preactive, interactive and post
active stages/phases. Interactive teaching itself takes place in three stages which have
distinct functions. These stages are the Introduction also referred to as Set Induction, the
Development for which different descriptors are oftentimes used such as methodology,
methods and procedures, or simply procedures. The last stage of the lesson is called the
Culmination stage or Closure as some writers describe it.

In addition to having three distinct stages, a lesson also possess three distinct features
according to Anderson (1991). One feature of lessons is that they consist of activities.
These activities have been organized into three global categories based on their purpose
(another feature of lesson). The three activities are (1) presentation which “includes those
activities in which the teacher is directly involved in providing ideas or information to
large groups of students” (Anderson, 1991, p.55). (2) Work and play are those activities
in which students are involved either individually or collectively in completing a task or
having fun. (3) Housekeeping activities are those which relate to the administration of the
classroom such as when the teacher informs students of daily events. It also includes
those activities in which rituals [taking the class register for instance] are performed
(Berliner, 1983 cited in Anderson, 1991).

The other features of lessons are the purpose and sequence and time period. Purpose
refers to the intentions to be served by certain activities such as the opening or closing
activities within a lesson. Sequence and time period serve to organize the presentational
activities and to provide an appropriate sequence and time frame for these activities to
take place. Let us look at what happens at each of these stages as we examine and
describe the elements of a detailed lesson plan. A lesson plan template follows.

153
 Components of a Detailed Lesson Plan

Unit Title:

Lesson topic:

Grade:

Date:

Duration of Session: give the length of time for the particular session in minute for the
week (120 minute per week)

Goal of Lesson: this is optional but provides a useful guide for the development of
specific objectives. The goal statement can be extracted from what is written in the unit
as it relates to the particular lesson

Specific Objectives: these represent the behaviours that students should exhibit or the
learning outcomes of the lesson. Specific objectives are to be written using action verbs
and where appropriate are to be written in the different domains of learning

• Knowledge – cognitive domain/declarative knowledge

• Intellectual/Psychomotor Skills – cognitive domain/procedural
knowledge
• Affective traits - attitudes, values, interests, motivation, opinions,
motivation among others. The affective trait identified in the lesson is
dependent on the trait to be targeted in the lesson or which can be fostered
through a particular lesson

Resources and Materials: Listing of texts, instructional resources and other aids to be
used in the lesson

Lesson Outline and Instructional Sequence

Introduction: a lesson needs a good introduction to get students in a state of readiness for
instruction. The function of the introduction is to motivate, stimulate and to activate prior

154
learning and to set the stage for the rest of the lesson. It is in this phase of instruction that
the advanced organizer is presented. According to Kellough et al “The introduction
should be an attention getter. If it is exciting, interesting, or innovative, it can create a
favourable mood for the lesson”. In brief, they noted that the introduction to the lesson
can be used to “review past learning, tie the new lesson to the previous lesson, introduce
new materials, point out the objectives of the new lesson, help students connect their
learning with other disciplines, or with real life” ( 2003, p. 203). Lesson introduction is
also referred to as set induction. A ‘set’ according to Cohen, Manion and Morrison
(1996):

has been defined as ‘a temporary, but often recurrent, condition of a persons that
(a) orient him (sic) toward certain environmental stimuli or events rather than
towards other, selectively sensitizing him for apprehending them; and that (b)
facilitates certain activities or responses rather than others’ (p.193)

Four functions of set induction have been identified. These include:

1. Focusing a learner’s attention on what is to be learned by gaining their interest

2. As a means of transition from the familiar to the new, from the known to the
unknown, from material already covered to new material about to be introduced.
At the beginning of a lesson, a transition set is often resorted to, using a question-
and-answer session on material covered in the last lesson, thus leading on to the
new learning in the current lesson.... a transition set may use examples from
pupils’ general knowledge to move to new material by use of examples or
analogy.

3. A set induction may be used to provide a framework or structure for a

lesson...research evidence ...indicates that teachers can influence pupils’ learning
best when they are told in advance, or at the outset, what the teacher expects of
them.

155
 4. The fourth function of set induction is to give meaning to a new concept or
principle. This frequently involves the use of concrete and specific examples and
analogies to assist pupils in understanding abstract ideas and concepts (Perrot,
1992, cited in Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 1996, pp.193-194).

Apart from serving the four functions outlined above, set can be used in three ways,
namely as orientation set, transition set and evaluation set.

4. Orientation set is used to introduce the lesson and leads to motivation. It focuses
attention on new learning, using a motivating activity, event, puzzle, anecdote or joke,
object or something that students have interest in, or experience with. It can provide a
structure to help students visualize the content or activities, or it can help clarify the
objectives of the lesson.
5. Transition set links what is already known or covered to that which is about to be
learned. Reliance is on analogies, examples, or activities that students have interest in
or with which they have had experience. It can also alert students about the content of
future lessons.
6. Evaluation set involves evaluation of students’ understanding of previous material, or
a review of previous material before going to new material. It relies on questions,
examples, quizzes, and activities that are heavily student centered or generated, so the
degree of understanding of previous content can be determined. Evaluation set also
leads to a focus on the lesson ahead (Shostak, 1977, pp. 128-130, cited in Lang and
Evans, 2006, p.222).

Table 4.17 Activity 4.8

As you read through the function of set and the three kinds of set, think of the most
common way in which you introduce your lessons (if you teach) or of the ways your
teachers have begun their lessons. How varied are/were those introductions? Remember
that the way in which lessons are introduced can determine how involved and engaged
students are likely to become in the rest of the lesson. Keep these functions of set in mind
whenever you observe a lesson or when planning your own.

156
Development: this phase of the lesson focuses primarily on the use of activities, methods
and activities that will facilitate the realization of the lesson objectives. For this phase of
the lesson, the procedures to be followed, methods and activities, and instructional
resources and teaching aids to be used should be identified. The key questions to be
addressed and skills to be practiced should be included in the plan. Kellough et al
suggests that the activities for the developmental phase of the lesson be described in some
detail so as not to forget what it to be done. Developmental activities should sustain
students’ interest and provide for individual student differences (Kellough et al, 2003,
p.176).

Culmination: this phase of the lesson is concerned with bringing the lesson to a closure
by summarizing what was done in the lesson, bringing together loose ends, applying what
has been learned to new situations, providing students with the opportunity to
demonstrate their learning and providing transfer for the unit to follow (Kellough et al).
In other words, the culminating phase of the lesson is where the main teaching/learning
points are reviewed, recapitulated, reinforced, clarified and brought together.

Student learning and the suitability of the methods, resources and activities can be
established at this point either through oral questioning, quiz, end of lesson test or any
other means selected by the teacher. Similar to set induction which orients students to the
beginning of a learning session, closure according to Perrot “complements set induction
by drawing attention to the end of a learning sequence or the end of an entire lesson by
focusing attention on what has been learned.” (Cited in Cohen, Manion and Morrison,
1996, p.194). Closure need to be carefully planned so that it is given due allocation of
time and not overtaken by the bell (Perrot, cited in Cohen, Manion and Morrision , 1996,
p.194).

Closure can be planned or used by the teacher in three basic ways. Closure which focuses
on the use of techniques to draw students’ attention to a lesson’s or segment’s closing
point; draw attention to the major points, and their sequences; or that summarizes
discussion that took place are referred to as review closure. When closure is used to
reinforce or consolidate learning or facilitates transfer by reviewing the new learning,

157
immediately practicing it and asks students to extend the new learning to other context,
then the closure is referred to as transfer closure. The “natural” but unplanned
opportunity for closure that comes when a teacher takes advantage of an opportunity to
close that arises spontaneously near the end of a lesson is referred to as serendipity
closure. This kind of closure can result from a student response, a key student question,
an unusual event, or because of a sudden insight or idea (Lang and Evans, 2006).

Student Assessment: identify the specific means by which students’ learning in the lesson
will be monitored and assessed – informal observations, tests, group activities, peer work,
home work assignments student journals or any other form of assessment deemed
appropriate to check for the attainment of the lesson objectives

Professional Development Target: (only include if a specific target has been identified for
the lesson)

Teacher Reflection and Evaluation of Lesson: at the conclusion of the lesson, teacher
should attempt to engage in critical reflection by relating what could be done better and
differently and the steps to be taken to achieve this. The opportunity should be used to
congratulate self on how the lesson proceeded and to outline the reasons for this. An
evaluation of the lesson consists of an objective account of how the lesson unfolded and
plans for review and reinforcement where this seems necessary. Reflection on the
professional development target should be done where such target or targets were
established as a means of tracking development and improvement of practice. This is a
source of data for the overall evaluation of the unit.

158
Table 4.18 Lesson Plan Template
Components of a Well Developed Lesson Plan
1. Unit Title

2. Lesson topic:

3. Grade:

4. Students:

5. Duration of Session:

6. Goal of Lesson:

7. Specific Objectives

• Knowledge
• Intellectual and/or Psychomotor Skills
• Affective traits

8. Resources and Materials

9. Lesson Outline and Instructional Sequence

• Introduction
• Development
• Culmination

10. Student Assessment

11. Professional Development Target

12.Teacher Reflection and Evaluation of Lesson

159
Reviewing the Planning Process – Writing instructional objectives

You should now be in a position to write and identify instructional objectives which
possess the different features outlined in this session of the unit. Remember that
instructional objectives are written using action verbs, includes the subject content at
which the learners’ behaviour is directed and can also include the condition and
performance standard. Note also that objectives are written for the three domains of
learning and are to reflect the level at which the performance described is to be exhibited.
We will thus examine how objectives are written by using some examples from different
sources in the form of practice exercises.

In order to recognize and write objectives that includes the condition and performance
standard/criterion a few examples are provided below. While the verb indicates the
observable/measurable behaviour, the condition asks us to identify or specify conditions
by stating the circumstances under which the desired behaviour or learning outcome will
be demonstrated. Thus the questions to be answered include “Under what conditions will
students perform the intended action? Will they be allowed to use an open book? What
materials will be used? Where will they perform?” These questions, as Moore (2007)
states, are answered in the conditions components of your objective (p.82). Examples of
conditions that might be included in a well stated objective include:

Given a list of 20 authors...

After reading chapter 2....

Using the class textbook...

Given a ruler and protractor...

The fourth and last component of a well- stated objective is the level of acceptable
student performance Here the level of behaviour to be accepted as satisfactory or the
minimum level for showing mastery is stated. A few examples are given below:

As the minimum number acceptable
... at least three reasons

As the percent or proportion acceptable
...with 80% accuracy;

160
 ... 90% of the 20 problems;
...9 of the 10 cases...

As acceptable limits of time
...within 10 minutes;
... in less than 5 minutes (Moore, 2007, p. 82).

Table 4.19 Activity 4.9

Practice Exercise 1
Instruction: For each objective given below, indicate the B, C, and D component and
name the level of the cognitive domain for the objectives:
1) Given an outline map of Canada (showing province borders), each student will be
able to write the name of each of the ten provinces and two territories in the
appropriate area of the map
2) Upon completion of a study of the book, North and South, each student will be
able to list at least three factors that led to the outbreak of the U.S civil war
3) Given the hypothesis that your state wants to make a sale tax increase of 15%,
each student will write a document outlining at least four pros and four cons of
this proposal. The student will defend each pro and con with at least one
argument
4) Given five poems, each student will be able to identify and list at least three
poetic devices common to the five poems. He or she will write the examples
found in each poem (Lang and Evans, 2006, p.234)
Practice Exercise 2
Identifying the Domains and Taxonomies of Objectives
Instruction: Classify each of the following objectives according to its most prominent
behaviour: cognitive (C), affective (A), or psychomotor (P)
-------------a. the student will correctly adjust the microscope.
-------------b. The student will write an essay in which argument for or against prayer in
schools is developed.
-------------( c) – Given the materials and the picture of a sugar molecule, the students will

161
create a model of a sugar molecule with 100 percent
------------- (d) The students will voluntary check out books related to art.
-------------- (e) Given a story, the students will orally read for at least five minutes with
no more than four errors.
-------------- (f) Given a paragraph, the student will type at a rate of 50 words per minute
with fewer than two errors per minute.
-------------- (g) The student will correctly write the sums for all the basic addition facts.
----------------- The students will correctly compute (write answer) the volume of a cube,
cone, and pyramid (Moore, 2007, p.93).

This session of the unit is summarized in the diagram which illustrates the instructional
planning process. Carefully examine the diagram to review the planning levels and
phases as well the different stages in a typical lesson.

162
Figure 4.3 Diagrammatic Representation of the Teacher Planning Process

Stages during which Planning Occur (planning to cover specific time period)

Yearly Planning
Topics to be covered for the year identified
Common elements in a Common elements in a
Unit Plan Lesson Plan
 Rationale
 Unit goal Unit Planning (Scheme of Work)  Goal (optional)
 Prerequisite  Specific objectives
learning
Planning done to cover a specific topic or theme for a  Instructional
 Individual lessons specified period – could be for several weeks depending on resources and
 Teaching methods scope of topic materials
and student  Lesson sequence
activities (Introduction,
 Resources and development,
materials Lesson Planning culmination)
 Assessment Planning done on weekly and/or daily basis to cover a  Student assessment
procedures segment of the unit topic/theme (which might be taught  Teacher reflection
 Unit evaluation over a number of sessions or a single session depending and evaluation
on duration of a session)

Lesson Planning Phases Stages of Interactive Teaching

 before the lesson – preactive planning/thinking or
reasoning 1. Introduction (set/motivation)
 during the lesson – interactive planning/thinking and
action 2. Development (main stage of the lesson)
 after the lesson – postactive planning/thinking or
reasoning 3. Culmination/Closure

163
Session 4.5
Research on Teacher Planning

Objective of this Session

Demonstrate familiarity with a sample of research findings on teacher
planning

Recognize the issues and challenges in planning for teaching

In this final section of the unit we survey some of the research literature on teacher
planning which describes what researchers have found about how teachers plan in
practice as against the way they learn to plan during their teacher education programmes.
Though the majority of the research on teacher planning has been done outside of the
Caribbean context they are generally in keeping with those – though substantially more
limited in numbers – which have been done in the region. Some of the earliest research
on teacher planning was conducted in the 1970’s and have not only informed subsequent
writings on teacher planning but have been confirmed to a significant extent by later
research carried out in the latter decades of the twentieth century and the early years of
this century.

Table 4.20 Activity 4.10

Reflective Task
Think back to your secondary schooldays. Did your teachers seem to teach mainly from
their heads, and/or with the aid of a notebook from which they read notes, or did they
seem to glance in a note book – perhaps a lesson plan book but which you would not
know to be that at the time – periodically? Can you recall any differences in teaching
between new teachers as against more experienced teachers? Take a moment to write
your responses down before continuing reading.

164
What did you come up with? Did your recollections reveal any stark differences between
the new and experienced teachers? Did the beginning teacher seem to teach more from a
text and gave notes? Conversely did the experienced teachers appear to teach more from
their heads and relied less on a note or lesson plan book? How were lessons introduced?
Do you recall being told about the objectives of the lesson and if so from which teacher,
the more experienced ones or the beginning teachers? While there might appear to be
some clear cut distinctions between beginning and experienced teachers the research
literature on teacher planning does not suggest that there is a consistent and predictable
distinction between the two groups as some beginning teachers display behaviours typical
of more experienced teachers especially those regarded as experts, while it is not unusual
to find experienced teachers whose teaching behaviours defy their years of teaching
experience. At the same time however, the research literature on teacher planning points
to some features which appear to be typical of experienced and beginning teachers to the
extent that some generalizations can be made about the two categories of teachers.

The literature generally tend to suggests that more experienced teachers rely largely on
mental planning, seeming to teach out of their heads and spend less time on the actual
writing of lesson plans. When such plans are written they are not detailed and consists of
outlines mainly. On the other hand, beginning teachers seem to rely less on mental
planning and tend to produce more detailed lesson plans which they might follow closely.
Some might experience difficulties in planning either because they lack a complete
understanding of how to plan or because they find the process time consuming and
tiresome especially if their workload is too heavy.

Researchers/writers such as May (1986), John (1995), and Butt (2006) have reinforced
and have added to the general research findings on teacher planning. For instance May
writing from a North American perspective acknowledges that the dominant planning
model in the American education system is the Tyler model of curriculum planning.

May also compared how experienced teachers plan which deviates substantially from
how planning is taught formally. Drawing on research, she reiterates that “broad aims and

165
behavioural objectives… are not central to teachers’ planning for a variety of reasons.”
She noted for instance that
An individual teacher’s perception of the key elements in curriculum – teacher,
learner, content, and materials – has a great impact on how she or he approaches
planning tasks. Teacher characteristics such as experience, personality, knowledge
of subject, problem-solving style, instructional repertoire, and perceptions of
student-teacher relationship influence the character of individual planning styles
(May, 1986, pp.7-8).

May also argues that content and activities are considered before other curricular
elements. In light of these observations, she suggested a practical planning model that
reflects how experienced teachers plan. The practical model depicts planning as a process
in which “there is a simultaneous interplay of all the curriculum elements” a significant
observation in light of the non-linear nature of the practical planning model which as
May points out is “descriptive of what we know, rather than prescriptive as to how we
should proceed in the matter of teacher planning.” She stated further that “Several
elements are considered simultaneously by teachers in preactive, interactive, and
postactive phases of planning and the rationalistic model as we know it and teach it is not
evident in the research literature related to actual practice” (May, 1986, p.8).

Despite the difficulties that prospective teachers may experience in learning about and
actually writing a plan based on the linear model, there are others who believe that some
prescriptive format should be taught to them. Thus Coletta and Norris-Bauer (2007)
contend that “It is our belief that beginning teachers, like beginning physicians, need to
learn about good practice by initially following detailed procedures and before adopting
‘short cuts’” (p.1).

John (1995), writing from a British perspective also observed that “The dominant model
of lesson planning is that associated with the rational-linear framework begun by Tyler”
(p.11). Though other models have since been developed they are regarded as an

166
elaboration of Tyler’s model since they maintain the basic framework. As John (1995)
further noted, the rationale-linear perspective:
…has dominated curriculum texts, teacher preparation programme and central
planning criteria, in spite of contrary research evidence which shows teacher plan
in a way which contrasts markedly from the linear process (p.11).

In elaborating on the mismatch between what is taught formally and what is done in
practice, John stated that:
Experienced teachers it seems, have well-developed routines and procedures as
well as a store of professional knowledge which includes information and images
of how typical lessons will run. Their planning is, therefore of a different
character to that of their less experienced counterparts. Beginning teachers have to
rely on more advanced, detailed and staged planning to be successful in the
classroom (John, 1995, p.32).
John also points to the different types of challenges that both novice and experienced
teachers face in their planning. He noted that whereas novice teachers very often overload
themselves with content and risk planning and teaching lessons as simply an inert body of
knowledge, the problem for experienced teachers is usually that to do with “keeping
abreast of new developments and ensuring their understanding is complete” (John, 1995,
p.43).

Finally, we consider the contribution of Butt (2006) to the discussion on the planning
process of experienced and novice teachers. In highlighting the differences between
experienced and novice teachers he writes:
Experienced teachers who know their students well, who have built a rapport with
them over time and who have a good understanding of the resources in their
subject department may give the impression that they can successfully teach
lessons that have barely been planned at all. Nonetheless, these teachers bring to
the classroom pedagogic and subject-related knowledge that teachers rarely
possess at the start of their careers. Most teachers who have taught successfully
for a few years have built up a fund of lesson activities from which they can

167
 quickly select for different classes, instinctively knowing which activities will
work best in which situations (2006, p.2).
Butt explains too that experienced teachers may show little evidence of ‘paper planning’
largely because they have internalized their lesson planning procedure which comes after
“regular and extended contact with different groups of students within the context of
teaching their subject” (Butt, 2006, pp.2-3). It should be noted that experienced teachers
like their novice counterpart will at some point have to engage in detailed planning when
they encounter a new topic or when they are faced with new materials or new information
in their subject areas.

In our Caribbean context, curriculum planning is also based on the dominant planning
model though research in some countries in the region has also shown that practicing
teachers do not adhere in practice to that model and in fact find planning to be a tiresome,
repetitive and tedious process. These perspectives you will read about in the activities
based on the articles by Evans (1983) and Yusuf-Khalil (1997). From the research done
on teacher planning, it seems that some of the issues that need to be addressed within the
context of teacher education concerns the continued relevance of the linear models of
planning given the evidence which suggest that these models are not influential in the
planning activities of classroom practitioners generally.

Many of the challenges which influence what teachers actually do in practice such as
class sizes, lack of adequate resources and technological equipment, issues of classroom
management, concerns with curriculum coverage rather than experimentation with a
range of student-centred methods and learning activities, and the various factors which
reduces instructional time (school events, events in the wider society that can lead to a
disruption in schools, natural disasters, administrative insensitivity and shortcomings are
some of them) among others, are not given sufficient attention within teacher education
courses. The limited time spent on exploring these realities of practice might leave
prospective teachers feeling that they are not adequately prepared for the contexts in
which they find themselves. There is a place for theory however, and the task of teacher

168
education it seems is that of helping prospective teachers to learn how to use and adapt
knowledge in a contextual manner.

At the same time, it is also worth considering the issue of personal and practice based
theories and how these can be transformed into professional knowledge in the manner
suggested by Hiebert, Gallimore and Stigler (2002). Thus knowledge derived from
practice can be made into professional knowledge and acquire a status similar to that of
the knowledge produced by researchers if what teachers know in a tacit and implicit way
can be interrogated, verified and codified and thus made available to prospective teachers
in the context of formal teacher education. In their discussion of practitioner and
professional knowledge Hiebert, Gallimore and Stigler suggested how professional
knowledge can be made public, storable and shareable. They also considered the
mechanism by which such knowledge becomes professional knowledge by being
“accurate, verifiable and continually improving” (2002, p. 8).

The activity below should provide additional information that will help you to understand
further the lack of continuity which exist between what is taught in teacher education and
what is done in actual practice. This hopefully will provide some insights into how the
various issues which influence classroom practice such as teacher planning can constitute
a topic of exploration and provide room for solutions to the lack of continuity and impact
currently evident between the sites where learning to teach takes place – teacher
education - and the sites where learning from teaching occurs – the schools.

169
Table 4.21 Activity 4.11

Reading Task
Read the articles by Evans (1983), Yusuf-Khalil (1997) and McCutcheon and Milner
(2002) in your course reader and respond to the following questions and prompts to
assess your understanding of the issues raised.
Article by Hyacinth Evans (1983)
1) What is the focus of the article

Note that the information in this article is based on research/empirical study. Note
how the structure/format of the article differs from your other reference texts.
Research based articles such as this, usually begins with an abstract or summary of
the main discussion/findings relating to the topic of the research. The rest of the
article will then provide a background to the topic, identify the objectives/research
questions/purpose, identify the methods used to collect the data, provide information
on the participants or sample (note the language of research) and usually provide
information on the how the data were analyzed before giving the results/findings of
the study.

2) What is your understanding of ‘teaching perspectives’ as used by Evans?

3) Identify the four reasons why, according to Evans, “it is useful to discover the
perspectives of new teachers.”

Note the information provided with respect to the sample, the data collection methods
and how the data were analyzed

4. Why do you believe lesson planning was a source of dissatisfaction for the
teachers?
5. Following from the above is there some disconnect between teacher education
and what teachers are required to do or do in practice after becoming fully

170
 certified? How in your opinion could the reality of practice inform the
theoretical preparation of prospective teachers?

6. How does the teacher planning process described by Evans compare with
those of other researchers on teacher planning?

7. Note Evans’ explanation of teaching strategy (p.112). How does this

explanation illuminate your understanding of what might be viewed as a
limitation in how teachers in the study planned?

Article by Yusuf-Khalil (1997)

8. What background information did Yusuf-Khalil provide to cue her readers
into the focus of her study? What is the focus?

9. ‘The problem’ represents the research issue/topic to be investigated and

reported. What did Yusuf-Khalil set out to investigate?

10. Examine the research questions. Note the descriptions given of the sample as
well as the data collection methods that were used: (a) What were the chief
findings from this research and how are they similar to or different from
Evans’ findings? -

(b) What differences did Yusuf-Khalil’s research reveal between novice and
experienced teachers?
(c) Are there any inferences that you can draw from the findings of this
research?

11. Review the rationale for planning and comment on the five points given in the
summary of the article. What are the critical issues here?

171
Article by McCutcheon and Milner (2002)
12. This article is a case study of a high school teacher of English Bill
Gathergood. What is the intention of the authors?

13. Note the findings from previous research that the authors presented. Why is
this information necessary?

14. Are the authors justified in their assertion that the research on teacher
planning “seem to indicate teachers’ being controlled by the textbooks rather
than using their professional judgement’? Give reasons for your answer

15. Why do you think the authors presented the information on Bill? How
essential is this information to our understanding of the case?

16. How did Bill prepare for his course and why do you think he engaged in long
term as against short term planning?

17. Is this suggesting that one approach to planning has more advantages than
the other? Which form of planning would be more attractive to an
experienced and a novice teacher? Explain your response.

18. How was Bill different from other English teacher? (p.85)

19. Was Bill’s approach to planning and implementing his course deductive or
inductive? Explain your response?

20. Outline the nature of Bill’s interactive teaching?

21. How did the availability of technology influence Bill’s planning?

22. What evidence does the article provide to suggest that Bill’s classroom was
based on the principles of constructivism? The authors noted that Bill did not

172
 plan by objectives. What does this suggest about the theory and practice of
teacher planning and how was Bill’s planning an example of the backward
approach design?

Summary
In this unit we:

Analyzed the different elements in the instructional planning process

Examined the structure and components of a typical unit and lesson plan

Reviewed the research on teacher planning, considering the research findings
from both the earlier and more contemporary research on the planning practices of
teachers

Considered the implications of research on teacher planning for the professional
preparation of prospective teachers

173
 References
Anderson, L. W. (1991). Increasing teacher effectiveness. Paris: UNESCO,
International Institute for Educational Planning.

Biehler, R. & Snowman, J. (1997). Psychology applied to teaching (8th ed) Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co.

Butt, G. (2006). Lesson planning (2nd ed) .London and New York: Continuum.

Clark, C. M. and Yinger, R. J. (1987). Teacher planning, In J. Calderhead (Ed.),

Exploring teachers’ thinking (pp. 84-103). London: Cassell Educational
Limited.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (1996). A guide to teaching practice (4th ed).
London and New York: Routledge/Falmer.

Coletta, A. J. and Norris-Bauer, N. (n.d) Lesson planning and preservice teachers: A

model for implementing research-based instructional strategies. Retrieved March
23, 2007 at
http://www.wpunj.edu/coe/departments/ofe/Coop_Teachers/lesson_planning.pdf

Coltham, J., & Fines, J. (1976). Educational objectives for the study of history. A
suggested framework. London: The Historical Association.

Cruickshank, D. R., Bainer Jenkins, D., and Metcalf, K. K. (2006). The act of
teaching. (4th ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.

Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.

174
Evans, H. (1983). The first year of teaching: Teachers’ planning and their perspectives
on some aspects of teaching. Caribbean Journal of Education, 10(2 & 3), 103-
122.

Gagne, R. & Medsker, K. (1996). The conditions of learning. Teaching applications.

Fort Worth: Harcourt Brae College Publishers.

Gallagher, J. (1993). Classroom assessment for teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill.

Gronlund, N. E. (2006). Assessment of student achievement (8th ed). Boston: Pearson.

Gronlund, N. E. (2004). Writing instructional objectives for teaching and assessment

(7th ed).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson –Merrill Prentice Hall

Jacobsen, D. A., Eggen, P. and Kauchak, D. (2006). Methods for teaching: Promoting
student learning in k-12 classrooms. (7th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Merril Prentice Hall.

John, P. (1995). Lesson planning for teachers. London: Cassell Educational Limited.

Kellough, R. D., and Kellough, N. G. (2003). Secondary school teaching: A guide to

methods and resources. (2nd ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Kemp, J. (1985). The instructional design process. New York: Harper Rows
Publishers.

Kyriacou, C. (1998). Essential teaching skills, (2nd ed). Stanley Thornes (Publishers)
Ltd.

175
Lang, H. R. and Evans, D. N. (2006). Models, strategies, and methods for effective
teaching. Boston: Pearson.

Lang, H.R., McBeath, A., & Hêbert, J. (1995). Teaching strategies and methods for
student centered instruction. Toronto, Ontario: Harcourt Brace and Company
Canada Ltd.

Leask, M., and Davison, J. (2001). Schemes of work and lesson planning. In S. Capel,
M. Leask and T. Turner (eds), Learning to teach in the secondary school: A
companion to school experience (3rd ed., pp.65-76).London and New York:
Routledg/Falmer.

Mager, R. F. (1997). Preparing instructional objectives. A critical tool in the

development of effective instruction (3rd ed). Atlanta, GA: The Center for
Effective Performance Inc.

May, W. T. (1986). Teaching students how to plan: The dominant model and
alternatives, Teacher Education, XXXVII (6), 6-12.

Maschke, K. (n.d). Robert Gagne’s instructional design approach. Retrieved February

26, 2005 from http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstswh/courses/it7000/papers/robert.htm.

McCutcheon, G., and Milner, H. R. (2002). A contemporary study of teacher planning in

a high school English class. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 8 (1),
81-94.

McIntyre, D. J. and O’Hair, M. J. (1996). The reflective roles of the classroom

teacher. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

176
McMillan, J. (1997). Classroom assessment. Principles and practice for effective
instruction. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Moore, K. D. (2007). Classroom teaching skills (6th ed). Boston: McGraw Hill

Schunk, D. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective. (4th ed). Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Seaman, D.F. and Fellenz, R.C. (1989). Effective strategies for teaching adults. Merrill
Publishing co.

Skowron, J. (2006). Powerful lesson planning. Every teacher’s guide to effective

instruction (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Tyler, R. W. (1969). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago and

London: The University of Chicago Press.

Yusuf-Khalil, Y. (1997). Writing lesson plans: Factors that deter Jamaican teachers.
Caribbean Journal of Education, 19(1), 131-143.

177
 Appendix – Unit 4

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Affective Domain

Description of the Major Categories in the Affective Illustrative Verbs for
Domain Stating Specific Learning
Outcome
1. Receiving. Refers to students’ willingness to attend to Asks, chooses, describes,
particular phenomena or stimuli (classroom activities, follows, gives, holds,
textbook, music etc.). From a teaching standpoint it is identifies, locates, names,
concerned with getting, holding and directing the student’s points to, replies, selects, sits
attention. Learning outcome in this area range from the erect, uses
simple awareness that things exist to selective attention on
the part of the learner. Receiving represents the lowest
level of learning outcomes in the affective domain.

2. Responding. Refers to active participation on the part of

the student. At this level he or she not only attends to a
particular phenomenon but also react to it in some way.
Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize Answers, assists, complies,
acquiescence in responding (reads assigned material), conforms, discusses, greets,
willingness to respond (voluntarily reads beyond helps, labels, performs,
assignment), or satisfaction in responding (reads for practices, presents, reads,
pleasure or enjoyment). The higher levels of this category recites, reports, selects, tells,
include those instructional objectives that are commonly writes
classified under “interest”; that is, those that stress the
seeking out and enjoyment of particular activities.

3. Valuing. Is concerned with the worth or value a student

attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior.
This ranges in degree from the more simple acceptance of a
value (desires to improve group skills) to the more complex
level of commitment (assumes responsibility for the
effective functioning of the group). Valuing is based on the
internalization of a set of specified values, but clues to Completes, describes,
these values are expressed in the student’s overt behavior. differentiates, explains,
Learning outcomes in this area are concerned with follows, forms, initiates,
behaviour that is consistent and stable enough to make the invites, joins, justifies,
value clearly identifiable. Instructional objectives that are
commonly classified under “attitudes” and “appreciation” proposes, reads, reports,
would fall into this category. selects, shares, studies, works

178
4. Organization. Is concerned with bringing together Adheres, alters, arranges,
different values, resolving conflicts between them, and combines, compares,
beginning the building of an internally consistent value completes, defends, explains,
system. Thus the emphasis is on comparing, relating, and generalizes, identifies,
synthesizing values. Learning outcomes may be concerned integrates, modifies, orders,
with the conceptualization of a value (recognizes the organizes, prepares, relates,
responsibility of each individual for improving human synthesizes
relations) or with the organization of a value system
(develops a vocational plan that satisfies his or her need for
both economic security and social service). Instructional
objectives relating to the development of a philosophy of
life would fall into this category.
5. Characterization by a Value or Value Complex. At Acts, discriminates, displays,
this level of the affective domain the individual has a value influences, listens, modifies,
system that has controlled his or her behavior for a performs, practices, proposes,
sufficiently long time for him or her to have developed a qualifies, questions, revises,
characteristic “lifestyle.” Thus the behavior is pervasive, serves, solves, uses, verifies
consistent, and predictable. Learning outcomes at this level
covers a broad range of activities, but the major emphasis
is on the fact that the behavior is typical or characteristic of
the student. Instructional objectives that are concerned with
the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal,
social, emotional) would be appropriate here.

Source: Gronlund, N. (2004).Writing Instructional Objectives for Teaching and Assessment (7th
ed). (pp.126-127). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.-Merrill Prentice Hall.

179
 The Psychomotor Domain – Anita Harrow (1979)
Reflexive movement: Involuntary muscle responses to stimuli. Such movements are instinctual and
not learned. Examples: Stiffen, extend, flex, or stretch arms and legs.

Basic fundamental movements: Body movement patterns developed early during life. They build
upon reflex movements and are basic to all normal psychomotor activities. Examples: Crawl, walk,
run, jump, reach, grasp.

Perceptual abilities: Observing and interpreting stimuli in the environment to which a person is
exposed, requiring a movement for adjustment. Perceptions involve kinesthetic awareness, like a
change in body balance, visual or auditory discrimination, and coordination, tactile or sense of touch
discrimination, and coordination of eye-hand and eye-foot movements. Examples: Turn, bend,
balance catch an object, kick a ball, perform a simple dance.

Physical abilities: Includes endurance, strength, flexibility and agility of movements. Highly skilled
movements cannot be developed without a satisfactory foundation in these abilities. Examples:
Endure physical activity for a long time, make quick motion, stop and restart a movement, move
heavy objects

Skilled movements: Performing complex actions efficiently. Actions are based upon basic
fundamental movements and use both perceptual abilities and simple, compound, or complex
physical abilities which, with practice, result in skilled movements performed with ease and
proficiency. Examples: Play a musical instrument, use a hand tool, assemble parts, operate a vehicle,
adjust a machine.

Nondiscursive communication: Physical movements that communicate feelings which are both
reflexive and learned. They include expressive movements like posture, gestures, facial expressions,
and interpretive movements that are aesthetic or creative in form. Examples: Ballroom dancing,
changes in facial expression, physical expressions of emotions and feelings.

Source: Kemp, J. (1985). The Instructional Design Process. (pp. 80-81). New York:
Harper & Row Publishers.

180