DESIGNING THE CURRICULUM

FUNDAMENTALS OF CURRICLUM DESIGN

Building on Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers
As we begin to discuss about curriculum designing, all teachers need to know the different
axioms or theorems regarding curriculum as presented by Gordon, W., Taylor R., and Oliva, P. in 2019.
These axioms will be used to guide curricularist in designing a curriculum. Axioms are principles that
practitioners as curriculum designer can use as guidelines or a frame of reference.

Ten Axioms About Curriculum That Teachers Need as Reminders

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was stated that one of the
characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of this, teachers should respond to the
changes that occur in schools and in their context. Societal development and knowledge revolution
come so fast that the need to address the changing condition requires new curriculum designs.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about
by current social forces, philosophical positions. psychological principles,new knowledge, and
educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.

3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes. A revision
in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out,
thus the changes that occur can coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of time.

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change. Teachers who will
implement the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should know how to design a
curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should
design and own the changes. This will ensure an effective and long lasting change.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of

curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a
sense of ownership. Even learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any
significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their
understanding, support, and input.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives. A

curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of view to
support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of
evaluation to use.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and

improvement of curricula are to be considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners
change, as society changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a

"piecemeal". A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly establish intended
outcomes, support resources and needed
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum design
is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references set of
procedures, needed materials and resources and evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix.

10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum planners and designers
should begin with existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher who
plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum.

Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a curriculum by identifying its
components. For most curricula the major components or elements are answers to the following
questions:

1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)

2. What content should be included to achieve the learning. outcomes? (Subject Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes)

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus or a lesson
plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the
common. components for all of them are almost the same. However some schools, institutions or
departments may add other minor parts or trimmings to the design.

Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching guide includes
(1) Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as
behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods and (4)
Assessment Evaluation. Each of these com elements is described below.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for
undertaking the learning lesson from the student's point of view; it is desired learning outcome that is to
be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the
teacher.

The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes are
expressed in action words found in the revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and
Krathwohl, 2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective skills, refer to the
taxonomy made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson.

The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented and Time-
bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of
Performance in the statement of the intended earning outcomes.
 For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower as stated in
the desired learning outcomes, then students should have identified the parts of a simple flower, at the
end of the lesson.

Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results after
completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good practice to:
1. Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example,
rather than stating Students will be able to explain the reason why... it should be. "Students
must have explained the reasons why... This helps students to focus on what they have to
achieve as learning. It will also help curricularists devise appropriate assessment tasks.

2. Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts,
theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to carry out
procedures, calculations and processes, which typically include gathering information and
communicating results). In some contexts, affective outcomes are important too (for developing
attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a person and for a particular profession).

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered. In selecting
content, you should bear in mind the following principles in addition to those mentioned about the
content in previous lessons:
1. Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum.
2. Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit.
3. Subject matter should be up-to-date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge and
concepts.
4. Subject matter should follow the principle of B A S I C S.

III. References

The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken.
The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the material and
if possible, the publications. Some examples are given below.

1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary Supplementary Conservation and

Environmental Education Program Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD
2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introduction to Physical Science. Houghton Mifflin
Co. Boston MA
3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City
4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The Teaching Profession 2 Ed Lorimar Publishing
Inc. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

 These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in mind
the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and
make them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation, competition as well as
individualism or independent learning among the students. For example:
 Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to learn on
their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the learners.
Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of learning.
Students learn from each other in ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the
curriculum.
 Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The degree of
independence to learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast
learners.
 Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a healthy
manner, allow learners. to perform to their maximum. Most successful individuals in their adult
life are competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very
competitive world.
 The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended. Online
learning and similar modes. are increasingly important in many curricula, but these need to be
planned carefully to be effective.

There are some examples of very simple teaching-learning methods with detailed steps that you can
start using as you begin teaching.

Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

A. Direct Instruction: Barak Rosenshine Model (in Omnstien & Hunkins, 2018)
Detailed Steps:
1. State Learning Objectives/ Outcomes: Begin lesson with a short statement of objective or desired
sson learning outcomes.
2. Review: Introduce short review of previous or prerequisite learning.
3. Present new materials: Present materials in small, sequenced manner.
4. Explain: Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
5. Practice: Provide active practice for all students.
6. Guide. Guide students during initial practice; or provide seatwork activities.
7. Check for understanding. Ask several questions, assess students comprehension.
8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
9. Assess performance. Obtain student success rate of 80 percent or more during practice session.
10. Review and test. Provide for spaced review and testing.

B. Guided Instruction: Madeline Hunter Model (in Ornstein &, 2018)

1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask students to summarize main points.
2. Anticipatory set. Focus student's attention on new lesson. Stimulate interest in the new materials.
3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be learned; state rationale or how it will be useful.
4. Input. Identify needed knowledge and skills for learning new lesson; present materials in sequenced
steps.
5. Modeling. Provide several examples or demonstrations throughout the lesson.
6. Check for understanding. Monitor students work before they become involved in lesson activities,
check to see they understand directions or tasks
7. Guided practice. Periodically ask students questions and check their answers. Again monitor
understanding.
8. Independent practice. Assign independent work or practice when it is reasonably sure that students
can work on their own with understanding and minimal frustration.

C. Mastery Learning; JH Block and Lorin Anderson Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)
1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are expected to learn.
2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on the whole group instruction.
3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no fault-basis, students can check their own paper.
4. Group. Based on results, divide the class into mastery and non- mastery groups (80% is considered
mastery)
5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment instruction to mastery group. Give corrective (practice/drill) to
non-mastery group.
6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary amount of teacher time and support for each group based
on group size and performance.
7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-mastery group.
8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the students shoulde test.
9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures; starting with corrective instructions (small study groups, individual
tutoring, alternative instructional materials, extra homework, reading materials practice and drill).

D. Systematic Instruction: Thomas Good and Jere Brophy (in Ornstein and Hunkins, 2018)
1. Review. Review concepts and skills related to homework, provide review exercises.
2. Development. Promote students understanding, provide controlled practice.
3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions, provide controlled practice.
4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted seatwork; get everyone involved, sustain momentum.
5. Accountability. Check the students work.
6. Homework. Assign homework regularly; provide review problems.
7. Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews to check and further maintain and enhance learning.

V. Teaching-Learning Environment

In the choice of the teaching learning methods, equally important is the teaching learning
environment. Brian Castaldi in 1987 suggested four criteria in the provision of the environment or
learning spaces in designing a curriculum.

1. Adequacy- This refers to the actual learning space or classrooms. Is the classroom large enough for
student's mobility for class interaction and collaborative work. Is there enough light and ventilation so
that the learning space is conducive. and safe for learning? To provide learning condition that will
provide opportunities that will develop the 21 century skills, there must be a provision for the utilization
of technology for teaching and learning and the use of the cyberspace.
2. Suitability- This relates to planned activities. Suitability should consider chronological and
developmental ages of learners. Also to be considered will be the socio-cultural, economic even religious
background of the learners.
3. Efficiency- This refers to operational and instructional effectiveness.
4. Economy- This refers to cost effectiveness. How much is needed to provide instructional materials?

VI. Assessment/Evaluation

Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive
information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this information is
generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

1. 2Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This
should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are
appropriately reflective and self-critical.

2. Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's learning. This can be
viewed as an extension of self assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research
suggests that students can learn to judge each other's work as reliably as staff.

3. Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on
the student's performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative
(expressing a judgment on the student's achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment
tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an assignment that is marked and returned to the student with
detailed comments.

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs

While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum, similar components
will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other curricular
projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the fundamental components include the
following:

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)
2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)
 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGNING

Types of Curriculum Design Models

1. Subject-Centered Design

This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum. The subject-centered
design corresponds mostly to the textbook because textbooks are usually written based the specific
subject or course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few curricularist who firmly believed in this
design. As practiced, school hours a allocated to different school subjects such as Science, Mathematics
Language, Social Studies, Physical Education, and others. This is al practiced in the Philippines, because a
school day is divided into class period, a school year into quarters or semester. Most of the schools us
this kind of structure and curriculum design aim for excellence in the specific subject discipline content.

1.1. Subject design. Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for
teachers, parents and other laymen. According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage
because it is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written and support instructional materials are commercially
available. Teachers are familiar with the format, because they were educated using also the design. In
the Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary education is fewer than in
the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects also differs according to the degree programs
being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum is being designed.

1.2 Discipline design. This curriculum design model is related to the subject design. However, while
subject design centers only on the cluster of content, discipline design focuses on academic disciplines.
Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to study a
specific content of their fields. Students in history should learn the subject matter like historians,
students in biology should learn how the biologists learn, and so with students in mathematics, who
should learn how mathematicians learn. In the same manner, teachers should teach how the scholars in
the discipline will convey the particular knowledge.

1.3 Correlation design. Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links separate subject designs
in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another and still maintain their identity.
For example, English literature and social studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the two
subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the historical period are also
being studied. The same is true when science becomes the core, mathematics is related to it, as they are
taken in chemistry, physics and biology.

1.4 Broad field design/interdisciplinary. Broad field design or interdisciplinary is a variation of the
subject-centered design This design was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate
subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another. Thus subjects such as geography,
economics, political science, anthropology, sociology and history are fused into one subject called social
studies. Language arts will include grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling, and composition. Sometimes
called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.
2.Learner-Centered Design

Among progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative process.
This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however, more concern has been placed on the
secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the subject or content has become the
focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the importance of
the learner in the curriculum.

2.1 Child-centered design. This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouscau,
Pestallozi and Froebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The
learner is not considered a passive individual but one who engages with his/her environment. One
learns by doing. Learners actively create, construct meanings and understanding as viewed by the
constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners interact with the teachers and the environment,
thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons, select content and do activities
together. Learning is a product of the child's interaction with the environment.

2.2 Experience-centered design. This design is similar to the child centered design. Although the focus
remains to be the child. experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of learners
cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the
curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from
various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning
from the different opportunities given by the teacher.

1.3 Humanistic design. The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Maslow's theory of self actualization explains that a person who achieves this level is accepting of self,
others and nature; is simple, spontaneous and natural; is open to different experiences; possesses
empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate among the many others. The person can achieve this
state of self-actualization later in life but has to start the process while still in school. Carl Rogers, on the
other hand, believed that a person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self-understanding,
the basic attitude to guide behavior. In a humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the
ultimate objective of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and
doing.

3.Problem-Centered Design

Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of
the learners. Various problems are given emphasis. There are those that center on life situations,
contemporary life problems, areas of living and many others. In this curriculum. content cuts across
subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students. Two
examples are given for the problem-centered design curriculum.

2.1 Life-situations design. What makes the design unique is that the contents are organized in ways that
allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as
a means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting point, the pressing immediate problems of the
society and the students' existing concerns are utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer's curriculum writing,
his emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children, maintain the
individual's social and political relations and enhance leisure, tasks and feelings. The connection of
subject matter to real situations increases the relevance of the curriculum.

2.2 Core problem design. Another example of problem-centered design is core design. It centers on
general education and the problems are based on the common human activities. The central focus of
the core design includes common needs problems, and concerns of the learners. Popularized by Faunce.
and Bossing in 1959, it presented ways on how to proceed using core design of a curriculum. These are
the steps.

Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.

Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping. Step 5. List the needed information for
resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem solving.

Table 1: Overview of the Major Curriculum Designs (Ornstein A & Hunkins, F, 2018)

DESIGN EMPHASIS Underlying Sources/Focus Spokesperson/

Philosophy Champion
Subject Centered
Subject Design Separate subject Essentialism Science, Harris, Hutchins
perrenialism knowledge
Broad Fields Interdisciplinary Essentialism Science, Broudy, Dewey
design subjects, scholarly Progressivism Knowledge
discipline
Correlation design Separate subject, Progressivism, Knowledge Alberty, Albert
disciplines linked Essentialism
but identities
maintained
Learner centered
Child centered Child's needs and Progressivism Child Dewey, Kilpatrick,
design interest parker
Experience Child's Progressivism Child Dewey, Rugg.
centered design experiences and Shumaker
needs
 Humanistic design Experiences, Reconstructionism Psychology, Combs, Abraham
interest, needs of existentialism Child l, Society Maslow, Carl
a person and Rogers
group
Problem Centered
Life situation Life (social) Reconstruc Society Spencer
design problem tionism
Transformatory Child, focus on Open system Post Society Slattery
(or becoming society and the modernism
change) world, all reals of
culture
Reconstructionist Child, the teacher, Open system Post modernism Roth
design the world

Approaches to Curriculum Design Models

 Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum design is based on the

underlying philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational process. It means
that the curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the learners.
The curriculum is also built upon the learners' knowledge, skills, previous learnings and potentials.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for al the learners.

 Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate

distinct subjects for every educational level: basic education, higher education or vocational-technical
education. This approach considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problem of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.

 Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based of a design which assumes that in the
process of living, childre experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners" become
increasingly able to achieve complete or total development as individuals. This approach is characterized
by the following views and beliefs
1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems, thus developing
every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation different
activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in seeking solutions.
Learners are problem solvers themselves.