SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

Introduction to LINEAR ALGEBRA

(Dr. Arthur Wafula)

VECTOR SPACES

We discuss a basic structure in linear Algebra that forms a foundation of solutions to many
problems in diverse fields namely vector spaces.

Definition;

A vector space V is a non-empty set of elements called vectors on which is defined a concept of
equality of vectors and two operation called vector addition and scalar multiplication with the
following properties.

i. If a, b  V then a  b  V for all a, b  V . (Closure of vector addition).

ii. k,a  V for all the aV and kR.(Closure of scalar multiplication).

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iii.
 a  b  c  a   b  c
for all vectors a, b,c  V .(Associative law).
iv. There exists a vector called zero and written 0 such that 0  a  a for all aV.
v. For every vector  a  V there exists a vector called minus a and denoted by -a such
that  a+(-a)=0
vi. a  b  b  a for all vectors a and b in V
k  a  b   ka  kb
vii. for all a and b in V and k in R

viii.
 p  q  a  pa  qa for all vectors a in V and scalars p and q in R
ix.
 pq  a  p  qa  for all scalars p and q in R and vector a in V
x. 1a  a for all a in V

Examples of vector space

x1
1. The space R2 of all column vectors x= ()
x2
.

Note:

x + y= x 1 + y 1 = x 1+ y 1
i. ( )( ) ( )
x2 y2 x 2+ y 2

( k −x )=k x = kx R 2
ii. ( x ) (kx )
1

2
1

0= 0 ∈ R 2
iii. ()
0
x 1 then−x= −x1
iv. For x=
x2 () −x2 ( )
( x + y ) + z= x + y + z = x + y + z = x + y + z
v. (x ) ( y ) (z ) ( x + y ) (z ) (x + y + y )
1

2
1

2
1

2
1

2
1

2
1

2
1

2
1

2
1

One can verify that the remaining condition for a vector space are satisfied.

x1
n

() n
2. Consider R the space of all column vectors of the type x= x 2 where addition in R is
x3
performed according to corresponding entries, namely

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x1 y1 x1 + y 1

⋮
xn
( )( )( )
x + y= x 2 + y 2 = x2 + y 2
⋮
yn
⋮
xn + yn

kx1

⋮
()
kx = kx 2 for any value k in R

kx n

0
0
The zero in R is the vector with zero entries i.e. 0= ⋮ .
n

0
()
n
One can verify that R is a vector space. This is called the Euclidean vector space

3. Let M(2) be the space of all 2x2 matrices where vector addition is performed by

x11 x 12 y y 21
x + y=
[ x 21 x 22][
+ 11
y 21 ]
= x +y x x + y x + y for all ¿ R .
y 22 [ 11 11, 12+¿ y ¿ 21 21 , 22 22]
12

0 0
The zero vector is 0= [ ]
0 0

One can verify that M(2) is a vector space.

The space p n consisting of all polynomial in x of degree n or less is a vector space where addition
and scalar multiplication are defined as follows

a xn
n
 a n 1 a1x  a 0   b n x n  b n 1x n 1  b1x  b 0   a n  b n  x n   a n 1  b n 1  x n 1  a 1  b1  x  a 0  b 0

And

k  a n x n +a n 1x n a 1x  a   ka n x n  ka n1x n ka1x  ka 0

The zero in p n is the zero polynomial. p n is a vector space

4. Let   be the space of all continuous real valued functions from the interval [0,1]
C 0,1
Addition and scalar multiplication are defined as follows

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 f  g  x  f  x  g  x
  kf   x   kf  x  for all k  R and x   0,1
.

That the above functions are continuous is well established in calculus.

C  0,1 C  0,1
The zero in is the constant zero function. is an example of an infinite dimensional
vector space.

In the Euclidean space we have a concept of geometry. A vital tool in this vector space that can be
used to investigate its geometry is called the dot product.

Definition

If x, y  R the dot product (scalar product) of x and y is defined by:

n

x.y  x1y1  x 2 y 2  x n y n

Example

1 2
( )( )
( i ) −1 . 4 =( 1 x 2 )+ (−1 x 4 )+ ( 2 x 10 )=2−4+ 20=18
2 10

(ii) (−12 ) . (−12 )=(−1 x 2 ) +2(−2)=−2+(−2 ) =−4 .

0 1
( )( )
( iii ) 0 . 0 =( 0 x 1 )+ ( 0 x 0 ) + ( 1 x 0 ) =0+0+0=0 .
1 0

Definition

The vector x and y are said to be orthogonal (perpendicular) if x. y=0

properties of the dot product.

1.      x. x  0 and x. x  0 if and only if x  0

2. x. y  y.x for all x and y in V.
3. ( x. y ).z  x.( y.z ) for all x , y and z in V.
     x.  y  z   x. y  x. z for all x, y, z  V
4.
5. kx . y=x . ky =k (x . y ) for all scalars k and vectors x and y

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Definition
n
In R we define the magnitude of a vector (the norm) to be

x=√ x . x

Properties of the norm

From the definition of the norm we identify the properties of the norm as follows

(i) x ≥ 0 and x=0 if and only if x=0

n
(ii) k x=k x for all x in R .
(iii) x + y ≤ x + y for all vectors x , y in R n

Example

1 2

0 () ()
1. Let x= −1 y= 3
−1

Evaluate the 2 x+3 y.

1 2 2 6 8
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 x+3 y =2 −1 + 3 3 = −2 + 9 = 7 .
0 −1 0 −3 −3

8 8
( )( )
7 .
−3 −3
7 =64+ 49+ 9=122 .

So 2 x+3 y =√122

2. Given that x and y are orthogonal vectors, simplify the expression

 x  2y  . 3x  2y 
Solution

 x  2y  . 3x  2y   3x. x  y   2y.  x  2y   3x.x  6x.y  2yx  4y.y

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2 2
 3x 2  4yx  4y 2 =3x.x  4y.y= x  y

( x.y  0 since the vectors are orthogonal)

3. Given that x+2y2=4 and 2x-3y2=9 find x and y if x and y are
Orthogonal

4 Prove the parallelogram law that

2 2 2 2
x y  x y 2 x 2 y
.
5
Prove that the diagonals of a Rhombus intersect at right angles.
6 Show in a right-angled triangle whose longest side is c it must be that
2 2 2
c  a  b
.

Theorem

The zero in a vector space is unique

Proof

Let 0 and 0 ’ be zeroes in a vector space V then consider

0  0’  0’(0 is a zero) .

However,

0  0’  0 (0’ is a zero) . Hence 0 ’=0+ 0’=0. And so zero is unique in V.

Theorem

0a  0

For all a V .

Proof

It is clear that

0  0  0 .So

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0a   0  0  a  0a  0a
.

And from the uniqueness of zero we must infer that

0a  0 .

Theorem

k0=0 for all kR

Proof

Now,

0+0=0 and so k 0=(0+0)k . Consequently 0=0 k +0 k , and from the uniqueness of 0 it

must be that 0 k =0.

Theorem

a   1 a

For all vectors aV.

Proof

a+(-1)a=(1   1 )a  0a  0

From the definition of a in V, we have that

 1 a  a ,.

Theorem

Prove that –a is unique

Proof

Suppose that b and b’ are minuses of a. Then

b  b  0  b   a  b’

  b  a   b’

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 0  b’

 b’

Therefore –a is unique

Theorem

If a  b then a  c  b  c for all a, b,c  V

Proof

If a  b then

 a  c    b  c   ( a  c)  ( a  c)  0
Hence a+ c=b+ c

The angle between vectors

In this section we make application of the geometry of a triangle to derive a remarkable

relationship of the dot product and the angle between two vectors.

b-a
b

In the diagram  is the angle between the vectors a and b apply the cosine rule in OAB to obtain

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b-a2=a2+b2-2ab cos

But

  b  a  . b  a 
b-a2

= b.b  b.a  a.b  a.a

=b2 2a.b +a2

Hence

a2+b2-2a.b=a2+b2-2abcos

i.e.

a.b
cosθ=
ab

Note that if a and b are parallel vectors then =0.

Now let b=ka so,

a. ka
a . b=
a ka

k a2
= 2 =± 1
ka

i.e cos=±1 so =0 or 180 degrees .This agrees well with the orientation of parallel vectors.

If a and b are perpendicular then   90 and cos  0 .On the other hand, if a and b are
0

perpendicular then a.b  0 so

0
cos= =0 . Hence =900
ab

Example

1. Determine the acute angle between the vectors below

1 b= −3
a) a= () ( )
2 4

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−1 −1

0 () ()
b) a= 2 b= 0
2
Solution

a.b −3+8
a ¿ cos= =
a b √ (1 ¿ ¿ 2+2 )(−3 ¿ ¿ 2+ 4 2)¿ ¿
2

5 5 1 √5
cos= = = =
√5 x 25 5 √ 5 √ 5 5

¿ cos−1 ( √55 )=63.435 0

−1 −1
b) a= 2
0 () ()
b= 0
2

a.b
cos=
ab

−1 −1

0( )( )
a . b= 2 . 0 =1+0+ 0=1
2

1 1 1 1
= 2 2 = = =
√(−1 ¿ ¿ 2+2 + 0 )¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ √5.5 √25 5
1 −1 1
cos= . Hence¿ cos =
5 5
n
2. Prove that x + y ≤ x + y for all vectors x , y in R .
Proof
2 2 2
x  y  ( x  y ).( x  y )  x  2 x. y  y
2 2 2 2
 x  2 x . y cos   y  x  2 x . y  y  ( x  y ) 2

The result follows on taking square-roots of both sides.

The equation of a straight line

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b
a

b-a

The equation of the line AP is given by

OP=a+ t(b−a) where t is a scalar

Example

1. Write the value of the line joining (0,1.-1) and (3,0,2) and hence find the parametric
equation of the line.

Solution

0 3 0 0 3
( ) {( ) ( )} ( ) ( )
1 +t 0 − 1 = 1 +t −1
−1 2 −1 −1 3

x 0 3
()( ) ( )
y = 1 + t −1
z −1 3

is the vector equation of the line.

The parametric equations of the line are

x=3 t , y=1−t , z=−1+3 t

2. Find the vector equation and parametric of the line joining the points
A(2 ,−1 ,3) and B(0,5 ,−1)

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Solution
From the equation OP=a+ t(b−a) we have
2 0 2 2
( ) {( ) ( )} ( ) ( )
−2
−1 +t 5 − −1 = −1 +t 6
3 −1 3 3 −4
x 2 −2
()( ) ( )
y
z
= −1
3
+ t 6
−4
The parametric equations are
x=2−2t
y=−1+ 6 t
z=3−4 t

Equation of a plane

The equation of a plane on R3 is of the form ax +by +cz =k where a , b , cand k are constants .
a
()
And vector b is the normal to the plane. To see this fact note that if ( p , q , r ) is particular point
c
on the plane and ( x , y , z ) is a general point on the same plane then
a p−x
( )( )
b . p− y =0
c q−z
On further expansion we have that ap−ax +bp−by +cq−cz =0. Consequently,
ax +bx +cz=ap+bp+ cq=k
Remarks

The equation ax +by +cz =0 is the equation of a plane through the origin.
When a=b=0 then we have the equation of a plane parallel to the X −Y plane.
When b=c=0then we have the equation of a plane parallel to the Y −Zplane.
Finally, when a=c=0 then we have the equation of a plane parallel to the X −Zplane.

Question
1. Find the point of the intersection of the line joining (0 ,−1,1)and (3 ,−1,0)with plane
2 x−3 y+ 5 z =15.

Question

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2. Determine the acute angle between the planes

x−2 y +5 z=3
2 x+ y −3 z=15.
Distance of a plane from the origin:
Let A( p , q , r ) be the nearest point from the origin on the plane ax +by +cz =k then A is located
on the normal to the plane.
Thus
a p
()()
OA=t b = q .
c r
Substituting in the equation of the plane we obtain
a 2 t+ b2 t+c 2 t=k .
From which we find that
k a
OA= 2 2 2 b .
a + b +c c()
Therefore the shortest Distance of the plane from the origin is
k
|OA|= 2 2 2 .
√ a + b +c
Distance of a plane from a given point:
Let A ( p , q , r ) be the nearest point from a given point Q ( m, n , t ) on the plane ax +by +cz =k
then the A is located on the normal to the plane passing through Q. We make the
transformation X =x−m ,Y = y−n , Z=z−t .So that the new origin shifts to ( m , n ,t ) .
The equation of the plane becomes a ( X +m)+ b(Y +n)+c (Z+ t)=k
Which on rearrangement becomes aX + bY + cZ=k−am−bn−ct.
Now from the previous description the distance
k −am−bn−ct
QA= .
√a 2+ b2 +c 2

Vector subspace
Definition:
Given a vector space V, a non-empty subset W of V is called a vector subspace of V if W a vector
space with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication in V.
Theorem
W is a vector space of V if and only if
i. a  b  W for all a, b  W

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ii. ka  W for all  a  W and k  R

Proof

Suppose that W is a vector space of V then W is a vector space in its own right hence (i) and (ii) will
apply

Conversely

Suppose that (i) and (ii) are satisfied in W then we need to show that the eight remaining
conditions in a vector space apply in W

Since W   then a W

Now 0a  0  W by (i) then

  1 a  a  W
by (ii).

All the remaining six conditions apply in W since W is a subset of V.

Examples

a) let V be a vector space then W={0} is a vector subspace of V

b) let V be a vector space and W=V then w is a vector subspace of V
c) let V=R2
W = a a+2 b=0 is a vector subspace of R2
b{( ) }
Let (ab ) , ( xy ) W then
a  2b  0 and x  2y  0 .

But,

(ab )+( xy)=( a+ x

b+ y )
.

Now

 a  x   2  b  y    a  x   2b  2y   a  2b    x  2y   00  0

So,

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(ab )+( xy) W .

Furthermore,

k a = ka
() ( )
b kb

ka+ 2 kb=k ( a+2 b ) = k 0  0 .

Hence k (ab )W
x x + y=1
d) W =
y{( ) }
is not a subspace of R2

Note that 0= ( 00) W since 0+0 ≠1

x y =x2
e) W =
y{( ) } is not a subspace of R2

Note (11 )W
1 1 2
But ( ) +( )=( ) W since 2≠2 2
1 1 2

Linear combination
Definition
A vector x  c1x1  c 2 x 2  c3x 3  c n x n where c1 ,c 2 ,c3 c n are scalars
x1, x 2 .x n
are vectors in a vector space V is called a linear combination of the x i ’s
Example
let x1 = 2 , x 2= 1
( ) ( )
−1 −5
x=3 x 1+ 5 x 2 = 3 2 +5 1 = 11 .
( ) ( )( ) −1 −5 −28
11 2 ∧ 1
( )
−28 ( )( )
is a linear combination of
−1 −5
.

Remark
If the xi’s are orthogonal, the scalars can be found as follows
x  c1x1  c 2 x 2  c3x 3  c n x n
We dot both sides by x1 obtain

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 x1.x   c1 (x1.x1)  c 2 (x 2 .x1 )  c n (x n .x1) c1.(x1.x1 )  0  c1.(x1.x1 )

=
2 (x ¿¿ 1. x)
( x 1 , x)  c1 x1 =c1 ¿
For x1≠0 we have that . Hence, x 1❑2 .
( x ¿¿ i. x)
Similarly, c i= ¿.
xi ❑2

Example 1

1 2 7
2 ()
Verify that x 1= ∧x2=
−1 ( )
are orthogonal and hence write
−5 ( )
as a linear combination of the

two vectors.

Solution
1 . 2 =1× 2+2× (−1 )=0
( )( )
2 −1
. So x 1 and x 2are orthogonal.

Let

(−57 )=c ( 12)+c (−12 ) . So that (−57 ) . (12)=c (12 ).( 12)+c (−12 ) . (12) and, hence
1 2 1 2

( 7−10 )=C 1 ¿ ) .

−3 1 19
Hence C 1=
5
and a similar computation using
2 5()
leads to C 2= . Consequently

(−57 )= −35 (12)+ 195 (−12 )

Example 2

1. Show that (0,0,1)is not a linear combination of (1,1,0)and (0,2,0)

Proof

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Suppose that

0 1 0
() () ()
0
1
=c 1 1
0
+ c 2 2
0

0 c1

() ( )
0
1
= c 1 +2 c 2 ,
0

this is absurd as 1≠0.

0 1 0

1 ()
Hence 0 is not a linear combination of 1 and 2
0 0 () ()
Question

0 1 2 4

1 0( )( )( )
0 3 ( )
2. Verify that 0 , 1 , −2 are orthogonal and hence write −2 as a linear combination of the

three vectors.

Definition

The subset W of all linear combinations of the vectors x1 , x 2 ..x n is called the subset generated

by x1 , x 2 ..x n in the vector space V. W is called the linear span of x1 , x 2 ..x n .

We write
W  span  x1, x 2 ,.x n  for the linear span of x1, x 2 ..x n .

Theorem

The linear span of a set of vectors x1 , x 2 ..x n is a vector subspace of the vector space V

Proof

Let c1x1  c 2 x 2 .  c n x n and  c’1 x1  c’2 x 2 .  c’n x n W

  c1x1  c 2 x 2 .  c n x n    c’1 x1  c’2 x 2 .  

Then

  c1  c’2  x1   c 2  c’2  x 2 .   c n  c’n  x n

W.

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Note that we have obtained the above by repeated use of the associative and commutative law.

Finally

k  c1x1  c 2 x 2 .  c n x n   kc1x1  kc 2 x 2 .  kc 2 x 2

W.

Remark

Span {0}={0 }

Span V =V

BASIS OF VECTOR SPACES

The objective in this chapter is to obtain the least number of vectors that can generate (span) a
vector space

Definition

A set of vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n in a vector space V is said to be linearly dependent if there exists a

vector in the set

 x1, x 2 ,.x n 
which is a linear combination of the other vectors.

Example

0 , 1 , 1
The set {( ) ( ) ( )}
1 1 0
is linearly dependent since (11 )=(01)+(10)
Note that any set of vector which contain zero is linearly dependent since 0=0x 1+0x2+…+0xn

Theorem

A set of vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n in a vector space V is linearly dependent if and only if there exists

scalars c1 ,c 2 ,c n not all zero so that c1x1  c2 x 2 .  c n x n  0

Proof

Suppose that x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly dependent

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At least one of the vectors is a linear combination of the others. We can assume x 1 is a linear
combination of the others. If not we re-arrange the set so that x1 is a linear combination of the
rest

x1  c 2 x 2  c3x 3  c n x n .

So

0   x1  c 2 x 2  c3x 3  c n x n where the first scalar is -1≠0

Conversely

Suppose c1x1  c2 x 2  c n x n  0 and not all the ci ’s are zero. Assume that c1≠0. If c1=0 re-
arrange the equation so that c1≠0 then

c2 x 2  c3 x x .  c n x n  c1x1

−c 2 −c c
i.e. x 2+ 3 x 3 +…± n x n =x1
c1 c1 c1

Hence x1 is a linear combination of the other vectors and so

 x1, x 2 ,.x n 
is a linearly dependent
set.

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

Definition

A set of vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n is said to be linearly independent if none of the vectors is a linear
combination of the other vectors

Theorem

The vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly independent if and only if the equation
c1x1  c2 x 2  c n x n  0 has one and only one solution c1  c 2    c n  0
.

Proof

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

Suppose that x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly independent and c1x1  c2 x 2  c n x n  0 If any one of
.

the scalars ci’ s is non-zero then x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly independent contradicting the initial

assumption it must be that c1  c 2    c n  0

Conversely

Suppose that the equation c1x1  c 2 x 2  c n x n  0 has one and only one solution c1=c2=……=cn=0
we must show that the xi’s are independent. Suppose that the xi’s are linearly dependent. There

exist scalars c1, c2 ,c n not all zero such that c1x1  c2 x 2  c n x n  0 . This contradicts the initial
assumption as all such scalars are zero.

Examples

1. Show that (21 )∧(−12) are linearly independent

Proof

Suppose that c 1 (21 )+ c (−12)=( 00) then

2

2 c1−c 2 = 0
[ c 1+ 2 c2 ]()
0

2 c 1−c 2=0 ………..i

c 1 +2 c 2=0………..ii

2 c1 c 2 c2
= c 1=
2 2 2

c 2+ 4 c 2
=0  c 2 +4 c 2=0 5 c 2=0 c 2=0
2

c2 0
c 1= c 1= c 1=0
2 2

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

1 0 0
( )( ) ( )
Prove that the vectors 1 , 1 ∧ 1 are linearly independent in R3
0 0 2

Proof Suppose that

1 0 0 0
() () () ()
c 1 1 +c 2 1 +c 3 1 = 0
0 0 2 0

c1 0 0 0
( )( )( )()
c2 + c2 + c 3 = 0
0 0 2 c3 0

c 1 +0+0=0 c 1=0

0+ 0+2 c3 =0c 3=0

c 1 +c 2+ c 3=0 (but c1=0, c2=0)

0+ 0+c 3=0 c 3=0

2. Prove that the functions cos and sinare linearly independent in the space C [0,2] of
continuous functions

Proof

Assume that for some scalars

c 1 cos❑+c 2 sin ❑=0…….i

Differentiating

−c 1 sin+c 2 cos=0….ii

We multiply (i) by sin and (ii) by cos to obtain

c 1 sin cos❑+c 2 sin 2❑=0……iii

−c 1 sin cos+c 2 cos2=0…..iv

Solving (iii) and (iv) simultaneously and eliminating c1 we obtain

c 2 sin2+ c 2 cos 2=0 c 2 ( sin2 +cos 2) =0

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

But sin2 +cos 2=1 , hence c 2 .1=0 c 2=0

From (i) c 1 cos❑=0 (cos is not always zero)

0
c 1= =0
cos

Question

3. Prove that 1−x , x2 −1, x 3+ 2 x−1 are linearly independent in the vector space P3(x)

Question

4. Prove that e− x , e−2 x , e−3 x are linearly independent in the space C [0,1]

Question

4 Prove that if x1 , x 2 ,.x n are orthogonal, then they are linearly independent.
5 Prove that if u , v , w are linearly independent in a vector space V then u , u+w , u−w are
also linearly independent.

Matrices and Matrix operations

We introduce matrices as useful tools of trade as will be evident in the subsequent topics.

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers. We add matrices according to corresponding

entries. For this reason addition is meaningful only for matrices of the same order.

Thus A+ B= ( aij ) + ( b ij ) =( aij +bij ) i=1,2 … ., m j=1,2 , … . ,n

Matrix multiplication is computed by the dot product of rows of the first matrix with the columns
of the second matrix. More precisely the dot product of the ith row in Awith the jth column of B
yield the i jthentry in AB .Matrix multiplication is only possible when the number of columns of
the first matrix is the same as the number of rows of the second matrix.

Elementary row operations

The following are called elementary row operations on a Matrix

i. Interchanging any two rows

ii. Multiplying a row of a Matrix by a non -zero scalar
iii. Adding a scalar multiple of a row to another row

A matrix A is similar to B if B is obtained from A by a finite sequence of elementary operations

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

Echelon form

A matrix A is said to be in echelon form if for each non-zero row , the first nonzero element a ij has
all the element below it as zero ,unless the row is the last row in the matrix.

The echelon form is one of the canonical forms we shall investigate.

Example

The matrices below are in echelon form

2 −1 1 −1 0

[ ][
0 3 , 0 3
0 0
5
0 0 −1 ]
Each matrix can be reduced to echelon form by use of elementary row operations

Example

1. Reduce the matrix

1 −1 0

[2 3
−1 3 −1 ]
2 to echelon form.

Solution

Replace the second row with the sum of -2 times the first row and the second row. Also replace
the third row with the sum of the first row and the third row. Secondly Replace the third row with
the sum of -2times the third row and the second row . Finally replace the third row with the sum
of -5times the third row to the second row

1 −1 0 1 −1 0 1 −1 0 1 −1 0

[ 2 3
−1 3 −1 ][
0 2 1 0 1 0 ][
2 ≡ 0 5 2 ≡ 0 5 2 ≡ 0 5 2
0 0 −3 ][ ]
The final Matrix is in echelon form

2 Reduce the matrix

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2 1

[ ]
3 2
1 −1

3 Show that the rows of the matrix below are linearly independent
a b c

[ ]
0 d e
0 0 f
4

Theorem

The nonzero rows of a matrix when reduced to echelon form are linearly independent

The above theorem can be used to provide an alternative method of investigating independence
of vectors in Rn . The vectors are written as the rows of a matrix and then an equivalent matrix is
obtained that is in echelon form. If the echelon form does not contain a zero row the vectors are
linearly independent. If on the other hand the echelon form does contain a zero row then the
vectors are linearly dependent

Example

−1 0 −4
1) Investigate the vectors
( )( )( )
2 , 1 , 3 for linear independence
3 5 0

Solution

−1 2 3 −1 2 3 −1 2 3

[ ]
Let the matrix A= 0 1 5 then A ≡ 0
−4 3 0
1
[
5 ≡ 0 1 5
0 −5 −12 0 0 13 ][ ]
The echelon form does not contain a Zero row so the three vectors are linearly independent

−1 0 −5

3 ( )( )( )
2) Show that the vectors 2 , 1 , 12 , , are linearly dependent and show clearly how one of
5 25
the vectors is a linear combination of the other vectors

Solution

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

−1 2 3 −1 2 3 −1 2 3
Let A= 0
[
−5 12 25 0 2 10 ][ 0 0 0 ]' '
1 5 ≡ 0 1 5 (−5 R1 + R3 )≡ 0 1 5 (−2 R 2 + R 3)
[ ]
The echelon form equivalent to A has a zero row so the original vectors are linearly dependent.
Furthermore,

−2 R' 2+ R '3=0=−2 R2 +(−5 R 1+ R 3)

Hence,

−5 −1 0

25 3 ( ) ( ) ()
R3=5 R1 +2 R2 . Clearly 12 =5 2 + 2 1
5

3) Show that the polynomials 1−x , 1−2 x2 , x2 −x+1,1+2 x+ x2 are linearly dependent and clearly
indicate how one of the Polynomials is a linear combination of the other Polynomials

4) Prove that any three non- zero vectors R2 are linearly dependent

Theorem

Given that the vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly independent and x  c1 x1  c 2 x2 .  c n xn then
this representation is unique

Proof

Suppose that x  c1 x1  c 2 x2 .  c n xn and x  c1 x1 +c2 x2 cn xn

/ / /

Then subtracting the both sides we obtain

0  (c1  c1/ ) x1 +(c1  c2/ ) x2  (c1  cn/ ) xn

since the xi’s are linearly independent

0  (c1  c1/ )  (c1  c2/ )    (c1  cn/ )

Hence

c1  c1/ ,c1  c2/ ,c1  cn/

.

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Definition

A set of vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n is called a finite basis of a vector space V if x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly

independent and generate (span) the vector space V i.e. span x1 , x 2 ,.x n =V

Definition

A vector space V is said to be finite dimensional if V has a finite basis

Theorem

Every vector space V that is different from the trivial vector space V ={0 } has a basis

Theorem

A set of vectors [ x1 , x 2 ,.x n ] is a basis of V if and only if the set [ x1 , x 2 ,.x n ] is maximal linearly
independent in V

Remark

This means that the vectors x1 , x 2 ,.x n are linearly independent and if a new element is
introduced, the resulting set is linearly dependent.

Proof

Suppose x1 , x 2 ,.x n is a finite basis of vector space V. we show that the set is maximal linearly
independent

Let xV then since x1 , x 2 ,.x n are a basis therefore x is a linear combination of x1 , x 2 ,.x n hence

[ x1 , x 2 ,.x n , x ] is a linearly dependent set. Hence

,

[ x1 , x 2 ,.x n ] is maximal linearly independent

Conversely

Suppose that { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is maximal linearly independent. We must show that { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is a

basis for V. It is sufficient to show that { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is a generating set for V.

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Let xV then {x, x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is a linearly independent set. It must be that x is a linear combination

of x1 , x 2 ,.x n , hence { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is a basis for V.

Theorem

A of vectors { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is a basis for vector space V if and only if { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } is a minimal
generating (spanning) set of vectors for the vector space V

Remark

The set { x1 , x 2 ,.x n } generates the vector space V but if any one of the vectors is deleted from
the list, the remaining vectors do not generate V

Theorem

If a vector space V has a finite basis then each basis of V has the same number of elements

Example

1 0 0

0 () () ()
The vectors i= 0 , j= 1 , k = 0 are a basis for R3
0 1

Note i , j, kare orthogonal vectors in R3 hence they are linearly independent

Let

x1

()
x= x 2 x=x 1 i+ x 2 j+ x3 k
x3

So span{i , j , k }=¿ R3

Definition

If V has a finite basis and that n is the number of elements in a basis of V then the dimension of V
is n

Definition

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

x1 , x 2 ,.x n x  c1 x1  c 2 x2 .  c n xn
If { } is a finite basis for a Vector space V and then define the

matrix or column vector representation of x by

c1
x= c 2 .
⋮
cn
()
Example

The Dimension of R4 is 4.

In R4 the vectors

1 0 0 0

() () () ()
i= 0 ,i 2=
0
0
1 ,i =
0 3
0
0 ,i =
1 4
0
0
0
1

form the standard basis and so R4

has 4 dimensions.

Determine the dimension of the subspace of R3 below

i. w 1={(a , b , 0) a ,b R }
ii. w 2={ ( a , a−b , b ) a , b R }
iii. w 3={ ( a ,b , c ) 2 a+c=b }

Solution

W 1={(a , b ,0)a , b R }

¿ { ( a , b , 0 ) }={ ( a , 0,0 ) + ( 0 , b , 0 ) }={a ( 1,0,0 ) + b(0,1,0)}

The vector (1,0,0) and (0,1,0) generated W1 since (1,0,0) and (0,1,0)are orthogonal and they are
linearly independent hence form a basis for Dim(W 1 )=2

W 2 ={a ,(a−b) , b a , b R } ={( a ,0,0 )+ ( 0 , ( a−b ) , 0 ) + ( 0,0 , b )}

={a (1,0,0 )+ a ( 0,1,0 )−b ( 0,1,0 )+ b ( 0,0,1 ) }

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={a (1,1,0 )+ b ( 0 ,−1,1 ) }

Hence (1,1,0) and (0 ,−1,1) generates W2 .

The vector (1 , 1, 0) and ( 0 ,−1,1 ) are linearly independent hence they form a basis for W 2 .The
dimension of W 2 is two .

W 3 ={ ( a , b , c ) 2 a+ c=b }

W 3 ={( a , 2 a+c , c ) : for all scalars c }

={( a , 0,0 ) + ( 0,2 a+ c , 0 ) + ( 0,0 , c ) }

={a (1,0,0 )+ 2a ( 0,1,0 )+ c ( 0,1,0 ) + c ( 0,0,1 ) }

={a (1,0,0 )+ a ( 0,2,0 ) +c ( 0,1,0 )+ c ( 0,0,1 ) }

={ a ( 1,2,0 ) + c ( 0,11 ) } .

Hence (1,2,0)and (0,1,1) are linearly independent and forms the basis for W 3

The dimension of W 3 is two

LINEAR SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

A system of equations of the type below is called a linear system of equation

a 11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +…+ a1 n x n=b1

a 21 x1 + a22 x 2+ …+a2 n x n=b2

a m 1 x 1+ am2 x2 +…+ amn x n =bm

This represents m equation in n unknowns can be written as a matrix equation as follows.

a11 a12 ⋯ a 1n

The matrix
a
A= 21
⋮
[ a22
⋮
a m 1 am 2
⋯ a 2n
⋮ ⋮
⋯ amn ]
is called the coefficient matrix

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b1
b
()
The vector B= 2 is called the constant Matrix. The system can now be summarized in a vector
⋮
bm

x1
x
equation of the type AX=B where X = 2
⋮
xn
() is a solution to the system AX =B , a vector in Rn .So

to solve the system we note that we obtain an equivalent system by:

i. Interchanging two equations

ii. Multiply an equation by a non-zero scalar
iii. Add a scalar multiple of one equation to another equation

Operations (i)→(ii) are called elementary row operations. The technique is called the Gauss –
Jordan method and is illustrated below

Gauss elimination method

Solve the system

x−2 y +3 z=3 (i)

2 x−4 y+5 z=0 ( ii)

x +3 y−z=5 ( iii)

Solution

We apply elementary operations on the system to obtain an equivalent system where each
subsequent equation has fewer variables

Equation (ii)=2(i)−(ii) and (i)-(ii)

x−2 y +3 z=3

z=6

−5 y +4 z =−2

Interchanging rows we have that

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x−2 y +3 z=3

−5 y +4 z =−2

z=6

And now we substitute in the rest of the equations

−5 y +4 ( 6 )=−2

−26 26 52 −23
y= = , x= +3−18=
−5 5 5 5

The same steps can be achieved by use of row operations on the augmented matrix [ A ; B¿ . The
objective is to reduce the augmented matrix to echelon form and the recover a more simple
system

 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3  1 2 3 3 
 2 4 5 0   2 R1  R2  R2 ; R1  R3  R3 0 0 1 6   R2  R3 0 5 4 2 
 ' '   ' ' 

 1 3 1 5  0 5 4 2  0 0 1 6 

From the reduced form we obtain the equations just was found in the earlier method

x−2 y +3 z=3

−5 y +4 z =−2

z=6

Question

2 x−3 y+ z=5

5 x−4 y+ 5 z =1

Solution

2 −3 1 x = 5
[ 5 −4 5
y
z
][ ] [ ]
1

The augmented matrix

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[ 25 −5 1 5 2 −5 1
= ][ 5
−4 5 1 0 7 5 −23 ]
We replace the equation

2 x−5 y+ z=5

7 y +5 z=−23 .

Let z=¿ then 7 y=−5−23

−5−23
y=
7

−17−11
x= . Here  is an arbitrary value, leading to infinity of solutions
7

Question

Solve the system below

x−5 y +7 z=5

2 x−3 y+ 5 z =1

4 x− y−z=0

Question

Find the solutions of the following systems of equation

1. x 1+ 2 x 2−x 3=0

2 x1 + 4 x 2−x 5=−4

x 1−2 x3 −x 4=2

2 x1 +3 x 2−x 3+ x 4−2 x 5=−5

2. x 1+ x2=1
x 1+ x2=2
Solve the system below
2 x− y=5
x +3 y=1
4 x−7 y=2
Solution

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2 −1 5 1 3 1

[ 1 3 1=0
][7 3
4 −7 2 0 −17 −2 ]
1 3 1 1 3 1

[0 −133 −14 0
x +3 y=1
][
= 0 −133 57 = 0 −133 57
0 −71 ]
−133 y=57
0=−71
From the equations we obtain 0=−71 .This is a contradiction. Hence the system is
inconsistence
Remark
A linear system either has a unique solution or infinity of solutions or is inconsistent.

The Jordan Gauss reduction Method

The method above be can used to solve a system which has unique solution . The augmented
matrix [ A ; B]is reduced to the form [I ; P].From which the equivalent system is

IX =P Hence X =P

Question

Solve the system below

x−5 y +7 z=5

2 x−3 y+ 5 z =1

4 x− y−z=0

Recall that the system when reduced to echelon form is

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 23 
 5
 1 2 3 3  1 2 0 15 1 0 0 
 0 5 4 2   R  4 R  R ' , R  3R  R ' 0 5 0 26   1 R  R '' , R  2 R  R '' 0 1 0 26 
  2 3 2 1 3 1  5 2 2 1
5
2 1
 5
 0 0 1 6   0 0 1 6  0 0 1 
 6
 

23 26
Leading to the same solution namely, x= , y= , z=6
5 5

Question

1 2 5 6
Solve the matrix equation AX=B where A=
3 4 [ ]
and B=
7 8 [ ]
Solution

We use the Jordan-Gauss method to find the Matrix X

The augmented matrix is

1 2 5 6 ≡3 R −R 1 2 5 6 ≡ R −R 1 0 −3 −4 ≡ 1 R 1 0 −3 −4
[ 3 47 8 ] 1 2 [
0 2 8 10 1 2 ] [
0 2 8 10 2 2 0 1 4 5] [ ]
Hence the solution is X = [−34 −45 ]
Definition
If A is a matrix the number of non-zero rows when it is reduced to echelon form is called
the rank of the matrix.
Example

Find the rank of the matrix below

1 −1 0

[
A= 2 3 5
3 2 5 ]
Solution

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1 −1 0

[ 0 5 5
0 5 5 ]
1 −1 0

[ 0 5 5
0 0 0 ]
Rank (A)=2

Find the rank of the matrix below

1 3 5

[
A= 2 −1 3
1 2 4 ]
1 3 5

[ 0 −7 −7
0 1 1 ]
1 3 5

[ 0 −7 −7
0 0 0 ]
The Rank of A is 2 since the reduced matrix equivalent to A has two non- zero rows

A linear system of the type Ax=B has no solution if

Rank (A)Rank of augmented matrix

A square matrix A is said to be a non-singular matrix if there exists a square matrix B such that
AB=I =BA

The matrix B is called the inverse of A written as A−1

Theorem If A and B are nonsingular matrices then A−1 is nonsingular and

i) ( A¿¿−1)−1= A ¿
ii) ( A B)−1=B−1 A−1
iii) AB= AX ↔ B=X

Proof

i) A( A ¿¿−1)=I ¿=( A¿¿−1) A ¿ Hence from definition( A¿¿−1)−1= A ¿ .

i) (AB)( B ¿ ¿−1 A−1)=( ( AB ) B−1 ) A−1=( A ( B B−1 ) ) A−1=( AI ) A−1=A A−1=I ¿

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SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS

ii) If B= Xthen AB=BX by substitution.

Conversely, if AB=BX then ,

B=IB=( A ¿¿−1 A) B= A−1 ( AB )= A−1 ( AX ) =( A¿ ¿−1 A) X=IX =X ¿ ¿

The method of reduction to echelon can be used to find the inverse of the square matrix. Actually
we solve the equation AX=I . The augmented matrix [ A ⋮ I ] is reduced to the form [ I ⋮ B ] ; then
IX =X=B . So the matrix B= A−1

Example

Find the inverse of the matrix below

1 −1 2
A= 0 2 1
1 2 1[ ]
Solution

1 −1 2 a11 a 12 a13 1 0 0
−1

[ ][
A A =B 0 2 1 a21 a 22 a23 = 0 1 0
1 2 1 a31 a 32 a33 0 0 1][ ]
The augmented matrix is

1 −1 2 ⋮ 1 0 0

[ 0 2 1 ⋮ 0 1 0
1 2 1 ⋮ 0 0 1 ]
1 −1 2 ⋮ 1 0 0

[ 0 2 1 ⋮ 0 1 0
0 3 −1 ⋮ −1 0 1 ]
1 −1 2 ⋮ 1 0 0

[ 0 6 3 ⋮ 0 3 0
0 6 −2 ⋮ −2 0 2 ]
1 −1 2 ⋮ 1 0 0

[ 0 6 3 ⋮ 0 3 0
0 6 −5 ⋮ −2 −3 2 ]
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1 −1 2 ⋮ 1 0 0

[ 0 1

0 0
1
2
1
⋮

⋮
0
2
5
1
2
3
5
0
−2
5
]
1 −6 4

[ ]
1 −1 0 ⋮
5 5 5
−1 1 1
0 1 0 ⋮
5 5 5
2 3 −2
0 0 1 ⋮
5 5 5

1 0 0 ⋮ 0 −1 1

[ 0 1 0 ⋮

0 0 1 ⋮
−1 1
5
2
5
5

5
1
5
3 −2
5
]
Hence

0 −1 1

A−1= 5

5
2 [ ]
−1 1
5

5
1
5
3 −2
5

Question

1 −5 3
1 Find the inverse of the matrix below A= 2 1 1
0 1 4 [ ]
1 −1 1 2 −1 5
2 Solve the matrix equation AX=Bwhere A= 0 1 1
1 0 −1
and B=
[
0 1 1
2 3 −1 ] [ ]
Definition

A square matrix A can be written in the form A=LU where L is a lower triangular matrix and U is
an upper triangular matrix . This is called the LU Decomposition of the Matrix A

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The matrix U can be found by reducing A to echelon form then L can be found by solving the
matrix equation A=XU

1 −5 3
3 Write the matrix below in the form A=LU where A= 2 1 1
0 1 4 [ ]
Solution

1 −5 3 1 −5 3 1 −5 3

[ 0 1 4 ] 0 [
1 4 0 0 ][
2 1 1 ≡(2 R 1−R2) 0 −11 5 ≡ 0 −11 5
49 ]
So let

1 −5 3

0 [
U = 0 −11 5
0 49 ]
a 0 0 1 −5 3 1 −5 3

[ ][
Then We solve the equation A= b c 0 0 −11 5 = 2 1 1
d e f 0 0 49 0 1 4 ][ ]
−1
From which we have that a=1 ,b=2 , c=−1 , d=0 , e= . f =1/11
11

1 0 0 1 −5 3
Hence A= 2
[
−1 0 0 −11 5
0 −1/11 1/11 0 0 ][
49 ]
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Definition

A matrix of T from a linear space V to a linear space W is called a linear transformation if

T ( x+ y)=Tx +Ty for all , scalars and vectors x , y V

Remark

The scalar multiplication and vector addition on the left hand side are performed in V while the
ones the right hand side are performed in W.

Theorem

If T is a linear transformation of the vector space w, then

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i. T (0)=0
ii. T ( x+ y)=T (x )+T ¿)
iii. T (−x )=−T ( x )

Set ¿ 1 ,=1. Then T ( x + y )=T ( x ) +T ( y )

Set ¿ (−1 ) ,=0 then

T (−x +0 y )=−1¿

Example

1. Show that T ( x , y , z )=( 2, x− y , x+ z ) is not a linear transformation

Proof

T ( 0,0,0 )=(2,0,0) ≠ 0

Prove that T ( x , y )=(x− y , x +2 y ) is a linear transformation

Proof

Let , be the scalars and ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) R

( x 1 , y 1 ) + ( x 2 , y2 ) =(x 1 + x 2 , y 1 + y 2)
Then,

T¿

=¿

=( ( x 1− y 1 ) + ( x 2− y 2 ) , ( x 1+ 2 y 1 ) + ( x 2 +2 y 2 ))

However,

T ( x , y )+ T (x 1 , x 2) =( ( x 1− y 1 ) , ( x 1+2 y 1 ) )+( ( x 2− y 2 ) , ( x 2+ 2 y 2 ) )

=( ( x 1− y 1 ) + ( x 2− y 2 ) , ( x 1+ 2 y 1 ) + ( x 2 +2 y 2 ))

=( x 1− y 1 ) , ( x 1−2 y 1 ) + ( x 2 + y 2 ) ,(x 2 +2 y 2 )

=( ( x 1− y 1 ) + ( x 2− y 2 ) , ( x 1+ 2 y 1 ) + ( x 2 +2 ) )

From the computation, it’s clear that T is a linear transformation.

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Example

Show that T ( x , y )=(x 2 + y 2 , x− y ) is not a linear transformation

Proof

Note T(0)=0

T ( 1,1 ) +T ( 1,1 ) =( 12+12 , 1−1 ) + ( 12 +12 ,1−1 )

¿ ( 4,0 ) ≠ ( 8,0 )=T (2,2)

Hence T is not a linear transformation.

Example

Prove that T ( x , y )=( xy , y−x ) is not a linear transformation

Proof

T ( ( 1,1 )+ ( 1,1 ))=T ( 2,2 )=[ ( 2 x 2 ) , ( 2−2 ) ] =( 4,0 )

On the other hand T ( 1,1 ) +T ( 1,1 ) =( 1,0 )+ ( 1,0 )=( 2,0 )

( 4,0 ) ≠ ( 2,0 ) .T is not a linear transformation.

Definition

Let T be a linear transformation of the linear space V into the linear space W then

i. The kernel of T is defined as ker ( T )={v V T ( v )=0 }

ii. The image of the image of V under T is T ( V ) ={ w W T ( v )=w }

Theorem

i. ker ⁡(T ) is a subspace of V

ii. image of V under T is a subspace of W

Proof of (i)

Let v1 , , v 2 ker (T ). Then T (v 1 )=T (v 2 )=0

Hence T ( v 1+ v 2 )=T ( v 1 ) +T ( v 2 )=0+0=0

So, v1 + v 2 ker ( T )

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Finally let v ker ⁡(T ) and be scalars. Then

T ( v )=T ( v )=0 hence Vker T .

Prove part ii of the above theorem is an exercise

Examples

1 Determine the dimension of the kernel of the transformation below:

T¿
2 Determine the dimension of the Kernel and image space of the transformation below:
T¿

Theorem

A linear transformation T from V into W is injective if and only if the Kernel of T is {0}

Proof

If T is injective then T is one to one . But T ( 0 )=0. So Kernel of T is {0}.

Conversely suppose that Kernel of Kernel of T is {0} and T ( x )=T ( y ) then is

T ( x− y ) =T ( x )−T ( y ) =0 Hencex− y =0 and so x= y.

LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR MATRICES

If V is a finite dimensional vector space then to each linear transformation we associate a matrix.
Also a Matrix thus represents a linear transformation from a finite dimensional space

Let x 1 , x 2 … … .. x n be a basis for vector space V and A to be a linear transformation of V into W

with basis y 1 , y 2 … … .. y m

Each vector xV can be written uniquely as a linear combination of the basis vectors

i.e.

x=c 1 x1 +c 2 x2 +…+ c n x n Hence,

Ax=A (c 1 x 1 +c 2 x 2 +…+ c n x n)

¿ c 1 A x 1 +c 2 A x 2 +…+c n A xn

¿ c 1 ( a11 y 1+ a21 y 2 +a 31 y 3 +…+a m1 y m ) + c 2 ( a 12 y 1+ a22 y 2 +…+ am 2 y m ) +..+c n ¿)

¿ ¿ ¿+c 2 a12+…+c n a1 n) y 1+(c ¿ ¿ 1 a21+ c 2 a 22+…+ c n a 2 n) x2 ¿+…+¿+ … +c n anm) x n.

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An inspection of the above expression confirms that Ax is a matrix product where

c1
a11 a 12 ... a1 m

[
a n1 an 2 anm ] ()
A= a21 a 22 … a 2 m and x= c 2 . Note that the basis vectors x 1 , x 2 … … .. x n can be written
⋮
cn

1 0 0
as column vectors namely
⋮ ⋮
0 0
( )( ) ( )
0 , 1 … 0
⋮
1
where it is understood to mean that

x 1=1 x 1 +0 x 2+ … 0 xn , x 2=0 x 1+1 x 2+ … 0 x n.. x n=0 x 1+ 0 x2 +… 1 x n

1 a11 0 a 12
a11 a12 ... a 1m a11 a12 ...a 1m
So A x 1 =
[
a21 a22 … a2 m
a n 1 an 2 anm ]( ) ( )
0 = a21
⋮
0
⋮
an1
and A x 2 =
[
a21 a22 … a2 m
a n 1 an 2 anm ]( ) ( )
1 = a 22
⋮
0
⋮
a 22
and etc. It is clear the

columns of the Matrix are precisely the images of the basis vectors.

Example

1 Find the matrix of the transformation of

T ( x , y )=( x− y ,2 x−3 y ) ∈the standard of the basis 1 , 0

0 1 ( )( )
Solution

T 1=1
() ()
0 2

T 0 = −1
() ( )
1 −3

Hence the matrix of the transformation is

T = 1 −1
[
2 −3 ]
2 Find the matrix of transformation if T is defined by

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T ( x , y , z )=¿ in the standard basis

1 0 0
( )( )( )
B={ 0 , 1 , 0 }
0 0 1

Solution

1 2
() ()
T 0=1
0 1

0 −1
() ( )
T 1= 0
0 −2

0 0
() ()
T 0=3
1 1

The matrix of transformation is

2 −1 0

[
T= 1 0 3 .
1 −2 1 ]
Obviously, a change in the basis will result in different matrix representation of a linear function F

3 Write the matrix representation of T ( x , y )=(x−2 y .2 x−3 y ) in the (u) standard basis (ii)
B={ ( 2,1 ) , (−1,2 ) }

Solution

(i) We first find the image of the basis vectors under T as follows

T 1= 1
() ()
0 2

T 0 = −2
() ( )
1 −3

Hence the matrix is [ 12 −2

−3 ]

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1
(ii)
2 0
Now T = =
1
1 2
2 + −1 = 5
() () () ( )
1 5 1 5 2 2
5
()
−14
And T
−1
2
= −3
( )( )
−8
=
−14 2
5 1
− −1
2
= 5
−1
()( ) ( )
1 −14
Hence the matrix is
[ ]
5
2
5
5
−1

4 Let D be the differential linear transformation defined on the space V of all polynomials of
degree three. Find the matrix for D in the basis (i) B={1, x , x 2 , x 3 (ii) B' ={1 , 1−x .1−x 2 , 1−x 3 }

5 Let V be the Euclidean space and the linear transformation T be represented by the Matrix
1 0 0

[ −1 1 0
0 −1 1 ]
in the standard basis .(i) Write the transformation T in the Cartesian f form (ii) Hence find matrix
for T using the basis B={ ( 1,1,1 ) , ( 0,1,1 ) , ( 0.0.1 ) }

If T is a linear transformation of a linear space V into a linear space W and S is a linear

transformation of W into a linear space X than we obtain a composite map of ST of V into X.

Now ST is defined by ST ( x )=S (T ( X )) for values of x in V.

Theorem If TT :V →W and S :W → Xare linear transformations then ST :V → X is a linear

transformation.

Proof

ST ( x+ y )=S ( T ( x + y ) )=S ( T ( x ) +T ( y ) ) =S ( T ( x ) )+ S ( T ( y ) )=ST ( x )+ ST ( y ) .

Theorem. A linear transformation T :V →W is a one to one mapping if and only if ker ⁡(T )={0 }

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Proof

Suppose that ker ( T )={0 } and T ( x )=T ( y ) thenT ( x )−T ( y )=T ( x− y ) =0. So it must be that
x− y =0 leading to x= y.

Conversely, let T be one to one andT ( x )=0 then since T ( 0 )=0 x=0. Soker ( T )={0 }

Definition The mapping I :V →V defined by I ( x )=x is called the identity mapping.

The identity mapping is a linear transformation that is both one to one and onto.

Definition If T :V →W is a one to one onto mapping then the mappingS :W →V defined such that
for T ( x )= y ,then S( y )=x is called the inverse function of T

Note that ST ( x )=S ( T ( x ) )=x .SoST =I .

We write T −1 for the inverse function of T .

Theorem

If T :V →W is a linear transformation that admits an inverse then the Inverse T −1 is a linear

transformation.

Proof

Let y 1 , y 2 be elements of W such that there exists x 1 , x2 withT ( x 1 )= y 1 , T ( x 2 )= y 2 ThenT ( x 1 )= y 1

and from the linearity of T we have T ( x 1 + x 2 )=T x 1 +T x 2= y 1 + y 2

−1 −1
Hence from the definition of the inverseT ( y1 + y 2 ) =x1 + x 2=T ( y 1 )+ T −1 ( y 2 )
Definition A vector space V is said to be isomorphic to a vector space W if there exists an
invertible linear transformation T from V onto W

Theorem

If x 1 , x 2 … … .. x n are linearly independent vectors of V and T is a one to one linear map of V into
W then T x 1 ,Tx 2 … ….. T x n are linearly independent in W.

Proof

Suppose that c1Tx1  c2Tx 2  c n Tx n  0

Then from the linearity of T c1Tx1  c 2Tx 2  c n Tx n  T (c1x1   c 2 x 2  ...  c n x n )  0

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the Zero vector alone, it must be that    c1x1  c2 x 2  c n x n  0

Now the Kernel of T is consist of

Since the vectors are linearly independent in V we must have that

c1 =c 2    c n  0
.

Remark. It follows from the above result that Isomorphic spaces have the same dimension

Corollary.

Each finite dimensional space V is isomorphic to

Rn

Proof

Let

x 1 , x 2 … … .. x n be a basis for vector space V then each vector in V is of the form

x=c 1 x1 +c 2 x2 +…+ c n x n. The mapping T :V → defined by T ( x )=¿ (c1 ,c 2 ,,c n )

Is an isomorphism. The fact that T is linear can be easily verified. Also, note that if

T ( x )  0 . Then (c1,c 2 ,,c n )  0 . Hence c1 =c2    cn  0 and so the Kernel of T ={0} .

n m
Theorem R is not isomorphic to R for m≠ n

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