The Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) and Instrument Bias
Steven W. Lamb, Indiana State University
Samuel C. Certo, Indiana State University
ABSTRACT
This study Investigated The Learning Styles Inven-
tory (LSI) and instrument bias. A comparison of
results based upon the LSI and a modified Likert-
scale version of the LSI suggests that it is high-
ly likely that the LSI contains significant in-
strument bias. Eliminating this bias and the
development of other related instruments are en-
couraged as worthwhile future work in this area.
INTRODUCTION
A close examination of the use of experiential
learning techniques in management education re-
veals that an increasing number of related empiri-
cal investigations has been reported over the last
four years. The predominance of more subjective
evaluations of experiential pedagogy (Dimock,
1961; Mood and Spect, 1954; Cohn and Rhenman
1961) is slowly giving away to a stream of empiri-
cal experiential studies. Overall, these experi-
ential studies are distributed from such diverse
areas as the comparison of experiential training
methods with other training methods (Wolfe, 1975;
Chesser and Martin, 1976) and the identification
of the primary learning dimensions within experi-
ential learning situations (Certo and Peter, 1976;
and Randolph, 1977).
One experiential learning area which seems to have
generated a significant amount of scientific in-
vestigation involves Kolb's (1974) four-stage ex-
periential learning model. According to this
model:
"Learning is conceived to be a four-
stage cycle. . . The learner, if he is
to be effective, needs four different
kinds of abilities - concrete experience
abilities (CE), reflection observation
abilities (RO), abstract conceptuali-
zation abilities (AC), and active
experimentation abilities (AE).
Indeed a closer examination of the
four-stage learning model reveals that
learning requires abilities that are
polar opposites . . . More specifi-
cally, there are two primary dimen-
sions to the learning process. The
first dimension represents the con-
crete experiencing of events at one
end and abstract conceptualization
at the other (AC-CE dimension). The
other dimension has active experimen-
tation at one end and reflections ob-
servations at the other (AE-RO dimen-
sion)." (Kolb, 1974, p. 28).
28
Although some research investigating this model
dwells on the model itself (Certo, 1977), perhaps
most of it concerns a related instrument called
the Leaming Styles Inventory (LSI). The LSI
(Kolb, 1971) presented in Figure 1, is purported
to measure an individual's relative emphasis on
the above two learning dimensions and corresponding
learning abilities in training situations which he
encounters. The LSI has been used as the basis for
such activities as: 1) comparing perceived learning
in pedagogically different training situations
(Wolfe and Byrne, 1976); 2) investigating the rela-
tionship between learning style, perceived learn-
ing, and performance (Fritzsche, 1976), and; 3)
recommending experimental designs for experiential
studies (Brenenstuhl and Catalanello, 1976).
Despite the repeated use of the LSI, little re-
search has been conducted which investigates the
instrument itself. One such investigation conduct-
ed by Freedman and Stumpf (1977) focused on the
validity of the LSI. These writers concluded that
although data gathered and analyzed using the LSI
seemed to yield results which are somewhat consis-
tent with Kolb's bi-polar experiential learning
construct, it is uncertain if this support is at-
tributable to LSI instrument bias.
The present study is a logical extension of the
Freedman and Stvnnpf study. This study will inves-
tigate the relationship between the LSI's ability
to generage two bi-polar learning dimensions
through instrument bias. The issue of instrument
bias is important since such a bias can artifically
support the validity of empirical test instruments
(Lamb, 1970). Given the increasing use of the LSI
as a research tool, the timeliness and worth of
such an investigation seems obvious.
METHOD
The instrument bias referred to by Freedman and
Stumpf is related to LSI completion and scoring
procedures. When completing the LSI, subjects are
forced to rank nine sets of four words. LSI scor-
ing procedures involve totaling six of these rank-
ings over the nine sets to determine a total score
for each of the four columns. Since each column
represents one of Kolb's four main learning abili-
ties, and since a high rank on one column necessi-
tates a low rank on another column, data analysis
could yield results which are forced into support-
ing the bipolar learning dimensions and correspond-
ing abilities suggested by Kolb's experiential
learning construct.
To investigate this potential bias, results using
the LSI were compared to results using a modified
LSI. The modified LSI simply contained the same
 FIGURE 1

LEARNING-STYLE INVENTORY*

This inventory is designed to assess your method of learning. As you take the
inventory, give a high rank to those words which best characterize the way you
learn and a low rank to the words which are least characteristic of your learn-
ing style.

You may find it hard to choose the words that best describe your learning style
because there are no right or wrong answers. Different characteristics described
in the inventory are equally good. The aim of the inventory is to describe how
you learn, not to evaluate your learning ability.

Instructions

There are nine sets of four words listed below. Rank each set of four words
assigning a 4 to the word which best characterizes your learning style, a 3
to the word which next best characterizes your learning style, and 2 to the
next most characteristic word, and a 1 to the word which is least character-
istic of you as a learner. Be sure to assign a different rank number to each
of the four words in each set. Do not make ties.

[#]** [GE#] [R0#] [AC//] [AE//]

1, ^discriminating _tentative _involved practical
2, preceptive _relevant _analytical impartial
3, feeling jwatching _thinking ^doing
4, accepting _risk-taker _evaluative aware
5, intuitive _productive _logical ques t ioning
6, ^abstract _observing _concrete ^active
7, present-oriented _reflecting _future-oriented pragmatic
8, experience _observation _conceptualization ^experimentation
reserved rational ^responsible
9, intense

FOR SCORING ONLY

RO AC AE
GE 234578 136789 234589 136789

*In order to score each of the four abilities, six of the nine items under each
classification are totaled. Then, to determine the extent to which an indivi-
dual emphasizes abstractness over concreteness (AC-CE), the total for concrete
experience is subtracted from the total for abstract conceptualization. Next,
to determine the extent to which an individual emphasizes active experimenta-
tion over reflection (AE-RO), the total for reflective observation is subtracted
from the total for active experimentation, (Kolb, 1974),

**The bracketed labels are included so that the reader may identify the items
used in each table. They were not included in the test instrument.

word items as on the original LSI, Each modified
LSI item, however, was placed on a seven-point
Likert scale and rated individually as opposed to
the four-column, dependent ranking of the original
LSI, In effect, the modified LSI eliminated the
completion and scoring dependency mentioned by
Freedman and Stumpf,
Subjects were 450 undergraduate School of Business
students. Subjects were first asked to complete
the modified LSI, Immediately after all subjects
had completed the modified LSI they were asked to
complete the original LSI, Both instrument forms
contained similar directions. Of the original
sample, 383 subjects completed both instruments
in a usable fashion.
Data were analyzed by following a three-step pro-
cedure. First, overall correlation matrices were
developed for the AC, CE, AE, and RO learning abi-
lity column totals using both the original and
modified LSI, Second, correlation matrices were
also developed for individual items within the AC-
CE learning dimensions using both the original and
modified LSI, Third, step two was repeated for
the items within the AE-RO learning dimension (Nie,
et, al,, 1975),
RESULTS
Table 1 contains the overall correlation matrices
generated for the AC, CE, AE, and RO learning

29
 TABLE 1
Comparative Correlation Matricies of the AC, CE, AE, and RO Column Totals for the Original LSI,
The Theoretical Experiential Learning Construct, and the Modified LSI.

ORIGINAL LSI CORRELATIONS REFLECTED MODIFIED LSI

(Forced-Rank) IN THEORY CONSTRUCT (Likert Scale)

AC CE AE RO AC CE AE RO AC CE AE RO
AC
1 - :hk* :88r :88i AC 1 0 0 AC 1
:88i :35i :88i
CE 1 - . CE 1 0 0 CE 1
i5i :?§4 :e8i :&8i
AE 1 - AE 1 - AE 1
:55i :88i
RO 1 RO 1 RO 1

*Values below correlations are significance levels.

ability column totals for both the original and
modified LSI. Note that this table contains re-
sults using the original LSI, results which would
reflect the two dimensional bi-polar learning con-
struct developed by Kolb, and results using the
modified LSI. Results based on the original LSI
approximate the correlation structure in the
theory matrix. The modified LSI, however, de-
viates significantly from both the original LSI
and the theory matrix by exhibiting positive sig-
nificant, and meaningful correlations among all
summative scales.
Table 2 contains the comparative correlation mat-
rices generated for individual items that are con-
sidered in determining the AC-CE learning dimen-
sion using both the original and modified LSI.
The two dimensional, bi-polar experiential learn-
ing theory states that items measuring the AC
construct should correlate negatively with items
measuring the CE construct. Using the original
forced rank instrument, 28 of the 36 pairs do cor-
relate negatively; 17 of these are significant at
the .05 level. Note, however, that the largest
five negatively correlated values circled are form-
ed from pairs appearing in the same row of the
orced-rank LSI. Also, if all values of l-rl<.25
were discounted only those items circled would re-
main. Results based upon the modified LSI, how-
ever, are again much different. Here there exist
only positive correlation?, 32 of which are sig-
nificant at the .05 level indicating that these
items do not reflect a bi-polar AC-CE construct.

TABLE 2
Comparative Correlation Matricies for Individual AC, CE Items Using
Original and Modified LSI.

ORIGINAL LSI MODIFIED LSI

(Forced Rank) (Likert Scale)

CE2* CE3 CE4 CE8 CE2 CE3 CE4 CE5 CE7 CE8
AC 2 AC2 •. 001 •.hh tool :88i •.hh
AC 3 AC3
: 68i :85i lotji •.hh Ml
AC4 AC4
-:88i ^ :83i :66i :hhi :fi8i .19
AC5
-.hh -.^s AC5
:88i
AC8 AC8
;o44 :o39 :83i :8§
AC9
-:8§i ~:io4 ~:hh AC 9
:88i

*Items used to generate this table are contained in Figure 1.

**Values below correlations are significance levels.

30
Table 3 contains the comparative correlation mat-
ricles generated for Individual Items of the AE-RO
learning dimension using both the original and
modified LSI. The two dimension bi-polar learning
theory states that items measuring the AE con-
struct should correlate negatively with the items
measuring the RO construct. Using the original
forced-rank LSI, 27 of the 36 correlations are
negative, 21 of these are significant at the 05
level. Note that of the largest eight negatively
correlated values, six (circled beloy)are formed
from pairs appearing in the same row of the
forced-rank LSI. Note also, if all values of
l-rl<.25 were discounted^ only 3 negative cor-
relations, besides those items circled would re-
main.
Using the modified LSI, however, there are only
four negative correlations; one of which is sig-
nificant at the .05 level. Of the 32 positive
correlations, 26 are significant, at the .05 level.
In essence, results based upon the modified LSI
items do not represent a bi-polar AE-RO construct.
strument bias. Although shortcomings of the
Likert scales used in the modified LSI must also
be considered (Kerlinger, 1973), the obvious lack
of supportive correlations based upon the modified
LSI renders the validity of the original LSI high-
ly suspect.
Overall, the LSI is an instrument which attempts
to empirically delineate dimensions within the ex-
periential learning situation. The worth and
timeliness of such an instrument is evidenced by
its repeated use in more current experiential
learning literature. Based upon the results of
this study, however, significant instrument bias
within the LSI seems likely. Modification of the
LSI to eliminate this potential bias and the devel-
opment of other similar instruments seem like
appropriate directions for future work in this
area.

TABLE 3
Comparative Correlation Matricies for Individual AE, RO Items Using
Original and Modified LSI.

ORIGINAL LSI MODIFIED LSI

(Forced Rank) (Likert Scale)

ROl* R03 R06 R07 R08 R09 ROl R03 R06 R07 R08 R09
AEl AEl
'.hil '.hh
'.%e :824 -:9?7 :9^3 '.hh ihk :8!4 -:i!)94
AE3 -:88i (:33J) • •:?$5 -.hk
-:38i AE3
:884 :83i :83i :hh :85i -:2f3
AE6 -:8ii -:38i { -Ms -:88i -.hh AE6
-:Sl6 :h^i :88i Ml :i5i :Sl6
AE7
:hh -:9^8 ••:T8i ( IQOl '.%S AE7
:9^3 '.ih '.hh:8ii ,:8§9 :83i
AE8 -.%s AE8
:?9i ••:8ii ••:i94 riooy :i88 '.m :85i :3ii :18i :33i :i93.
AE9
-.Us -:i96 :i88 ••:8§3 AE9
: J52 :l^i :88i :hk :88i :hh

*Items used to generate this table are contained in Figure 1.

** Values below correlations are significance levels.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS REFERENCES

The preceding results seem clear. When the ori-
ginal forced-rank LSI was used, the correlations
matrices derived from LSI Column totals as well
as from individual AC, CE items and the indivi-
dual AE, RO items support the AC-CE and AE-RO bi-
polar learning dimensions. When the modified
Likert-scale LSI is used, however, there does not
appear to be any substantial support for the
claim of the two bi-polar learning dimensions.
These results seem consistent with the notion that
the appearance of two bi-polar learning dimensions
based upon the original LSI is largely due to in-
31
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32