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INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................5
1.1 PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT ..........................................................................5
1.2 IMPLEMENTATION ...............................................................................................7
1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL & DEROGATION....................................7
1. INTRODUCTION
The manual opens with a brief summary (see section Origin of Overpressures) of various
theories relating to the theme of overpressure origins or, in a more general sense, of
abnormal pressure origins. From a practical point of view, it certainly is not easy to
establish the reason for the existence of abnormal pressure gradient formations, since
very often their origins lie in a combination of various causes.
Of practical interest, however, is their determination and location, although defining the
causes themselves may facilitate the subsequent interpretative phase.
The determination of pressure gradients can take place in successive phases: the first
phase, essential in drawing the drilling programme, is based for the most part on
analyses and processing of seismic data and on data taken from possible reference
wells. It is obvious that if the drilling is explorative and is being done for the first time in a
certain area, the seismic data may be the sole source of information available. For this
reason, the methods based on seismic data analyses are dealt with, in detail, in section
Seismic Methods 3 of this manual. The section begins with an exhaustive treatment of the
theory and the ‘how-to’ of seismic surveying, both onshore and offshore. Its principal
purpose is to clarify the assumptions, the working hypotheses, and the interpretative
difficulties that the geophysicist comes up against. This acquaints the drilling and
production technician with the degree of reliability that should be ascribed to the data he
works with, and on which he then bases his operating programme.
In section 4 Determination of Overpressure From Drilling Data Analysis the methods for
recording and processing drilling parameters are reviewed; this stage is set-up and
carried out in the field itself, and is invaluable in checking predictions and adjusting of
operative decisions, made on the basis of the seismic analysis, accordingly. In fact, the
drilling programme must be regarded as a guide to operations and, indeed, should not be
taken by the letter; the indications it gives are not binding, but are to be subjected to
continuous verification and checking during the actual drilling. Should new situations
emerge, differing from those expected, the programme must be changed in time and
adapted to the new well conditions. It is, therefore, easy to understand the importance of
these surveys. A recent step forward in this field are sensors and recorders installed on
site that provide continuous and automatic measurement, recording and precise storage
of the most important parameters and the adoption of calculating systems which allow
their continuous, automatic and real time processing. It goes without saying that where an
interpretative process is necessary, the role performed by the technician is crucial in
obtaining reliable and meaningful results.
Should the predictions, made from the seismic survey, and the results, obtained
processing the drilling parameters, be incongruent, it is logical to assign greater credibility
to the latter. This is because they relate to the well being drilled and, taken as a whole,
more clearly reflect the actual condition of the formations met in drilling.
In section 4, following an introduction on electric logs (theory, operating principles, and
equipment), the methods using resistivity logs (IES) and acoustic logs (Sonic Log) are
examined, respectively. In this case, the data on the gradients are available only “after
the fact”, which is to say, after a certain length of hole has already been drilled; thus they
do not have the same immediateness as the methods based on seismic or drilling
parameters. Nevertheless, they constitute an important survey ‘moment’, because they
provide a convincing comparison and, in case of doubt or interpreting difficulties, also
permit calibration of the preceding methods.
After this brief explanation, it follows that all the listed methods are to be considered as a
whole, and that the conclusions, which can be reached through the application of one or
other of the described techniques, must undergo a continuous critical appraisal. This is
the only way to obtain reliable gradient values, which in turn may lead to well-thought out
and rational decisions.
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1.2 IMPLEMENTATION
The guideline and policies specified herein will be applicable to all Company well
engineering activities.
All technicians engaged in well engineering activities are expected to make themselves
familiar with the contents of this manual and be responsible for compliance to its policies
and procedures.
2. ORIGIN OF OVERPRESSURES
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 ROCK MEDIUM
A rock, either loose or indurate, is a poliphase medium, consisting of a solid phase, a
liquid phase and/or a gas phase.
The solid phase makes up part of the rock volume and consists of solid matter whose
mineralogical composition, shape and size may differ from one rock to another depending
on its geological history.
The liquid and/or gas phase is contained in the empty spaces within the rock, which are
the spaces between the grains in unconsolidated loose rock and between fissure walls in
indurated rock.
The rock characteristic of containing a certain number of more or less interconnected
empty spaces, called ‘pores’, is defined as ‘Total Porosity’. It may vary according to the
number, size, shape and space distribution of pores within the rock. Their nature may be:
• Primary: when pores were formed at the same time as the rock.
• Secondary: when pores were formed after the formation of the rock, as a
result of lithogenics.
Not all of the pores within a rock medium permit ‘gravitational’ water (i.e. water subject to
gravity, as opposed to absorbed or capillary water) to flow underground freely under
hydrostatic pressure. Fluid flow may be established only through interconnected pores
(‘Effective Porosity’). Within the natural environment, rock media with equivalent ‘total
porosities’ but having different effective porosities’ are frequently met with; because of
such different ‘effective porosities’, the resistance to fluid flow within the rocks may vary.
Any increase in the resistance to fluid flow through a rock medium may, as it will be better
shown later, give rise to abnormal pressure gradients, thus favouring the build up of
overpressured zones.
where:
ap and ag = Total sectional areas of the pores filled by water and gas
Assuming:
N = Component perpendicular to the dividing surface of the resultant of
the forces acting through A
n
∑ n i' = Perpendicular component of the grain interactions through their
i=1
contact surfaces within the dividing surface
Pg = Intergranular air pressure
to satisfy the equilibrium conditions in the direction perpendicular to the surface, it must
be that:
n
N= ∑ ni' + Pp x a p + Pg x a g Eq. 2-2
i =1
where:
T = Component, tangential to the dividing surface, of the resultant of the
forces acting through A
n
∑ t i' = Components of the forces acting among the grains
i=1
Liquids and gases do not allow the transmission of tangential forces.
By introducing the ‘Total Pressure’ concept as:
N
Pov = Eq. 2-4
A
1
τ= Eq. 2-5
A
we obtain:
n
∑ ni' Pp x a p + Pg x a g
Pov =
N i =1
= +
Eq. 2-6
A A A
n
∑ ti'
τ=
T i =1
=
Eq. 2-7
A A
n
∑ ni'
Pc = i =1
Eq. 2-8
A
which stands for the forces transmitted within a granular mass through the solid grains.
Where the gas volume is smaller than the water volume, in which case water saturation of
the rock medium is about 100% (Sw = l), the Eq. 2-6 becomes:
a
Pov = Pc + Pp x (1 - ) Eq. 2-9
A
since:
ag ≅ 0
and thus:
a g x p g ≅ 0 and a p = A - a
Because of the very small contact area between grains (i.e. a/A<<< 1), it follows that:
Pov = Pc + Pp Eq. 2-10
This equation gives the distribution between the liquid and the solid phase of the forces
applied to a granular mass. From the last equation it may be noted that one part of the
total pressure exerted is borne by the interstitial fluids and the other by the solid skeleton.
we obtain:
Pov = ρ b x H Eq. 2-13
Pov = ρb x H / 10
where ρ b is constant:
1 H
10 ∫O
Pov = ρ b dH with ρ b varying at each point
The overburden gradient Gov is the pressure increment for a unit increment of depth. It
gives the average apparent or bulk density at a given depth.
In general it will be, with Gov expressed in g/cc:
Pov x 10
Gov = = ρb where ρb is constant Eq. 2-15
H
1 ⎡ ρb,i x H1 + ρb,2 x H2 + KKK + ρb,n x Hn ⎤
Gov =
10 ⎢⎣ H1 + H2 + KKK + Hn ⎥
⎦
with ρb,i constant for each layer of thickness, H i :
H
Gov =
1 ∫
o
ρb dH
where ρ b varies at each point
H
10
∫
O
dH
With the above equations it is easy to calculate the overburden pressure at each
subsurface point, once the densities of the layers encountered are known.
where:
ρ fl = Fluid density, g/cm3
H = Depth, m.
‘Abnormal’ pressures are due to a fluid pressure which may be higher or lower than the
hydrostatic pressure.
Pore pressure gradient, i.e. the pressure variation as a function of depth, is defined by:
pp
Gp = for every 1m of depth Eq. 2-17
H
p p x10
Gp for every 10m of depth
H
Under normal conditions Gp is equal to the density of the fluids in the pores, whereas,
under abnormal conditions Gp will be higher or lower than the density value.
When calculating the hydrostatic pressure, the fluid will always be assumed to be water,
being the most common subsurface fluid. The most commonly encountered density
values for subsurface water are in the range of 1.00 to 1.07g/cc. To make calculations
easier, the value normally used is 1.03g/cc, which is close to average, because of the
salinity of the water commonly found underground.
In terms of pore pressure gradient, a rock formation is at normal pressure when the pore
Kg Kg
pressure gradient is G = 0.103 2
or also Gp = 1.03 2
. Higher values
cm * 1m cm * 10m
indicate over-pressure, whereas lower values indicate under-pressure.
If the drilling fluid is water or wherever water deeply invades the formation, Gfr is given by:
(
Gfr = Gp + 2 ν Gov − Gp ) Eq. 2-19
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In general, the formation of a ‘pressure barrier’ depends on many factors, among them:
• Phenomena, sometimes complex, which deform clay minerals under a
physical load (e.g., weight of sediments).
• Clays as semi-permeable membranes.
• Type and quantity of clay minerals present in the rock.
• Very low permeability clays (10-4 – 10-6 millidarcies).
• Non-Newtonian behaviour of water trapped in clay interstices.
• Interaction between rock, gases and organic acids.
• Type, concentration and diffusivity of cautions.
• Dissolved salts precipitation (such as for calcite, silicates, feldspar, pyrite,
siderite, etc.).
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When added to the effect of geological time, all of these factors or a combination of them
may change the physical-chemical environment and produce slow lithological changes
within these covering rocks which may then become ‘pressure and permeability barriers’.
As it has already been pointed out, various and often many overimposed factors may
create abnormal pressures. Subsurface phenomena have their source in geological,
physical, geochemical and mechanical processes. It is often very difficult, if not
impossible, to identify the effect and to evaluate the importance of each factor because of
the simultaneous occurrence of several of these phenomena.
The most common conditions and causes of the build-up of overpressures will be
examined in the following pages.
General Outline
This is perhaps the most common cause of overpressure.
During sedimentation, the materials that accumulate within a sedimentary basin are
subject to compaction because of loads from overlying sediments. The gradual
compaction following each subsequent weight increment initially causes a hydraulic
imbalance, due to the incompressibility of the fluids within the pores. Entrapped fluids are
slowly expelled from the pores and pressure equilibrium is re-established. Thus,
superficial sediments show higher porosity and a resultant higher fluid content than in the
case of sediments found at greater depths.
When the geological factors affecting deposition and the hydraulic features of the rock are
such as to impede the excess water from leaving the pores, the rock medium will be
abnormal. Since the fluid pressure within the pores will certainly be higher than the
hydrostatic pressure, thus rock porosity will be higher than where normal outflow
conditions exist.
Clay formations, marls and sands with very high clay content are the types of rock most
subject to overpressures.
In describing the process of compaction, several authors have noticed that the degree of
compaction and the presence of abnormal pressures are not only dependent on the
mechanism of water ejection, as mentioned before (which is rather slow in the case of
clay compaction), but also on other geological factors related to deposition. Some of
these factors can be identified as:
• Clay deposition rate.
• Deposition rate of the overlying sedimentary beds.
• Initial clay density.
• Density of overlying sediments.
• Clay thickness.
• Thickness of overlying sediments.
• Mineral composition of the clays.
• Age of the formation.
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In the first case, the interstitial pressures induced within the rock medium cannot balance
the external hydraulic conditions; furthermore, since the amount of water within the
porous medium is unchanged, and assuming the medium to be saturated and the water
and granules making up the solid skeleton to be incompressible, un-drained conditions
correspond necessarily to incompressibility of the medium.
In the second case, interstitial pressures are in, or tend to reach, a state of equilibrium
with the external hydraulic conditions. Any variation in the volume of the porous medium
corresponds, under the assumptions made above, to a variation in the amount of water.
∆V ∆σ Im
= I Eq. 2-21
V k
where:
k =
(
3 1 − 2 νI
I )
Eq. 2-22
EI
σ Im =
1 I
3
(
σ x + σ Iy + σ Iz ) Eq. 2-23
with:
k’ = Modulus of volume compressibility of the solid skeleton
E’ = Young’s modulus
σ Iy
= Effective stress along the y axis
Under the assumption made in the previous paragraph and also assuming a negligible
compressibility for the grains, a volume change ∆V of the rock medium can only be
caused by a change in the volume of the pores.
For ‘un-drained’ conditions, interstitial fluid volume is constant and therefore is:
∆V = 0 Eq. 2-24
or
1
V ∆σ Im = 0 Eq. 2-25
kI
Therefore:
∆σ Im = 0 Eq. 2-26
where:
∆σ m = Total average stress
giving:
∆σ m = ∆ Pp . Eq. 2-28
When the distribution of the induced stress is radically symmetrical, one may state
(assuming linear elasticity, isotropy and homogeneity):
1
∆σ m = (∆Pov + 2 ∆Pr ) = ∆Pp Eq. 2-29
3
where:
∆Pov = Total vertical stress
from which:
∆Pr = ∆Pov Eq. 2-31
Any load increment produces an interstitial pressure change when ‘un-drained’ conditions
are maintained.
Compaction Theory
If a rock medium is subjected to external stresses and boundary conditions of
impermeability are removed, drainage conditions are established. Water is free to move
within the intergranular spaces and unsteady filtration movement sets in.
The pressures, induced under ‘Un-drained’ conditions and not balanced by boundary
conditions due to the present of formations, establish a hydraulic gradient and, thus, a
hydrostatic gradient (filtration movement), which changes over time and with the steady
lessening of over-pressures.
If the total applied stress remains constant, interstitial pressure changes correspond to
effective stress variations, with subsequent deformation of the rock medium. This process
of overpressure dissipation is called ‘compaction’.
As far as the natural characteristics of the medium are concerned, this process is
controlled by the viscous resistance between water and solid skeleton and by its
compressibility. With the introduction of viscosity and an unsteady state, time enters as a
variable in the description of this phenomenon; in other words, compaction takes place
during an interval of time dependent upon the permeability coefficient and the
deformability of the solid skeleton.
The rheologic model which best fits this phenomenon is represented by coupling elastic
and viscous elements in parallel (Kelvin’s body) (Refer to Figure 2-2). The rock medium is
represented by the combination of water and springs within the cylinder; the
hydrodynamic filtration resistance is represented by the friction loss due to the flow of
water through the orifices.
The closing of the orifices corresponds to a ‘un-drained’ condition, while their opening
represents a ‘drained’ condition.
When studying compaction, interstitial pressure distribution and variations with time may
be deduced from the ‘Continuity Law’ by equating the volume of liquid flowing through the
boundary surface per unit of time to the corresponding change in the volume of the rock
medium and from Darcy’s law (relating to the flow of fluids).
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1 ⎡ σ2P 2
σ P σ P⎤
2
1 σe
⎢k x + ky + kz 2 ⎥
= x Eq. 2-33
ρ fl ⎣ σX 2
σy 2
σz ⎦ 1 + e 0 σt
where:
σ fl = Water density
φ
eo = Porosity ratio =
1− φ
By limiting the analysis to uni-directional flow and deformation (in the vertical direction)
and using the following assumptions:
• Total saturation (Sw = 1)
• Slight deformation as compared to the thickness of the medium
• Linear elasticity for the solid skeleton
• Sudden and continuous application of external stress
• Homogeneity and isotropy of the medium.
k z x E ed δ 2 P δP
x = Eq. 2-34
δ fl δz 2 δt
where:
k z x E ed
= Compaction coefficient
σ fl
Assuming a time-dependent external stress rather than one constant over time, the
following equation holds:
kz δ2 P δP δPov
x Eed x = − Eq. 2-35
δfl δz 2 δt δt
By defining the ‘boundary conditions’ for a clay formation, the overpressures at any
instant during compaction can be calculated.
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For each of the stages just mentioned, the sequence of clay sediments is bordered
underneath by an impermeable substratum so that the greatest distant covered by the
water particle to get to the draining surface is equal to the thickness of the clay
sediments.
In order to emphasise the role played by the geological factors and, most of all, the
deposition rate, the dissipation of overpressures between successive stages of
compaction has not been considered.
1) Calculations require the values for kz, S = σ fl / E ed and the dimensions of the
formation being investigated and its deposition rate.
The value of these parameters may change; they can, however, be included within
the single parameter Q, in order to facilitate the comparison between clays with
different hydraulic properties, thickness and sedimentation rate. The overall
parameter Q may be defined as:
δfl I
Q= x ωsh x Eq. 2-36
Eed k
where:
k = Rock permeability
l = Sediment thickness.
Through application of the ‘Compaction Theory’, the density and pressure profiles
for this stage have been obtained and are shown in Figure 2-3. An examination of
the curves produces the following conclusions:
• In the transition zone, pore pressures are only marginally sensitive to the
values of Q.
• In the ‘high-pressure’ region (i.e. the deepest zone), changes in the values
of Q are apparent in the range 0 to 20; for values of Q above this range,
pressure and density values are quite constant.
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3) In the case of burial below a great thickness of permeable sediments, the situation
is almost identical to that seen in Point 2, but with clearly greater pore pressure
values (Refer to Figure 2-5).
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Figure 2-3 - Density and Pressure Profile (At the end of shale deposition process)
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Figure 2-4 - Density and Pressure Profile (After slow or shale rapid burial due to the action
of a thin permeable and normally pressured layer)
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Figure 2-5 - Density and Pressure Profile (After slow or rapid shale burial due to the action
of a thick permeable and normally pressured layer)
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2.2.2 DIAGENESIS
Overpressures may develop as a consequence of diagnoses; i.e. of the post-depositional
alteration process of sediments and of component minerals. Diagenetic processes
include the formation of new minerals, re-distribution and re-crystallisation of substances
present in the sediments, and lithification.
The most important and frequent processes in the development of abnormal pressure
zones are the following:
• Diagenesis of clays
• Diagenesis of volcanic ash
• Diagenesis of sulphates
• Secondary precipitation of cementation material
• Decomposition of organic matter.
Clay Diagenesis
Introduction
Studies started in 1950 in several sedimentary basins with the support of laboratory
experiments have by now proved that during diagnosis, under the effects of pressure,
temperature and ion activity, clays of montmorillonite composition change to clays of illite
composition, passing through an intermediate phase, which is of maximum importance
when explaining overpressures and migration of subsurface organic fluids.
Montmorillonite is a clay mineral generally found at minor depth and which reaches a
hydrostatic equilibrium relatively quickly, losing excess water easily. When this clay, due
to subsidence, is found at depths of between 2,000 and 4,000 m, desorption of the liquids
(crystallisation water) between the elemental placelets takes place and, therefore, a
further loss of liquid occurs.
Temperature plays a very important role at this stage: in fact, as the temperature
increases with depth, crystallisation water is changed to mobile interstitial water. Due to
the fact that the mobilisation rate of the crystallisation water is higher than the expulsion
rate, an overpressure develops within the clay. Such clay, which is at this point no longer
montmorillonite but Montmorillonite-Illite in composition, remains overpressured until all
the excess liquid is able to flow out, which coincides with the complete transformation to
illite clay; this occurs when clays are found at considerable depth.
Under these temperature and pressure conditions, Illite clays will be at a normal gradient.
Several authors, such as Powers, Burst, Magara, have dealt with the questions of why
and how the physical-chemical process of montmorillonite dehydration takes place, by
trying to correlate the conditions found in different sedimentary basins; however, not all of
them are in agreement in considering diagnosis the principal cause of overpressure
development.
Before looking at the question in greater detail, a brief description of the most important
clays is given in the following section.
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The Illite general formula is Ky Al4 (Si8 AIy) O20 (OH)4 where ‘y’ value may vary between
1.0 and 1.5. Illite contains very small amounts of water; other features include the total
absence of organic liquids and a low ion exchange due to the presence of potassium and
sodium ions.
To sum up, the Smectite group prototype mineral is Pyrophyllite, while the IlIite group
prototype is Muscovite.
Figure 2-6 - Elemental Sheet Structure of Montmorillonite and Illite (Composed of two
layers of silica tetrahedrons and one central octahedron)
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Figure 2-9 - Relationship Between Water Vapour Pressure, Water Content And Distance
Between Unit Layers Of Montmorillonite
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Figure 2-10 - Double Electric Stratum (According To Gouy(B) And Zeta Potential Diagram A)
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In conclusion, the ‘Powers theory’ can be summarised by granting the existence of two
stages of dehydration:
• The first due to-compaction;
• The second due to diagenesis.
According to Burst, on the other hand, the process of dehydration develops in three
stages, as indicated in Figure 2-14. In the first stage, the pore water, or the excess water
present in the elemental placelets, is expelled by the increase in pressure due to burial.
The water content in clay sediments, in this initial phase, reaches 70-80%. Following the
dehydration caused by compaction, the water content is reduced to about 30% (20-25%
becomes water held in the elemental placelets and 5-10% water held in the pores).
In the second stage, the pressure, with respect to the temperature, is ineffective as a
dehydrating agent. To better explain the concept an analogy can be made using chemical
phenomena which occur in ice during a change in state. The water molecules in the solid
are more tightly imprisoned compared to those in the liquid; the former can gain mobility
only through a certain amount of heat. A similar situation is encountered in the case of
water imprisoned in hexagonal configurations within the elemental placelets as already
seen in the description of the expansion mechanism. When the speed of the molecules is
sufficient to permit their escape from their tight imprisonment and to move around freely,
the ice becomes water and analogously, in the case at hand, the water between the
placelets becomes pore water. The effects of pressure and temperature during the
change in state are in opposition to each other since the density of the placelet water is
greater than that of the free water. The thermodynamic system that evolves from this
state of compaction requires an expansion rather than a contraction of volume, as it is
deduced from the increase in volume of the formations observed in the compaction of
sediments. Therefore the transition phase consists of the transformation of denser water,
highly oriented in the placelets, into less dense water, free in the porous space.
In agreement with the ‘Clausius-Clapeyron’ equation, the conclusion is that the pressure,
contrary to the temperature, does not fundamentally affect the phenomenon. In fact, it has
been verified that increasing pressure by thousands of atmospheres is approximately
equal to raising the temperature by 10%. Thus, changes of pressure with depth appear to
be too small to have any significant thermodynamic effect on the clay-water system. This
affirmation modifies the generally accepted theory that the increase in pressure due to
burial was responsible for compaction and overpressure. The amount of water freed is
equal to 10-15% of the volume of the formation.
In the third stage, the increase in volume of the water, having a density equals to that of
capillary water, is gradually reduced in the elemental placelets due to a further increase in
temperature. This final dehydration stage is very slow, requiring tens or even hundreds of
millions of years to reach completion.
Figure 2-13 shows the progression of the expelled water curve against depth. A
comparable progression is to be found for permeability and porosity.
As far as the origin of overpressures is concerned, Burst’s theory agrees with Powers. In
both the Powers and Burst theories it is advanced that the dehydration may be the
principal cause of the creation of overpressures at the depths considered.
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Magara disagrees with this theory. According to the analyses performed by this author,
the liberation of 10-15% of crystalline water, as foreseen by Burst, may provoke an
increase of 2% in clay density, while the calculations performed by Magara, using the
density log, lead to conclude an increase of 6% in density. In the same way, other areas
of disagreement with the theories of Powers and Burst are to be found. In this way,
Magara reaches the conclusion that the dehydration of Montmorillonitic clays is not the
principal cause of overpressures.
70%
Figure 2-14 - Percentage Distribution Of The Various Components In A Shale (During The
Dehydration Process)
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Sulphate Diagenesis
It is known that the change of calcium sulphate (CaSO4) from its hydrate state, i.e.
gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) into its anhydrous state, i.e. anhydrite (CaSO4), is a reaction
connected to the post-sedimentary diagenetic process. Such reaction involves water
release and a 40% volume reduction of gypsum. When the released water cannot flow
freely due to the presence of permeability barriers, overpressures develop affecting the
formations at their top and/or at their base.
The phenomenon is reversible, i.e. anhydrite may become hydrated with the consequent
15-25% volume increase for its semi-hydrate (CaSO4, 1/2 H2O) up to a 40% for its
hydrated state, that is, gypsum.
It is needless to say that even a partial reaction in a closed system, which does not allow
for dilatation, will cause high overpressures.
This process can only get started when there is a variation in at least one of the factors
contributing to keeping salts in solution; i.e. temperature, pressure, composition of the
solution, and concentration of each singe component.
Overpressure conditions may also be created in a hydraulically open system. During
sediment compaction, secondary precipitation may decrease the permeability to such a
degree that it may, impede the flow of the liquids present in the pores before burial.
The osmotic phenomenon needs a ‘true’ membrane in order to develop. Young and Low
conducted experiments using typical clay samples and solutions at varying
concentrations. They got results which differed rather a lot from the theory and they
concluded that the clays known as semi-permeable did not actually fall under this
definition, due to the possible existence of microfissures, high concentrations of fine silica
inside the pores and other irregularities.
Although the studies on the behaviour of clay as semi-permeable membranes lead to
controversial conclusions, the osmotic phenomenon may be of some importance as one
cause, though not always primary, of overpressure.
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Figure 2-15 - Water Molecule Flow (From A More Dilute To A More Concentrate Solution
Jones, 1969)
Figure 2-16 - Temperature / Osmotic Pressure (Is Almost Inversely Proportional To The
Concentration Differential Jones 1969)
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2.2.4 TECTONICS
Introduction
In the course of their history, the rocks present in the earth’s crust undergo deformations
due to stresses of tectonic origin (dislocation), which modify their original geological
structure.
The sedimentary rocks are almost always of marine origin, except for the case of deltaic
or coastal sediments and for this reason are deposited almost horizontally on the sea
bottom: If any region, flat or mountainous, appears to be formed of similarly horizontal
layers, this means that the zone has undergone a simple vertical movement (vertical
uplift) without disturbing the original depositional condition; otherwise, if the layers show a
different orientation, the movement undergone must have been caused by stresses,
known as tectonic, oriented in different directions.
Tectonic stresses have a mostly horizontal orientation, so much as to be called tangential
to the earth’s surface. These stresses may be compressive or tensile or tend to rotate two
parallel surfaces of a body in opposite directions with shearing effects.
The rocks, tectonically stressed, are either deformed plastically or are fractured, and at
times both conditions occur. Among the several types of dislocation due to tectonic
phenomena, the following stand out:
• Folds: Tangential stresses (orogenic) along the earth’s trust cause rock
masses to fold repeatedly giving rise to more or less complex structures,
the surfaces of which are exposed to erosion. Folds are classified
according to structure, origin and type of deformation. The main fold types
are: monoclines, anticlines or upfolds and synclines or troughs or down
folds. The central part of a fold is the core; the hinge line coincides with
maximum curvature; the sides or limbs meet at the hinge line; the axial
plane passes through the hinge line while the axis through the core.
The vergence refers to the direction of inclination.
• Faults: are fractures with displacement; i.e. a relative displacement of the
two sides. The displacement can have either a vertical or horizontal
component, or both.
For the most part, deformations are of tectonic origin and, therefore, caused by strains or
oriented stresses that were produced in the course of orogenesis; but they may also be of
other origins such as magmatic or diapiric intrusions, effects of gravity, etc.
Situations such as these may occur within the core of a fold where compressive stresses,
which may occasionally reach very high values, accumulate. As orogenesis develops,
faults may be generated along with folds, the former being surfaces along which the
mechanical resistance of the rock has been exceeded. In fact, in highly compressed
overturned folds, the overturned side usually tends to become thinner with respect to the
normal side and to the hinge, thus becoming stretched folds. As a consequence of
lamination of the limb, folds with faults (Figure 2-17) are generated having been more or
less overthrusted as a consequence of a movement having a horizontal component. The
thrust along the fault surface may improve, or worsen, the flow of the excess water by
causing the contact of impermeable or slightly permeable layers with permeable layers
under hydrostatic conditions or with impermeable layers, thereby preventing any possible
drainage.
It may also happen that permeable layers, under pressure because of the new stress
state, come into contact with impermeable layers thus inducing abnormal pressures.
When the fault surface allows the outflow of the excess water towards permeable layers
where drainage can take place, the overpressure may lessen.
Diapiric phenomena (Figure 2-18), magmatic intrusions or the effects of gravity may also
induce additional stresses which, with respect to tectonic stresses, are of clearly minor
intensity, slower and less violent.
All things considered, the increase or decrease of the overburden pressure on the rock
formation, that may occur both during the orogenic phase and as a result of erosion, may
be taken into account: they may facilitate the build-up of overpressures because of the
new conditions of equilibrium thus established.
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Figure 2-17 - Passages From A Recumbent Fold To A Fault-Fold (3) (After Moret)
Figure 2-18 - Diapiric Structures (A1, A2) And Origin Of A Salt Dome (A3)
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This holds for any reservoir having a geometry of the type shown in Figure 2-21.
3. SEISMIC METHODS
The only way to obtain information, prior to well drilling, on the nature and characteristics
of the subsurface, is through geophysical prospecting.
The most important and extensively used geophysical method for oil prospecting is the
seismic reflection method. Although seismograms are used mainly by geophysicists and
geologists for subsurface structural and lithological interpretation, recently they have also
become of great interest and help to the drilling engineer.
Two of the most important applications of seismic data are in the detection of formations
characterised by abnormal pressures and in the forecasting of probable pressure
gradients. Experience has shown that when starting with good seismic data and proper
interpretation, it is possible in most cases to pin-point the overpressure tops within 100 to
200m of their location. Pore pressure gradients can be estimated with an approximation
Kg
of ±.0.15 - 0.20 2
of the real values in the well; even better approximations are
cm * 10m
obtained when calculating overburden gradients. Naturally, the determination of fracture
gradients is strictly dependent on the correct evaluation of the pore pressure gradients.
Before discussing how to calculate pressure gradients by means of seismic data, the
basic principles of seismic methods used in the Oil Industry must be discussed, with
particular attention paid to the seismic reflection method.
where:
λ = Lamé modulus
µ = Rigidity modulus
ρ = Density
Y = Young’s modulus
ν = Poisson’s ratio
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This means that in a solid medium the longitudinal waves are always faster, around twice
as fast, than the transverse waves. In particular if ν = 0.25, the ratio Vp / Vs = 3 it means
that the ‘P’ wave is 1.7 times faster than the ‘S’ wave.
If a liquid, in which ν = 0 is considered, it can be seen that the transverse waves do not
propagate.
In Table 3-a the velocities of propagation of several fluid and solid media, are shown.
Because of the presence of these various kinds of disturbances, the improvement of the
‘signal-to-noise-ratio’ is a major objective in the recording of the signal; this objective is
reached in seismic prospection, in which signal source and signal detector are both under
control, by strengthening the signal (stronger source), decreasing the noise, particularly
the ‘coherent noise’ (locating explosives at greater depth and proper geophone arrays),
and finally by using detectors of appropriate sensitivity (frequency band width outside that
of the main noise).
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The density of a rock, and therefore the velocity of propagation of seismic waves through
it, is affected by several factors, such as:
• Geological age: the increase in velocity with depth is greater for younger
sedimentary rocks.
• Porosity: porosity increments cause a decrease of velocity.
• Elastic anisotropy: due to layering in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks,
the velocity in the direction parallel to a layer is always greater than
across it.
• Humidify: liquids decrease seismic velocity, when this is above
1,400m/sec.
• Lithic nature e.g. an increase in silica content decreases velocity, whereas
an increase in carbonates increases velocity.
where:
Z1 and Z2 = Acoustic impedances of the two media.
In case of an inclined incidence (angle of incidence different from 0), the reflection
coefficient varies according to the angle of incidence with which the seismic wave
intersects the interface between the two media and not only with the acoustic impedance.
The quantity of incident energy reflected by an interface is determined by the reflection
coefficient; what is left of the incident energy transmitted into the successive medium. The
ratio between the amplitude of the transmitted wave and that of the incident wave is
called ‘the transmission coefficient (or transmittance)’. The ‘two way transmission
coefficient’, ‘Tr’ is defined, for a normal incident, by the relation:
4Z 1 Z 2 4ρ 1ρ 2 V1 V2
Tr = =
(Z 2 + Z1 )
2
(ρ 2 V2 + ρ 1 V1 )
2 Eq. 3-6
When the incidence is inclined, the transmission coefficient varies with the angle of
incidence and with the properties of the two media on either side of the interface.
When variation in the direction of propagation takes place at an interface, the
transmission is normally referred to as ‘refraction’. This happens each time the incidence
is oblique. The angle of refraction depends on the velocity contrast in the two adjoining
media and not on the contrast of acoustic impedance as in the case of reflection. When
the velocity in the second medium is greater than in the first one, the refracted ray
deviates from the normal and vice versa
The refraction of a seismic wave is ruled by Snell’s law, relating the angles of incidence i1
and refraction i2 to the velocities in the two media, V1 and V2:
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sin i1 V
= 1 Eq. 3-8
sin i 2 V2
The above relation is of great importance in the study of seismic ray propagation: it
follows that when a ray passes from a medium with velocity V1 to another with velocity V2
(with V2 > V1) it deviates from the normal to the point of incidence, i.e. if V2 > V1 it will also
be i2 > i1. In particular when i2 = 90° it will be:
V1
sin i1,c = Eq. 3-9
V2
And, in this case, the refracted ray travels along the interface of the two media without
entering the lower one (Figure 3-5). This particular value of the incidence angle is called
‘the critical angle or ‘limit angle’ and is of great importance in the application of reflection
seismic.
If the incidence angle is greater than the critical angle, i.e. i1 > i1c = there will be no
refracted ray but total reflection (Figure 3-6).
Through the application of Snell’s law (a second Law States that the incidence angle is
equal to the reflection angle), it is possible to understand which main requisites must be
satisfied in the utilisation of:
• Seismic reflection methods: in this case the receivers (geophones) are
sited at a short distance from the source of energy so that the incidence
angle i1 is very small and certainly smaller than the critical angle, i1,c
(Figure 3-7).
• Seismic reflection methods the geophones are sited at great distance
from the source of energy so that the incidence angle i1 matches the
critical angle i1,c (Figure 3-8).
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i1 i1
1 1
1 1
2 2
i2
i1
1
Figure 3-6 - Reflection Of An Incident Plane Wave (At An Interface Geophones Layout)
V1
V2
V3
V4
Figure 3-7 - Reflection Method (Geophones Are Placed Very Close To The Energy Source)
Vn
Vn +1
Figure 3-8 - Reflection Method
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Tx =
1
V0
(
4Z 2 + X 2 + 4Z x sinϑ )
1/ 2
Eq. 3-10
where:
Tx = Total travel time
When the reflective layer is horizontal (ϑ = 0) (Figure 3-10), the general Eq. 3-10
becomes:
Tx
1
V0
(
4z 2 + x 2 )
1/ 2
Eq. 3-11
If the receiver is located on the shot-point, i.e. if x = 0, the travel time will be:
z
T0 = 2 Eq. 3-12
V0
where:
T0 = Two-way vertical time.
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The general Eq. 3-10 can therefore be re-written in the following way:
Tx =
Vo
(
1 2 2
V0 T0 + x 2 + 2 xt0 V0 sin ϑ )
1/ 2
Eq. 3-13
2z cos ϑ
Tm =
Vo
For a horizontal reflector, the curve ‘time-distance’ for all points between the shot-point ‘S’
and the receiver, is a hyperbola with apex at point x = 0; the relative time ‘T0’ corresponds
to the vertical reflection and represents the hyperbola’s apex. This apex is not
symmetrical in relation to the time axis but is shifted by ‘2z sinϑ‘ for layers inclined at
angle ϑ. The angle ϑ is assumed negative when the layer dips in the direction ‘receiver-
shot-point’, positive in the opposite case.
In the case of a horizontal reflector, Eq. 3-11 is better explained by the following example.
In Figure 3-11, SS represents the earth surface on which the shot-point (point O) and the
geophones (point W) are located. When the explosion takes place, the seismic waves
propagate in all directions. The wave, propagating vertically, strikes the reflecting plane
RR and is sent back surface along the vertical path OPO , where it is recorded by a
geophone at point O.
The waves generated by the explosion also strike reflector RR along a multitude of
diagonal paths (e.g., path OT) and are sent back to surface along path TW. The times,
‘T0’ and required by the seismic waves to cover distances OPO and OTW respectively,
are recorded by geophones at points O and W, separated by the distance ‘x’. With this
information, it is possible to calculate, both the depth ‘z’ of the reflecting horizon and the
wave velocity V0 in the interval considered, by applying the following equations:
OPO = T0 x V0 = 2z Eq. 3-14
Extending segment OP vertically down to its specular point O, from the fundamental laws
of optics, it derives that:
OTW = O' TW
OPO = O' PO
and therefore:
Tx =
1
V0
(
4z 2 + x 2 )
1/ 2
Eq. 3-18
Since:
OPO = To x Vo = 2z
it is possible to determine the vertical distance ‘z’, between surface and reflecting horizon:
z = (To x Vo ) / 2 Eq. 3-20
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Tx =
1
(4z 2 + x 2 )1/ 2
Vo
after the shot the following terms are known, because they have been measured:
x = Distance between shot-point and geophones
Both ‘Vo’ and ‘z’ are still to be determined, giving an equation with two unknown factors.
The solution of this equation, in terms of depth, is carried out by determining the velocity
of propagation of the seismic wave based on one of the methods subsequently described.
The determination of the velocity is of fundamental importance, since wrong estimates of
this parameter can lead to totally distoned representations of geological situations and
introduce extreme errors in calculating pressure gradients.
The main methodologies for estimating reflection velocities are the following:
Well Shooting
Well shooting involves suspending a geophone or hydrophone inside the well by means
of a cable and recording the time necessary for the energy to travel from the shot-point,
close to the well, to the geophone location (Figure 3-12). The geophone is constructed to
withstand the high pressure and temperature common in oil wells. The cable has a
threefold role: it supports the geophone, measures the depth at which it is working, and
contains conductors that bring signals to surface for recording.
The shots are fired at one or more points near the wellhead. Between one shot and the
next, the geophone is moved to obtain a set of travel times from surface down to various
depths. Geophone depths are selected to include the most important geological markers,
such as tops of formations, stratigraphic unconformities as well as intermediate positions
so that the interval between two successive measurements is small enough to assure
reasonable accuracy (often 200m apart).
Figure 3-13 shows the results of a typical well survey. The vertical travel time ‘t’, relative
to depth ‘z’, is obtained by multiplying the measured time 'tm’ by the factor z / z + x 2 to
correct for the effective distance between the geophone and shot-point, i.e.:
z
t = tm x
Eq. 3-21
x2 + z
2
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The average velocity between surface and depth ‘z’ is given by the ratio:
z
Vm = Eq. 3-22
t
Figure 3-13 gives the average velocity ‘Vm’ and the vertical travel time ‘t’ as a function of
depth, ‘z’. If depth and time relative to two different shots are subtracted and divided one
by the other, the interval velocity, Vint, or the average velocity in the interval (zm - zn), is
obtained:
zm − zn
Vint = Eq. 3-23
tm − tn
Shooting a well gives the average velocity with good accuracy of measurement. It is,
however, an expensive method as it involves not only the cost of a half to one day of a
seismic crew, but also the stand-by time of the rig itself, which is often higher than the
seismic operation itself.
Figure 3-13 - Representation Of Average Velocity (V) And Interval Velocity (Vi) Versus
Depth
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Plotting as a function of ‘x’, a straight line is obtained with a slope equal to 1/V2RMS whose
intercept on the time axis, for x = 0, is ‘t2’. Having determined for each reflector, both
‘VRMS’ and ‘to’, we can calculate the corresponding depth. The same procedure is
repeated for all other reflectors. (Figure 3-15).
The analysis of the ‘x2 - t2’ diagram can supply sufficiently accurate data on the velocity at
the condition that:
1) The recordings are of good quality and have a sufficient number of reflections
2) Accurate corrections are made on the events taking place near the surface
3) Field work and seismic data interpretation are carried out with accuracy
4) The velocity distribution is simple (there must not be lateral variations in velocity or
particularly complex structures).
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Once the velocities, regarding the two successive and parallel reflectors, have been
determined using the equation:
X2
t2 = 2
+ t 02 Eq. 3-24
VRSM
where:
1/ 2
⎛n n ⎞
VRMS = ⎜ ∑ Vi 2t i / ∑ t i ⎟ Eq. 3-25
⎝ i =1 i =1 ⎠
n −1 n
∑ V 2 ti = Vn2−1
i ∑ ti Eq. 3-27
i =1 i =1
2
Introducing Eq. 3-27 in Eq. 3-26 and solving for Vint we obtain Dix’s formula:
⎛ n n−1
⎞
2
v int = ⎜ v n2 ∑ t i − v n2−1 ∑ t i ⎟ / t int Eq. 3-28
⎝ i=1 i=1 ⎠
‘t - ∆t’ Method
The ‘t - ∆t’ method is based on equation:
x2
∆t n ≅ Eq. 3-29
2V 2 t o
With a symmetric geophone set-up, the term ‘∆tn’’ can be calculated from the arrival times
of a reflection at the shot-point (to) and at the outside geophone group.
The values of ‘∆tn’ obtained with this method are prone to large errors, mainly because of
the uncertainties in the correction of near-surface events. To obtain results of some
usefulness, it is necessary to have a great number of measurements available that are
subsequently averaged in the hope that environmental variations and other uncertainties
be reduced to an acceptable level the ‘t - ∆t’ analyses usually require hundreds of
recordings.
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The transit time interval between the two Sonic Log receivers is measured by an
instrument that automatically records the signal arrival at each of the two receivers and
computes the time interval. Since the signal at the receiver is not a sharp pulse, the
detector is activated by the first peak (or trough) which exceeds a certain threshold value.
At times, detectors are not activated by the same peak (or trough) arriving simultaneously
at the two receivers, therefore causing a fictitious increment in transit time. This effect,
called ‘cycle-skip’, is readily seen on the Sonic Log and it is easily allowed for, since the
error is exactly equal to the known interval between two successive cycles of the pulse.
The Sonic Log is automatically integrated to obtain the total transit time and recorded on
the log as a function of depth by a sequence of pips at 1msec intervals. However, there is
a certain tendency to accumulate small systematic errors in the integrated result and,
therefore, check shots are made at the base and top of the sonic log that the effect of the
cumulative error can be reduced by distributing the different linearly with depth. The
sonde often includes a seismometer of the type used for the ‘well shooting’ to facilitate
the taking of the check shots.
Sonic Logs are generally used for porosity determination, since porosity seems to be
dominant in seismic velocity. Although seismic logs are of great help to the geophysicist,
they are not usually carried out for geophysical purposes and, as a consequence, they
often do not give all the information the geophysicist would require. For example, check
shots are not necessary for the determination of porosity and therefore are frequently
omitted; in addition, the log normally does not cover the whole well profile and it is rarely
recorded in shallow part of the well. As a consequence, data from the Sonic Log are
frequently incomplete and, in order to calculate velocities, assumptions must be made,
where data are missing to the detriment of accuracy.
‘3-Readings’ Method
This is the method most used at present to calculate reflector characteristics, i.e. depth,
dip and velocity of sound wave propagation, using only readings from reflection seismics.
The method is illustrated by the case in Figure 3-16. The data of the problem are as
follows:
point x Is the shot-point;
X2 = 1,000m
X3 = 1,500m
After the shot, the return energy from the reflecting layer is recorded by the three
geophones after the following times:
Tx1 = 1.639 sec
The problem is solved by applying the general Eq. 3-10 of reflection, tying the reflection
time to the model’s geometric parameters; i.e.:
Tx =
1
v0
(4z 2
+ x 2 + 4zx sinϑ ) Eq. 3-10
This equation must be solved in terms of ‘z’,’ϑ‘, ‘Vo’. Having the data relative to the three
points of recording, recorded and known, it is possible to obtain and solve a second grade
system of three equations with three unknowns:
Tx2.1 =
1
2
(
4z 2 + x 12 + 4zx 1 sin ϑ ) Eq. 3-31
Vo
Tx2.2 =
1
2
( )
4z 2 + x 22 + 4zx 2 sin ϑ
vo
Tx2.3 =
1
(4z 2 − x 23 + 4zx 3 sinϑ)
Vo2
4z 2 + x 12 + 4zx 1 sinϑ
V =
2
o Eq. 3-32
Tx2.1
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solving the second equation for ‘sinϑ‘, after substituting the term ‘ Vo2 ’ with the previous
Eq:
2
T2x.2 2 Tx 2
4z 2 + x 22 − 4z 2 − x 1
T2x.1 Tx21
sinϑ = Eq. 3-33
Tx22
4zx 1 − 4zx 2
Tx21
Equally, substituting ‘ Vo2 ’and ‘sinϑ‘ with the relative equations, the third one is solved for
‘z’:
where:
b Tx2,3 Tx2,3 b
x32 + x3
− x 12 − x1
a Tx2,1 Tx2,1 a
1
z= Eq. 3-34
2 Tx2,3 2
1 Tx,3 1 Tx2,2 Tx2,3 1
2
1 Tx,2
+ x1 − x1 − − 1 − x3 + x3
Tx2,1 a T2 a Tx2,1 Tx2,1 a a T2
x,1 x,1
where:
TX2,2
a = X1 − x2 Eq. 3-35
Tx2,1
Tx22
b = x22 − x12 Eq. 3-36
Tx21
In this example, entering the starting data into the various equations, the following values
are obtained for the three unknowns:
z = 1,498m
Vo = 1997 m/sec.
Rounding off readings of reflection times can lead to considerable variations, which may
not be ignored. Had the reflection times been corrected to two decimal figures, as is
usually done in practice:
Tx,1 = 1.64sec
Tx,2 = 1.80sec
Tx,3 = 1.98sec.
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Vo = 1961m/sec
Figure 3-17 - Peaks and Troughs Represent the Greatest Vertical Oscillations Of Ground
(Subjected to Seismic Vibration)
Figure 3-20 - Curved Line and Joining Reflection Peaks (Termed ‘Reflection Hyperbola’
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Static Correction
To obtain a seismic secretion truly representative of the geological structure of the area in
consideration, the times of a seismic trace must always be referred to paths with
beginning and end lying on an adequate reference plane.
The static correction is essentially a time variation, that may be a shortening or a
lengthening, applied to each trace to reduce the observed reflection time to a well-defined
reference plane, normally a selected elevation above sea level, and referred to as a
‘datum plane’ (Figure 3-21). This reference elevation should be set below the
heterogeneous superficial cover, but this is neither always possible nor necessary; rather,
it is enough that the datum plane be positioned so that the static corrections are
calculated with sufficient accuracy.
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The value of the ‘total static correction, ∆t’, depends on the following factors:
• Perpendicular distance from source to reference plane.
• Surface topography, that is, the perpendicular distance from the receiver
to the reference plane.
• Velocity variations within the superficial .layer along the seismic line.
• Thickness variation in the superficial layer.
The total static correction, ‘∆t’, is given by the sum of two distinct corrections: the ‘receiver
correction, ∆tr’ and the ‘source correction, ∆ts’. To determine ‘∆tr’ and ‘∆ts’, it is necessary
to know the surface elevation with reference to the selected reference plane, the depth of
the source and to have sufficient information on the characteristic of the superficial layer.
Dynamic Correction
After the application of the static correction, the resulting recording effectively lies on the
same reference plane. If a reflected event from a family of CDP traces is now examined,
it can be seen that going from one trace to another, the event describes a hyperbola
expressed by the usual equation:
x2
Tx = t o2 +
v2
setting:
T x − t o = ∆T
we obtain:
X2
∆T = + t o2 − t o Eq. 3-37
2
V
The quantity (∆T = Tx - to) is usually referred to as ‘normal moveout, NMO’ or ‘dynamic
correction’ and is a function of the gradual offset of the receiver from the shot-point, of the
average velocity ‘V’, and of the two way vertical time, ‘to’.
Eq. 3-37 can also be written in the form:
x
V=
2t o ∆T + (∆T )
2 Eq. 3-38
If the offset of the geophone from the shot-point is sufficiently small compared to the
depth of the reflective layer, in other words if the term (x/V to) < 1, ∆T can be determined,
with a certain approximation, by Eq. 3-30, written in the form:
x
∆T ≅
2t 0 V 2
where:
∆T = Dynamic correction relative to the real velocity, V
∆Te = Dynamic correction relative to the velocity, Ve, actually utilised in the
calculations.
Introducing Eq. 3-30 into Eq. 3-39 we obtain:
X2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
∆2 T = ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
2t 0 ⎜V ⎟ Eq. 3-40
⎝ e V ⎠
This formula shows how positive values of ∆2T are obtained, and therefore over-
corrections, when: Ve < V, and negative values, and therefore under-corrections, when Ve
< V. Figure 3-22 schematically shows how, in various situations, different types of ‘NMO
residuals’ may appear. In deriving the ∆t expression, the seismic wave path was assumed
to be rectilinear; this assumption implies a constant velocity in the interval considered.
Obviously it is a working hypothesis, correct only for a homogeneous medium, very rarely
found in practice.
A better and more realistic likeness between the structural model and the real geological
situation is obtained by introducing the root mean square velocity, ‘VRMS’, in place of the
average velocity ‘V’ in the expression defining ∆t this gives results better depicting the
effective curvilinear course of paths.
Applying adequate dynamic correction, the reflection time is transformed into two way
vertical time. Considering the same CDP, reflected events will fall in a straight line. A
perfect alignment of events, or ∆2t = 0, is reached by the appropriate selection of velocity
that can be determined, as previously seen, by means of special velocity analysis. Figure
3-23 shows the effects of static and dynamic corrections on the alignment of reflections
from traces belonging to the same CDP. The dynamic correction is carried out calculating
values of ∆t for each reference path. In this way, a sample, whose recording time before
correction is ‘Tx’, after correction will be ‘T2 -∆t’. Since ∆t is a function of the recording
time ‘Tx’, different parts of a same path will undergo different time variations; for this
reason the correction is called ‘dynamic’ (or time dependent) to distinguish it from the
‘static’ one (or time independent).
To obtain a perfect dynamic correction, calculations must be based on the determination
of the exact path (e.g., the one requiring the least travel time) of the seismic wave. This
implies a determination of the path by applying Snell’s law and utilising the effective
velocity distribution in the medium crossed. The apparent velocity that allows a
satisfactory correction (null residual) is called ‘stack velocity’.
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Since it varies with the physical characteristics of the medium (e.g. layering and dip), the
‘stack velocity’ cannot be mathematically defined. However, its value can be directly
deducted from seismic recordings. The methods used, and previously discussed, are all
based on measuring ‘∆t’ and on the consequent determination of the ‘stack velocity’.
When an interval velocity log, obtained from the velocity analysis of a nearby well, is
available, the dynamic correction can be made using this type of data directly; such data
can be processed, as already seen, in average velocity ‘V’, or root-mean-square velocity,
‘VRMS’.
These conditions are not always present and in zones of complex and tectonised geology
stacking can be very difficult and give unreliable results.
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Deconvolution
This operation can be described essentially as an inverse filtering, done with the purpose
of recovering the original signal sent into the ground or, more exactly, it has the purpose
of rebuilding the reflections as they would appear if we could entirely compensate the
dispersive effects of the medium crossed.
The trace picked up at the geophone is not impulsional, since the energy source that
created the wave is never perfectly impulsive, nor does the geophone exit tension
faithfully repeat the instant velocity of the ground. In addition, there are distortions due to
multiple reflections between various strata. AIl these effects cause undesirable distortions
of the trace; the purpose of deconvolution is to bring back the trace, as far as it is
possible, to its impulsive shape.
Filtering
Great care is dedicated during field operations to signal reception. Reduction of coherent
and incoherent noise is assured, although not totally by adequate planning of the trace
shape, increasing the number of geophones for each trace and equipping seismic
stations with special filtering instrumentation. Notwithstanding all the precautions, it is not
possible to obtain total elimination of the noise by acting only on field data. A further
reduction of noise is obtained by filtering during the processing of seismic data. After
defining the recorded data spectrum, the noise spectrum is also determined and a better
suited band-filter is selected. The further apart the signal and noise spectra are, the more
efficient the filter will be.
Filtering and deconvolution act in opposite way. In filtering some components of the
frequency are subtracted from the recorded data, whereas deconvolution entails their
addition.
Migration
Migration is the processing of the ‘time section’, that allows the location in the exact
spatial position, both vertical and horizontal, of pending and in general diffracted events. It
has the purpose of eliminating or reducing all ambiguities that may appear on certain
seismic sections.
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Depth Conversion
The process of transforming ‘time sections’ into ‘depth sections’ is of extreme importance
to the geophysicist.
The adoption of improper procedures or wrong parameters (velocity, filters, dynamic
correction residuals) may end up in a totally altered geological picture In order to obtain
valid results, it is necessary to migrate the ‘time section’ before its conversion into ‘depth
section’; this is of particular importance mainly in especially complex geological areas. By
rectifying the shape of horizontal reflectors and by removing diffractions through
migration, the base data are free of erroneous and ambiguous information.
An equally important factor is the definition of the velocity. Contrary to the case of
migration, the depth conversion is very sensitive to velocity variations; thus, the velocity to
be used must be the closest possible to the effective velocity of the medium crossed, as
far as it can be deduced from the interpretation and analysis of available data. When the
‘stack velocity’ is applied, the velocity values must be corrected for strata dips and the
proper and homogenous choice must be made.
The ‘time-depth’ conversion is normally carried out multiplying the interval velocity, Vint.n,
of a certain tint,n geological unit by the relative ‘one-way interval time, tint,i’ and summing
the depth of each single interval; the total depth, ‘hn’, down to the bottom of the n-th layer
is given by:
hN = ∑ (Vint,n * tint,n)
N
Eq. 3-41
n =1
If the average velocities VN-1 and VN in correspondence of the top and bottom of the n-th
layer are available, the corresponding interval velocity Vint.N is obtained from the relation:
N N −1
Vint,N = VN ∑ tn − VN −1 ∑ tn Eq. 3-42
n =1 n =1
If the root mean square velocities VRMSN and VRMSN-1 are known, the Dix’s formula can be
applied:
⎛ N N −1 ⎞
⎜ V2
⎜ RMS, N ∑ t n − V2
RMS , N − 1 ∑ tn ⎟⎟
V 2int N= ⎜ n =1 N =1 ⎟
⎜ tn − tn − 1 ⎟ Eq. 3-44
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
or:
⎛ V2 2 ⎞
⎜ RMS,N tN − VRMS,N −1 TN −1 ⎟
V 2int =⎜ ⎟ Eq. 3-45
n
⎜ tN − tN −1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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Seismic Section
Until the Nineteen Fifties, the only possible presentation of seismic recordings was that
obtained directly in the field as a seismogram (Figure 3-27), containing the trace
information from one spread only, without ‘Normal Move out’ or static corrections; thus
reflections looked curved and showed irregularities due to the different geophone
elevations and to variations of the near-surface layer. These seismograms were used by
‘tying’ each reflection to the corresponding one in the following seismogram, in other
words calculating the time ‘T’ of the reflection and the relative ‘∆T’ (difference in reflection
time between the outermost geophones of the spread). Thereafter, each reflection on the
seismogram was transferred onto a ‘distance-depth’ graph, using the pair of values ‘T’,
‘∆t’ and the average velocity law for the zone, thus obtaining the ‘cross section’ (Figure
3-28).
With the introduction of magnetic recording, analogic at the beginning and then digital it
became possible not only to correct the seismograms for NMO and statistics, but also to
get several seismograms, on the same photographic sheet, i.e. the ‘seismic section’ or
‘record section’ (Figure 3-29).
Seismic sections have the considerable advantage over ‘cross-sections’ of offering a
large amount of seismic data, with a much more detailed subsurface picture. In addition,
the recognition of the reflection continuity is immediate, as is also the presence of faults
and the identification of multiples and diffractions.
Seismic sections show distances on horizontal scale. Such distances are expressed as
station numbers and the numeration is referred to depth points and not to surface ones
(traces are reported relative to the middle point ‘shot point-geophone’). Time is generally
on the vertical scale with time lines at regular intervals.
It is possible to illustrate seismic traces in many different ways, thus making it possible to
have various presentations of the same seismic section:
• Variable amplitude section or ‘wiggle’ section (Figure 3-30): it is a
presentation in which each seismic trace is shown as a continuous line
whose amplitude, with reference to the time axis, varies proportionally
with the intensity of the seismic signal.
• Variable area section (Figure 3-31): it is a presentation in which the trace
is darkened on one side or the other of the zero line (or, more precisely, of
the zero amplitude line).
• Variable density section (Figure 3-32): in this presentation, the trace is a
band, as wide as the interval between traces, in which the colour intensity
varies in shades of grey from black to white, proportional to the signal
amplitude.
• Composite ‘wiggle’ and variable area section (Figure 3-33) this case the
seismic trace is simultaneously shown in wiggle and in variable area; the
zero line of variable area can be shifted with reference to the zero of the
wiggle to obtain the variable area only on peaks (Figure 3-34).
• Composite wiggle and variable density section (Figure 3-35) is a
representation in which the seismic trace is simultaneously presented in
wiggle and in variable density.
In the metric system the vertical scale is of 1sec to 10cm and the horizontal scale is of
1km to 8cm (1:25,000). In the Imperial system the vertical scale of 1 sec to 5“ is
commonly used.
The principal seismic sections obtainable from seismic data are:
• Time section (Figure 3-36): it has the two-way times of verticalised paths
on the vertical axis.
• Migrated time section (Figure 3-37): uncertain reflections have been
migrated or, in other words, reset in their correct positions with time
remaining on the vertical axis.
• Migrated depth section (Figure 3-38): times have been changed into depth
(an apparent increase of low frequency can be noted, as a consequence
of the irregular ‘lengthening’ of traces due to increasing velocity with
depth).
Figure 3-22 - Types Of Residual NMO (From Seismic Exploration, H.N. Al-Sadi)
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Figure 3-23 – Effect of Static and Dynamic Correction Effects of a CDP Trace
Figure 3-24 - Example of Multiple Coverage (Case of a 24 Traces Spread with a Central Shot
Point and Constant Offset)
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The explosives mainly used for this purpose are dynamite and ammonium nitrate.
Dynamite is a mixture of nitro-glycerine and gelatine, which form the explosive
component, and an inert material which binds the mixture.
The detonation velocity, or the propagation velocity of the explosion inside the explosive
material, is very high (6,000-7,000m/sec). Consequently, the seismic pulses generated
have steep wave fronts in comparison to other energy sources. This high-energy
concentration is desirable as far as seismic analysis, but detrimental from the viewpoint of
damage caused to the structures close the shot-point.
Ammonium nitrate is cheaper and less dangerous because of its slower detonation.
Together with nitrocarbonitrite (NCN), it is the most commonly used explosive.
The charge is packaged in 5cm diameter plastic tubes containing 1 to 5kg of explosive.
The tubes are built in such a way that they can be easily connected end to end in order to
obtain different amounts for specific uses. A metal cylinder, containing a resistance wire
imbedded in a mixture of gun powders, is used to start the explosion. By means of two
electric wires issuing from the upper cylinder or cap, a current is passed through the
resistor, and the heat generated thereby starts the explosion that detonates the whole
charge. The current, causing the blasting cap to explode, is derived from a blaster, a
charge-discharge device of a high potential capacitor. Incorporated in the blaster is a
device generating an electric pulse at the instant that the explosion starts: this ‘time
break’ pulse defines the starting time, I = 0, and is transmitted by radio or a telephone tine
to the recording equipment.
There are essentially two basic disadvantages of the explosive sources:
• Having to drill shot-holes for the charges (this operation requires massive
equipment and extensive manpower and can be particularly difficult and
costly in many regions, particularly in the desert or in the mountains).
• The danger of the explosives and the consequent restriction of their use to
locations which are far from inhabited zones and the risks related to the
transport, storage and handling of the charges.
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In order to maximise the quantity of energy transmitted to the ground, the holes are
usually filled with water or heavy mud to prevent pressure generated by the explosion
form escaping to the surface. The effect of the mud is to increase the shot efficiency and
to improve the signal quality.
In areas where noticeable background noise exists, the shot-points are often positioned
according to linear or aerial arrays in order to reduce noise.
Primacord
It has just been described above how incidental noise can be reduced by replacing the
single charge with a number of properly spaced, smaller charges. The greater
strengthening of the vertical energy, with respect to the horizontally travelling superficial
waves, can be obtained by means of the progressive explosion of multiple charges which
are connected by a detonating cord called Primacord. The first shot occurs at one end of
the line and then spreads all along the line at a much higher speed (about 7,000m/sec)
than that of the seismic signal in the material surrounding the charges.
The series of charges can be placed vertically along the well or distributed horizontally,
like a long fuse, along a distance of a couple of hundred metres at a constant depth of a
few metres in the subsurface in order to eliminate the incoherent noise and increase the
efficiency of the energy transfer to the ground.
The principal aspects related to the technique of serial explosion of small charges are
charge size, spacing and detonation rate.
Detonating Cord-Geoflex
In this method the energy source is again the explosive, the difference being that the
charge is not concentrated in different points, but uniformly distributed along a detonating
cord with a detonating speed of about 7,000m/sec. The cord, coiled in skeins, is stretched
along a furrow 20-50cm deep by means of a special plough pulled by a tractor; the plough
automatically cuts the furrow, stretches and buries the cord.
This system simulates fairly well the effect of a group of superficial shot-holes, with the
advantage that a higher proportion of the generated energy in form of elastic deformation
is transmitted to the ground. In fact the proportion of energy dispersed in form of
permanent deformation is relatively low as compared to a conventional explosive,
because of the low explosive concentration per metre of cord (10 - 20 grams per metre).
Another advantage comes from the great flexibility of usage of the plough-tractor system
in areas of rough morphology, since it is much easier to manoeuvre than the heavy
vehicles needed for drilling. On the other hand, the system has the disadvantage of
generating a strong acoustic wave because of the near-surface depth at which the cord is
exploded.
One type of detonating cord is the Geoflex, which is 0.5-lcm in diameter and whose core
is pentaheritrol tetranitrate. The system, which uses the Geoflex, is called Geoseis (GSI:
Geophysical Service Inc).
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Non-Explosive Sources
Weight Dropper
The first non-explosive energy source used in hydrocarbon exploration was a device
called ‘Thumper’ or ‘Weight Dropper’ conceived by MC Cullom Geophysical and
marketed in 1953.
It is based on a pulse sent into the ground by the free fall of a 3ton steel mass from a
height of about three metres. The weight is installed on a suitable vehicle and is lifted
from the ground by means of a track system soon after the impact, so that it can be
released again in a few seconds. The time interval between the release of the weight and
its impact on the ground is not sufficiently constant to allow the simultaneous use of two
sources. Two or three units in succession are often used, producing alternating drops
located close to one another.
The distance from the source to the closest geophones is considerably greater than in the
case of dynamite; in this way, the reflections are recorded before the arrival of the lower
velocity surface waves which are generated in large quantity by the impact with the
ground.
Different linear or grid layouts may be used for the drop-points. The layout choice
depends on the level of the noise to be eliminated and on the ground morphology.
The use of the weight dropping is now restricted to the desert or semi-desert areas where
large vehicles can move about easily.
Dinoseis
In 1962, Sinclair Oil & Gas Company put on the market a new pulse-type superficial
seismic energy source called Dinoseis, based on a gas (propane and oxygen) explosion
inside a closed chamber placed on the ground. The bottom of the chamber on the ground
is moveable: when the explosion takes place, it moves downwards and the impact with
the ground produces a pulse only slightly inferior to that produced by the shot of 250g of
dynamite placed at depth of 1m. In the first models, the detonation chamber was fastened
to the means of transport, and the weight of the vehicle kept the chamber adherent to the
ground; currently, however it is suspended from under the truck.
Following the shot, as a result of the recoil kick, the chamber is immediately lifted from
the ground: in order to prevent it from dropping back and thus producing a second pulse
and a consequent signal distortion, a hydraulic system located on top of the chamber
itself, provides for its arrest. The time interval between the activation and the detonation is
constant, due to the fact that the pulse generator stays on the ground and the signals,
that start the explosion, are sent via radio to the recording system. The simultaneous use
of several units is therefore possible and this makes Dinoseis more advantageous than
weight dropping, in order to obtain a higher energy level and a more favourable
signal/noise ratio.
The current practice is to use forty eight geophone groups and to explode the charges in
locations fit for a compositing of the recorded signals. As in the case of the weight
dropping, the minimum distance between the source and the receiver can even be
hundreds of metres in order to prevent interference between the reflected signal and the
ground roll surface waves.
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The most recent innovation made in Dinoseis is the SIE (Single Impulse Gun). It is based
on a slightly different principle from that of the traditional Dinoseis, in that the propane-
oxygen mixture is detonated at atmospheric pressure since the explosion chamber is
open. The pressure that must be applied to the plate, in order to assure contact with the
ground, is produced by restricting the exhaust valve.
Dynaseis
The energy producing principle of Dynaseis is the same as in Dinoseis, but the impact on
the ground is produced by a chamber containing compressed air.
Dynapulse
This represents one of the latest innovations in the field of the surface seismic sources.
Developed by the Globe Exploration Company, Dynapulse employs a diesel generator as
the energy source. This energy is stored in a capacitor battery and released in form of a
discharge into a transducer; it is then transferred to the ground through a rubber
diaphragm and a metal plate.
Terrapak
This is made of a steel plate; 1.5m in diameter, that is lifted to a height of about 30cm and
then violently pushed towards the ground by a sudden release of compressed air.
It is possible to change both energy and frequency by adjusting the piston weight and the
air pressure ratios.
Vibroseis
Vibroseis, set up by Continental Oil Company in the 1950s, was probably the second
surface system, chronologically speaking, to be adopted by the geophysical industry,
following the Weight-Dropping systems.
Its principle is unique; in fact, while in the seismic exploration with explosive sources an
extremely short, high energy impulse is passed into the ground, in the case of Vibroseis
an undulatory low energy stress, lasting several secs (7 to 16), is delivered. The
frequency varies progressively in the course of the entire signal.
The above-mentioned difference, when compared to traditional sources, makes Vibroseis
preferable to an explosive, since it is less dangerous to the stability of buildings and
structures located near the energy source. For this reason, it is also possible to use this
system in inhabited areas. This is of great importance for oil exploration, which can be
extended to densely populated areas where, for various safety and accessibility reasons,
the use of explosives would be impossible.
The recording cycle, beginning at the instant the signal is released, continues for several
seconds .after the end of the ground energisation. The returning signal, recorded in the
field, can not be directly interpreted, as it is generally possible with other sources. The
recorded signal and the released signal must be correlated to each other in order to allow
for the production of a signal having the typical aspect of a seismic signal.
In the past, this correlation could only be done in a Data Processing Centre. For some
time, however, it has been possible to do it directly in the field with the recording
equipment.
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This type of seismic energy source underwent several changes aimed at improving its
contact with the ground, its transmission characteristics and its operation efficiency.
Today’s Vibroseis consists of a 2t weight with a hydraulic vibrator controlled by a
continuously varying frequency sinusoidal signal, activated by a starting impulse (beep)
sent by the recording system. Vibroseis operations involve the use of several units, for
example three or four units simultaneously. In the field, the big vehicles move along
straight paths, while in the road, two units operating in tandem are used. The vibrators
stop at a pre-established position to start the sweep, and the intervals between one
sweep and the next can be determined from the total number of sweeps necessary for
each shot-point.
Vibroseis, as well as Weight-Dropping and Dinoseis, is used with twenty four, forty eight
or more geophone groups.
Since the signal, sent into the ground, lasts several seconds, the recorded signals
reflected by the various discontinuity surfaces are incoherent and overlap each other.
Each reflection has approximately the same wave shape as the signal sent into the
ground, but the wave train corresponding to each reflector is delayed for the time required
to complete the ‘source-reflector-geophone’ path. The combination of all the individual
reflections is so diffuse that it cannot produce an interpretable record. The trace
correlations assume a shape that shows the reflections as very high amplitude events,
while the rest of the signal is smooth.
Vibroseis offers the advantage that the energy introduced into the ground can be within
the seismic frequency range, although the signal transmission efficiency is not always
constant. The energy content of a signal from an impulse source cannot be subjected to
any control and, in the case of dynamite, can be influenced by the material in which the
explosion occurs. This does not happen with Vibroseis. Using explosives the best
signal/noise ratio is often maintained only in a limited frequency range, while with
Vibroseis the signal to be sent into the ground can be specifically programmed. A further
advantage of Vibroseis is the fact that the signal, since it lasts several seconds, has a
much lower an amplitude close to the source, when compared to an impulse introducing
all the energy into the ground in a few milliseconds, and therefore Vibroseis has a
practically non-existent destruction potential.
Every seismic detector has its particular oscillation period; in the electromagnetic
geophones the natural period ‘T’, depends on the mass ‘m’, of the suspended element
and on the spring elasticity coefficient ‘K’:
m
T = 2π
K
1 K
ν=
2π m
If the geophone damping component is too small, each vibration produces a resonance
effect that heightens the instrument response in correspondence to its own frequency.
Obviously this effect must be eliminated and this is possible by introducing adequate
damping that makes the geophone response approximately constant for the entire range
of seismic frequencies. In fact, in this case only the geophone outlet signal is an accurate
representation of the ground oscillation.
Geophone Groups
When describing the practical implementation of a seismic survey, the source and the
geophone can be regarded as two single points located at a given distance from each
other; the recorded signal contains information concerning the zone below the middle
point of this distance. In fact, for a long time there was only one geophone for each
reception point in the seismic reflection method.
However, as it has already been seen, the seismic signal due to reflection is mixed with
intense noise caused by various types of surface waves. It is necessary to decrease
these horizontal effects as much as possible, and instead, favour the energy coming from
the deepest layers. For the purpose, the single geophone is now replaced by geophone
groups, connected to each other in series or in parallel and properly laid out on the
ground.
The theory of noise attenuation by means of grouping is based on the fundamental
principle that the reflection waves travel along almost vertical paths and then reach the
receivers almost simultaneously, strengthening one another since they are in phase
coincidence. Instead, the horizontal waves hit the single geophones at subsequent times;
theoretically, if the distance between two contiguous geophones is equal to half the noise
wave length, the noise will be completely cancelled, since it is recorded in phase
opposition.
The use of geophonic groups is particularly important in zones with considerable surface
noise and in those zones with poor seismic response, caused by poor lithological layer
differentiation.
The number of groups in a spread is normally twenty four, forty eight or ninety six, and
the distance between the station points vary from 10 to 50m, therefore the total spread
length may reach several kilometres.
In the case of a horizontal and flat layer, each geophone group receives a reflected wave
from the middle point of the ‘station point - shot point’ distance; therefore, a spread can
give information on a horizontal length equal to half the spread itself. With this technique
the subsurface is continuously observed, and for this reason it is called ‘continuous
survey’. Moreover, this operation carries out a ‘simple coverage’ or ‘100% coverage’,
since each reflection point is involved in the survey only once.
By the terms multiple coverage survey CDP (Common Depth Point) survey CRP
(Common Reflection Point) survey or Roll Along Survey, it means the reflection seismic
survey based on the sum of various reflected signals from the same depth point, directly
carried out in the recording phase or later in a Data Processing Centre.
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The set of traces, relating to different paths which involve the same depth point, is called
a ‘family of traces’, while the number of traces indicates the coverage, that is, how many
times the point has been hit by a seismic signal. For example, if the traces are six, it is
said that the survey is in sixth or 600% coverage.
Bubble Formation
An explosion below the sea surface produces a high pressure gas bubble. As long as the
pressure of the gases produced exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the surrounding
water, the net resulting force will accelerate the water outwards away from the shot-point.
The net force decreases as the bubble expands and becomes zero when, as a result of
the expansion, the gas pressure reaches the value of the hydrostatic pressure. However,
at this point the water has reached the maximum outward velocity and so continues to
move outwards, decelerating since the force is now directed inwards. Eventually, the
water tends to stop and the net inward force now causes the bubble to collapse with a
consequent rapid gas pressure increase, the gas pressure being again directed outwards.
At this point bubble expansion starts again and multiple cycle repetitions take place, albeit
with continuously decreasing energy intensity.
This phenomenon is called ‘bubble oscillation’ and each oscillation coincides with the
omission of pressure pulses exactly similar to the shock wave produced at the shot
instant, but of continuously decreasing amplitude. Nevertheless, the seismic energy
emitted is appreciable, since the duration of the pressure pulses is relatively long.
For all pulse type energy sources (i.e. for conventional 7.5kg dynamite charges), most of
the energy is concentrated in the first pulse, but the bubbles produced by the explosion
generate additional seismic records every 0.2 to 0.4sec. But these records overlap, so
that it is not possible to determine by which oscillation the reflection event is caused and,
therefore, the data cannot be used. The practice generally adopted in the case of
conventional explosives was to explode the charge at a depth of 2m from the surface in
order to let the bubble vent rapidly.
This system produced spectacular gas and water plumes, but most of the bubble was
dispersed in the water column rise, thus resulting inefficient in generating useful seismic
energy.
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Hydrophones
Hydrophones, or pressure geophones, are seismic Signal receivers used in water
surveys. The sensor element in them is a piezo-electric crystal that generates a
difference in electrical potential proportional to the instantaneous water pressure; this, in
turn, is proportional to the displacement velocity of the water particles set into motion by
the seismic signal. The cylinder or the disc of piezo-electric material is hermetically
sealed in a metal container, as in the older marine survey methods and in the more
recent ones.
The hydrophone does not require pressure compensation (its output is essentially
independent from the hydrostatic pressure up to value of approximately 70kg/cm2), it has
a near fully linear response, it does not produce measurable harmonic distortions and it
has a very high frequency (30,000Hz).
Hydrophones are made of two sensors mounted in opposite direction, with the purpose of
adding the effects of the pressure pulses produced in the water by the seismic energy
source used and, at the same time, of cancelling the transverse accelerations due to the
seismic cable.
Hydrophones are mounted in a cable, called a ‘streamer’, which is the type of cable most
commonly used in modern marine seismics, made of more parts: the active sections
(containing, in oil, 20 to 100 Hydrophones per section) and the inactive sections (only
filled with oil). Figure 3-49 diagrams the composition and lay-out of the streamer.
Note: In order to better clarify the meaning of the curve in Figure 3.50, the
processing method of the data recorded in the field is briefly explained
below. The data relating to each shot-point are recorded on the
appropriate magnetic tapes; each track reports the data relating to a
well determined shot-point, corresponding, for example, to the 24
recording stations. Later, the data are re-processed in terms of
Common Depth Point; in other words the data relating to the same
reflection point, but belonging to different shot-points, are summed.
The total data are now available in the form of seismic traces, with the
distance of the geophone from the shot-point on the average and the
reflection times on the ordinates. The signal reception times rise with
the increase in distance of the receiver from the shot-point, according
to a hyperbolic curve given by the equation:
x2
t o2 +
Tx2 = 4 Eq. 3-46
Vo2
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To better clarify this concept, refer to Figure 3-51. The reflection times are given on
the ordinates, and the various seismic traces (CDP), as a function of x, are given on
the abscissas. In order to determine the most probable velocity corresponding, for
example, to the time Tx = 1.0:
• Velocity V1 is chosen as the first velocity under investigation. The
hyperbola for the velocity V1 intersects the various seismic traces at points
Y1, Y2, and Y3; those points have very low energy, and therefore their
sum, too, will be negligible. Velocity V1 is not representative.
• Passing from velocity V1 to velocity V2, the hyperbola will now pass
through points Z1, Z2, and Z3, characterised by high energy, and therefore
their sum will also be high. Velocity V2, has a greater probability of being
the representative velocity.
• Considering now velocity V3, the hyperbola will pass through points W 1,
W2, and W 3 at low energy. Total energy will again be low, so there is little
likelihood of velocity V3, being the correct one.
• The scanning operation can be automatically repeated for any velocity V
and corresponding to any reflection time.
• If the results obtained above are plotted in a ‘two-way time-velocity’
diagram, Figure 3-52 is obtained, that is the so-called ‘Automatic Velocity
Analysis’ and it constitutes the basis for all successive interpretations.
The representative velocities are the ones indicated by peaks, and the more
probable are characterised by high energy values, as indicated in the central column
‘C’ in Figure 3-52.
Diagrams, already interpreted and supplied by geophysicists, that give
average velocities, interval velocities as a function of two-way time and/or of
depth (Figure 3-53).
Figure 3-53 - Diagram Showing Average Velocity and Interval Velocity as a Function of
Depth
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DIX Correction
Vel.Med Time Depth Vel.Int Vel.Int ∆H H Vel.Med ∆ Time
m/sec sec m m/sec m/sec m m m/sec µsec/ft
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1,815 0.200 181.5 168
1,876 0.300 281.4 1,998 1,992 99.6 281.1 1,874 153
1,936 0.400 387.2 2,116 2,106 105.3 386.4 1,932 145
1,991 0.500 497.7 2,211 2,197 109.9 496.3 1,985 139
2,042 0.600 612.6 2,297 2,280 114.0 610.3 2,034 134
2,095 0.700 733.2 2,413 2,543 2508 125.4 2,085 128
2,151 0.800 860.4 2,543 2,508 125.4 855.3 2,138 122
2,214 0.900 996.3 2,718 2,665 133.2 988.3 2,198 114
2,291 1.000 1,145.5 2,964 2,893 144.7 1,133 2,266 105
2,369 1.100 1,302.9 3,149 3,041 152.0 1,285.1 2,336 100
2,461 1.200 1,476.6 3,473 3,308 165.4 1,450.5 2,417 92
2,585 1.300 1,667.2 3,813 3,585 179.2 1,629.7 2,507 85
2,639 1.400 1,847.3 3,601 3,460 173.0 1,802.7 2,575 68
2,713 1.500 2,034.7 3,479 3,592 179.6 1,928.3 2,643 85
2,794 1.600 2,227.2 3,849 3,688 184.4 2,166.7 2,708 83
2,866 1.700 2,436.1 4,176 3,953 197.7 2,364.4 2,762 77
2,949 1.800 2,654.1 4,360 4,111 205.6 2,570.0 2,656 74
3,023 1.900 2,871.8 4,355 4,134 206.7 2,776.7 2,923 74
3,104 2.000 3,104.0 4,643 4,366 218.3 2,995.0 2,995 70
3,195 2.100 3,354.7 5,015 4,655 232.8 3,227.8 3,074 65
3,298 2.200 3,627.8 5,461 4,992 249.6 3,477.4 3,161 61
3,396 2.300 3,905.4 5,552 5,096 254.8 3,732.1 3,245 60
3,471 2.400 4,165.2 5,196 4,888 244.4 3,976.5 3,314 62
3,551 2.500 4,438.7 5,471 5,108 255.4 4,231.9 3,386 60
3,635 2.600 4,725.5 5,739 5,320 266.0 4,497.9 3,460 57
3,699 2.700 4,993.6 5,363 5,088 254.4 4,752.3 3,520 60
3,762 2.800 5,266.8 5,463 5,181 259.1 5,011.4 3,580 59
3,827 2.900 5,549.1 5,647 5,335 266.7 5,276.1 3,640 57
3,897 3.000 5,845.5 5,927 5,556 277.8 5,555.9 3,704 55
3,960 3.100 6,136.0 5,850 5,526 276.3 5,832.2 3,763 55
4,013 3.200 6,420.8 5,656 5,404 270.2 6,102.4 3,814 56
4,054 3.300 6,689.1 5,366 5,198 259.9 6,362.3 3,856 59
4,089 3.400 6,951.3 5,244 5,111 255.6 6,617.8 3,893 60
4,119 3.500 7,208.2 5,139 5,034 251.7 6,869.5 3,925 61
4,143 3.600 7,457.4 4,963 4,910 245.5 7,115.0 3,953 62
4,167 3.700 7,708.9 5,031 4,954 247.7 7,362.7 3,980 82
4,196 3.800 7,972.4 5,269 5,156 257.8 7,620.5 4,011 59
4,228 3.900 8,244.6 5,444 5,303 285.1 7,885.6 4,044 57
4,262 4.000 8,524.0 5,588 5,424 271.2 8,156.8 4,078 56
Table 3-e - Definitive Time Interval Print-Outs
Before continuing to the interpretation of the available seismic data, the meaning of the
values shown in Table 3-e must be evaluated.
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The basic data are reported in the first two columns on the left that indicate average
velocity in m/sec and t-way time in sec, respectively. From these pairs of values the
following can be determined:
1) The cumulative depth (column 3) by applying the simple relationship:
Vi x ti
Hi = Eq. 3-47
2
t1 = 0.2 sec
t2 = 0.3sec
t39 = 4 sec
V i t i − V i−1 t i−1
Vint.i = Eq. 3-48
t i − t i−1
For example, for the first interval 0 - 181.5m, the corresponding interval velocity will
be:
V1 = 1,815m/sec
t1 = 0.2sec
V0 = 1,600m/sec
to = 0
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t2 = 0.3sec
V1 = 1,815m/sec
t1 = 0.2sec
t3 = 0.4sec
V2 = 1,876m/sec
t2 = 0.3sec
t 39 = 4sec
V38 = 4,228m/sec
t 38 = 3.9sec
The four columns on the right give the interval velocity values, depth and average
velocity recalculated with the DIX correction, which is using the root mean square
velocity (VRMS), according to the following relations.
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t1 = 0.2sec
V0 = 1,600m/sec (supposed)
to = 0
t2 = 0.3sec
V1 = 1815m/sec
t1 = 0.2sec
t3 = 0.4sec
V2 = 1,876m/sec
t2 = 0.3sec
V 39 = 4,262m/sec
t39 = 4sec
V 38 = 4,228m/sec
t38 = 3.9sec
t1 = 0.2 sec
to = 0
1815 ×(0.2 − 0 )
∆Hint.1 = = 181.5m
2
t2 = 0.3sec
t1 = 0.2sec
t3 = 0.4sec
t2 = 0.3sec
And so on, for the following intervals up to the last one relating to the times 4 - 3.9:
Vint,39 = 5,424m/sec
t39 = 4sec
t38 = 3.9sec
5424 x (4 − 3.9 )
∆H int .39 = = 271.2m
2
In this way the depth corresponding to the time 0.2 sec will be:
H1 = ∆Hint,1 = 181.5m
So the corrected average velocity, relating to the time 0.2 sec at a depth of 181.5 m,
will be:
Vint,1 = 1,815m/sec
t1 = 0.2sec
to = 0
1815 x (0.2 − 0 )
V c.1 = = 1815m / sec
0 .2
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The velocity V c.2 relating to the time 0.3 sec and to a depth of 281.1m, will be:
Vint,2 = 1,992m/sec
t2 = 0.3sec
Vc2 =
[1815x (0.2 − 0) + 1992x (0.3 − 0.2)] = 1874m/sec
0.3
t3 = 0.4sec
V c.3 =
[1815 x (0.2 − 0 ) + 1992 x (0.3 − 0.2) + 2106 x (0.4 − 0.3 )] = 1932m/sec
0.4
t39 = 4sec
So for the first interval, the interval transit time will be:
Vint,1 = 1,815m/sec
0.3048 x 106
∆t int .1 = = 168 µ sec/ ft
1815
0.3048 x 106
∆t int .2 = = 153 µ sec/ ft
1992
0.3048 x 106
∆t int .39 = = 56 µ sec/ ft
5424
a) in the case of non cemented formations (e.g. sand, clay, mud, etc)
• In terms of interval transit-times:
∆tint − ∆tmax
ρb = ρmax − 2.11 ∆tint + ∆t fl
Eq. 3-54
3425
ρ = 3.28 − Eq. 3-57
Vint
where:
ρb
= Bulk density of the formation, g/cm3.
ρ max
= Matrix density, g/cm3 (an average value of 2.75g/cm3
is usually assumed).
∆tint = Interval transit-time obtained from analysis of the
seismic date, µsec/ft
∆tmax = Interval transit-time of the rock matrix, µsec/ft
(assumed between 43.5-47µsec/ft).
∆tfl = Interval transit time of the fluid present in the rock,
µsec/ft (equal to 200 µsec/ft).
Vint = Interval velocity obtained from analysis of the seismic
data, m/sec
Vmax = Velocity of sound in the rock matrix, m/sec (assumed
between 6,485-7,000m/sec).
Vmin = Minimum velocity of sound corresponding to the first
superficial layer, m/sec (generally around
1,500m/sec).
From a practical point of view, the geological and stratigraphical information available,
before starting drilling operations, is not always sufficient to allow the distinction between
cemented and non-cemented formations. The problem is overcome using only one of the
groups of equations proposed. In fact, it can easily be observed that cemented formations
are characterised by quite high interval velocities, and consequently by low interval transit
times, that usually turn out to be between 45-60µsec/ft
If those ∆tint are introduced into the preceding equations, bulk densities that differ little
from each other are obtained. Therefore, the use of equations valid for non-cemented
formations in all situations can be justified (Eq. 3-54), even if not theoretically correct,
since the small variations in bulk density have relatively little influence on overburden
gradient calculations. An easier and more rapid calculation procedure is obtained,
however, in recompense.
In order to clarify the point above, the hypothesis to calculate the bulk density of a
formation having a very low interval transit time can be made, that is ∆tint = 50sec/ft. If this
is applied to Eq. 3-54, it derives that:
50 − 47
ρ b = 2.75 − 2.11 = 2.725g/cm 3
50 + 200
The difference in bulk density in the two cases turns out be 0.007g/cm3, which is
practically negligible.
The opposite case does not occur since, as already specified, cemented and compacted
formations are characterised by interval transit times rarely greater than 60µsec/ft.
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Substituting Eq. 3-54 in Eq. 3-58, the geostatic pressure Pov can be expressed directly:
• In terms of interval transit-time:
n ⎡ ∆t + ∆tmax ⎤ ∆Hi
Pov =∑ ⎢ρmax − 2.11 x int .i. ⎥x Eq. 3-59
i =1 ⎣ ∆ t int .i + ∆t fl ⎦ 10
The overburden gradient curve is obtained by plotting the values Gov as a function of the
depth H.
Calculation Example:
In order to clarify the concepts expressed above, the following calculation example is
given, using data from the velocity analyses in Table 3-e and Eq. 3-54, valid for non-
cemented formations.
The basic data under consideration are:
• Depth (column 7)
• Interval velocity (column 5)
• Interval transit time (column 9).
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1) H1 = 181.5m
Vint.1 = 1,815m/sec
∆tint,1 = 168 µsec/ft.
168 − 47
ρ b,1 = 2.75 − 2.11 = 2.056g/cm 3
168 + 200
10 x Pov .1 10 x 37.32
Gov.1 = = = 2.056 g / cm 3
H1 181.5
2) H2 = 281.1m
∆H2 = 281.1 - 181.5 = 99.6m
Vint,2 = 1,992 m/sec
∆tint,2 = 153 µsec/ft
153 - 47
ρ b,2 = 2.75 - 2.11 = 2.116g / cm 3
153 + 200
n ∆Hi x ρ b.i 2.116 x 99.6
Pov .2 = ∑ = 37.32 + = 58.40kg / cm 2
i =1 10 10
Pov.2 x 10 10 x 58.40
G ov .2 = = =2.078g / cm 3
H2 281.1
3) H3 = 386.4m
∆H3 = 386.4 - 281.1 =105.3m
Vint,3 = 2106m/sec
∆tint,3 = 145µsec/ft
145 − 47
ρ b,3 = 2.75 − 2.11 = 2.151g / cm 3
145 + 200
Pov.3 x 10 10 x 81.05
Gov.3 = = = 2.098g / cm3
H3 386.4
4) and so on, for all the following intervals up to the final depth.
The complete calculation data are collected in Table 3-f. The same results will be
obtained by applying Eq. 3-59 and Eq. 3-60 directly.
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1) Plotting of ‘Interval Velocity versus Depth’ or, more commonly, ‘Interval Transit
Times versus Depth’ graphs;
2) Method of “Interval Velocity/Theoretical Velocity Ratio, Vi / Vs”.
Both methods allow for not only qualitative estimations, such as, for example,
determination of the top of the overpressures and their general trend with the depth, but
also quantitative evaluations with consequent calculation of the pore pressure gradient.
These methods, as such as those following, which are based on analysis of the drilling
parameters and electrical logs, are absolutely dependent on and influenced by the criteria
of interpretation of the curves used by the drilling engineer, so that adequate experience
and sensitivity are absolutely necessary.
Generally, two cycle semilog paper is used, with depth on the ordinate and ∆tint on
the abscissa (logarithmic scale). It is also advisable to plot the depth in such a way
as to have 1cm corresponding to 100-200m; this offers the best visualisation of the
data and an easier interpretation of the curve.
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If a detailed lithological description of the well exists, the two hypotheses can be
advanced and chosen between; if, on the other hand, the lithology is not sufficiently
known, the doubt remains as to what caused the increase in porosity and, therefore,
the observed increase of times. For reasons of caution and convenience, it is better
to adopt the more conservative hypothesis during programming, that is to say the
presence of formations in overpressure. This naturally does not exclude the
possibility, which must be readily accepted, that in the drilling phase formations at a
normal gradient and with high porosity might be met with.
In the absence of an accurate lithological description of the well, typical for
exploitation wells, the increase in interval transit times at a certain depth serves to
indicate with certainty only highly porous formations; whether this high porosity is
due to the presence of overpressure or to lithological variations with presence of
sandy formations, is a fact that can be established only during drilling of the hole It is
necessary, however, always to remember that even notable increases of ∆tint do not
indicate with absolute certainty the presence of formations at abnormal pressure,
even if during planning they are considered as such.
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PP × 10 10
GP = = (POV − PC )
H H
The calculation sequence is better explained by the following example.
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Computation Example
1) Initial Data
Interval travel times regularly decrease with depth down to 1,629m; at this depth,
values begin to increase progressively marking the beginning of the abnormal
pressured zone.
It is therefore possible to establish that:
The pore pressure gradient is normal from surface down to 1,629m and equal to GP
Kg
= 1.03 2
.
cm * 10m
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From 1,629m to 3,520m the gradient is abnormal and higher than GP = 1.03
Kg
, tending to increase with depth. To determine how the pore pressure
cm2 * 10m
gradient develops as a function of depth, the ‘equivalent depth’ principle, described
in the next paragraph, is followed.
It must be pointed out that the normal compaction trend line, passing through points
characterised by diminishing ∆tint was determined by linear regression using the
computer, whereas the curve representing the development of overpressure was
obtained by polynomial regression.
Of course, the interpretation can also be done by hand; differences may exist
between the computerised and the manual interpretations, but generally such
differences do not greatly affect pressure gradient values.
b) Computation of Gp at 2.000m
H = 2,000m (depth of interest)
H1 = 1,300m (equivalent depth)
Gov,H = 2.301g/cm3
G ov,H1 = 2.227g/cm’
Gp,h1 = 1.03kg cm2 10m
Gp,h = ?
10⎡ Gov.H x H Gov.H1 − Gp,H1 x H1 ⎤
Gp.H = ⎢ − ⎥
H ⎢⎣ 10 10 ⎥⎦
10 ⎡ 2.301 x 2000 2.227 − 1.03 x 1300 ⎤
= − ⎥ = 1.52kg / cm / 10m
2
2000 ⎢⎣ 10 10 ⎦
Figure 3-56 -Sound Velocity and Carbonates as a Function of the Compaction Pressure
(Curves Have Been Obtained From Well Data)
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Both A, B and Vmax, Vmin vary from zone to zone depending on stratigraphy and
lithological composition of the formations;
The interval velocities of the shot-point, nearest to the well concerned, are used to
determine Pov, Pp (taken to be normal) and Pc at the depth used in determining Vint;
The ratios between Vint and Vs, at corresponding compaction pressure, and therefore
at corresponding depths, are determined:
Vint
R=
Vs
where:
Vint = interval velocity at the depth being analysed, m/sec.
Plot the values of ‘R’ as a function of depth; interpret the resultant diagram, using
the following criteria;
• If R ≅ 1, Vint, and Vs, are more or less equal, and therefore the formation
may be considered to be at normal compaction and gradient;
• If R > 1, the Vint are higher than those the area is characterised by; it will
then be a case of overcompacted formations, therefore having abnormally
high velocities for their depth setting
• If R < 1, the Vint are lower than the theoretical ones and high porosity
formations (thick sand bodies) or shales in overpressure will therefore be
the case.
The overpressure tops will be located at the depths at which the ‘R’ ratio is less than
one. Obviously, in this case also, reference must be made to the lithological types
present; when it is not possible to distinguish between sands and shales, reference
will be made to the most conservative situation.
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The method allows not only the determination of the top of abnormally pressured
formations but also a quantitative evaluation of pore pressure gradients. This result
is obtained with the following procedure:
4) Having determined compaction pressures for points with available Vint, values,
these pressures are plotted on the reference curve ‘V5, versus Pc’. If overpressure is
present, Vint, will be Iower than the corresponding V.
5) Project Vint, parallel to the abscissa, up to intersect the reference curve at point of
compaction pressure Pc.
6) Read the Pc, determined from the intercept. This new Pc is the effective compaction
pressure to which the formation is subjected:
7) Read the geostatic pressure Pov, depending on the depth of Vint
8) Having thus determined Pov, and the effective Pc, it is easy to obtain Pp, and the
pore gradient, Gp that selected depth.
9) Repeat the operation for all depths for which the interval velocities Vint, are
available.
Gp = (Pp x 10)/H
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Example Of Computation
The following example is proposed to better explain the use of the ‘R’ ratio method.
1) Initial Data Available
The data from three wells (A, B, C), previously drilled in the area, are used. These
wells are characterised by;
• Essentially elastic formations
• Hydrostatic pore pressure gradients
• Known overburden gradient (Figure 3-57, Figure 3-58, Figure 3-59)
Available seismic data (‘Vint versus H’)
•
Well “B”
Depth, m Vint , m/sec Pov , kg/cm2 Pp, kg/cm2 Pc, kg/cm2
150 1,500 30 15 15
320 1,649 64 33 31
1,000 2,227 210 103 107
1,290 2,781 275 133 142
1,580 2,831 341 163 178
1,876 3,030 415 193 224
2,835 3,556 646 292 354
5,270 4,530 1,275 543 732
Table 3-i - Example Data Well “B”
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Well “C”
Depth, m Vint , m/sec Pov , kg/cm2 Pp, kg/cm2 Pc, kg/cm2
400 1,780 78 41 37
510 2,000 100 53 47
630 2,080 126 65 61
740 2,200 150 76 74
920 2,410 190 95 95
1,140 2,360 238 117 121
1,300 2,500 274 134 140
1,380 2,580 293 142 151
1,830 2,970 397 188 209
2,050 3,180 449 211 238
2,300 3,140 511 237 274
2,570 3,520 578 265 313
3,100 3,700 710 319 391
4,140 3,870 973 426 547
5,600 4,520 1,350 577 773
Table 3-j - Example Data Well C
with
A = 1.16
B = 850
5) ‘Vs/Vint’ Ratio
The interval velocities Vint of the sample well, listed at step 4, are compared at the
same depth, and therefore at the same compaction pressure, to the reference
velocity, Vs, characteristic of the zone, according to the ratio:
R = Vint/Vs
Values of Vs calculated from Eq. 3-62 at the depths for which the Vint are available
for the well.
The first value of Vint in the well (Point 4) is at the depth of 80m and at Pc = 8kg/cm2
and is equal to 1,630m/sec. The theoretical V5, that should have been obtained, is
given by:
7000 × 8
Vs = + 1500 = 1565m / sec
1.16 × 8 + 850
at 160m depth:
Vint = 1,730m/sec
7000 X 16
V5 = + 1500 = 1629m / sec
1.16 X 16 + 850
1730
R= = 1.062
1629
The values of ‘R’, listed in the following Table 3-l, are plotted against depths as
shown in the following Figure 3-61.
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Depth Vint Pc Vs R
(m) m/sec Kg/cm2 m/sec
80 1630 8 1565 1.042
160 1730 16 1629 1.062
250 1770 24 1691 1.047
400 1840 40 1812 1.015
510 1920 51 1893 1.014
600 2000 61 1964 1.018
700 2080 73 2047 1.016
800 2190 84 2121 1.033
880 2220 93 2180 1.018
950 2280 102 2237 1.019
1000 2400 107 2269 1.058
1160 2570 128 2397 1.072
1250 2640 138 2456 1.075
1320 2730 148 2514 1.086
1390 2640 157 2565 1.029
1500 2540 169 2631 0.965
1590 2750 181 2695 1.020
1640 2720 188 2732 0.996
1730 2840 199 2789 1.018
1800 3050 209 2839 1.074
1920 3140 225 2918 1.076
1990 3120 235 2965 1.052
2360 3300 286 3194 1.033
2450 3420 298 3245 1.054
2520 3570 307 3282 1.088
2680 3390 332 3382 1.002
2750 3490 343 3424 1.019
2880 3750 361 3492 1.074
2980 3680 375 3543 1.039
3070 3630 389 3593 1.010
3300 3490 442 3705 0.942
3500 3400 450 3796 0.896
3750 3390 487 3909 0.867
3900 3410 507 3968 0.859
4200 3450 550 4087 0.844
4450 3470 586 4181 0.830
4800 3550 636 4304 0.825
5150 3630 685 4416 0.822
5500 3790 737 4526 0.837
6000 3950 811 4670 0.846
Table 3-l- “R” Values
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Procedure A
Kg
The curve ‘R’ shows a normal gradient (Gp - 1.03 ) from surface to 3,100m
cm2 * 10m
and overpressure thereafter up to the final depth.
The pore gradient in the overpressure zone is calculated as follows:
Calculation of geostatic pressure Pov,( Figure 3-62)
at 3,300m:
Gov = 2.30g/cm3
Pov = 759 Kg/cm2
at 3,500m:
Gov = 2.31g/cm3
Pov, = 809kg/cm2
at 6,000m:
Gov = 2.37g/cm3
Pov = 1,422kg/cm2
at 3,500m:
850 x (3400 − 1500 )
Pc.eff = = 354kg / cm 2
7000 + 1500 − 1.16 x 3400
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at 6,000m
850 x (3950 − 1500)
Pc,eff = = 532kg / cm2
7000 + 1500 − 1.16 x 3950
at 3,500m:
Pp = 809 - 354 = 455kg/cm2
at 6,000m:
Pp = 1422 - 532 = 890kg/cm2
Procedure B
This is a manual procedure, although less exact is speedier than the previous
procedure A:
On the reference curve ‘Pc versus H’ the values of ‘Vint’, are plotted corresponding to
the available depth and Pc, (Figure 3-63);
up to Pc, = 400kg/cm2 (H = 3070 m), the pore pressure gradient is normal and equal
to:
Kg
Gp = 1.03 2
;
cm * 10m
• From the above Pc onward, the Vint are lower than the reference curve V5,
and consequently abnormal gradient formations will be present. To
calculate the pore pressure gradient in the overpressure zone, proceed as
follows:
• From the point, whose Gp has to be determined (point A in Figure 3-62),
draw a parallel line to the abscissa to intersect point B on the reference
curve;
• Read, on abscissa, the effective compaction pressure, Pc,eff, to which the
point is subjected to have that calculated interval velocity (in this case,
Pc,eff is about 355kg/cm2);
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In the example:
Pov = 762kg/cm2 (at point A)
Pc.eff = 366kg/cm2
Pp = 762 - 366 = 396kg/cm2
• Dividing Pp, by the depth at Point A, i.e. 3,000 m, the pore pressure
gradient Gp, is obtained:
396 x 10
Gp = = 1.20kg / cm 2 / 10m
3300 .
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
Methods of analysis based on seismic data are available before commencing with drilling
operations and are therefore very useful particularly when planning the well.
The quality of the seismic data being processed is of great importance as regards the
reliability and precision of the results obtained. Consequently, it is very useful and
recommended that forecasts made by using other methods be obtained and comparisons
made, so as to be able to appropriately modify the drilling programme in the shortest
possible time and with the least amount of difficulty.
A quite reliable and important group of methods for the determination of overpressure is
the one based on drilling parameters. With these methods, the readings regarding the
drilling operations are obtained in real time, reflect the actual well conditions that are
encountered and are recorded and processed with a minimum of time delay.
Although most of these methods do not give the actual overpressure picture, they do
signal the presence of an abnormal condition due to the presence of an abnormally
behaving zone. Such methods, therefore, give appropriate warnings that more careful
and strict monitoring must be kept on what is happening in the well and that a more
accurate and critical interpretation must be made of the methods used for obtaining a
quantitative evaluation of the pore pressure gradients.
The drilling parameters, the recording and interpretation of which only give a qualitative
evaluation of overpressure (i.e., its possible presence and the location of its top), include
the following:
• Drilling rate
• Torque
• Overpull
• Caving and hole tightening
• Pump pressure and flow rate
• Level in mud pits
• Amount of cuttings at shale-shaker
• Mud pH and resistivity
• Resistivity of shales collected at shale-shaker
• Amount of gas present (gas shows)
• Mud temperature
• Montmorillonite percentage.
Whereas the changing of just one parameter does not justify the assumption of the
presence or absence of an overpressure zone, when many parameters change in such a
way as to lead to this conclusion, the presence of an abnormally behaving zone is
considered highly probable.
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The recording of these parameters and the understanding of the reasons for their
changing is very important to properly interpret the methods, which give quantitative
evaluations of over-pressure, such as:
• D-exp and dc-exp (respectively, drilling and corrected-drilling exponent)
• Sigmalog
• Shale-density measurement at surface.
The reliability of the results obtained with both the qualitative and quantitative methods
has improved considerably, by the use of appropriate sensors mounted on the rig for
monitoring and measuring the more significant and important drilling parameters and the
continuous, automatic computer processing of the obtained data, which represents a
remarkable technological advancement and which has permitted the achievement of what
can be considered satisfactorily reliable results.
With the advent of a wider application of the MWD (Measuring While Drilling) systems,
further benefits and improvements will be obtained. This system not only involves the
real-time measurement and recording of the drilling parameters at the surface, which is
the more general case today, but also the parameters down at the bit. With this system,
the desired information is obtained in its ‘uncontaminated’ form that is not shielded from
the multitude of continuous interactions that occur between the drillstring and the
wellbore.
PDC bits are a sort of hybrid between roller and diamond bits. Instead of the
diamonds being held in a matrix, as with the normal diamond bit, the PDC bit has
button-shaped, tungsten-carbide inserts covered with a thin layer of diamond
crystals.
c) Drilling Parameters
The two parameters that most significantly affect drilling rate are:
• the weight on the bit,
• the rotary speed.
The amount of weight on the bit depends on the type of formation being drilled and
thus, the type of’ bit being used and its diameter.
When the formation is soft, increasing the weight on the bit increases the amount of
penetration accomplished by the cutters and, therefore the amount of rock being
removed. This continues until total penetration is reached, after which bit balling
occurs and performance is consequently reduced. With hard formations, a threshold
value has to be reached and surpassed before formation failure takes place and the
removal of cuttings begins.
Furthermore, assuming perfect cleaning under the bit, the drilling rate increases in
proportion to the rotary speed. In practice, however, increased rotary speed in hard
formations hampers the complete failure of the formation cuttings. In medium-hard
formations cuttings are simply removed while in soft formations, when bits with
adequate scraping action are provided the cuttings are immediately lifted and
removed and the drilling rate tends to remain proportional to the rotary speed.
d) Hydraulic Parameters
Hydraulic parameters contribute considerably to bit performance. Flow rates greatly
affect the removal of the cuttings and cooling of the bit. The hydraulic horsepower
used at the bit is not only a measure of how efficient the cleaning is beneath the bit,
burr, in the case of jet bits, also of the penetration rate of the bit.
There are three following behaviour characteristics:
• With insufficient hydraulics, cleaning beneath the bit and cuttings removal
are difficult;
• Increase in hydraulic horsepower improves penetration rate;
• Further hydraulic horsepower increase only marginally improves
performance and would only be an unjustified expense. More importantly,
reduction of bit life, caused by abrasion due to the power increase, is an
additional cost consideration.
What the optimum hydraulic horsepower at the bit should be depends on the type of
bit, the formation and the hole diameter. It is generally defined in terms of’ HSI:
Hydraulic Horsepower per Square Inch.
The density of the mud determines how much differential pressure exists at the
bottom of the well between the hydrostatic pressure imposed by the column of mud
(even under dynamic conditions, considering friction losses in the annulus between
the drill string and the well-bore walls) and the pressure exerted by the formation
fluid. When the pressure exerted by the mud is greater than that exerted by the
formation fluid (positive imbalance), the result is that, as porosity and permeability
decrease, it becomes more difficult for the pressures above and below the cuttings
to become equalised. The cuttings therefore remain stuck to the bottom and are
reground, thereby reducing the drilling rate.
When the pressure imbalance is negative (mud pressure lower than formation fluid
pressure), there is an increase in drilling rate which, all other parameters being
equal, depends on the type of rock and, in particular, on its porosity and
permeability. A negative imbalance (or ‘under-balance’) is, therefore, theoretically an
advantage, with the imbalance favouring the drilling action of the bit by the
‘explosion’ occurring in the rock, immediately under the bit.
The lower the fluid viscosity, the greater the turbulence created and the better the
cuttings are removed, while at the same time the velocity of the spurt loss of the fluid
in the formation increases The increase of spurt loss velocity precedes normal
filtration and helps the pressures to become equalised. The spurt loss velocity at a
near-zero value is one of the reasons for the drop-off in drilling rate when using oil-
based mud. If the spurt loss volume increases, the pressures are more likely to
equalise. A high solids content decreases the amount of initial filtration and, thus,
reduces the drilling rate.
When drilling is done in formations having elastic behaviour, microfractures are
created. These microfractures tend to close by molecular attraction but various
types of fluids tend to keep them open. The use of surfactants in drilling fluids
facilitates the microfiltration process and thus keeps the microfractures open making
the drilling action easier.
All those factors that are not easily definable in mathematical terms because of the
complexity of the required expression are analysed by the operator and constitute part of
the interpretative criteria.
It can thus be inferred that a preliminary, approximate idea regarding formation pressure
can be obtained by analysing the drilling rate values. There are however so many
external factors that come into play that a correct evaluation of formation pressure is only
possible under special conditions (homogeneity of drilled-through formations, small
changes in drilling parameters etc.).
The previously mentioned ‘normalised’ drilling rate permits the calculation of a reference
drilling rate by the use of functions, which correlate the various parameters and factors
that are responsible for the actual drilling operations. An increase in the ‘normalised’
drilling rate indicates improved rock drillability, brought about, possibly, by a change in
formation or by a gradual underbalance condition. A change in type of formation generally
causes a sudden change in drilling rate, where an increase in pore pressures causes a
gradual change in drilling rate.
Shale has unique characteristics and represents the ideal medium for the location of
overpressure zones. All the methods used for identifying overpressures based on drilling
parameters were originally conceived for drilling in elastic formations.
A mathematical model developed by GD Combs; adopts the following general formula for
drilling rate:
⎛ W ⎞a w ⎛ N ⎞an ⎛⎜ Q ⎞⎟aq
R = R10 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ x⎜ ⎟ x f (P) f (T) Eq. 4-1
⎝ 3500 Dh ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎠ ⎜D D 3⎟
⎝ h n ⎠
Where:
R10 = Drilling rate with new bit ∆P =0ft/h
Dh = Hole diameter
aq = Exponent of hydraulics
R10 represents the drilling rate that would be attained with a new bit, zero differential
pressure, weight on bit W = 3,500lbs/in, rotary table speed N = 200rpm and the hydraulic
term equal to 3gpm/(hole diameter times bit-nozzle diameter, in 32ths of an inch).
The exponents and parameters appearing in this equation have been derived empirically.
Only a few of the previously discussed variables are included because according to the
author, these are the ones which most affect drilling rate.
This rather complex equation requires knowing and calculating certain coefficients, which
are not always very easily determinable. Furthermore, the equation does not provide a
quantitative analysis of the pore pressure gradient, containing a term that is a function of
differential pressure.
For practical use in the field and for the inevitable approximations of the system, it is
easier and more convenient not to be concerned with certain parameters for the sake of
simplicity and ease of computation.
where:
R = Drilling (penetration) rate ft/h
D = Bit diameter, ft
This mathematical relationship was revised and adapted to field requirements by Jorden
and Shirley in l966, solving for ‘d’ by introducing constants to take into account the units
of measurement commonly used in the petroleum industry and to obtain values that vary
within an acceptable range of limits. The ‘a’ term was assumed to be unitary, thus making
the determination of ‘d’ easier despite its dependence on Iithology:
R
ln
60 N
d − exp =
12 W Eq. 4-3
ln 6
D 10
where:
R = Drilling or penetration rate. ft/h
Using metric units and changing from natural to common Logarithms, Eq. 4-3 becomes
3.21 R
log
60 N
d − exp = Eq. 4-4
2.64 W
log
100 D
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where:
R = Drilling or penetration rate (m/h)
Since both numerator and denominator are negative (the logarithm of a number less than
one), the ‘dexp’ term is positive and increases as the drilling rate decreases. In other
words, all conditions being equal, the ‘dexp‘ becomes greater as the depth increases. As
seen previously, the drilling rate also depends on the differential pressure which, in turn,
depends on the pore pressure and mud weight. A change in mud weight implies a change
in dexp value. With the introduction of an empirical correction in 1971, the amount of dexp
change was held to within acceptable limits. The final form of the equation, the measured
parameter being indicated as ‘dc-exp’ (corrected drilling exponent) is as follows:
R
ln
dc −exp = 60N x GpN
12 W ECD Eq. 4-5
ln
1006 D
where:
W = Weight on bit lbs
or metrically
3.21R
log
d c − exp = 60N x GpN
2.64W ECD Eq. 4-6
log
100D
where:
Kg
GpN = Normal pore pressure
cm2 * 10m
ECD = Equivalent Circulating Density (mud density plus friction losses) kg/l
The most important of the factors not considered in the ‘dc-exp’ are hydraulics, rock
drillability, bit wear and the effect of high differential pressures, adequate correction of the
date is therefore hindered. Furthermore, the relationships and exponents used in the
formula are not adequate for covering all, the at times, complex situations encountered in
practice, especially when drilling deep wells. This implies making changes in the
assumed ‘dc-exp’ that are not properly corrected by the above relationship.
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Notwithstanding the above stated limitations, the ‘dexp’ and ‘dc-exp’ represent a
considerable step forward in the determination of overpressure during drilling. This
method was originally worked out for a particular zone in the United States and gave
excellent qualitative and quantitative results, especially since the interpretative criteria
were originally developed for applying the method to that particular area. When the
method was used in other parts of the world, the above mentioned limitations became
more evident. One advantage of this new method was its having marked the beginning of
the use of a new methodology, which promoted further research on the origin and
evaluation of abnormal pressures.
The ‘dc-exp’ calculation should begin when the drilling operations begin, and be carried out,
as a rule, every 2 to 3m (5ft). Since the calculation and plotting is usually done manually,
for high drilling rates this can be done every 5 to 10m or at even greater intervals. With
the ‘dc-exp’ graphic analysis, therefore, a combined evaluation of all parameters and
causes contributing to the determination of overpressure cannot be neglected.
As it can be clearly seen in Figure 4-3 which shows some examples of ‘dc-exp’ evaluation,
the final result is a normalised curve which takes into consideration the changes in value
that are due to causes that are ‘external’ and not attributable to changes occurring in the
differential pressure. The application of this type of interpretative criteria to the ‘dc-exp’ is
however quite recent and again considers a simplified form of the ‘shift’ or ‘change in
normal compaction trend line’ concept which was formally introduced by Eni-E&P for the
‘Sigmalog’. Thus the determination of overpressure tops and how overpressures develop
is reflected by a shift to the left, that is, the ‘dc-exp’ value decreases as a result of the
increase in the ‘normalised’ drilling rate.
In order to quantitatively evaluate the pore pressure gradients, it is necessary, at this
point, to perform an interpretation which essentially clears the curve of all the extraneous
effects attributable to ‘external’ causes and in effect, ‘normalises’ the curve. For example,
if a bit has teeth that are quite worn and enters a medium-to-soft formation in an
overpressure zone, the curve shift to the left will be partly masked by the decreased
efficiency of the bit, the latter representing a reduction of the drilling rate and hence, a
shift of the curve to the right. As a matter of fact, in this case, the ‘dc-exp’ takes on values
that are higher than they would be if the bit were not worn. The wear effect is not usually
well-defined on the ‘dc-exp’ curve due, among other things, to the low data sampling rate.
To overcome the occasional masking of the overpressure zone, it is advisable to reduce
the changes in drilling parameters as much as possible, especially near the expected top.
As the degree of compaction increases with depth, the ‘dc-exp’ values also increase,
depending on how the overburden gradient develops. Changes in depth, lithology and
geological age produce changes in the slope of the curve.
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The following formula gives the mathematical relationship between pore pressures
gradient and ‘dc-exp’:
(dc − exp)N
PO =PN
(dc − exp)o Eq. 4-7
where:
PO = Actual pore pressure at considered depth, psi
Solving for (dc− exp )O in the foregoing equation we obtain the following:
PN
(dC − exp)o =( dC − exp)N Eq. 4-8
PO
For known values of (dc −exp )N and PN at various depths, the known value of PO can be
substituted in the expression to obtain the corresponding (dc− exp )O value. By using this
formula and assuming the normalised ‘dc-exp’ line as having a constant tendency, lines can
be drawn parallel to the various pore pressure gradient reference lines (Figure 4-4).
As previously noted, the slope of the reference line (which is also known as the ‘normal
compaction trend line’ and is the focus of the normal pore pressure gradient points) is not
constant. Therefore, the choosing of the slope of this reference line and the positioning of
it must be done as carefully and as early as possible.
Since the slope of the reference line can change, any shifting that may be necessary to
correct and reliably interpret the curve largely depends upon the operator’s sensitivity and
experience. For this reason, it would be advisable and recommended that the operator
avail himself of the other methods and parameters which can help facilitate the estimate
of the pore pressure gradients.
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Figure 4-4 - ‘d-exp’ Lines Drawn Parallel To Various Pore Pressure Gradient Reference
Lines
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Some technicians for example, first obtain a value towards which the ‘dc-exp’ curve tends in
the near surface formations and then, extrapolate this value for greater depths. Other
technicians interpret the ‘dc-exp’ value for selected intervals and then modify the position
and slope of the line according to the distribution of the values obtained. Both techniques
are prone to interpretative errors of considerable errors of considerable magnitude with
evident and understandable effects on the reliability of the quantitative pore pressure
gradient forecasts. It has also been said that the ‘dc-exp’ values should approximately fall
on the same straight line. This however only holds for small intervals of depth. As a
matter of fact, a mathematical error is introduced by doing this, once the ‘dc-exp’ function is
assumed exponential with respect to depth, while, in fact, it close to being a logarithmic
function. If the ‘dc-exp’ values however are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper, the
resulting curve gradually approaches the vertical as depth increases. This behaviour has
been widely noted in zones having normal compaction and normal pore pressure
gradients. Consequently, as depth increases, the slope of the reference line has to be
changed in accordance with the actual distribution of the values. From these
observations, it is evident that not only it is wrong to perform an extrapolation on the basis
of the noted tendency of the ‘dc-exp’ curve for the near surface formations, but also that the
evaluation of the gradient values is too subjective to give reliable results in all situations.
As it has already been seen, the difference between the ‘dexp’ and the ‘dc-exp’ consists
essentially in the latter being ‘corrected’ for mud density. In the broad sense, the purpose
of the correction is to take the effect of differential pressure on drilling rate into
consideration, thereby eliminating the masking of the abnormal pressure zones which
occurs when plotting only the ‘dexp’ values. However, a closer look at the ‘dc-exp’ equation
will show that, from a mathematical point of view, the ‘dc-exp’ value decreases as the mud
density increases and is not a function of the imbalance between the pore pressure
gradient and the mud density.
In actual practice, it is a good rule to plot both the ‘dexp’ and ‘dc-exp’ curves. The values to
be plotted as a function of depth should be taken from clean shale levels (although in
some cases, dirty shale or even marl could be taken into consideration) and at intervals
that are strictly dependent on the drilling rate. If a drilling control unit, complete with
sensors, and a computer are available on the site, the values can be recorded at every
metre of depth, for example. Subsequently the shale points, the points through which the
reference line must pass, will be taken into account only when the curve is to be
interpreted.
As previously underlined, with formations having a normal gradient, the ‘dexp’ and ‘dc-exp’
do not reach the same absolute values but increase with depth because of the increasing
compaction pressure and especially because of the differential pressure. As the zone of
transition is entered and the mud density is kept constant, the ‘dc-exp’ values will gradually
decrease, thus indicting the decrease in differential pressure. In reality, however keeping
the mud density constant, while entering the overpressure zone, is such a remote
possibility that it may be disregarded. Consequently the ‘dc-exp’ values corrected for mud
density will decrease with depth in the abnormal gradient/zone, whereas the ‘dexp’ values
will tend to increase or at least not diminish in the same way, according to the actual
differential pressure. The greater the shift of the actual points from the reference line, the
greater the pore pressure gradient.
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As a normal calculation procedure, it is still recommended to plot both the ‘dc-exp’ and ‘dexp’
curves simultaneously. It is the comparison of these two curves in fact, which makes it
possible to show the following aspects of well conditions:
• If the shale points on the ‘dexp’ curve reveal a shift from the normal
compaction line, notwithstanding the increase in mud density, the
indication is that there is a condition of persistent imbalance and the mud
density has to be increased further until the new ‘dexp’ values fall on the
normal compaction line.
• Notwithstanding the previously described limitation, the ‘dc-exp’ curve will
always indicate the actual pore pressure gradient development and permit
the gradients to be calculated.
In conclusion it can be said that the ‘dexp’ and ‘dc-exp’ curves can be a valuable help in
identifying and calculating pore pressure gradients, especially where data have to be
gathered and processed manually because none of the up-to-date sophisticated
equipment, such as a drilling control unit is available.
To better understand the calculation and logic connected with the ‘dc-exp’ it would be
advisable to study an actual example. As previously mentioned, the ‘dexp’ curve alone
does not permit easy calculation of trends in pore pressure gradient. Therefore we need
to at least have the lithologic column of the formations, the bit runs and the mud density
used. We should also have if possible, recordings of the weight and the rotary speeds
applied to the bit. The list of data shown in the example in Figure 3-5 includes the IADC
code description of the bits, their runs and a lithologic column.
4.2.4 SIGMALOG
The concept underlying the Sigmalog is the same as that underlying the ‘dc-exp’: the
obtainment of a normalised drilling rate by means of empirical drilling parameter
relationships. The term ‘normalised’ refers to the maintenance of a constant relationship
value, for a particular formation, when one or more of the considered parameters (weight
on bit, rpm, drilling rate, well diameter) is changed.
It became evident that the ‘dc-exp’ method was not completely satisfactory when deep
drilling was undertaken in the Po valley, where carbonatic formations involving
considerable overpressures, were encountered. The logic of Sigmalog computation and
interpretation is still evolving and attempts are still being made to find solutions for the
inaccuracies and uncertainties encountered with previous methods. The real and most
important innovation is the interpretative criterion introduced by this method which while
being more difficult to come by, at least initially, is much more versatile and dependable.
The calculation can be subdivided into two parts. One part concerns rock drillability and
the other concerns the condition of imbalance existing between the hydrostatic pressure
of the drilling fluids and the pressures of the formation fluid. The logic of the method is not
strictly analytical, since it derives from empirical considerations and laws. Mathematical
consistency in the various steps therefore, is not possible. The validity of the system is
based on in-depth extensive experimentation and on practical application confirmed by
results obtained.
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As regards the ‘d-exp’, the Sigmalog begins with the determination of the drillability index, called
σt
:
⎛ WOB 0.5 x RPM 0.25 ⎞
σt = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ D x ROP 0.25 ⎟ Eq. 4-9
⎝ h ⎠
where:
WOB = Weight on bit, (t)
The existing experimental and theoretical correlations concerning the various parameters,
when the bit and formation remain unchanged, should compensate for the variations in
these parameters. In practice, however, the considered experimental equations are not
generally valid. For big changes in drilling parameters (weight, rotary speed or hole
diameter), compensation is incomplete and an important change in the σ t value is,
sometimes, noted. In other words σ t , is equivalent to ‘dexp’.
It has been shown experimentally that the values of σ t , are extremely affected by
changes in the drilling conditions, especially at minor depth, which results in a wide range
of values. To reduce or attenuate this range of values, a correction value has been
introduced, which is tied-in with depth and which gives the following:
⎛ H ⎞
σ 1t = σ t + 0.028⎜ 7 − ⎟ Eq. 4-10
⎝ 1000 ⎠
At this point, this value needs to be correlated with the differential pressure existing at
bottom hole:
(
∆P = MW − G p ) 10H Eq. 4-11
where:
MW = Drilling fluid pressure gradient (or, more simply, ‘mud weight’),
Kg
(kg/l)
cm2 * 10m
Kg
G P. = Formation fluid or pore pressure gradient ( 2
)
cm * 10m
H = Depth (m)
As previously noted, the drilling rate and differential pressure relationship is not a linear
one. It is affected by other factors.
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This has been taken into account by introducing an experimental ‘n’ coefficient and by
relating it to the differential pressure in accordance with the following law:
F* = 1+
1− (1 + n ) ∆P
2 2
Eq. 4-12
n ∆P
where:
3. 2
n= if σ 1t ≤ 1
640 σ 1 Eq. 4-13
t
or:
1 ⎛⎜ 0. 75 ⎞⎟
n= 4− if σ 1t > 1
640 ⎜⎝ σ 1t ⎟⎠
Eq. 4-14
In fact, when calculating ∆P, it is not the actual but unknown pore pressure gradient that
Kg
is considered, but the one taken as normal (GP = 1.03 ). This approximation
cm2 * 10m
leads to a fictitious evaluation, but permits the interpretation to be less time-consuming
and more reliable. In fact, when the actual ∆P value is used, the changes are much more
limited and thus could make the overpressure zone difficult to recognise. The term used
for the interpretation is:
σ 0 = F* σ 1t Eq. 4-15
The general interpretation criterion is the same as for the ‘dc-exp’. A shift of the σ O , value
curve indicates greater drillability and therefore overpressure. he Sigmalog interpretation
is based on the comparison of’ the σ O values with the previous ones, and stems from
the hypothesis that overpressure develops gradually and never suddenly, apart from rare
exceptions. A gradient increase, as it may be found in a porous formation, necessitates
the presence of a transition zone with low porosity and permeability where the pressure
gradient increases gradually. The thickness of the transition zone is a function of the
gradient increment, the rock porosity and permeability, and the geological time during
which the phenomenon evolved. A shift to the left, therefore, does not necessarily mean a
gradient increment.
In normal pressure situations, the reference line σr will, therefore, intersect values
of‘ σ O , (Figure 4-6). In the case of overpressure, on the other hand, the reference line
will pass to the right of the σ O values (Figure 4-6). The reference line should have a
changing slope in accordance with the Gov trend (‘compaction trend’). Since the affected
intervals are usually short and the slope can reasonably be considered constant below a
certain depth, the slope of the reference line is maintained constant at 0.088. This
approximation obviously introduces an error, but this error has been proved to be within
the tolerable error margin and is hence acceptable. This fact provides the considerable
advantage of not having to adjust the slope of the reference line according to the
operator’s sensitivity.
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While drilling is taking place, the σ O have to be checked against the stratigraphy and
lithology of the well (as deduced from analysis of the cutting), so as to be able to
recognise any possible gradual shift to the left, caused by gradual increase in drillability
nor, ascribable to overpressure, such as those caused by thin sandy intercalation’s in
shales (‘dirty’ shales). As a rule, a transition in the formation causes a sudden shift in the
σ O values.
These are easily seen because the mechanical characteristics of rocks do not change
gradually. To compensate for these changes, the reference line becomes a broken line
(Figure 4-6) and joins the higher σ O values, in the case of a normal gradient and runs
to the right in the case of overpressures.
The shift can also be caused by significant changes in drilling parameters, well geometry,
bit type, etc. These can be categorised as formational, mechanical or ‘external’ shifts.
While determining the causes of shifts may not be of prime importance, identifying
significant shifts is of extreme importance (Figure 4-6).
For normal gradients the broken reference line goes through the main σ O values and is
thus known by definition. This is not the case, however, when overpressure conditions
exist. In practice the shifting of the line tends to normalise the σ O curve by eliminating
the discontinuities (Figure 4-6). When gradients are higher than normal, the amount of
shift must be enough to restore the σ O , curve continuity.
H
σr =0.0881000+b Eq. 4-16
where ‘b’ is the intercept on the ordinate. The following then obtained:
20 (1 − F)
Gp = MW −
nHF ( 2 − F) Eq. 4-17
where:
F=
σr
σ1t (not to be confused F with F*).
σo2
σr 2 = σr1 x Eq. 4-18
σ o1
Since ‘b’ (the reference line intercept value on the ordinate) is usually entered into the
computer programme, it follows that:
H
b2= σr 2 - 0.088 Eq. 4-19
1000
and, with a small approximation, the following can also be considered (Figure 4-6):
σ 02
b 2 = b1 x Eq. 4-20
σ 01
There is only a negligible difference in the values obtained by the two) methods.
The above calculations are repeated for all subsequent shifts (Figure 4-6).
If the drilling rate is increased with the other parameters remaining unchanged (only a
change in ROP is assumed for the sake of simplicity and so that its effect on σ t and
σ o will be clearer), we would have a decrease in σ t . If the mud weight remained
unchanged ∆P would also remain constant and σ o , would decrease as a consequence.
If such changes were to take place gradually, with the lithologic conditions remaining
unchanged, this would probably indicate an overpressure condition. If we increase the
mud density, we have an increase in ∆P and a consequent reduction in the drilling rate in
accordance with the concepts mentioned previously. Following this, we have an increase
in σ 1t . Consequently, both ‘n’ and ‘F*’ decrease in an attempt to compensate for the
effect of the ∆P change on drilling rates.
Let us consider the following example:
H = 2,520m
WOB = 12 t
RPM = 100
Dh = 12.25ins
ROP = 9m/h
∆P = 45 kg/cm2
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σ t1 = 0.65
n = 7.8125 x 103
F* = 0.83
σ t1 = 0.73
n = 6.9563 x 10-3
F* = 0.57
If the relativity of the system is exceeded, that is, the drilling rate does not vary noticeably
with the differential pressure changes, a positive ∆P change (overbalance) corresponds
to a decrease in F* without an opposing change in σ t1 . In this case, the Sigmalog will
give erroneous data because the Sigmalog will react to a condition of overbalance by
showing a marked shift to the left and, therefore, a theoretically greater formation
drillability (Figure 4-6).
In the equations considered so far, some parameters that can greatly affect drilling
efficiency, namely hydraulics and bit wear, do not appear. As far as hydraulics are
concerned, we can say that change in the hydraulics will affect the drilling rate in a more
or less marked manner and cause the σ 0 curve to shift. Then, with the hydraulic
conditions remaining unvaried, the curve will only be further affected by changes in the
other parameters mentioned previously. The same can be said as regards the changes in
bit type. Compensation can be made for this deficiency by making a shift (Figure 4-6).
The amount of bit wear considerably affects drilling performance when the bit is designed
for soft formations. In this case, the σ 0 , curve shifts suddenly to the right. If the same
type of bit is used again after having tripped out the former one and the formation type
remains the same, the σ 0 curve will continue on with values that are congruent to those
recorded with the first bit, just before it was tripped out (Figure 4-6). In fact, with frequent
trips in and out (short hole intervals drilled with each bit), a considerable amount of
confusion can occur in the interpretation of the curve, especially if overpressure is present
and the operator does not have much experience. A study on bit wear is currently being
carried out. As mentioned earlier, diamond and roller bits work in quite different ways,
which makes the relationships for obtaining normalised drilling rates, when using diamond
bits, considerably different from those required for roller bits.
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For example, diamond bits can be used with turbines with rotary speeds over 800rpm
with very little weight on the bit (2-3t). In this case, therefore, it can easily be seen that the
Sigmalog exponential relationships ( σ t ) are not optimal.
This behaviour is defined by the abnormal rpm value, when using the turbine, or by the
uncorrected exponential indexes, when the rotary drilling is used. In this case
compensation depends on the operator’s experience.
It should be noted, furthermore, that this system has been used effectively and with
excellent results both for making geological correlation logs and porosity logs. This
therefore has made it possible the calculation of the overburden gradient and,
consequently, of the fracture gradient, since pore pressure gradients are directly
evaluated during drilling. A final consideration must be made as regards the logic of shifts
before going into the analysis of a practical sample. That is the amount of shift has to be
determined, in order to compensate for sudden σ 0 changes and in order to obtain a
curve which is free of any discontinuities.
After making a preliminary interpretation by calculating the various ‘b’ intercept values, it
is a good idea to check the continuity of the σ 0 curve. If any serious discontinuities
result, the ‘b’ intercept values involved in the discontinuities have to be modified, so as to
obtain a series of’ σ 0 values having a logical distribution. To facilitate this operation, a
computer programme has been purposely designed to make a normalised curve
obtainable (Figure 4-6).
All that has been mentioned thus far refers to classic formations. In carbonatic formations,
porosity conditions do not directly correlate to actual pressure conditions. In fact, the
contrary occurs because, when there is an abnormal increase in porosity, the
permeability generally increases and the pressure status therefore tends to remain the
same. When the carbonatic formation is compact and impermeable an overpressure
condition results in a perceptible increase in drilling rate because of the pressure
imbalance between the drilling fluid and the formation fluid. In classic formations the
increase in drillability can also be attributed to greater shale porosity. Although these are
not ideal Sigmalog conditions, it is still possible to obtain reliable results by making an
accurate interpretation. A method is currently being studied to distinguish between zones
of primary porosity and secondary porosity (induced by fracturing). The Sigmalog has a
wide range of application and, as mentioned earlier, its computational and interpretative
logic is still in evolution.
Kg
The gradient is normal (Gp = 1.03 2
) down to the depth of 800-850m, where a
cm * 10m
small shift of σ 0 , occurs to the left. This corresponds to the first level of shale. This
tendency, confirmed by the small kick occurring at 1,050m and caused by the intrusion of
salt water from a sandy formation layer continues down to about 1,200m where a closure
is seen. A second overpressure zone begins at about 1,500m.
This slight over pressure increase is confirmed at the first porous interval (1,600-1,700m)
where drilling breaks occur, together with slight pipe connection gas (3% max). The
breaks again occur from 1,900-1,950m with the same features. A very small re-entry of
values is noted between 2,000 and 2,100m. Equilibrium conditions are confirmed at each
porous level, with small amounts of pipe correction gas being present. Negative
imbalance conditions may occur while drilling through the porous and permeable zones
but without the intrusion any formation fluid. This probably happens because the
formation fluid friction losses through the rock are greater than the existing differential
pressure. This slightly positive, or slightly negative pressure, imbalance can be verified by
carrying out a short trip (raising the bit a few tens of metres from the bottom) so as to
partially relieve the hydrostatic pressure at bottom hole of the amount due to the friction
losses and; also to have the drill string in a safer position. By doing this, the intrusion of
any small cushions of formation fluid is facilitated. These cushions can then be circulated
to the surface and the imbalance conditions judged according to their size.
The presence of the most significant overpressure zone is at about 2,300m. This
presence persists all the way down to the bottom without any indication of it disappearing.
Sudden value shifts to the left can be observed in correspondence of sandy levels, such
as at the intervals 1,500-1,600m, 1,900-1,970m, 2,250-2,280m and 2,790-2,840m. Shifts
also occur because of change of bit type, such as at about 2,450m, where a type 1.2.4 bit
was replaced by a type 1.3.4 bit. Another shift occurs at the next run at 2,490m when the
bit is replaced by a type 5.2.7 insert bit. Shifts due solely to the change in bit diameter are
not visible on the curve. An example of bit wear can be seen between 1,500-1,560m, at
the end of a type 1.3.1 bit run. The course of the curve here, while not actually being due
to a closure, could be interpreted as such. Another point to be verified is in the 2,500-
2,555m interval. The inexperienced interpreter could identify this as a gradient reversal,
but this is not the case. This type of interval can be sub-divided into three different shifts,
the first at 2,520m, the second; 2,540m the last at 2,555m. Each of these small intervals
clearly shows a gradient increase tendency: the contrary to what could be concluded from
a hurried estimation.
An example of how shifts can be calculated in this 2,500-2,555m interval is shown below:
at 2,500m:
σ r1 = 0 . 51 σ 01 = 0. 415 σ 02 = 0. 44
then:
0.44
σr2 = x 0.51=0.54
0.145
2500
b 2 = 0.54 − 0.088 × = 0.32
1000
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at 2,520m:
20
σr1 = 0.54 + 0.088
1000
= 0.54 σ 01 = 0. 44 σ 02 = 0. 47
then:
0.47
σr 2 = x 0.54 = 0.58
0.44
at 2,540m
then:
0.51
σr 2 = x 0.58 = 0.62
0.475
2540
b 2 = 0. 62 − 0. 088 = 0. 40
1000
4.2.5 TORQUE
The amount of torque required during drilling can be an indication of the presence of an
abnormal pressure formation.
In undercompacted shales where the mud hydrostatic pressure is lower than the
formation fluid pressure (an underbalanced condition), the plastic behaviour of the rock
will cause hole tightening to occur. If the torque value for a given rotary speed and bit
weight have been plotted before encountering an overpressure formation, the
underbalance condition is recognisable by an increase in torque. The torque increase will
be significant, if the string stabilisers and bit are of the same size.
It must be remembered that the amount of required torque depends on the resistance met
by the bit, which is a function of the weight on the bit, the coefficient of friction of the
formation and the amount of restoring torque, the latter being dependent on the amount
of frictional force developed against the wellbore walls. Any change in the torque value
can, therefore, be due to a change in weight, a change in the type of formation or balling
of the bit. A correct evaluation of the effect of these parameters will permit a correct
interpretation of the abnormality.
If the torque values increase considerably during drilling, we have a critical situation. This
can, however, be confirmed by measuring the other drilling parameters, such as overpull,
mud flow rate, etc.
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4.2.6 OVERPULLS
When tripping out a string, the amount of hook load is approximately proportional to the
depth reached. For various causes not always imputable to the presence of an abnormal
pressure, the predicted value may be exceeded, thus causing an overpull condition. The
main causes of hook load increase can be due to the following:
a) Bit balling
b) Stuck drill string
c) Unusual swabbing effects
d) Dog-legs
e) Hole tightening.
If these above stated causes can be ruled out, the overpull may be attributed to
underbalance conditions and then to the possible presence of an overpressured zone
with consequent hole tightening.
A systematic evaluation of the quantity of cuttings present at the shale shaker makes it
possible to recognise the occurrence of new well conditions.
All the above stated conditions have the express purpose of maintaining thermal
equilibrium of the mud at all times, but it is not difficult to see why actually fulfilling all of
them during drilling operations is not very likely.
where:
dhi = Formation bulk density as a function of depth H, (g/cm3)
Dividing the overburden pressure, Pov, by the depth, H the corresponding overburden
gradient, Gov can be calculated:
POV
GOV = 10 x
H
In order to draw the overburden gradient curve, the formation bulk densities must first be
determined. Bulk densities are usually derived from density logs (specifically, from the
FDC log) and from other density measurement made during drilling. The FDC log
however is only generally available for limited intervals of a well. The cutting density
measurement is time-consuming and is affected by several limitations, such as sample
preparation.
To permit the accurate calculation of overburden gradients and, consequently, valid pore-
pressure and fracture gradients, Eni E&P has developed methods based, as already
seen, on the processing of seismic data, on Sonic Log readings (Refer to section 5) and
on the evaluation of drilling parameters by Sigmalog analysis.
The method, which is discussed in detail later on, follows this sequence:
1) Starting from Sigmalog computations, drilling porosities in sands and shales are
estimated using appropriate formulas:
2) These porosities are then transformed into bulk densities;
3) The bulk densities are converted into overburden gradients:
4) The pore pressure and overburden gradients make the calculation of fracture
gradients possible during drilling.
To indicate overpressure, the standard Sigmalog curve is plotted versus depth. An initial
Kg
Gp= 1.03 is assumed. This is a valid assumption if the drilling takes place in
cm2 * 10m
normal pressure zones, while the Sigmalog deviates to the left when overpressured
zones are entered.
Therefore, the obtaining of drilling porosities in overpressures requires correcting the
standard Sigmalog curve both for the shifts and for the differential pressure effect. In
other words, a standard Sigmalog curve (Figure 4-16) is transformed first, into a
‘Sigmalog curve ‘normalised’ for shifts’ (Figure 4-16) and then to take care of the
possibility of overpressure, into a ‘Sigmalog curve ‘normalised’ for both shifts and ∆P’
(Figure 4-16). The new values are indicated with the symbol σ 0 and, once the
appropriate shift correction has been made for the curve and, for formations that are
abnormally pressured, the actual ∆P acting on the formation has been considered, the
values can be traced. Obviously, for formations under normal pressure, only the shift
correction is required.
In normal pressure formations, the two reference trend lines, σr and σ φ on the
normalised Sigmalog curve are coincident. At this point there are two alternatives
possible:
1) The formations are shales and show values of normalised Sigmalog which are
σ 0 ≥ σr = σ φ .
In this case, the points lying on the reference trend line, or those having higher
values, are considered shakes and their drilling porosities are calculated by means
of the following equation:
[
αsh = 1 / 1.4 + 9 σr =φ + K ] Eq. 4-21
where:
σ sh = Drilling porosity in shales, percentage fraction
2) The formations are sands and show normalised σ o values departing to the left of
the reference trend lines; that is, σo < σr = σ φ . The drilling porosity of these
points is given by:
[
α sa = 1 / 1.4 + 9 σ o + K ] Eq. 4-22
where:
α sa = Drilling porosity in sands, percentage fraction
In overpressured intervals, the standard Sigmalog curve has to be corrected for both
shifts and ∆P. in order to obtain a normalised Sigmalog.
The porosity reference line (indicated as σ φ ) does not coincide with σr and, also
in this case two alternatives are possible.
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Figure 4-16 - Drilling Porosities (Obtained From ‘Normalised Sigmalog Curves’ By Directly
Entering the σ o and σ φ * Values into Eq. 4-20 / Eq. 4-21)
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where:
α sh = Drilling porosity in shales from Sigmalog, percentage fraction
∆t max
= Matrix transit time (µsec/ft) assumed equal to 47 µsec/ft for
shakes
200 × α sh + 73.70
∆t sh = Eq. 4-24
1.568 − α sh
The ∆tsh, transit times are then transformed into bulk densities as follows:
∆t sh − 47
db, sh = 2.75 − 2.11 × Eq. 4-25
∆t sh − 200
For sands:
∆t sa − ∆t max
α sa = 1.228 × Eq. 4-26
∆t sa − ∆t ft
where:
αsa = Drilling porosity in sands from Sigmalog, percentage fraction
∆max = Matrix transit time, µ/sec ft (assumed equal to 50µsec/ft for sands)
The ∆tsa transit times are transformed into bulk densities by means of the following
equation:
∆t sa − 50
dbsa = 2.75 − 2.11 Eq. 4-28
∆t sa + 200
Figure 4-17 - ‘Normalised’ Sigmalog (Corrected from s.Shifts and P (B) allows the
calculation of ‘Drilling Porosities’ and ‘Bulk Densities’ in Overpressured Intervals.
‘Drilling Porosities’ are compared with porosities (+) obtained from SL analysis “Adriatic
Offshore Well”)
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POV =
∑ ∆Hi x dhi POV
10 and G OV = 10
Hi
To obtain correct values for the overburden gradients in the case of offshore wells, it is
necessary to consider the effect of water depth, Hm and the air-gap between the rotary
table and the sea level, Hag. Assuming the density of’ sea water as dH2O = 1.03g/cm3, the
sea-bed pressure is:
1.03 x Hm
Pseabed = Eq. 4-29
10
where:
Hm = Sea depth (m)
Hag = Air gap between rotary table and sea level (m).
This limitation is easily overcome, however, by deducing the first reference line by means
of one of the following methods:
• Analysis of seismic data. Interval velocities, or the corresponding interval
travel times are transformed into bulk densities.
• Sonic Log of reference wells. The transit times are also converted into
bulk densities.
• Test measurements of soil densities.
• Where there is a complete absence of data, an initial bulk density ranging
between 1.95-2.00g/cm3 can be assumed in most cases.
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A computer at the rig site is used to process the drilling data and present them on a
plotter and printer, to obtain the automatic computation of overburden gradient during
drilling, the conventional Sigmalog programme has to be modified. A computer code
enables the processing and plotting of the normalised Sigmalog according to the various,
successive shifts of the reference trend line which are stored in the memory of the
computer. The results are plotted as a function of depth on a 1/10,000 scale, reporting
any of the following:
• Standard Sigmalog
• Normalised Sigmalog
• Standard and normalised reference trend lines
• Drilling porosity
• Bulk density
• Overburden gradient
• Pore pressure gradient
• Fracture gradient.
Figure 4-18 - Example of Pore Pressure, Overburden and Fracture Gradient Curve
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Figure 4-19 - Example Pore Pressure, Overburden and Fracture Gradient Curve
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Membrane Potential
Figure 5-4 indicates EM to be the EMF between two different electrolytes (formation water
and mud) separated by shale. The formation water may also be considered to be a salt
solution with a concentration always higher than that of the mud. It can also be assumed,
as it happens in most cases that both electrolytes are made up essentially of rhodium
chloride solutions.
Shales, as we have seen, are made up of Iayers of aluminium, silicon and oxygen atoms.
Other elements may be present as well, but the important thing is that the structure of the
shale is such that the edges of the layers hold negatively charged oxygen atoms. This
makes for a negative charged structure which will, therefore, attract and allow the flow of
positive ions (such as sodium), while repelling and preventing the flow of negative ions
(such as chloride).
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Shales behave as ion ‘screens’ by letting sodium ions through while keeping out chloride
ones.
When a shale bed separates two sodium chloride solutions of different concentrations,
the sodium ions of both solutions may migrate through the shale, but the number of these
ions passing from one solution to the other will depend on, the number of sodium ions
present in each of the two solutions. The flow will be greater from the more highly
concentrated solution ‘C1‘ than it will be from the one at a lower concentration ‘C2’. As a
result the contact area between the shale and the weaker solution will become positively
charged, whereas the more concentrated solution will acquire a predominantly negative
charge. A difference in potential or e.m.f. will thus exist through the shale bed, and this
will be the ‘membrane potential, ‘EM’.
In the case considered above, only a few minutes are required for a condition of
equilibrium to be reached so that, upon opening the circuit, there will be a more
consistent flow of ions.
If the circuit is closed, ion migration will resume and, with very small quantities of solution,
the concentration tends to equalise and EM will become zero only after a considerable
lapse of time. In fact, at depth, the circuit is always closed through the mud column and
the adjacent formations. However, solution volumes are quite large and the current due to
ion migration is very small (on the order of milli-amps), so it is as if no ion migration were
taking place between the two solutions and there is practically no variation in the value of
EM. The same is true for liquid-junction potential, which will be dealt with in the next
paragraph.
Liquid-Junction Potential
This potential, within permeable beds, appears at the contact between mud filtrate and
formation water. Its origin is more complicated than that of EM, but it can be briefly
explained the following way. Suppose again that formation water and mud filtrate are
sodium chloride solutions with concentrations C1 and C2 respectively, where C1 > C2. The
two solutions being now in direct contact, both sodium and chlorine ions are free to move
from one solution to the other since there is nothing separating them.
Since C1 > C2, a definite migration of both sodium and chloride ions will take place from
the more concentrated solution into the more diluted one. The sodium ion, however, is
larger in size and has more affinity for water, whereas the chlorine atom is smaller and
with less affinity for water: hence the chloride ions move faster than the sodium ions. As a
result the weaker solution becomes negatively charged whereas the other becomes
positively charged: the resultant potential different is the so-called ‘liquid-junction
potential, ‘EJ’.
This liquid-junction potential reaches a lower value than it would in the case of the
membrane potential for the same solution, because, in the former case, both sodium and
chorine atoms can migrate. EJ is only due to the excess of chloride over sodium ions and,
in practice, its value for sodium chloride solutions is found to be about one fifth that of EM
Figure 5-4 is a schematic drawing showing the upper portion of a clean sand bed,
overlaid by shale, with the borehole to the left and a small-invaded area present in the
sand. EM and EJ are shown in the form of tiny cells with polarities as said previously (CW >
Cmf or RW < Rmf). These EMFs, are responsible for the SP current ’i’ flowing into the sand
through the clay, into the bore hole and back into the sand.
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The ‘resistive potential drop’ due to the flow of current throughout the circuit, is equal to
EC. At point ‘P’, within the mud column, at the level of the shale bed, the potential will be
positive as compared to the potential at point ‘N’, at the level of the sand layer.
Because deviations in SP are read in reference to the shale base line, they will have
negative values in the presence of permeable beds (sand).
It can be shown thermodynamically that for ideal solutions or even relatively diluted
sodium chloride solutions, EM and EJ are related to their respective concentrations by the
following equations:
EM = K1 log10 Cw/Cmf Eq. 5-2
EM = K2 log10 Cw/Cmf Eq. 5-3
Where:
Cw = Formation water concentration
For real solutions, in place of the concentrations Cw and Cmf, one should use the chemical
activities of the solutions, aw and amf. A reference temperature, i.e. 75°F (24°C), could
also be assumed in order to fix the values of K1 and K2. So, in real sodium chloride
solutions at 75°F at any concentration, we have:
EM = 59 log10 aw/amf Eq. 5-4
The total EMF ‘Ec’ in millivolts is the sum of EM and EJ, so that:
Ec = 71 log10 aw/amf Eq. 5-6
Eq. 5-6 is generally applicable, as long as both formation water and mud filtrate are
essentially - sodium chloride solutions, at any concentration and at 75°F.
The chemical solutions activities are closely related to resistivities.
Within a wide range of values the activities of sodium chloride solutions are inversely
proportional to their resistivities so that, for practical purposes, the ratio aw/amf may be
substituted by the resistivity ratio Rmf/Rw. This provides the basis for calculating formation
water resistivity from the SP curve.
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Permeable beds, having different porosities or different grain sizes, all other factors being
equal give rise to equal EMFs. The EMFs are also independent of permeability even
when it reaches values on the order of fractions of a millidarcy.
Figure 5-3 - Potential and Current Distribution in and Around a Permeable Bed
(Schlumberger: Log Interpretation Principles)
Figure 5-4 - SP Currents Due to Membrane Potential (EM) and Liquid Contact Potential (EJ)
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The curves in Figure 5-5 refer to a sequence of beds with equal or very close resistivity
values. This does not always occur in actual practice, and the resistivity of subsequent
beds can be quite different, as it is the case with shales interbedded with oil-bearing
sands. In this case the SP curve appears more rounded for the formation with higher
resistivity. The position of the points of inflection will change depending on the peaks, but
they will continue to indicate the boundaries of the beds.
An increase in hole diameter has approximately the same effect as an increase in the
RJR, ratio. This means that it tends to round off the excursions on the SP log and to
lower the peak amplitudes at the level of the beds.
In general, the permeable beds are invaded by mud filtrate. As shown in Figure 5-3 a
fraction of the SP current lines moves directly from the shale to the invaded zone without
entering the mud column. As a result, the presence of the invaded zone has an effect on
the SP curve similar to that due to an increase in the diameter of the hole. Hence the
peaks are wider than in case of no invasion.
Figure 5-5 - Comparison of SP Curves for Different Values of the Rt/Rm Ratio
(Schlumberger Log Interpretation Principle)
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Hard Formations
These formations usually have a high resistivity with the exception of the two following
types of conductive zones:
• Permeable beds, both oil and water-bearing, which are conductive
because of capillary water (usually having high salinity) present within
their pores;
• Shales which are impermeable.
The permeable beds are not usually adjacent to the shale beds, but are separated from
them by compacted formations. Figure 5-6 shows a sequence of permeable and
compacted beds and shales. It shows very schematically the circulation of SP currents.
The SP currents, generated by the various EMFs, flow into the permeable zones. In order
to cross the hard adjacent formations, which have a high resistivity, these currents are
forced to penetrate deeply into the permeable bed in order to have a wide transversal
section of rock available. From here it is easier for the currents to continue their flow into
the hard formations through the large transversal section, rather than converging rapidly
toward the hole. They continue to do so until they encounter the conductive beds of
impermeable shale through which they can return to the mud in the well and, through the
mud, to the permeable bed, thereby; completing the circuit. They cannot return to the
mud through adjacent permeable beds because of the EMF that obstruct their path. If
they happen to encounter a productive permeable bed first, they will simply cross it until
the shale beds are reached. This is the case with currents entering bed ‘P3’. Those
currents flowing upwards must cross the P2 permeable bed in order to reach the shale
Sh1; those flowing downwards return to the well in part through the shale ‘Sh6’. This
seems to be the reason why the peaks, corresponding to the level of the permeable
zones, broaden above and below these zones, in such an apparently abnormal way.
So as to make it impossible to accurately establish the boundaries of the permeable
zones by means of the SP log.
All along the well, at levels where hard formations are present, SP currents remain
practically unchanged. This implies that the potential drop as well is constant per unit well
length, thus generating a constant slope in the SP log as shows by the straight lines on
the log in Figure 5-6.
A portion of the SP current enters or leaves the mud column, at the level of each
conductive bed thus changing the slope of the log. As an example, the curve of the SP
log changes at the level of bed ‘P2’, since a part of the current leaves the well and flows
into the bed.
As a general rule for hard formations, permeable beds are characterised by changing
slopes or ‘curvatures’ with the convexity facing the negative side of the log. Shales are
characterised by curvatures with the convexity toward the positive side of the log. High
resistivity formations correspond to those parts of the SP log, which are practically
straight.
What said in the preceding paragraph regarding the salinity effects of the mud, it is
equally applicable in the case of hard formations.
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5.1.7 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHAPE AND THE AMPLITUDE OF THE SP PEAKS
As shown in Figure 5-3 currents move through the mud now just in front of the permeable
formation but also at a short distance from its boundaries.
As a result, although in the Static SP Diagram the boundaries of the permeable bed are
indicated by a sudden jump. The SP log indicates a gradual change in potential extending
along the well beyond the boundaries of the bed.
By observing the circulation of the current, it is seen that the bed boundaries are located
at the points of inflection of the SP curve. This makes it possible to determine the bed
thickness from the SP curve.
The SP log records only that portion of the drop in potential which takes place in the mud;
therefore the amplitude of the peak on the SP log approaches the Static SP amplitude (or
that of the PSP for shaly formations) only when resistance to the current flow by the bed
under examination and by the adjacent formations is negligible as compared to resistance
by the mud in the well. This result is reached when the bed is sufficiently thick.
At the level of a given bed, the amplitude of the peak recorded on the log naturally
depends on the SSP values in clean formations and on the PSP values in shaly
formations. In addition, the shape and amplitude of the peaks can be influenced by the
following factors:
• Bed thickness
• Resistivity of the bed, of the surrounding formations and of the mud
• Borehole diameter
• Diameter of the zone contaminated by mud filtrate.
The SP log may also be influenced by a lack of mud homogeneity: a change in mud
salinity, at a certain level, shows up as a jump in the clay base line at that level. In actual
practice however, such changes in salinity have been found to be quite rare.
The way in which the above mentioned factors affect the SP will be explained first for
permeable formations interbedded with shales, as shown in Figure 5-3. In this case, the
resistivity of permeable beds is usually slightly higher than or about equal to that one of
shakes. This is typical of the so-called ‘soft’ formations, such as series of sands and
shales.
Soft Formations
a) Theoretical calculations and field experience have shown that the amplitude
of the SP excursions is practically equal to that of the static SP (for clean
sand) or to that of the Pseudostatic SP (for shaly sand) when the permeable
beds are thick and when formation resistivities are not much higher than
those of the mud. In addition, in this case, the SP curve defines the
boundaries of the bed with a high degree of accuracy. The amplitude of the
elongation is smaller than for the Static SP or for the Pseudostatic SP in the
case of thin beds, and the thinner the bed, the smaller the excursion.
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Each coupling between transmitting and receiving coils is balanced. Within a zero
conductivity medium, as in the case of a sonde suspended in air and away from
conductive materials, the tool will give a zero reading.
In addition to the two main windings (transmitting and receiving), the apparatus is
equipped with several other coils. Main and secondary winding characteristics, their
setting and relative positions are such as to minimise the effects on the measurements of
the mud column and the formations above and below the device. Such sondes are called
‘focusing sondes’.
Probe 6FF40 is the tool normally used. The abbreviation stands for a total of 6 windings
and a spacing of 40” between the main windings. This device also allows the
simultaneous recording of the SP curve and of the 16” normal. The device now used or
the induction Log provides an accurate and detailed recording of the formations across a
wide range of conductivity’s. The accuracy is very high for conductivity values above
20mmho/m (resistivities below 50ohm-m) and it is acceptable for lower conductivity
values (down to 5mmho/m). Outside of this range the Induction Log continues to register
any variations within the formation, but the accuracy falls off.
At times the invasion may completely disappear at the lower part of a highly permeable
bed with a profile such as the one shown in Figure 5-9. With no invasion, a small
deflection in the SP may be noticed; at this point filtrate and formation water are not
directly in contact with each other, but are separated by the mud cake which acts as a
cationic membrane even though its effect is smaller than it is in the case of a pure shake.
It follows that there is no liquid-junction potential, EJ, hence the total EMF is given by the
shale membrane potential, EM, and the mud cake membrane potential, EMP opposite to
that of EM; hence the reduced SP deviation.
Geometric Factor
Through use of the Induction Log, the data supplied by the instruments can be
automatically calculated, assuming the media being measured to be separated by
horizontal planes and cylindrical surfaces coaxial with the sonde centred along the
borehole. This model actually offers a very effective representation of the subsurface
distribution of shallow dipping formations. Calculations are relatively easy when mutual
electric circuit inductions within the ground (i.e. the ‘skin effect’) are negligible.
These calculations show that each medium falling within the induction Log measurement
range contributes a portion of the Signal proportional to the product of its conductivity
multiplied by a geometric factor ‘G’ which depends upon the geometry of the medium.
These ‘G’ factors are fractional and their total over the entire space is equal to 1.
Figure 5-11 is a sketch of a permeable bed, of resistivity ‘Rt’ with an invaded zone, of
resistivity ‘Rs’, and intersected by a borehole filled with mud of resistivity ‘Rm’. Each of
these media will have its own geometric factor (a function of its geometry), ‘Gt’,’Gs’, ‘Gm’
respectively.
The apparent conductivity ‘Ca’, as indicated by the induction Log when the probe is
placed at the level of a permeable bed, will be:
Ca = CmGm + CiGi + CsGs + CtGt Eq. 5-8
Gm + Gi + Gs + Gt = 1 Eq. 5-9
Using resistivities:
1 Gm Gi G s G t
= + + + Eq. 5-10
Rm R m R i R s R t
In actual practice Ri may be taken to be equal to the resistivity of the displaced zone. Rx0
The apparent conductivity Ca, when the sonde is placed at the level of an impermeable
bed will be:
Ca = Cm Gm + Cs Gs + Ct Gt Eq. 5-11
In this case the term Ci Gi is missing because of the absence of an invaded zone.
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Figure 5-9 - SP Reduction Due to Mud Cake Effect (Schlumberger Log Interpretation
Principle)
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Figure 5-10 - Schematic Induction Log System (Schlumberger Log Interpretation Principle)
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where now:
Gi + Gt = 1
It is obvious that the contribution due to the uncontaminated zone is higher for sonde
6FF40 than it is for sonde 6FF28. This means that the first has a larger ‘radius of
investigation’, i.e. it records values for Rt closer to reality than those recorded by the
second sonde. The ‘skin effect’ does not alter sensibly the radial characteristics upon
recording when compared against those obtained by considering the geometric factor.
The ‘skin effect’ may also be neglected when the following conditions are met:
• Rt larger than 1 ohm/m, for a moderate invasion (Rt not to exceed 5d);
• Rt larger than 2-3 ohm/m, for a rather deep invasion.
The ‘vertical characteristics’ represent the geometric factor of a horizontal bed when the
sonde is centred within the bed and the bed thickness increases from zero to infinity.
When the ‘skin effect’ is taken into consideration, the Induction Log data, for beds of finite
thickness, may be noticeably different from those obtained with the geometric factor. In
such a case the adjacent formation resistivity Rs constitutes the important parameter.
When Rs is less than about 15ohm-m the effective contribution due to adjacent
formations, as calculated with the inclusion of the ‘skin effect’, is much lower than the
value obtained when this effect is neglected. This can be expressed by saying that the
effect ‘improves’ the focusing features of the Induction Log apparatus.
It seems evident from this equation that, under equal conditions of resistivity and hole
dimensions, the higher Rt, the lower the ratio Gt/Rt, and the higher the effect due to the
mud column.
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In practice however, when using sonde 6FF40 and for normal borehole diameters (10" or
less) and with common mud (Rm < 5ohm-m), the effect of the hole may be neglected
where: the sonde is centred within the well. It has to be mentioned, at this point, that the
more recent sondes are provided with a centring device. For those logs that are recorded
without a centring device, the sonde lies along the wall and the signal, due to the
borehole, becomes relatively important when the formation resistivity is in the range of
20ohm-m. This effect, however, can be corrected with the use of appropriate charts.
With salty mud the signal due to the hole becomes quite large especially with an off-
centre sonde. The use of Induction Logs is not recommended with mud resistivities lower
than 0.2 ohm/m at bottom hole temperature except when the resistivities of the formation
to be probed are very low.
In wells with oil-base mud the corrections to be applied for eliminating the effect due to
the column of mud are usually negligible, except for the very unusual case of very huge
cavings.
In the presence of shales the conventional and the induction apparatuses should give the
same value because of the absence of a mud-filtrate invaded zone.
Figure 5-13 shows a typical example of IES (Induction-Electrical Survey). The SP is
recorded on track 1; track 2 is the recording of resistivities as measured with the 16ins
Normal (Short Normal, SN, and Amplified Short Normal) and with the 6FF40; while on
track 3 is the recording of conductivity as measured by the 6FF40.
A careful check of the energy path (to the right of the sonde), reveals that the travel time
through the mud and the cake are left out, as long as the hole diameter does not change
within the zone between the receiving units or as long as the sonde is kept in a position
parallel to the hole; this can be obtained because of the use of centring devices.
The travel time recorded, ∆t, is the time required for the energy to cross one foot of
formation, so that it is the reciprocal of the velocity of sound through that same foot of
formation.
Furthermore, the signal is only affected by that portion of the formation between the
receivers, so that, for layers thicker than one foot, the effect due to the ‘adjacent’ layer is
removed.
All told, the one-receiver sonde reduces the effect of travel time through mud and cake as
the distance between generator and receiver is increased, it provides a very detailed log,
but it is more sensitive to variations’ in hole diameter and to the effect of bed thickness
and requires a larger energy output from the generator. None of these disadvantages
affects the two-receiver sonde.
Figure 5-15 shows the more recent BHC-SL sonde developed by Schlumberger. It
essentially consists of two pulse generators, S1 and S2, and four receivers; R1-R2-R3,-R4;
the distance R1-R3, and R2-R4 is two ft. The speed is calculated by measuring the transit
time difference for a pulse moving from S1 to R2 and R1 and, similarly, for a pulse from S2
to R1, and R3, the two differences are then averaged.
Of more recent application is the Long Spacing, Sonic Log with further improvements
meant to eliminate the influence of the borehole. A further improvement should be
obtained by the introduction of the DD-BHC (Depth Derived Borehole Compensated)
Sonic Log, having construction features likely to achieve more accurate ∆t
measurements.
(a) (b)
Figure 5-14 – Schematic of Sonic Probes
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FDC Apparatus
For a satisfactory measurement of the density of the formations, the instrument being
used must be in direct contact with the rock to be tested and, therefore, it must be
capable of overcoming the mud cake between the well and the formation. This is the
reason why the skid, on which source and receiver are mounted, is plough-shaped and
provided with an eccentric arm which allows the application of a force such as to favour
the opening of a crack on the wall of the hole, thus allowing a more accurate
measurement. In the normal case, it is easier to cut through the soft cakes usually
encountered at shallow and medium depths, while at higher depths the harder cake offers
a higher resistance. In the latter case the cake, or the mud left between the instrument
and the formation, is considered to be part of the formation and an erroneous density
value is the result.
When the contact between skid and formation is not perfect a correction is needed and,
when a single gamma ray detector is used, it is not easy to determine the error because it
depends on the thickness, the weight and even the composition of the mud cake.
For this reason the FDC instrument is equipped with two detectors, one for short and one
for long-range measurements (Figure 5-18).
Using the diagram in Figure 5-19 uses short and long-range measurements for obtaining
the correct value for the formation density. In the normal case the instrument
automatically provides the correction; in fact the correction curve is also normally present
alongside the apparent density curve.
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The distance between the face of the skid contacting the formation and the eccentric arm
provides a ‘Calliper Log’ and, hence, a continuous measurement of borehole diameter.
where:
∆t = Transit time of sound through the formation (µsec/ft)
where:
∆tfl = Is assumed to have a value of 200µsec/ft (a conservative value for
pore pressure gradient calculations)
Wyllie’s equation also equals zero in the case of compacted limestones and dolomites,
where no secondary porosity is present.
In the case of uncemented or under-compacted formations, the preceding relationship no
longer holds when determining the primary porosity of the formation. In fact, the values
are higher than those obtained in the subsurface. .
A series of laboratory tests on rock cores determine the following relationships to ‘be
valid:
∆t − ∆t max
φ = 1.228
∆t + 200 for sands
Eq. 5-15
∆t − ∆t max
φ = 1.268
∆t + 200 for shales
Eq. 5-16
The above relationships have been confirmed during actual drilling. In fact, density values
deter-mined by the FDC and total density values calculated from the relationship shown
above have been found to correspond very closely.
This represents the pressure change between the two surfaces at different depths.
In the above-mentioned interval a constant value far density can be assumed, and a
certain volume for the rock formation can be defined.
Eq. 5-17 may therefore be written in the following way:
σbVt = σmax Vmax + σflVfl Eq. 5-18
where
σb = Total density
Vt = Total volume
and by defining:
Vfl
φ= if SW= 100%
Vt
so that:
σ b σ max (1 − φ) + σ fl φ Eq. 5-22
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It should be noted that 2.75 (g/cm3) is the value assumed for σmax and 1.03(g/cm3) for
σfl.
Eq. 5-23 and Eq. 5-24 give approximately equal values for low transit times (∆t between
40 and 60sec/ft) and therefore for high velocities (Figure 5-23 - Figure 5-24); for high ∆t
values, instead, they are quite different.
In order to check these relationships, density values obtained through Eq. 5-23 and Eq.
5-24 were compared with those values obtained from the FDC, which gives bulk density
values as a function of depth.
In the examined cases, referring to different areas around the World and different
formations, it was noted that the values given by Eq. 5-23, which were assumed to hold
for uncemented formations, are actually close to FDC density values under all conditions.
Figure 5-25 - Figure 5-32 show the FDC density values (dashed line) and those obtained
by Eq. 5-24 (dotted line) as a function of depth.
In particular for Figure 5-29 and Figure 5-30, both the values obtained from Eq. 5-23
(dots) and those obtained from Eq. 5-24 (dashes) were reported. In the first case the two
relationships give results which are quite similar, because of the presence of Limestones
(low ∆t values). In the second case, with altering sands and shales, the values are
noticeably dissimilar and it can be noted that the values from Eq. 5-24 match quite
faithfully the average density values from the FDC.
In conclusion it can be said that for calculation ease, Eq. 5-24 may be applied to all types
of formations in order to avoid distinguishing between cemented and uncemented
formations, which is sometimes difficult.
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Table 5-b gives a list of the most common values for σmax:
Figure 5-23 - Density Travel Time Relationship (For some Rock Types)
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Figure 5-24 - Sound Velocity- Bulk Density Relationship (For some Rock Types)
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Figure 5-25 - Comparison Between Bulk Densities from FDC and Sl (Central PO Valley)
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DEPTH m
Figure 5-26 - Carbonatic Rocks Eq. 5-22/Eq. 5-23 (Give the same Bulk Density and are in
good accordance with FDC values)
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Figure 5-27 - Sand and Shale Interbeddings (Bulk Densities derived from Eq. 5-23 are in
better accordance with FDC values than those obtained from Eq. 5-22)
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Figure 5-28 - Comparison Between Bulk Densities from FDC and SL (Indonesia Offshore)
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Figure 5-29 - Comparison Between Bulk Densities from FDC and SL (Mauritania Onshore)
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Figure 5-30 - Comparison Between Bulk Density from FDC and Sl (Nile Delta - Egypt)
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Figure 5-31 - Comparison Between Bulk Densities from FDC and SL (Adriatic Offshore)
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Figure 5-32 - Comparison Between Bulk Densities from FDC and SL (Adriatic Offshore)
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From this relationship, the overburden gradient can be obtained by distributing the
resulting pressure value over the whole interval H, so that:
G OV =
∑ ∆P OVi
=
POV
x 10
∑ ∆H i H Eq. 5-27
For a correct evaluation of the At corresponding to a given ∆Hi, the following procedure is
suggested:
1) The number of milliseconds elapsed for the sound wave to cross the formation
interval having thickness AH is read (this is done by counting the ITT pips on the SL
to the left.
2) This value is multiplied by 1,000 to change milliseconds into microseconds, and is
divided by the value of AH; in order to obtain the values of At, measured in sec/ft, H
must be changed from meters to ft by dividing by 3.28.
3) The final expression takes the form:
K x 1000
∆t = Eq. 5-28
3.28 x ∆H
where:
K = Milliseconds required far passing through a section of formation of height ∆H.
This value for ∆t represents the average transit time in the interval ∆H.
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Sample Calculation
The following example refers to a well in which the SL recording started at 279m and
ended at 1,500m.
1) In the interval 279-307m; the readings are:
K = 7 msec
∆H = 28m
SL recordings (and even more so, FDC recordings) almost always start at a given
depth. For this reason it is necessary to extrapolate the values up to the surface.
The procedure is as follows:
• for on-shore wells the surface Gov value may vary between 1.9 and 1.95
g/cm2 10m (depending on the area being investigated)
• for off-shore wells, given that the depths read from the logs refer to the
Rotary Table level, the air gap (height of rotary table-sea level) and sea
depth have to be taken into account.
If a density value of 1.03 g/cm3 is assumed for sea water, the pressure on the sea
floor is calculated:
∆P =
1.03 x H m
10
(
kg / cm 2 ) Eq. 5-29
where:
Hm = Water depth, m
where:
H1 = Ar gap, m
∆H = 20m
4 x 1000
∆t = = 61 µ sec/ ft
3.28 x 20
H(m) ∆t(µsec/ft)
279-307 76.2
307-327 61
327-344 53.8
344-354 61
354-375 58
375-397 55.4
397-420 52
420-461 52.7
461-487 59
487-510 53
510-636 51
636-710 62
710-777 54.6
777-815 56.2
815-925 56.6
925-1,275 52.3
1,275-1,500 53
Table 5-c - Example Calculation
The transit times are then changed to ρb, Pov and Gov, as shown in Table 5-d and in
Figure 5-33.
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Figure 5-33- Comparison Between Gov from SL and FDC (In Carbonates PO Valley Basin)
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∆H ∆t σb Pov Gov
400.0 465.0 52.0 2.71 112.90 2.43
465.0 485.0 60.0 2.65 118.21 2.44
485.0 640.0 52.0 2.71 160.34 2.51
640.0 690.0 61.0 2.65 173.59 2.52
690.0 710.0 66.0 2.61 178.81 2.52
710.0 775.0 55.0 2.69 196.33 2.53
775.0 805.0 57.0 2.67 204.37 2.54
805.0 900.0 53.0 2.71 230.11 2.56
900.0 975.0 52.0 2.71 250.50 2.57
975.0 1,050.0 54.0 2.70 270.77 2.58
1,050.0 1,200.0 51.0 2.72 311.66 2.60
1,200.0 1,300.0 52.0 2.71 338.84 2.61
1,300.0 1,400.0 54.0 2.70 365.86 2.61
1,400.0 1,500.0 53.0 2.71 392.92 2.62
1,500.0 1,550.0 52.0 2.71 406.55 2.62
1,550.0 1,600.0 53.0 2.71 420.10 2.63
1,600.0 1,700.0 52.0 2.71 447.28 2.63
1,700.0 1,850.0 53.0 2.71 487.94 2.64
1,850.0 1,925.0 52.0 2.71 508.32 2.64
1,925.0 2,015.0 51.0 2.72 532.85 2.64
2,015.0 2,150.0 46.0 2.76 570.20 2.65
2,150.0 2,225.0 47.0 2.75 590.89 2.66
2,225.0 2,250.0 50.0 2.73 597.72 2.66
2,250.0 2,410.0 54.0 2.70 640.96 2.66
2,410.0 2,450.0 47.0 2.75 651.99 2.66
2,450.0 2,495.0 52.0 2.71 664.22 2.66
2,530.0 2,537.0 52.0 2.71 675.81 2.66
2,537.0 2,590.0 50.0 2.73 690.30 2.67
2,590.0 2,750.0 54.0 2.70 733.54 2.67
2,750.0 2,800.0 47.0 2.75 747.53 2.67
2,800.0 2,900.0 52.0 2.71 774.53 2.67
2,900.0 3,150.0 60.0 2.65 840.93 2.67
3,150.0 3,400.0 44.0 2.78 910.50 2.68
3,400.0 3,550.0 44.0 2.78 952.25 2.68
Table 5-d - Gov Calculations from Sonic Log
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Once the Pov value has been calculated using Eq. 5-31, it is necessary only to divide it
by H=Σ∆Hi in order to obtain Gov.
POV 10
∑ (∆Hiσbi / 10 )
10
GOV = 10
H
=
H
∑ ∆Povi = H Eq. 5-32
where:
σb = Sediment bulk density (g/cm3) as read from the FDC
∆Hi = Depth interval for the formation having the same σb value
Kg
Gov = Overburden gradient,
cm2 * 10m
where:
σ b,1 = (H0) Is the density as read at a depth H = H0
⎛ ∆H ⎞
σ b 2 = σ⎜ H0 + ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 2 ∆H ⎞
σ b 3 = σ ⎜ H0 + ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 3 ∆H ⎞
σ b 4 = σ ⎜ H0 + ⎟ up to σ b 5 = σ(H1)
⎝ 4 ⎠
5) Once the pressure value Pov1 and the integrated density Gov1 for depth H1, have
been calculated, the pressure increase ∆Pov2 for the next interval H2 – H1 = ∆H2 is
calculated, so that for depth H2:
POV 2 = POV1 + ∆POV 2
10 POV 2 (P + ∆POV 2 )
G OV 2 = = 10 OV1
H2 H2
and so on.
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Sample calculation
Let us assume the following FDC log readings to be available:
H(m) σb(g/cm3)
279-300 2.62
300-307 2.47
307-325 2.57
325-350 2.63
350-395 2.62
395-405 2.60
405-475 2.63
475-628 2.65
628-710 2.55
710-725 2.62
725-835 2.65
835-860 2.62
860-1,000 2.65
1,000-1,050 2.63
1,050-1,175 2.62
1,175-1,200 2.63
1,200-1,250 2.64
1,250-1,300 2.63
1,300-1,350 2.65
1,350-1,375 2.66
1,375-1,400 2.64
1,400-1,450 2.63
1,450-1,500 2.64
Table 5-e - Example FDC Data
These values have been plotted in Figure 5-34 and a broken line has thus been obtained
through which a continuous curve has been grown.
∆H
By choosing ∆H = 200 and n = 4, a value of = 50m is thus set for each individual
4
interval.
In this way the density values on the continuous curve have been read every 50m.
Integration was then carried out according to the procedure just explained and the results
are shown in Table 5-f:
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Figure 5-34 Bulk Density and Overburden Gradient Calculation (from FDC)
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The density values could have also been read at the selected depths (every 50m) on the
broken line rather than the curve.
This procedure would not have changed the resulting Gov values substantially.
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where:
∆V = Potential difference = current
I = Current
S = Cross section
L = Length
In dimensional terms, it is a resistance per unit of length. The unit commonly used is the
‘ohm m’.
a) Resistivity of Minerals
Minerals, like all substances, may be classified as metallic conductors, semi-
conductors and insulators depending on their conductivity.
In metal conductors, electricity is conducted by means of valence electrons that are
free to move from one atom to another. This conductivity is limited only by the
presence of impurities and lattice defects and by thermal agitation. Resistivity values
are in the range of 10-3÷10-6.
Semiconductors include those metals in which conduction still occurs through the
flow of electrons but in which the conductivity value is lower than in the case of pure
metals.
The majority of the most common minerals within the lithosphere belongs to the
insulator group with resistivities on the order of 10-6÷10-14 ohm m at room
temperature. The flow of current takes place by means of ions, mostly metallic
cations which, because of the smaller ionic radius, move more easily within the
crystal lattice.
c) Rock Resistivity
The resistivity of rock depends on the resistivity of the minerals present and their
texture but, most of all on the presence (or absence) of water within pores or
fractures.
Consider the case or porous or fractured rocks with water present and let us
differentiate between rocks with quite wide pore sizes and clays, with such small
pore sizes that the movement of the water present in hindered.
The first group includes the water-saturated porous-permeable rocks.
As a rule, except for some sealed voids which are typical of some rocks, the various
rock pores make up a continuous system filled with material which is definitely more
conductive than the rock-forming materials. These materials, therefore, do not
contribute anything towards the flow of electricity which is in fact due essentially to
the water.
It has been proved experimentally that when a sample of rock is filled with a
sequence of waters having different resistivity values R, the resistivity of the rock will
vary in such a way that the ratio of its resistivity to that of the water remains
constant:
R
F= Eq. 5-35
Rw
The constant F, called the ‘Formation Factor’, is a unique characteristic of each type
of rock; it makes it possible to calculate the rock resistivity once the resistivity of the
absorbed water is known. It has been proved that the ‘F’ factor is inversely
proportional to porosity. On the basis of experimental tests, it was been observed
that this relationship can be expressed by an equation such as ‘Archie’s Law’:
Let us now examine a rock made up of clay minerals. Even though these rocks are
very porous, because of the very fine grain of the minerals, they have a very low
permeability and very high surface activity.
Experiments carried out on shale samples have given results which do not concur
with Archie’s Law. The disagreement in the resistivity values is due to the likelihood
of interchange between the cations present in the absorbed water and those
absorbed on the surface of the clay minerals.
Therefore, when shale is impregnated with water at low salinity, a portion of the
absorbed cations will migrate into the water which as a result becomes more
conductive. On the contrary, when water is highly saline, part of the cations will be
adsorbed by the shale and, because of the lower mobility of the adsorbed ions, the
shale shows a higher resistance than would be expected when Eq. 5-35 is applied.
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If the actual value of Rw could be measured, this would make Eq. 5-35 applicable
and would make subsequent evaluation of porosity possible.
When the Fsh method is introduced later on, the procedure for calculating the actual
Rw will be looked at.
where:
Rsh = Shale resistivity
Fsh as defined above when pores are saturated, is a function of shale porosity and thus of
the compaction pressure of the formation at a fixed depth. Its measurement makes it
possible to distinguish between the normally compacted subsurface zones, i.e. with
normal gradient, and those which are undercompacted and thus to recognise those
formations with abnormal pore pressures and gradients.
Pore pressure is recorded in reservoirs as well as in shale or clay bodies. Clay minerals
(fillosilicate) may host among the different layers (except Kaolinite) a variable number of
water molecule depending on drying or compacting conditions. As a consequence clay
porosity may vary depending on water content.
Part of this water is normally made free during the sedimentation process and normally a
clay or shale formation undergoes a compaction process in normal conditions (oceanic
floor or lagoon).
When sedimentation rate (deltaic or torbiditic zones) does not allow because of fast
sediment deposition and burial to “squeeze” out the water the original porosity of the
formation is preserved despite the effect of compaction and burial.
Clay and shale are usually deposited in marine environment (with few exceptions) and
therefore the bound water has a certain salt concentration. Depending on the porosity,
water content and consequently salinity may vary.
When within a shale or clay sequence a log shows a decrease from a normal compacted
clay resistivity trend to lower values, this means the well is entering an undercompacted
body with higher salinity and higher porosity.
The procedure for calculating Fsh is very tedious and complex because of the practical
impossibility of extracting shale samples for measuring Rw, from depth; the application of
this method is, therefore, limited to those particular lithologies made up of sand and shale
interbeddings for which an ‘Rw vs depth’ curve can be drawn.
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Before describing the procedure for calculating the R, curve, the quantities (Rmf)e and
(Rw)e presented above need to be made clear. As we have seen in the section on logs,
the SSP far a clean sand formation is related to the activity of the filtrate and that of the
formation water by the following expression:
aw R
PSS = − K log = − K log mf Eq. 5-38
a mf Rw
In NaCI solutions, which are not too highly concentrated, the activity is, in fact, inversely
proportional to the resistivity of the solution.
For higher NaCI concentrations or other kinds of solutions, the linear relationship between
resistivity and activity for the solution does no longer hold; in order to maintain the
linearity, the quantities (Rmf)e and (Rw)e are introduced; the SSP is then given by:
(Rmf )e
PSS = − K Log Eq. 5-39
(R w )e
By following the procedure just described, the sampling of formation water which is
necessary to measure resistivity is by-passed and under favourable conditions. The K,
curve obtained is quite reliable.
For the other layers, the excursion amplitudes as measured from the shale base line are
usually less than the difference between the readings at the sand base line and those
taken at the shale line, i.e. of the SSP. This may be due to the effect of geometrical
distribution of the media along the path of the SP current, i.e. effects of layer thickness, of
the well, of the invasion, etc.
The reduced excursion amplitude may also result from the presence of appreciable
amounts of interstitial shale in the sands.
Laboratory experiments, using a resistive network, have been made, in order to establish
the effect of geometric distribution and resistivity of the media on the SP and also with the
objective of evaluating the corrections due to such factors. As an example, Figure 5-37
shows some data for a formation with a thickness of e = 10 d (i.e., ten times the diameter
of the well), with invasion diameter Di = 2.05 d, and Rs = Rm.
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It seems necessary that all these factors be known in order to arrive at the correct value
for the ratio between SP and the SSP.
It can be expected, at least in the most favourable instances, that these factors will be
determined through the application of resistivity measurement methods. In the meantime
approximated corrections can be made by using simplified empirical charts.
Figure 5-35- Rw vs. (RW)e and Formation Temperature (Schlumberger Log Interpretation
Charts)
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Figure 5-37 - SP Curves Departure and Relevant Parameters (for a 10d thickness layer)
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Evaluation of (Rw)e
Knowing the ratios (Rmf)e,/(Rw)e may be calculated for each point being considered.
Evaluation of RW
Once (Rw)e has been found Rw is obtained at the various formation temperatures by using
the ‘SP-2 A-12’ diagram.
It is necessary to point out that the larger the number of points taken into consideration
the closer the curve will be to reality. It is obvious that if only a few measurements are
taken a precise reproduction of the actual subsurface situation cannot be made. In such a
case the difficulty can be overcome by using the. ‘Average Rw Curve’ for the zone being
investigated when it is available from previous work. It is calculated by utilising all of the
RW values obtained from nearby wells drilled in that area, though at times RW values at
the various depths may differ from one well to another; a scarcely reliable value is thus
introduced into the calculation for Fsh and, as a consequence, the evaluation of pore
pressure gradients is also affected.
Evaluation of Fsh
Now that the Rw and Csh values are available, the value of Fsh can be calculated as
defined in Eq. 5-37.
The reliability of the results obtained during the predictive stage is highly dependent upon
the evaluation criteria used by the Drilling Engineers thus requiring experience and
awareness on their part.
The analytical method is based on plotting the Fsh values on a semi-log graph with depth
on the Y axis and the Fsh values on the x axis. Once the points read on the logs have
been plotted, interpretation follows and at this stage the same considerations are made
as when the seismic data were analysed which means the use of the ‘equivalent depth
principle’. The analytical procedure can be summarised as follows:
1) For elastic formations, characterised by sand and shale interbeddings under normal
sedimentation and compaction conditions, the points in the graph feature a regular
and progressive increase in values which approaches a straight line called the
‘normal compaction line’. In this case the pore pressure gradient is hydrostatic.
2) If Fsh values decrease at a certain depth, this indicates the possible presence of
formations having porosity greater than what is considered normal at that particular
depth. The point at which the downtrend begins is defined as the ‘overpressure top’.
Once the top has been established the next step concerns the calculation of pore
pressure gradients at various depths. The procedure used for this calculation, as
noted above, is the ‘equivalent depth principle’.
Figure 5-39 - Resistivity Graph for NaCl Solutions (Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts)
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3) Preferably determine SSP from a thick, homogeneous bed using the shale base line from a good adjacent shale. If
necessary correct the SP for bed thickness and invasion to get SSP (Chart SP-3). Determine formation temperature.
(Chart Gen- 6 may be used if necessary).
4) Example of use of Chart SP-1 : SSP = 87 mv, T= 300°F, Find from chart (Rmf)e - (Rw)e
5) For predominantly sodium chloride muds determine (Rmf)e as follows:
6) If Rmf at 75° is greater than 0.1 ohm-m correct Rmf to formation temperature using chart Gen-9 and use (Rmf)e = 0.85 Rmf
7) If Rmf at 75° is less than 0.1 ohm-m use chart SP-2 to derive a value of (Rmf)e at formation temperature.
8) For other muds, see remarks on next page
9) Using results of step 2 and 3, compute (Rw)e - (Rmf)e - (Rw) - (Rmf)e .. Go to chart SP-2 for conversion of (Rw)e to (Rw) at
formation temperature
The values from Table 5-g are plotted in Figure 5-41 on a semilogarithmic scale as a
function of depth.
Table 5-h shows the values of Fsh as calculated on the basis of Rw obtained from Figure
5-41 and Csh (shale conductivity) read directly from the log.
The Fsh values obtained are then plotted as shown in Figure 5-42. This figure also gives
the calculation of pore pressure gradients at two significant depths, 4,700m and 5,000m.
An examination of the curve reveals increasing Fsh values down to a depth of 4,100m,
where the overpressure top may be located; this indicates that formations down to
4,100m are normally compacted and, therefore, also normally pressurised. From this
point, the gradient increases rapidly (rapidly decreasing Fsh values) so that at 4,700m Gp
Kg
has already reached a value of 1.63 2
; below 4,700m, Fsh values increase again,
cm * 10m
but still show overpressure conditions even though the gradient is decreasing (in fact at
Kg
5,000m, Gp = 1.53 ). The same calculation procedure can be applied to any
cm2 * 10m
other point on the curve. It is usually suggested, unless a computer is available to take
readings every 100m and, eventually, to increase the number of readings along the most
important intervals of the curve.
Definition of ∆tsh
As it has been seen when dealing with the calculation of the overburden gradients from
the Sonic Log, interval transit time as measured by the instrument is the time it cakes for
a longitudinal sound wave to cross a certain interval of the formation under investigation.
The result depends on porosity, type of fluid and rock matrix.
When the analysis is limited to clean shales, the transit time, defined as ∆tsh in this case,
is an excellent tool for determining the extent of their compaction or under-compaction
when the fluids contained are of the same type. In fact, a compacted shale will certainly
have a rather low ∆tsh value, whereas for an undercompacted shale the ∆tsh value will be
rather high.
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The preceding discussion is valid especially when clean shales are present; in the case of
silty-sandy shales, or those containing other fluids, ∆tsh will be more or less affected
depending on the percentage in which these materials are present. They can be
responsible for the quantitative inaccuracy of this method. It is up to the person
responsible for the interpretation to undertake a careful analysis of all available data in
order to make an objective judgement about their importance.
For clean shales under conditions of normal compaction, i.e. with a hydrostatic pore
gradient, transit times ∆tsh should decrease with depth as a consequence of the lower
shale porosity; in conditions of undercompaction however, transit times will increase with
depth.
In conclusion, the ∆tsh method permits a precise measurement of the conditions of the
formations crossed, which will be much more accurate if the assumptions made above
are verified.
Depth Csh (Rw) Csh. Rw Fsh Depth Csh (Rw) Csh. Rw Fsh
m. Calc Csh Rw m. Calc Csh Rw
1,015 580 0.12 69.6 0.014 3,760 290 0.040 11.6 0.086
1,167 550 0.1 55 0.018 3,800 240 0.040 9.6 0.104
1,227 500 0.097 53.4 0.019 3,820 250 0.040 10.0 0.100
1,260 550 0.096 52.8 0.019 3,840 320 0.040 11.2 0.089
1,430 670 0.087 58.3 0.017 3,920 220 0.0405 8.9 0.112
1,513 490 0.083 40.7 0.025 3,970 210 0.041 8.6 0.116
1,532 600 0.082 49.2 0.02 3,990 200 0.041 8.2 0.122
1,558 400 0.081 32.4 0.031 4,030 210 0.041 8.6 0.116
1,635 500 0.078 39.0 0.026 4,070 210 0.041 8.6 0.116
1,700 480 0.076 36.5 0.027 4140 220 0.0415 9.1 0.110
1,793 515 0.072 37.1 0.027 4,120 250 0.0415 10.4 0.096
1,872 560 0.069 38.6 0.026 4,140 250 0.042 10.5 0.095
1,944 530 0.067 35.5 0.028 4,160 290 0.042 12.2 0.082
2,036 525 0.064 33.6 0.030 4,175 180 0.042 7.6 0.132
2,135 530 0.061 32.3 0.031 4,200 210 0.042 8.8 0.114
2,175 540 0.060 32.4 0.031 4,240 210 0.043 9.0 0.111
2,215 410 0.059 24.2 0.041 4,270 180 0.043 7.7 0.130
2,320 580 0.057 23.1 0.030 4,280 200 0.043 8.6 0.116
2,380 430 0.056 24.1 0.041 4,340 230 0.044 10.1 0.099
2,460 420 0.054 22.7 0.044 4,390 210 0.044 9.2 0.101
2,520 490 0.053 26.0 0.038 4,440 220 0.045 9.9 0.101
2,570 410 0.051 20.9 0.048 4,480 330 0.046 15.2 0.066
2,680 380 0.0495 18.8 0.053 4,560 330 0.047 15.5 0.065
2,760 390 0.0485 18.9 0.053 4,660 300 0.049 14.7 0.068
2,835 410 0.0475 19.5 0.051 4,700 320 0.0495 15.8 0.063
2,860 380 0.047 17.9 0.056 4,720 320 0.050 16.0 0.063
2,930 500 0.046 23.0 0.043 4,770 260 0.051 13.3 0.075
3,160 300 0.044 13.2 0.076 4,790 280 0.052 14.6 0.068
3,175 350 0.043 15.1 0.066 4,805 310 0.052 16.1 0.062
3,180 420 0.043 18.1 0.055 4,830 360 0.0525 18.9 0.053
3,210 300 0.043 12.9 0.078 4,870 270 0.054 14.6 0.068
3,230 380 0.043 16.3 0.061 4,890 280 0.054 15.1 0.066
3,330 300 0.042 12.6 0.079 4,950 220 0.055 12.2 0.083
3,370 240 0.042 10.1 0.099 5,025 180 0.057 10.3 0.097
3,390 290 0.042 12.2 0.082 5,100 190 0.060 11.4 0.088
3,435 260 0.041 10.7 0.093 5,200 120 0.062 7.4 0.135
3,520 290 0.041 11.9 0.084 5,275 110 0.0664 7.3 0.137
3,620 220 0.0405 8.9 0.112 5,300 90 0.0665 8.0 0.167
3,690 260 0.040 10.4 0.096
Table 5-h - Sample Calculation of Fsh
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In order to obtain the most significant ∆tsh values, and thus a more reliable value for the
pore pressure gradient, the following procedure is used:
• Each shale bed is located by using the IES; as already explained, the
points where the shale is cleaner will be identified by the overlapping of
the SP curve with the shale base line and the overlapping of the ‘short
radius’ and ‘long radius’ resistivity curves.
• Once the depth of the significant shale points is established on the IES,
the value for ∆tsh, is read, at that same depth, on the Sonic Log.
• The Calliper is also carefully checked so as to determine any influence of
the borehole diameter on ∆tsh.
• The ∆tsh values are plotted as a function of depth on semilog paper with
depth on the Y axis and - ∆tsh on the X axis. In this cast also the use of
1/20,000 or 1/10,000 is suggested.
Sample Calculation
These values are then plotted as shown in Figure 5-43. The values of ∆tsh decrease
regularly with depth until about 3,800m, thereby indicating normal compaction and pore
pressure gradient conditions. At 3,800m (overpressure top) values have a tendency to
increase, thus indicating the presence of abnormal pressure zones. The pore pressure
Kg
gradient value remains in the range G = 1.40-1.50 2
up to about 5,400m here a
cm * 10m
further pore pressure increase can be noted.
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ρsh Definition
As already seen in the paragraph dealing with overburden gradient calculation, the bulk
density of the formation is dependent on its matrix, on the type of fluids present and on its
porosity.
Limiting the analysis to the case of clean shales, ρb , now defined as ρsh can be an
excellent tool for determining their degree of compaction and their porosity. In fact, under
conditions of normal compaction and hydrostatic pore pressure gradient, the shale
density constantly increases with depth; in the case of undercompacted shales, with a
porosity higher than normal far that depth, the density will decrease with depth, or
increase irregularly.
Fsh Limitations
For a reliable quantitative evaluation of pore pressure gradients from Fsh, the following
points must be kept in mind:
• The method is not applicable when dealing with carbonate formations; it
can be used only in the case of elastic formations.
• When elastic formation are present, the method may be applied to
frequently interbedded sands and shales only; in fact the Rw curve cannot
be determined in zones where only shale is present.
• If the shale formations under investigation contain fresh water the
resistivity value is higher, and, therefore, the calculated Fsh value is
changed. The compaction trend or the overpressure curve may undergo
shifts that change the value of the pore pressure gradient; shale
formations are not normally pure because they contain silt and sand; in
consequence the resistivity (or conductivity) value increases.
• The SP value can be modified because of poor membrane behaviour of
the shales.
• The SP value is difficult to choose the SP curve does not always perfectly
overlap the shale base line.
• When evaporitic formations are located nearby, the salt content of the
formation water can be altered.
• Borehole cavings or tightenings alter shale resistivity.
• The presence of fluids other than water, such as gas or oil, can alter shale
conductivity.
• Differences in the geological ages of the formations, as well as
transgressive or regressive phenomena, can change the electric
properties of the rock medium.
∆Tsh Limitations
In order to arrive at a reliable quantitative evaluation of pore pressure gradient by means
of ∆tsh the following points must be considered:
• The method is not applicable when dealing with Carbonate formations; it
can be used with elastic formations only;
• With elastic formations the method is best applied in the presence of fairly
clean shales. The amount of sand present can change the transit time of
the sound wave;
• The presence of other fluids, such as gas or oil, can change the value of
∆tsh
• Changes in geological age, as well as unconformity, can change the value
of ∆tsh
• Borehole cavings or tightenings can affect the value of ∆tsh
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• The ∆tsh readings on the Iog can present some difficulties: ‘In fact, after
having established the depths of the shale points on the IES log, it is
difficult to choose a value for ∆tsh that is representative of the shale
because of the irregular at times, trend of the curve. The choice of a
proper value for ∆tsh is left up to the person responsible for the
interpretation who, on the basis of his experience and sound judgement,
will adopt the criterion which is best suited to this case:
• ‘Cycle skipping’, if they are not located, can give erroneous ∆t, values.
ρsh Limitation
For a correct application of the ρsh method the following points must be considered:
• The method may be used with elastic formations only
• Application is limited since the FDC log is usually available only far short
sections of the borehole.