Lecture 1: Measurement

(Physics for Engineers)

Mark Anthony C. Burgonio, MSc

Instructor, College of Science, Department of Physical Sciences
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
 PHYSICS or LIKNAYAN
- the science of matter and energy, space and time.
Classical Physics:
*motion, fluids, heat, sound,
light, electricity, and magnetism

Modern Physics:
*relativity, atomic structure,
condensed matter, nuclear
physics, elementary particles,
and cosmology and astrophysics
Why study PHYSICS?
- is fundamental.
- is foundation of all
engineering and
technology.
- is amazing and practical.
- is experimental science.
#radiation #cellsites #nuclearenergy
#medicine #electromagnetism #thermodynamics #structure

Fundamental & Foundational

#railway #ballistics

#electricity #strength #forensics

 Measurement
A process of comparing a property to a well defined and agreed-upon referent.
*Metrology: the science of measurement and its application.
*Measurand: the quantity to be measured.

Physical quantity:
- all the quantities in terms of which laws of physics can be described and can
be measured.
- Three types: fundamental, derived, and/or supplementary quantities
- Fundamental or basic quantities: length (L), time (T), mass (M),
temperature(Θ), electrical current (A), luminous intensity (J), and amount of
substance (N)
 Unit
A certain basic arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard.

Characteristics of a Standard Unit:

✓ It should be of suitable size
✓ It should be well defined KEYPOINT:
✓ It should be easily accessible In computing any physical
✓ It should be easily reproducible at all places quantity, the units of
✓ It should not change with time derived quantities involved
✓ It should not change with change in its physical in the relationship(s) are
conditions i.e., temperature, pressure, etc. treated as algebraic
quantities until the desired
units are obtained.
 System of Units
A complete set of units that can measurement any quantity in the Universe.

a. Metric System: based on decimal or prefixes.

o MKS system (meter, kilogram, and second)
o CGS system or Gaussian system (centimeter, gram, and second)
b. FPS (Imperial/British System): for foot, pound, and second.
c. Natural Systems: units of measurement based on universal physical constants.
d. Conventional or Practical Systems: units suits by necessity in the field or
discipline.
e. Ancient or Traditional Systems: values vary upon location and person.
f. International System (SI) or Rationalized MKS System: based on the seven
fundamental units or base units and two supplementary units.
 SI Units (Rationalized MKS System)
Internationally agreed decimal system of measurement.
*Advantages of SI units: (a) coherent, (b) rational, (c) absolute, and (d) metric

Supplementary Units in SI system

Radian (rad): it is defined as the plane angle subtended at
the center of circle, by an arc of the circle equal in
length to its radius.
arc length 𝑠
𝜃= =
radius 𝑟
Steradian (sr): it is defined as the solid angle subtended at
the center of a sphere by an area of the sphere equal
to square of its radius.
surface area 𝑆𝐴
Ω= =
radius2 𝑟2
 SI Base Units The time equal to the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of the Cs-133 atom

Length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum The kilogram is such that the Planck constant is
during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second exactly 6.6260693 × 10−34 J ∙ s

The ampere is such that the elementary charge The mole is such that the Avogadro constant is
is exactly 1.60217653 × 10−19 C exactly 6.0221415 × 1023 /mole

The intensity, in a given direction, of a light source that emits

The kelvin is such that the Boltzmann constant is exactly
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz with
1.3806505 × 10−23 J/K 1
a radiant intensity in that direction of W/sr
683
 Dimensional Analysis
A process to see how different expressions are related to each other.

Dimensions of a physical quantity: the powers (or exponents) to which the base
quantities are raised to represent that quantity. Dimensions are denoted with [].
Dimensional formula: the expression which shows how and which of the base
quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity.

Applications of Dimensional Analysis

✓ To check the dimensional consistency of equations (Principle of Homogeneity)
✓ To deduce relation among the physical quantities
✓ To convert one system of unit into another system of unit
Physical Relation with other Dimensional
Dimensions SI unit
quantity Physical Quantities formula
Area Length × Width [L] × [L] [M0L2T0] m2
Volume Length × Width × Height [L] × [L] × [L] [M0L3T0] m3
Density Mass/Volume [M]/[L3] [ML–3T0] kg·m–3
Acceleration Velocity/Time [LT-1]/[T] [M0LT–2] m·s–2
Force Mass × Acceleration [M][LT–2] [MLT–2] N (newton)
Work Force × Distance [MLT–2][L] [ML2T–2] J (joule)
Power Work/Time [ML2T–2]/[T] [ML2T–3] W (watt)
Pressure Force/Area [MLT–2]/[L2] [ML–1T–2] Pa (pascal)
Change in Dimension
Strain Original Dimension
[L]/[L] [M0L0T0] Unitless
 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
• It does not give any information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or
vector.

• It gives no information about the dimensionless constant in the formula e.g.,

1, 2, 3, … , n, etc.

• We cannot derive the formula containing the trigonometric, logarithmic, and

exponential functions which have no dimensions.

• If a quantity depends on more than three factors, having dimensions, the

formula cannot be derived.
 Conversion of Units
Method Factor

• Soft • Prefix
• Hard or • Unit
‘Adaptive’
SI Prefix Symbol Factor SI Prefix Symbol Factor
deca da 10 deci d 10-1
hecto h 102 centi c 10-2
kilo k 103 milli m 10-3
mega M 106 micro μ 10-6
giga G 109 nano n 10-9
tera T 1012 pico p 10-12
peta P 1015 femto f 10-15
exa E 1018 atto a 10-18
zetta Z 1021 zepto z 10-21
yotta Y 1024 yocto y 10-24
hella H 1027 xenno x 10-27
vendeka V 1033 vendeko v 10-33
googol 10100
10 100
googolplex 10
 Examples
• 1 meter (1 m) = 0.001 kilometers (0.001 km), 10 decimeters (10 dm), 100
centimeters (100 cm), or 1000 millimeters (1000 mm)
• 1 kilometer (1 km) = 1000 meters (1000 m)
• 1 micrometer (1 μ m) = 0.000,001 meter (.000001 m) or 0.001 millimeters
(0.001 mm)
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (1000 g)
• 1 gram (1 g) = 0.001 kilograms (0.001 kg)
• 1 metric ton (1 t) = 1000 kilograms (1000 kg)
• 1 liter (1 L) = 1000 milliliters (1000 mL)
• 1 milliliter (1 mL or 1 ml) = 0.001 liter (0.001 L)
 Some Unit Conversion Factors
A. Length:
1 foot = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm
1 span = 9 in = 0.2286 m
1 micron = 10-6 m
1 Parsec (pc) = 3.08 x 1016 m
B. Mass:
1 pound = 0.453 592 37 kg
1 kg = 2.2 lb
1 gamma = 10-6g
C. Time:
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 year = 365 days
1 millennium = 1000 years
1 moment = 90 s
1 inch = 0.0254 m = 2.54 cm
1 spat = 1 x 1012 m
1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m
1 light year (ly) = 9.46 x 1015 m
1 metric pound = 0.5 kg
1 metric ton = 103 kg
1 kg = 1 grave
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 decade = 10 years
1 fortnight = 2 weeks
1 shake = 10-8 s
1 mile = 1 609.344 m
1 yard = 3 ft = 0.9144 m
1 fermi (fm) = 10-15 m
1 x-ray unit (XU) = 10-13 m
1 slug = 14.593 903 kg
1 quintal = 102 kg
1 day = 24 hours
1 century = 100 years
1 jiffy = 1/60 s
 Philippine Traditional Unit Conversion
A. Length:
1 piranggot = 0.5 inches 1 dangkal = 8 inches 1 talampakan = 12 in
1 sandamak = 4 inches 1 bisig = 16 inches 1 dipa = 68 inches
B. Mass:
1 dakot = 10 g 1 guhit = 0.1 kg 1 kagitna = 0.5 kg
1 gatang = 1 kg 1 chimanta = 6 kg 1 kaban = 25 kg
C. Time:
1 kisapmata = 0.5 s 1 saglit = 1 s 1 sandali = 60 s
D. Volume:
1 salok = 80 mL 1 saro = 250 mL 1 mangkok = 400 mL
 Example
1. The following conversions occur frequently in physics and are very useful.
a) Use 1 mi = 5280 ft and 1 hr = 3600 s to convert 60 mph to units of ft/s.
60 mi 5280 ft 1 hr
× × = 88 ft/s
hr 1 mi 3600 s

b) The acceleration of a freely falling object is 32 ftΤs 2 . Use 1 ft = 30.48 cm to

express this acceleration in units of mΤs 2 . (1 m = 100 cm)
32 ft 30.48 cm 1m m
× × = 9.8 2
s2 1 ft 100 cm s

c) The density of water is 1.0 gΤcm3 . Convert this density to units of kgΤm3
1.0 g 1 kg 100 cm 3 kg
3 × × ( ) = 1000 3
cm 1000 g 1m m
 Significant Figures (SF)
Rule 1: All non-zero digits are significant (e.g., 123 has three SF).
Rule 2: All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the decimal
point is, if at all (e.g., 108.09 and 10207 have five SF).
Rule 3: If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point, but to the left of the
first non-zero digit are not significant (e.g., 0.0072 has two SF).
Rule 4: The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a
decimal point are not significant (e.g., 13200 has three
SF).
Rule 5: The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point
are significant (e.g., 6.500 has four SF)
 Rules for Arithmetic Operation with SF
Addition/Subtraction: In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many
decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places.
e.g., 2.1 m + 1.78 m + 1.246 m = 5.126 m
The final result should be rounded off to 5.1 m.

Multiplication/Division: In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as

many significant figures as are there in the original number with the least significant
figures.
e.g., Mass = 4.237 g, Volume = 2.51 cm3
Mass 4.237g
Density = = = 1.68804 g/cm3
Volume 2.51 cm3
The final result should be round off to 1.69 g/cm3.
 Rounding off
The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contains more than one
uncertain digit, should be rounded off.

Rule 1 : If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged (e.g.,
7.32 is rounded off to 7.3).
Rule 2 : If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one (e.g.,
6.78 is rounded off to 6.8).
Rule 3 : If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by non-zero digit, then the preceding digit is
raised by one (e.g., 16.451 is rounded off to 16.5).
Rule 4 : If the digit to be dropped is 5, then preceding digit is left unchanged, if it is even (e.g.,
6.25 is rounded off to 6.2).
Rule 5 : If the digit to be dropped is 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd (e.g.,
4.75 is rounded off to 4.8).
 Notations
Notation Description Form Parts
Process of expressing a number.
Numeric
Uses decimal number.
Method of writing very large or A = Significand, 10 > 𝐴 ≥ 1
Scientific A × 10B
very small numbers. B = Exponent
Differs with scientific notation in A × 10B A = Significand, 1000 > 𝐴 ≥ 1
Engineering
terms of exponents B = Exponent is multiple of 3
A = Significand, 10 > 𝐴 ≥ 1
E- or e- × 10 is replaced by either E or e AEB or AeB
B = Exponent

Order of Magnitude: The order of magnitude is the power of 10 closest to the number.
However, when converting a number to its nearest 10, the rule is: numerals greater than
3.16 become 10 and those below 3.16 become zero. The reason for this is that 100.5 = 3.16.
 Examples
Decimal Scientific Engineering Order of
E-notation
Notation Notation Notation Magnitude
2 2×100 2×100 2E0 or 2e0 0
300 3×102 300×100 3E+2 or 3e+2 102
4.3217E+3 or
4,321.7 4.3217×103 4.3217×103 104
4.3217e+3
53,000 5.3×104 53×103 5.3E+4 or 5.3e+4 105
672,000,000 6.72×108 672×106 6.72E+8 or 6.72e+8 109
0.200 2.00×10−1 200×10−3 2E-1 or 2e-1 10-1
0.000 000 075 1 7.51×10−8 75.1×10−9 7.51E-8 or 7.51e-8 10-7
 Example
1. Calculate the following, round off to the correct number of significant figures, and
express your result in scientific notation:
1.14 9.99 × 104 = 113886 = 1.14 × 105

2.78 × 10−8 − 5.31 × 10−9 = 0.00000002249 = 2.25 × 10−8

12𝜋 Τ(4.56 × 10−3 ) = 8267.35 = 8.3 × 103

27.6 + 5.99 × 102 = 626.6 = 6.27 × 102

Factors Affecting Measurement
 Types of Instruments
• a measuring instrument which provides output signal carrying information about
Indicator the value of the quantity being measured (e.g., colorimetric indicator)

Material • measuring instrument reproducing or supplying, in a permanent manner during its

use, quantities of one or more given kinds, each with an assigned quantity value.
Measure (e.g., volume measure and line scale)

Measuring • a device, used in measurement that provides an output quantity having a specified
Transducer relation to the input quantity. (e.g., thermocouple, pH electrode, LED)

• an element of a measuring system that is directly affected by a phenomenon,

Sensor body, or substance carrying a quantity to be measured. (e.g., aneroid barometer,
calorimeter)

• a device or substance that indicates the presence of a phenomenon, body, or

Detector substance when a threshold value of an associated quantity is exceeded (e.g.,
smoke detector, litmus paper, reed switch).
Some Instruments
Calibration, Verification, and Validation
Is it accurate? Is it working correctly? Is its system function
satisfactory?

Calibration Verification Validation

a comparison of an the provision of the verification, where

instrument’s reading to a objective evidence the specified
primary or secondary that a given item requirements are
standard’s reading fulfills specified adequate for an
requirements. intended use.
Importance of Calibration
1 •Safety

2 •Reliability

3 •Compliance

4 •Confidence

5 •Efficiency
 Instrument Calibration
1. Location (average measurement value versus actual value)
a. Accuracy or Bias: closeness of a measurement value to its true or accepted
value
b. Trueness: closeness of the averaged infinite measurement to accepted value
c. Stability: consistency of a measured value over time
d. Reliability or Linearity: consistency of accurate results over consecutive
measurements over time
e. Traceability: on-going validations that the measurements of the final product
conforms to the original measurement
2. Variation or Precision: spread of measurement values
a. Repeatability: single experimenter, same equipment
b. Reproducibility: different experimenter, same equipment
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy refers to the agreement
between a measurement and the
true or correct value (does not tell
about the quality of the instrument).

Precision refers to the repeatability

of measurement (does not require to
determine the correct or true value).
 Uncertainty and Error
Uncertainty refers to the half of the
instrument’s least count or resolution. Meter rule (Meter stick)
Least count: smallest scale subdivision or
resolution
Least count: 1.0 cm
Difference refers to the variation of two Uncertainty: 0.5 cm
experimental values
Foot rule (Rule)
Deviation refers to the variation of
experimental values from their mean
Least count: 1.0 mm
Uncertainty: 0.5 mm
Error refers to the variation of experimental
value from accepted or theoretical value.
 Types of Error
1. Systematic or Bias Error: error which can be eliminated
a. Reading error (i.e., parallax error and accidental error)
b. Calibration error (i.e., zero-offset error and sensitivity error)
c. Latent error (i.e., conceptual error and instrumental error)
d. Least count error
e. External factors error

2. Statistical or Random Error: error which cannot be eliminated but can

be reduced by large trials
a. Repeatability error: associated with instrument
b. Reproducibility error: associated with management and process
Propagation of Errors in Various Operations
Operation Formula 𝒁 Absolute Error ∆𝒁 Relative Error ∆𝒁/𝒁
∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
Addition 𝐴+𝐵 ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
𝐴+𝐵
∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
Subtraction 𝐴−𝐵 ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
𝐴−𝐵
∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
Multiplication 𝐴×𝐵 𝐴∆𝐵 + 𝐵∆𝐴 +
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐴∆𝐵 + 𝐵∆𝐴 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
Division +
𝐵 𝐵2 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝐴
Power 𝐴𝑛 𝑛𝐴𝑛−1 ∆𝐴 𝑛
𝐴
1 1 1 −1 1 ∆𝐴
Root 𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛 ∆𝐴
𝑛 𝑛 𝐴
 Example
1. A ball drops from rest from an unknown height y. The time is takes for the ball to hit
the ground is measured to be t = 1.3 ± 0.2 s. The height is related to this time by the
1 2
equation 𝑦 = gt where g = 9.81 mΤs 2 . Assume that the value for g carries no
2
uncertainty and calculate the height y including the uncertainty.
1 2 1 m
𝐲 = gt = 9.81 2 (1.3s)2 = 8.28945 m = 𝟖. 𝟑 𝐦
2 2 s

1 m
∆y = y ∙ nt n−1 ∆t = 9.81 2 2 1.3s 0.2s = 2.5506 m = 𝟑𝐦
2 s

ym = 𝟖. 𝟑𝐦 ± 𝟑𝐦
 Average
Arithmetic Mean or Expectation Value

Suppose an experiment were repeated many, say N times to get,

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑘 , … , 𝑥𝑁
N measurements of the same quantity, x. If the errors were random, then the
errors in these results would differ in sign and magnitude. The average
or arithmetic mean value of our measurements were calculated,
𝑁
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑁 1
𝑥ҧ = 𝑥 = = ෍ 𝑥𝑖
𝑁 𝑁
𝑖=1
Error: accuracy of an experimental value
Absolute Error = Accepted Value − Experimental Value
Accepted Value−Experimental Value
Relative or Fractional Error =
Accepted Value
Accepted Value−Experimental Value
Percentage Error = × 100%
Accepted Value

Difference: comparison of two experimental values

Absolute Difference = Experimental Value 1 − Experimental Value 2
Experimental Value 1−Experimental Value 2
Relative or Fractional Difference =
Mean Value
Experimental Value 1−Experimental Value 2
Percentage Difference = × 100%
Mean Value

Deviation: precision of experimental values

Absolute Deviation = Mean Value − Experimental Value
Mean Value−Experimental Value
Relative or Fractional Deviation =
Mean Value
Mean Value−Experimental Value
Percentage Deviation = × 100%
Mean Value
 Measures of Variation
Average Deviation: Theoretical minimum Standard Deviation
σi xi − xത of the mean, σ’min:
∆xAD =
N xത
σ′min =
Standard Deviation, σ’: N

1 Theoretical minimum Standard Deviation

σ′ = σN xi − xത 2
N(N−1) i=1 of a single reading, σmin:
Actual Standard Deviation of a single σmin = xത
reading, σ: Coefficient of variation, CV:
1 σ′
σ= σN xi − xത 2
CV =
(N−1) i=1 xത
 Example
1. The following set of count readings was made in a gradient-free 𝛾-ray field, using a
suitable detector for repetitive time periods of one-minute: 18500; 18410; 18250; 18760;
18600; 18220; 18540; 18270; 18670; 18540.
a) What is the mean value of the number of counts?
1
Recall xത = N σN
i=1 xi ,
xത
1
= (18500 + 18410 + 18250 + 18760 + 18600 + 18220 + 18540 + 18270
10
+ 18670 + 18540)
1
xത = 184760 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭𝐬
10
1. The following set of count readings was made in a gradient-free 𝛾-ray field, using a suitable detector for
repetitive time periods of one-minute: 18500; 18410; 18250; 18760; 18600; 18220; 18540; 18270; 18670;
18540.
b) What is its standard deviation (SD)? Recall, xത = 18476 counts
𝐱𝐢 𝐱 𝐢 − 𝐱ത 𝐱 𝐢 − 𝐱ത 𝟐

N
18500 24 576 ′
1
σ = ෍ xi − xത 2
18410 -66 4356 N N−1
i=1
18250 -226 51076
18760 284 80656
1
18600 124 15376 σ′ = (305840)
10 10 − 1
18220 -256 65536
18540 64 4096 σ′ = 3394.22ത
18270 -206 42436
σ′ = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟐𝟔
18670 194 37636
18540 64 4096
1. The following set of count readings was made in a gradient-free 𝛾-ray field, using a suitable detector for
repetitive time periods of one-minute: 18500; 18410; 18250; 18760; 18600; 18220; 18540; 18270; 18670;
18540.
c) What is the theoretical minimum SD of the mean?
xത
Recall, xത = 18476 counts and σ′min =
N

18476
𝜎′𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 42.98 = 𝟒𝟑
10

d) What is the actual SD of a single reading?

1
Recall, σ = σN xi − xത 2 and σN
i=1 xi − x
ത 2
= 305840
(N−1) i=1

1
σ= (305840) = 33982.22ത = 184.34 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒
10 − 1
1. The following set of count readings was made in a gradient-free 𝛾-ray field, using a suitable detector for
repetitive time periods of one-minute: 18500; 18410; 18250; 18760; 18600; 18220; 18540; 18270; 18670;
18540.
e) What is the theoretical minimum SD of a single reading?
Recall, σmin = xത and xത = 18476 counts
σmin = 18476 = 135.93 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔
 References
1. Luna, Reynold V. (2018). Lecture Slides on Measurement. Polytechnic University of the
Philippines. Date Retrieved: April 2021
2. Young, H., Freedman, R. and Ford, A. (2016). University Physics with Modern Physics (14th ed),
Pearson
3. Fischer-Cripps, A. (2015). The Physics Companion, (2nd ed), CRC Press
4. Serway, R. and Jewett, J (2014). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th ed),
Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
5. Hewitt, P. (2013) Conceptual Physics, (12th ed), Addison-Wesley
6. Giancoli, D. (2013). Physics: Principles with Application, Addison-Wesley
7. Bloomfield, A. (2013). How Things Work: The Physics of Everyday Life, (5th ed), John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
8. Ostdiek, V. and Bord, D. (2013). Inquiry into Physics, (7th ed), Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
9. Radi, H. and Rasmussen, J. (2013). Principles of Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Springer.
“Don’t let
what you
cannot do
interfere with
what you can
do.”

© John Wooden