SUB-TROPICAL BROAD LEAF HILL FORESTS ...

17
CONTENTS SUB-TROPICAL MOIST PINE FORESTS ............ 18
SOILS ............................................................................ 2
SUB-TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS ..... 18
SOIL TYPE – SANDY, CLAYEY, LOAMY ................2
MONTANE WET TEMPERATE FORESTS .......... 18
FEATURES OF SOIL ............................................2
HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS .... 19
SOIL PROFILE .....................................................2
HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS ........ 19
FACTOR INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION.........4
ALPINE FORESTS................................................. 19
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS IN INDIA .........................4
GREEN COVER IN INDIA ............................................. 20
ALLUVIAL SOILS .................................................... 5
MAJOR FINDINGS ........................................... 21
BLACK SOILS ......................................................... 6
FOREST CONSERVATION ............................................ 23
RED & YELLOW SOILS ........................................... 7
SOCIAL FORESTRY .......................................... 23
LATERITE – LATERITIC SOILS ................................. 7
FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS ................................ 7
ARID – DESERT SOILS............................................ 8
SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS ..................................... 8
PEATY – MARSHY SOILS........................................ 8
SOIL DEGRADATION ..................................................... 9
SOIL EROSION....................................................9
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION ............................. 10
SOIL SALINISATION ..........................................10
SOIL CONSERVATION ................................................. 10
MAJOR BIOTIC REGIONS ............................................ 11
FOREST BIOME ................................................11
TYPES OF FORESTS & THEIR DISTRIBUTION ....... 11
SAVANNAH BIOME ..........................................13
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND BIOME ....................13
DESERT BIOME ................................................14
VEGETATION IN INDIA................................................ 14
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL VEGETATION IN
INDIA ............................................................... 14
MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS ................................. 14
TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS ............ 14
TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS ........... 15
TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS ........ 15
LITTORAL AND SWAMPS ................................ 16
DRY TROPICAL FORESTS ..................................... 16
TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS ............. 16
TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS............. 16
TROPICAL THORN FORESTS ............................ 17
MONTANE FORESTS ........................................... 17
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SOILS
▪ Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust
comprising rock particles mixed with organic
matter.
▪ Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic
materials which covers the earth’s surface.
▪ Soils are formed over millions of years of
weathering of rocks, deposition of the residue
and action of climate and living organisms on
that residue.
Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil
formation that includes a variety of processes such
as weathering, leaching, calcification etc.
▪ Soils are crucial for survival and growth of
plants and for maintaining various bio-
geochemical cycles like nitrogen cycle, sulphur
cycle, phosphorus cycle, carbon cycle etc.
SOIL TYPE – SANDY, CLAYEY,
LOAMY
▪ Based on the proportion of particles of various
sizes, soils are classified as:
✓ If soil contains greater proportion of big
particles it is called sandy soil.
✓ If the proportion of fine particles is
relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil.
✓ If the amount of large and fine particles is
about the same, then the soil is called
loamy soil.
▪ Water can drain quickly through spaces
between the sand particles. So, sandy soils are
light, well aerated and dry.
▪ Clay particles are much smaller and are not
well aerated. They have high water-retention,
as water can be held in the tiny gaps between
the particles.
▪ Best topsoil for growing plants is loam. Loamy
soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt (occurs
as a deposit in river beds). The size of the silt
particles is between those of sand and clay.
The loamy soil also has humus in it. It has the
right water holding capacity for the growth of
plants.
▪ Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for
growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such
soils are good at retaining water.
▪ For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter
and having a good capacity to retain water are
ideal.
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FEATURES OF SOIL
SOIL TEXTURE
▪ Textures range from clay (<0.002mm), silt
(0.002mm-2mm) and sand (>2mm) at the
extremes, to a loam which has all three sized
fractions present. The main influence of
texture is on permeability which generally
decreases with decreasing particle size.
SOIL AIR
▪ A certain amount of air is contained between
the individual soil particles except for the
waterlogged soils.
SOIL MOISTURE
▪ In damp climates, especially in high latitudes
where the evaporation rate is low, water tends
to move predominantly downward,
particularly in coarse-grained sandy soils. This
dissolves the soluble minerals in the soil,
together with soluble humus material and
carries both downward, a process called
leaching or eluviation.
▪ In a hot & arid climate, evaporation exceeds
precipitation, so the water tends to move
upward, and the soil dries out.
SOIL COLOUR
▪ Soil colour is determined by the amount of
organic matter and the state of the iron.
▪ Free draining, well aerated soils (with pore
space dominated by oxygen) have rich brown
colours.
▪ In contrast, poorly drained soils, often referred
to as gleys, develop under anaerobic
conditions (the pore space dominated by
water) and have grey or blue-grey colours.
SOIL pH
▪ Acidic: It is common in region where
precipitation is high. The high precipitation
leaches appreciable amounts of exchangeable
bases from the surface layers of the soils.
▪ Alkaline: Alkali soils occur when there is
comparatively high degree of base saturation.
When salts of strong base such as sodium
carbonate go into soil solution and hydrolyse,
consequently they give rise to alkalinity.
SOIL PROFILE
▪ A vertical section through different layers of
the soil is called the soil profile.
▪ Each layer differs in texture, colour, depth, and
chemical composition. These layers are
referred to as horizons.
IMPORTANT TERM
Soil horizon: A layer generally parallel to the soil surface,
whose physical characteristics differ from the layers
above and beneath. These are defined in most cases by
obvious physical features, chiefly colour and texture.
O-HORIZON
▪ Part of the topsoil which is dominated by
organic material (humus) which gives it a dark
colour.
Figure 1 – Soil Profile
▪ Some O-layers consist of un-decomposed or
partially decomposed litter (such as leaves,
twigs, moss, and lichens).
A-HORIZON OR SURFACE SOIL
▪ It is the part of top soil.
▪ This layer consists of both organic materials
and other decomposed minerals.
▪ This layer is soft enough to hold water and air.
▪ The germination of seeds takes place here.
▪ It also supports organisms like earthworms,
fungi etc.
▪ This layer is depleted of iron, clay, aluminium,
organic compounds & other soluble
constituents.
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▪ When depletion is pronounced, a lighter
coloured "E" soil horizon is apparent at the
base of "A" horizon.
E HORIZON
▪ "E" stands for eluviated layer.
▪ It is the horizon that has been significantly
leached of clay, iron, and aluminium oxides,
which leaves a concentration of resistant
minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and silt
sizes. (Process of Eluviation).
IMPORTANT TERM
Eluviation: Transport of soil material and minerals from
upper layers to lower horizons by downward percolation
of water.
Illuviation: Accumulation of materials coming from upper
layers in the bottom layers.
B-HORIZON OR SUBSOIL
▪ It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical or
physical alteration of parent material.
▪ This layer accumulates all the leached minerals
from A and E horizon.
▪ Thus iron, clay, aluminium & organic
compounds accumulate in this horizon
resulting in formation of hard pans. (Process of
Illuviation).
C-HORIZON OR PARENT ROCK
▪ Weathered parent material accumulates in
this layer, i.e. the parent material in
sedimentary deposits.
▪ It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
R-HORIZON OR BEDROCK
▪ Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely
comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
▪ Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong
similarities to this bedrock layer.

FACTOR INFLUENCING SOIL
FORMATION
Climate
Parent
Topography
Material
Soil
Living
Time Organisms
PARENT MATERIAL
▪ The rocks from which soils are formed are
called parent materials. In most cases, the
parent material determines the colouration,
mineral composition and texture of the soil.
▪ In some cases, the soil formed may or may not
have the same physical properties of the
parent rock because climatic factors induce
some chemical changes which might change
the soil properties.
▪ Soils derived from ancient gneiss and schists
are often red in colour due to presence of iron
oxide.
▪ Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks give clayey and
calcareous (rich in calcium carbonate) soils.
▪ Weathering of basaltic rocks of Deccan Traps
yielded black regur soils rich in titanium,
magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
TOPOGRAPHY OR RELIEF
▪ Relief is the most imp factor for soil formation
in places with steep slopes like hilly regions,
edges of plateaus etc.
▪ Rampant soil erosion on barren slopes hinders
soil formation. E.g. Chambal ravines, higher
reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal
forest cover, etc.
▪ Areas of low relief or gentle slope generally
experience deposition and have deep soils.
E.g.: Indo-Gangetic plain.
CLIMATE
▪ Temperature & rainfall determine the
effectiveness of weathering of parent
material, the quantity of water seeping
through soil & the type of micro-organisms
present therein.
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▪ Two different parent materials may develop
the same soil in the same type of climate.
Similarly, same parent material may produce
two different types of soils in two different
types of climates.
▪ E.g. crystalline granites produce laterite soil in
relatively moist parts of the monsoon India
and non-laterite soil in drier areas. In
Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give
birth to sandy soil under arid climate.
▪ In Rajasthan & adjoining arid regions, excess of
evaporation makes soils lime accumulating.
(rich in calcium carbonate and low on soil
organic matter).
▪ In cold climates of Himalayan region, process
of vegetation decay is very slow and the soils
are acidic in nature.
▪ In areas of heavy rainfall & high temperature,
the soils are red or lateritic. This is because
torrential rainfall during rainy season washes
the upper soil and leaches the materials into
deeper horizon. During dry season,
evaporation exceeds precipitation & through
capillary action iron and aluminium oxides are
transported to the surface making the soil red.
▪ In areas of alternate wet & dry climate, the
leached material which goes deep down in the
horizon is brought up and the blazing sun
bakes the top soil so hard that it resembles a
brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic
(literally brick)
LIVING ORGANISMS
▪ The decayed plant material adds much needed
humus to soil thereby increasing its water
retention capacity and fertility.
▪ Densely forested areas contain some of the
best soils in India. There is a close relationship
between the vegetation types and soil types in
India.
TIME
▪ The soils which are undergoing soil forming
processes for a longer period are deeper, more
developed & relatively more fertile.
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS IN INDIA
▪ In earlier times, soils used to be classified into
two main groups – Urvara and Usara, which
were fertile and sterile (or saline) respectively.
▪ Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be (calcareous concretions) beds are present in
divided into soils of peninsular India and soils some regions along the river terraces.
of extra-peninsular India. ▪ The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal
▪ The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the proportion of sand and clay) nature. Porosity
decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. directly and texture provide good drainage and other
from the underlying rocks with little conditions favourable for agriculture.
transportation and re-deposition. Hence, they ▪ These soils are constantly replenished by the
are also termed as sedentary or zonal soils. recurrent floods.
▪ The soils of the Extra-Peninsula (Indo- ▪ The proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus is
Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains) are formed due generally low, but the proportion of potash,
to the depositional work of rivers and wind. and alkalis (lime) are adequate.
They are very deep. They are often referred to ▪ The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary
as transported or azonal soils. within a wide range.
▪ As per the United States Department of
CROPS IN ALLUVIAL SOILS
Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy, Indian soils
are classified as shown in the table below:
▪ The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has
classified Indian soils based on genesis, colour,
composition and location, as follows:
1. Alluvial soils
2. Black soils
3. Red soils
4. Laterite and Lateritic soils
5. Forest and Mountain soils
6. Arid and Desert soils
7. Saline and Alkaline soils
8. Peaty and Marshy soils

ALLUVIAL SOILS
▪ They are the largest soil group covering about
15 lakh km2 or about 45.6 per cent of the total
land area of the country.
▪ Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt
deposited by Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra rivers.
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent
material.
▪ They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where
they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal
alluvium).
▪ Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada,
Tapti valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
▪ They support more than 40% of India’s
population by providing the most productive
agricultural lands.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALLUVIAL SOILS
▪ They are immature and have weak profiles
due to their recent origin.
▪ Alluvial soil vary in nature from sandy loam to
clay. Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar

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 Figure 2 – Soil Groups in India
▪ They are mostly flat and regular soils and are
best suited for agriculture.
▪ They are best suited to irrigation and respond
well to the canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
▪ They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat,
sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, etc.
BLACK SOILS
▪ Spread over 5.2 lakh km2 (16.6 %) of the total
land area across Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
▪ The parent material for most of the black soil
are the volcanic rocks that were formed in the
Deccan Traps. In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and
schists form the parent material.
▪ These are the regions of high temperature and
low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical
to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK SOILS
▪ In general, black soils of uplands are of low
fertility while those in the valleys are very
fertile.
▪ A typical black soil is highly clayey. So, it is
highly retentive of moisture. It swells greatly
on accumulating moisture & becomes sticky.
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▪ In the rainy season, the soil gets very sticky and
hence ploughing, and other agricultural
activities demand more effort.
▪ In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil
shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep
cracks which permit oxygenation of the soil
making it more fertile. Thus, it is also known as
“self-ploughing soil”.
▪ The black colour is due to the presence of a
small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or
iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
▪ In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh,
the black colour is derived from crystalline
schists and basic gneisses.
▪ Soil is rich in alumina, iron oxide & lime. But
phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
CROPS IN BLACK SOILS
▪ These soils are best suited for cotton crop.
Hence these soils are called as regur and black
cotton soils.
▪ Other major crops grown on the black soils
include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco,
castor, sunflower and millets. Rice and
sugarcane are equally important where
irrigation facilities are available.
▪ This soil has been used for growing a variety of
crops for centuries without adding fertilisers
and manures, with little or no evidence of
exhaustion.
RED & YELLOW SOILS
▪ Red soils along with its minor groups occupy
about 3.5 lakh km2 (10.6 %) of the total area of
the country.
▪ Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern part of the Deccan Plateau. The main
parent rocks are like acid granites, gneisses
and quartzites.
▪ Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat,
long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy
soil.
▪ Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of
Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the southern
parts of the middle Ganga plain.
▪ These soils are spread on almost the whole of
Tamil Nadu. Other regions include parts of
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; and parts of
North-Eastern states.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RED SOILS
▪ The red colour is due to presence of iron oxide.
It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated
form.
▪ The texture of these soils can vary from sand
to clay, the majority being loams.
▪ On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly,
and porous. But in the lower areas, they are
rich, deep dark and fertile.
▪ They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the
parent rocks.
▪ They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates,
nitrogen, potash and humus.
CROPS IN RED SOILS
▪ The red soils are mostly loamy and hence
cannot retain water like the black soils.
▪ The red soils, with the proper use of fertilisers
and irrigation techniques, give a good yield of
cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco,
oilseeds, potatoes and fruits.
LATERITE – LATERITIC SOILS
▪ These soils develop in areas with high
temperature & high rainfall with alternate
wet & dry periods. These are the result of
intense leaching due to tropical rains.
▪ With rain, lime & silica are leached away, and
soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium
compound are left behind. Laterite soils are
mostly the end products of weathering.
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▪ Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh km2.
▪ Humus content of the soil is removed fast by
bacteria that thrives well in high temperature.
▪ Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree
crops like cashewnut.
▪ These soils have mainly developed in the
higher areas of the Peninsular plateau. The
laterite soils are commonly found in
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and
Assam.
▪ Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on
the summits of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats,
Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyas, Satpuras and
Malwa Plateau. They are well developed in
south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc.
and are widely scattered in other regions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LATERITE SOIL
▪ ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden
greatly on losing moisture.
▪ Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay
and more gravel of red sand-stones.
▪ Laterite soils are rich in aluminium and iron
oxides. They are very poor in lime, magnesia,
potash, phosphate, organic matter and
nitrogen.
▪ Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable
building material. These soils can be easily cut
into cakes but hardens like iron when exposed
to air.
▪ As it is the end-product of weathering, it
cannot be weathered much further and is
durable.
CROPS IN LATERITE SOILS
▪ Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive
leaching.
▪ When manured and irrigated, some laterites
are suitable for growing plantation crops like
tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut,
arecanut, etc. In some areas, these soils
support grazing grounds and scrub forests.
▪ Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree
crops like cashewnut.
FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS
▪ These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh km2 or
8.67% of the total land area of India.
▪ They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on
the hill slopes covered by forests.
▪ The formation of these soils is mainly governed
by the characteristic deposition of organic
matter derived from forests and their
character changes with parent rocks, ground
configuration and climate. Consequently, they
differ greatly even if they occur in close
proximity to one another.
▪ In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly
found in valleys, less steep and north facing
slopes. The south-facing slopes are very steep
and exposed to denudation and hence do not
support soil formation.
▪ In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas,
they experience denudation, and are acidic
with low humus content. The soils found in the
lower valleys are fertile.
▪ Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern
Ghats also.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS
▪ The forest soils are very rich in humus.
▪ They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and
lime.
CROPS IN FOREST – MOUNTAIN SOILS
▪ They require a good deal of fertilisers for high
yields.
▪ They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee,
spices and tropical fruits in the peninsular
forest region.
▪ Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are
grown in the Himalayan forest region.
ARID – DESERT SOILS
▪ They occur in arid & semi-arid regions of
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, & cover a total
area of 1.42 lakh km2 (4.32%).
▪ The sand here is blown from the Indus basin
and the coast by the prevailing south-west
monsoon winds.
▪ Sandy soils without clay factor are also
common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.
▪ The desert soils consist of aeolian (wind
carried) sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to
10 per cent).
▪ The presence of sand inhibits soil growth.
Desertification of neighbouring soils is
common due to the intrusion of sand.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARID DESERT SOIL
▪ They are poor in organic matter.
▪ Some desert soils are alkaline with varying
degree of soluble salts like calcium carbonate.
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Calcium content increases downwards, and
the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
▪ The phosphate content of these soils is as high
as in normal alluvial soils.
▪ Nitrogen is originally low, but some of it is
available in the form of nitrates.
CROPS IN ARID – DESERT SOILS
▪ Phosphates and nitrates make these soils
fertile wherever moisture is available.
▪ There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if
proper irrigation facilities are available.
▪ In large areas, only the drought resistant and
salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton,
millets, maize, and pulses are grown.
SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS
▪ Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 km2 of
area. These soils are found in canal irrigated
areas and areas of a high sub-soil water table.
▪ It is found in parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper or
excess irrigation), Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Maharashtra.
▪ These soils have more salts, largely because of
dry climate and poor drainage. They occur in
arid and semi-arid regions, and in
waterlogged and swampy areas.
▪ Thus, areas around the Gulf of Khambhat
(affected by the sea tides carrying salt-laden
deposits), estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi,
the Mahi and the Sabarmati have these soils
▪ Along the coastline, saline sea waters infiltrate
into coastal regions during storm surges (when
cyclones make landfall) and make the soil unfit
for cultivation. The low-lying regions of coastal
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind
of soil degradation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SALINE – ALKALINE SOILS
▪ In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the topsoil is
saturated with saline and alkaline
efflorescence of sodium, magnesium and
calcium salts and sulphurous acid.
▪ The accumulation of these salts makes the soil
infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
PEATY – MARSHY SOILS
▪ They are found in areas of heavy rainfall & high
humidity, where there is a good growth of
vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead
organic matter accumulates in these areas,
 and this gives a rich humus and organic
content to the soil. (upto 40-50 per cent).
▪ It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar,
southern part of Uttarakhand and the coastal
areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
In Kerala’s Kottayam & Alappuzha districts, it is
called kari.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEATY – MARSHY SOILS
▪ These are soils with a large amount of organic
matter and a considerable amount of soluble
salts.
▪ The most humid regions have this type of soil.
▪ These soils are normally heavy, black in colour
& highly acidic. At many places, they are
alkaline also.
▪ They are deficient in potash and phosphate.
CROPS IN PEATY – MARSHY SOILS
▪ Most of the peaty soils are under water during
the rainy season but as soon the rains cease,
they are put under paddy cultivation.
QUESTION 1
Q. Which of the following statements
regarding laterite soils of India are correct?
[2013]
1. They are generally red in colour.
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash.
3. They are well-developed in Rajasthan and
UP.
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these
soils.
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2 and 3 only
Answer: C
QUESTION 2
Q. When you travel in certain parts of India,
you will notice red soil. What is the main
reason for this colour? [2010]
(a) Abundance of magnesium
(b) Accumulated humus
(c) Presence of ferric oxides
(d) Abundance of phosphates
Answer: C
QUESTION 3
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Q. With reference to agricultural soils, consider
the following statements: (2018)
1. A high content of organic matter in soil
drastically reduces its water holding
capacity.
2. Soil does not play any role in the Sulphur
cycle.
3. Irrigation over a period of time can
contribute to the salinization of some
agricultural lands.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
SOIL DEGRADATION
▪ In a broad sense, soil degradation can be
defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the
nutritional status declines and depth of the soil
goes down due to erosion and misuse.
▪ Soil degradation is the main factor leading to
the depleting soil resource base in India. The
degree of soil degradation varies from place to
place according to the topography, wind
velocity and amount of the rainfall.
▪ Every year, India loses millions of tonnes of soil
and its nutrients to the agents of its
degradation, which adversely affects our
national productivity.
▪ Degradation of soil can be greatly attributed to
soil erosion and soil salinisation.
SOIL EROSION
▪ The removal of top soil cover by exogenic
agents like running water, winds etc. is
referred to as soil erosion.
▪ The soil forming processes and the erosional
processes of running water and wind go on
simultaneously in nature under a delicate
balance.
▪ Sometimes, such a balance is disturbed by
natural or human factors, leading to a greater
rate of removal of soil.
▪ Human activities like reckless agriculture,
deforestation and changing land use are
responsible for accelerated erosion of soil.
▪ Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-
arid regions. In regions with heavy rainfall and
IMPORTANT TERM
Contour Bunding
▪ Contour bunding or contour ploughing or contour
farming is the practice of creating a water break
(bunds) along the contour lines in hilly areas to reduce
the speed of water flowing downslope.
Check Dams
▪ A small dam constructed across the waterway to
counteract erosion.
Wind Breaks or shelter belts
▪ A belt of trees planted around the fields to provide
shelter from winds.
steep slopes, erosion by running water is more
significant.
▪ Gully erosion is common on steep slopes.
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
▪ Soil erosion leads to loss of fertile soils.
▪ Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the
agricultural lands into small fragments and
make them unfit for cultivation.
▪ Eroded materials are carried down to rivers
and they lower down their carrying capacity,
and cause frequent floods and damage to
agricultural lands.
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SOIL SALINISATION
▪ A fairly large area of arable land in the irrigated
zones of India is becoming saline because of
overirrigation.
▪ The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the soil
comes up to the surface and destroys its
fertility. Chemical fertilisers in the absence of
organic manures are also harmful to the soil.
▪ Unless the soil gets enough humus, chemicals
harden it and reduce its fertility in the long run.
▪ This problem is common in all the command
areas of the river valley projects, which were
the first beneficiaries of the Green Revolution.
▪ According to estimates, about half of the total
land of India is under some degree of
degradation.
SOIL CONSERVATION
▪ Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain
soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and
exhaustion, and improve the degraded
condition of the soil.
▪ Lands with a slope gradient of 15 - 25 per cent
should not be used for cultivation. If at all the
land is to be used for agriculture, terraces
should carefully be made.
▪ Over-grazing and shifting cultivation must be
checked by educating villagers about the
consequences.
▪ Contour bunding Contour terracing, regulated
forestry, controlled grazing, cover cropping,
mixed farming and crop rotation are some of
the remedial measures which are often
adopted to reduce soil erosion.
▪ In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts should be
made to protect cultivable lands from
encroachment by sand dunes through
developing shelter belts of trees and agro-
forestry.
▪ The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by Figure 3 –
Major Biomes
the Government of India, has prepared a

MAJOR BIOTIC REGIONS

▪ The land areas of the world can be divided into
four major biotic regions or biomes depending
upon:
✓ Natural vegetation of the region (most
important factor)
✓ Climate of the region
✓ Soil of the region
▪ These biotic regions include:

number of plans for soil conservation in 1. Forest Biome

different parts of the country.
QUESTION 4
Q. Contour bunding is a method of soil
conservation used in [2013]
(a) Desert margins liable to strong winds
(b) Low flat plains liable to flooding
(c) Scrublands liable to weed growth
(d) None of the above
Answer: D
QUESTION 5
Q. If a tropical rainforest is removed, it does
not regenerate quickly as compared to a
tropical deciduous forest. This is because
[2011]
(a) Rainforest soil is deficient in nutrients.
(b) Propagules of trees in a rain forest have poor
viability.
(c) Rainforest species area slow growing.
(d) Exotic species invade fertile soil of rainforest
Answer: A
2. Savanna Biome (Tropical grassland)
3. Steppe Biome (Temperate grassland)
4. Desert Biome
▪ These biotic regions are further divided into
various biomes as seen in the figure below.
FOREST BIOME
▪ A forest is a vegetative community consisting
of trees growing close together and forming a
consistent canopy.
▪ Forests require relatively large annual
precipitation. Density of forest is proportional
to amount of moisture available.
▪ A variety of different forests are found in
different parts of the world depending on the
precipitation and temperature patterns.
TYPES OF FORESTS & THEIR
DISTRIBUTION
TAIGA OR BOREAL FORESTS

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▪ This biome is found south of tundra biome in
northern hemisphere.
▪ Taiga or boreal biome is a biome characterized
by coniferous forests consisting mostly of
pines, spruces, and larches.
▪ The taiga or boreal forest is the world's largest
land biome by area.
▪ The conifers require little moisture are best
suited to this type of sub-Arctic climate.
▪ The productivity of boreal forest is lower than
those of any other forest ecosystem.
▪ Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin
podzols and are rather poor. This is because:
✓ the weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in
cold environments.
IMPORTANT TERM
Podzols
▪ The typical soils of a coniferous or boreal biome.
▪ The soils are characterized by low levels of moisture
and nutrients.
▪ The low pH (acidic soil) is due to excessive leaching of
alkaline matter which if present would neutralize the
organic acids of the accumulating litter.
▪ Hence, most Podzols are poor soils for agriculture. They
are mostly used for grazing.
✓ the litter derived from conifer needle (leaf)
is decomposed very slowly and is not rich
in nutrients (humus content is low).
✓ conifers do not shed their leaves
frequently.
▪ Animals found in this region include Siberian
tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox,
squirrel, and amphibians etc.
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS BIOME
▪ They are found in areas with warm moist
summers and cool winters. The natural
vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous.
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▪ The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
This is an adaptation for protecting themselves
against the winter snow and frost.
▪ Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season.
Growth begins in spring.
▪ The six major areas of this forest type occur in
the Northern Hemisphere: North America,
East Asia, Central and Western Europe (except
Brittany, Cornwall, Wales, Ireland, and
western Scotland), Denmark, southern
Sweden and southern Norway.
▪ Smaller areas, occur in Australasia and
southern South America.
▪ Examples of typical trees in the Northern
Hemisphere's deciduous forests include oak,
maple, beech and elm, while in the Southern
Hemisphere, trees of the genus Nothofagus
dominate this type of forest.
TEMPERATE RAINFOREST BIOME
▪ Temperate rainforests are coniferous or
broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate
zone and receive heavy rainfall.
▪ This is a small biome in terms of area covered.
▪ The main stretch of this habitat is along the
northwestern coast of North America from
northern California through southern Alaska.
▪ There are also small areas in southern Chile,
New Zealand, Australia and a few other places
around the world.
▪ Big coniferous trees dominate this habitat,
including Douglas fir, Western red cedar,
Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka
spruce and Lodgepole pine.
▪ In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are
very common, often growing as epiphytes.
▪ Grizzly bears are the common mammals found
in Alaska.
MEDITERRANEAN BIOME
▪ Found in regions with Mediterranean type
climate.
▪ Trees with small broad leaves are widely
spaced and never very tall. Shrubs dominate
the landscape in drier regions.
▪ Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited
by low, broad-leafed evergreen trees (mostly
evergreen oaks).
▪ Wildfire is an important hazardous factor in
this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the
plants enable them to regenerate quickly after
being burnt.
▪ Plants are in a continuous struggle against
heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and
prolonged droughts.
▪ They are, in short xerophytic (drought
tolerant).
TROPICAL DECIDUOUS BIOME
▪ Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a
drought-deciduous forest, dry forest, dry-
deciduous forest or tropical deciduous forest.
▪ Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham,
sandalwood, khair, mulberry are some of the
important species.
TROPICAL RAINFOREST BIOME
▪ This biome consists of equatorial rainforests
and other tropical rainforests.
▪ Equatorial rainforests are found in Amazon
Basin (South America); Congo Basin and
coastal stretch from Nigeria to Guinea (Africa);
South east Asian islands, Malaysia.
▪ Regions far from Equator also feature these
forests like Western Ghats, coastal areas of
Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand; Madagascar and
north eastern Australia.
▪ High temperature and abundant rainfall
support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
▪ The equatorial vegetation comprises a
multitude of evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany,
ebony, dyewoods etc.
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▪ In the coastal areas and brackish swamps,
mangrove forests thrive.
▪ All plants struggle upwards for sunlight
resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement
(canopy levels).
▪ Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits
without troubling the host) is a plant that
grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as
a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients
from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris
accumulating around it.
▪ These equatorial rainforests are known as
Selvas and Llanos in South America.
SAVANNAH BIOME
▪ This biome is found in regions with tropical wet
and dry climate.
▪ These areas include Pacific coast of Central
America; highlands of South America; Central
and Eastern Africa, Indian peninsula etc.
▪ This biotic region consists of a combination of
trees and grassland in various proportions.
▪ The biome is marked by limited annual
precipitation with an uneven annual
distribution.
▪ As a result trees grow in small groups which
are scattered across the landscapes.
▪ The trees are short and drought tolerant
species are dominant.
▪ Wildfires are very common in these regions
during long dry and warm season.
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND BIOME
▪ This biome is found in regions with steppe type
climate.
▪ These regions include Continental North
America (Prairies); Central Asia (Steppes),
Argentina (Pampas); South Africa (Veld);
Australia (Downs).
▪ The predominant vegetation in this biome
consists of grass and/or shrubs.
▪ Trees are only found in few locations with MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS
abundant moisture. 1. Tropical Wet Evergreen
2. Tropical Semi Evergreen
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous
4. Littoral and Swamps
DRY TROPICAL FORESTS

Figure 5 – Steppe Biome

DESERT BIOME
▪ This biome is associated with climate of
extreme aridity and features very thinly
dispersed vegetation consisting of grasses and
herbs.
▪ This biome includes regions ranging from hot
tropical desert to extremely cold polar deserts.

Figure 6 – Desert Biome 1. Tropical Dry Evergreen

2. Tropical Dry Deciduous
3. Tropical Thorn
VEGETATION IN INDIA
MONTANE SUBTROPICAL FORESTS
▪ Climate, soil and topography are the major
1. Subtropical Broad Leaf Hill
factors that influence natural vegetation of a
2. Subtropical Moist Hill (Pine)
place.
3. Subtropical Dry Evergreen
▪ Temperature becomes a major factor in the
high altitude regions in Himalayas and MONTANE TEMPERATE FORESTS
peninsular hills. 1. Montane Wet Temperate
▪ Soils and topography are a major factor behind 2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
the formation of mangrove and littoral forests. 3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
▪ The main climatic factors are rainfall and
temperature. ALPINE FORESTS
1. Moist Alpine Scrub
2. Dry Alpine Scrub
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL 3. Sub Alpine
VEGETATION IN INDIA
MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS
▪ India's vegetation can be divided into 5 main
types and 16 sub-types as given below. TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FORESTS

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CLIMATE
▪ They are found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
mean annual temperature between 22°C -
27°C with a very short or no dry season.
FEATURES
▪ No/short dry season = trees don’t shed their
leaves and are green throughout the year.
▪ Vegetation is mesophytic.
IMPORTANT TERM
Hydrophytic plants: Plants that grow partly or wholly in
water, like lotus or water hyacinth etc.
Mesophytic plants: Ordinary plants that require moderate
humidity and avoid water saturated or deficient
environment.
Xerophytic plants: Plants adapted to an arid environment,
like cacti, pineapple etc.
▪ Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of
trees. Trees are tall (up to 60 m) with thick
canopy.
▪ Less undergrowth (mostly climbers, epiphytes,
Figure 7 - Natural Vegetation in India
bamboo) because sunlight cannot penetrate
the thick canopy.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ The western slope of the Western Ghats.
▪ In the foothills of Arunachal Himalayas &
Purvanchal hills of north east.
▪ In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
SPECIES
▪ Hardwood (hard and durable timber) trees like
mahogany, rosewood, aini, white cedar,
mesua etc.
TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS
▪ Transitional forests between tropical wet
evergreen and tropical deciduous forests.
CLIMATE
▪ The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy fringes of moist evergreen parts.
▪ Annual rainfall 200 - 250 cm.
▪ Avg. annual temp. = 25 - 27°C.
FEATURES
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▪ Less dense but more gregarious (similar
species grouped together) than tropical
evergreen.
▪ Trees usually have buttressed (over ground
roots protruding out of trunk) trunks with
abundant epiphytes.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Located on outer fringes of wet evergreen
forests in western coast, Assam, lower slopes
of the eastern Himalayas, Odisha and
Andamans.
SPECIES
▪ Hardwood trees (similar to wet evergreen)
except that these forests are less dense with
more pure stands. This means that most of the
trees in a single canopy are of same species.
▪ Important species include rosewood, mesua,
laurel in Western Ghats and white cedar,
Indian chestnut, champa etc. in Himalayan
region.
TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS
▪ Most dominant forest type in India in terms of
area occupied are the deciduous forests.
CLIMATE
▪ Annual rainfall 100 - 200 cm.
▪ Avg. annual temp. = 25 - 27°C.
▪ Distinct dry season in summers and spring.
FEATURES
▪ The trees drop their leaves during the spring
and early summer when sufficient moisture is
not available (April – May).
▪ Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete
undergrowth.
▪ These forests occupy a much larger area than
the evergreen forests, but large tracts under
these forests have been cleared for cultivation.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ The belt running along the Western Ghats
surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
▪ A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai
and bhabar regions.
▪ Manipur and Mizoram.
▪ Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
and Chota Nagpur Plateau.
▪ Most of Odisha and parts of West Bengal and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
SPECIES
▪ The main species found in these forests are
teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun,
bamboo, etc.
▪ It is comparatively easy to exploit these forests
due to their high degree of gregariousness.
LITTORAL AND SWAMPS
▪ These forests grow in wetlands (permanently
or seasonally submerged areas).
▪ The country’s wetlands have been grouped
into eight categories:
1. the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the
south together with the lagoons and other
wetlands of the southern west coast;
2. the vast saline expanses of Rajasthan,
Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
3. freshwater lakes and reservoirs from
Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan
(Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya
Pradesh;
4. the delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s
east coast (Chilika Lake);
5. the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic
Plain;
6. the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the
marshes and swamps in the hills of
northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills;
7. the lakes and rivers of the montane region
of Kashmir and Ladakh;
8. the mangrove forest and other wetlands of
the island arcs of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
FEATURES
▪ Dense mangroves and hydrophytic plants that
can tolerate saline water grow along the coasts
in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and
estuaries.
▪ The most pronounced and the densest of
these forests is the Sundarbans in the Ganga
delta where the predominant species is Sundri
(Hariteera).
SPECIES
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▪ Plants that can survive and grow both in fresh
as well as brackish water (light saline water
found in coastal areas and lag oons).
▪ The important species found in these forests
are sundri, agar, rhizophora, etc.
DRY TROPICAL FORESTS
TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS
CLIMATE
▪ The annual rainfall of 100 cm (mostly from the
north-east monsoons).
▪ Mean annual temperature is about 28 °C.
▪ The growth of evergreen forests in areas of
such low rainfall is possible because of
equitable distribution of rains all year round,
some in advancing monsoons and some in
retreating monsoons.
FEATURES
▪ Short-statured trees, up to 12 m high, with
complete canopy.
▪ Most of the land under these forests have
been cleared for agriculture or plantations.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu and southern
Andhra Pradesh.
SPECIES
▪ The important species are jamun, tamarind,
neem, etc.
TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS
▪ Along with moist deciduous forests, these
form the largest vegetation group in India.
CLIMATE
▪ Annual rainfall between 70 cm to 100 cm.
FEATURES
▪ These are similar to moist deciduous forests ▪ Vegetation is greatly influenced by the lack of
and shed their leaves in dry season. soil and air moisture.
▪ The major difference is that they can grow in ▪ Xerophytic vegetation is dominant in drier
areas of comparatively less rainfall. regions. The trees are low and widely
▪ They represent a transitional type – moist scattered.
deciduous on the wetter side and thorn forests ▪ Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.
on the drier side.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ They have closed but uneven canopy.
▪ The forests are composed of a mixture of a few ▪ Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western
species of deciduous trees rising to a height of Haryana, Kutch and neighbouring parts of
20 metres. Saurashtra.
▪ Enough light reaches the ground to permit the ▪ Here they degenerate into desert type in the
growth of grass and climbers. Thar Desert.
▪ Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for ▪ Such forests also grow on the leeside of the
agricultural purposes. These forests also suffer Western Ghats covering large areas of
from overgrazing, fires etc. Maharashtra (Vidarbha), Karnataka
(Hyderabad- Karnataka), Telangana, Andhra
DISTRIBUTION Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
▪ They occur in an irregular strip running from
SPECIES
the foot of the Himalayas to Kanyakumari
except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West ▪ The important species are neem, babool, cacti,
Bengal. ber, khejri etc.
▪ These forests are found in rainier areas of the
Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.
▪ In the higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular
plateau and the northern Indian plain, these
forests have a parkland landscape with open
stretches in which teak and other trees
interspersed with patches of grass are
common.
SPECIES
▪ The important species are tendu, palas,
Figure 11 – Thorn Forests

MONTANE FORESTS
▪ In mountainous areas, the decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
▪ The Himalayan ranges show a succession of
vegetation from the tropical to the tundra,
which change in with the altitude.

SUB-TROPICAL BROAD LEAF HILL FORESTS

amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood etc.
CLIMATE
TROPICAL THORN FORESTS ▪ Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.
CLIMATE
▪ Average annual temperature is 18-21 °C.
▪ Annual rainfall less than 50 cm and humidity is FEATURES
less than 50 per cent. ▪ Forests of evergreen species.
▪ The mean temperature is 25-30 °C.
FEATURES
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▪ Climbers and epiphytes (a plant that grows
non-parasitically on a tree or other plant) are
common.
▪ It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is not as
luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E
longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
2000 m.
▪ These forests are not so distinct in the
southern parts of the country. They occur in
the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres
above sea level.
▪ The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as
Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura
and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and
Mt. Abu in the Aravalli Range carry sub-types
of these forests.
SPECIES
▪ Commonly found species are evergreen oaks,
chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
SUB-TROPICAL MOIST PINE FORESTS
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E
longitudes at elevations between 1000 to 2000
metres above sea level.
▪ Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
SPECIES
▪ Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which
forms pure stands.
▪ It provides valuable timber for furniture, boxes
and buildings.
▪ It is also used for producing resin and
turpentine.
▪ Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows
mainly in the western part of the Himalayan
range.
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o Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in
construction activity.
Figure 12 – Deodar trees in Himalayan Montane Forests
▪ Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which
sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts,
belong to this zone.
SUB-TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS
CLIMATE
▪ Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in
December- March).
▪ The summers are sufficiently hot and winters
are very cold.
FEATURES
▪ Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted
trees and shrubs.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the
western Himalayas up to about 1000 metres
above sea level.
SPECIES
▪ Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the
most predominant species.
MONTANE WET TEMPERATE FORESTS
CLIMATE
▪ Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea
level.
▪ Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm.
▪ Mean annual temperature is about 11 to 14 °C.
FEATURES
▪ These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks
have a large girth.
▪ Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and
other epiphytes.
▪ The trees rarely achieve a height of more than
6 metres.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ In Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala like
Nilgiris, Anamalai, Munnar, Palni,
Agasthyamalai etc., these forests occur in
patches known as shola forests.
▪ Although generally said to occur above 2000
meters above sea level, shola forests can be
found at 1600 meters elevation in many hill
ranges (e.g. Biligiriranga Hills, Karnataka).
▪ In the Eastern Himalayan region.
SPECIES
▪ Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, blue
pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species
in Himalayan part.
▪ Magnolia, laurel, cinchona, mahogany, myrtle,
cluster fig tree are the important species in the
peninsular part.
HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS
CLIMATE
▪ Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm.
FEATURES
▪ Mainly composed of coniferous species.
▪ Species occur in mostly pure strands.
▪ Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
▪ It provides fine wood which is of much use for
construction, timber and railway sleepers.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas
between 1500 and 3300 metres.
▪ Cover the entire length of this mountain range
in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Darjeeling and Sikkim.
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▪ They are fairly open forests with shrubby
undergrowth including oaks, rhododendrons
and some bamboos.
SPECIES
▪ Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most
important trees.
HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS
CLIMATE
▪ Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in
the form of snow.
SPECIES
▪ Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in
which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the main
trees.
DISTRIBUTION
▪ Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges
of the Himalayas where south-west monsoon
is very feeble.
Figure 14 – Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
▪ Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba,
Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.
ALPINE FORESTS
▪ Himalayan ranges at altitudes ranging from
2,900 to 3,500.
▪ At many places in this zone, temperate
grasslands are also found. But in the higher
reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests
and pastures.
▪ The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a
thicker vegetation cover because of relatively
 higher precipitation than the drier north-facing 2. Himachal Pradesh
slopes. 3. Mizoram
In which of the above States do 'Tropical Wet
SUB ALPINE FORESTS
Evergreen Forests' occur?
▪ The sub-alpine forests occur as lower alpine
(a) 1 only
scrub and grasslands.
(b) 2 and 3 only
▪ It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved
(c) 1 and 3 only
trees in which the coniferous trees attain a
(d) 1, 2 and 3
height of about 30 m while the broad-leaved
Answer: C
trees reach only 10 m.
▪ Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important QUESTION 8
species. Q. In India, which type of forest among the
following occupies the largest area? [2010]
MOIST ALPINE SCRUB (a) Montane Wet Temperate Forest
▪ The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen (b) Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forest
dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. (c) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
which occurs from 3,000 metres and extends (d) Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest
up to snowline. Answer: C
▪ At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form
part of the tundra vegetation. QUESTION 9
Q. Which of the following is not essentially a
DRY ALPINE SCRUB species of Himalayan vegetation? [2010]
▪ The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of (a) Juniper
xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres (b) Mahogany
above sea level and found in the dry zone. (c) Silver fir
▪ Juniper, honeysuckle, artemesia etc. are (d) Spruce
important species. Answer: B
▪ Moist and dry alpine scrubs are the highest
occurring vegetation, found just below the QUESTION 10
snowline. Q. If you travel through the Himalayas, you are
likely to see which of the following plants
naturally growing there?
1. Oak
2. Rhododendron
3. Sandalwod
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
QUESTION 6
Answer: A
Q. Which one of the following regions of India
has a combination of mangrove forest,
evergreen forest and deciduous forest? [2015]
(a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
GREEN COVER IN INDIA
(b) South-West Bengal ▪ Green cover includes the land under forest and
(c) Southern Saurashtra tree cover. Various organisations use different
(d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands methods to calculate the green cover in the
Answer: D country.
▪ Official green cover in India is measured using
QUESTION 7 the modern scientific tools by the Forest
Q. Consider the following states [2015] Survey of India (FSI), an autonomous institute
1. Arunachal Pradesh

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 under Ministry of Environment, Forest, Climate
Change.
▪ FSI releases the India State of the Forest Report
(ISFR) every two years with complete details of
forest and tree cover in the country.
▪ The ISFR assesses the forest and tree cover,
bamboo resources, carbon stock and forest
fires.
▪ The 2019 report for the first time has assessed
the qualitative nature of the forest cover,
including listing its biodiversity and the type of
plants and trees found.
▪ FSI undertakes National Forest Inventory to
assess the growing stock in forests and TOF
(Tree Outside Forest), bamboo resource,
carbon stock and to assess the dependence of
the people living in Forest Fringe Villages for
fuelwood, fodder, small timber and bamboo.
MAJOR FINDINGS
IMPORTANT TERMS
Forest Cover:
▪ The forest canopy area covered on the ground
irrespective of the legal status of land.
▪ It includes all tree patches which have canopy density
more than 10% and area of 1 ha or more in size.
▪ Very Dense Forest: All lands with tree canopy density
of 70% and above. The relative composition of forest
cover under this category is 3.02%
▪ Moderately Dense Forest: All lands with tree canopy
density of 40% and more but less than 70%. Forest
cover under this category is 9.39%
▪ Open Forest: All lands with tree canopy density of
10% and more but less than 40 %. Forest cover of
9.26% falls under this category.
▪ Scrub Forest: Lands with canopy density less than
10%. Geographical area under this category is 1.41%.
Non-forest:
▪ Lands not included in any of the above classes
(includes water). Geographical area under the non-
forest category is 76.92%.
Canopy Density:
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▪ It is defined as the proportion of an area in the
field/ground, that is covered by the crown of trees.
Recorded Forest Area (RFA):
▪ Forest Area (or recorded forest area) refers to all the
geographic areas recorded as forest in government
records.
▪ Recorded forest areas comprises Reserved Forests
(RF) and Protected Forests (PF), which have been
constituted under the provisions of Indian Forest Act,
1927.
▪ Besides RFs and PFs, the recorded forest area may
include all such areas, which have been recorded as
forests under any State Act or local laws or any
revenue records.
TOF (Trees Outside Forest):
▪ Trees found outside the recorded forest areas. TOF
refers to all trees growing outside RFA irrespective of
patch size which could also be larger than 1 ha.
Tree cover:
▪ All patches of trees occurring outside RFA which are
of size less than 1 ha including the scattered trees.
▪ Tree cover forms an important part of the trees
outside forests (TOF). Therefore, tree cover can be
considered as a subset of TOF.
FOREST AND TREE COVER
▪ The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.56% of the
geographical area of the country.
o The Total Forest cover is 7,12,249 sq km
which is 21.67% of the geographical area of
the country.
o The Tree cover is 2.89% of the geographical
area of the country.
▪ As compared to ISFR 2017 the current
assessment shows an increase of
o 0.65% of forest and tree cover (5188 sq.
km) put together, at the national level
o 0.56% of forest cover
o 1.29% of tree cover
▪ The top five States (UT) in terms of increase in
forest cover: Karnataka > Andhra Pradesh >
Kerala > Jammu & Kashmir > Himachal
Pradesh.
▪ Karnataka tops the country in growing the
maximum amount of forest in the last two
years.
o Karnataka is followed by Andhra Pradesh
(990 sq km) and Kerala (823 sq km).
▪ Total forest cover in the North Eastern region is
65.05% of its geographical area.
▪ There is a decrease of forest cover to the
extent of 765 sq km (0.45 per cent) in northeast
India region.
o Except Assam and Tripura, all states in the
region show decrease in forest cover.
 o The loss in the North East is
attributed primarily due to the traditional
farming practice of Shifting Cultivation.
▪ Largest forest cover in India (absolute area):
Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh >
Chhattisgarh > Odisha > Maharashtra
▪ Forest cover as percentage of total
geographical area: Mizoram (85.41%) >
Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%) > Meghalaya
(76.33%) > Manipur (75.46%) > Nagaland
(75.31%).
▪ Least forest cover in India (absolute area):
o UTs: Chandigarh < Lakshadweep <
Puducherry < Delhi < Dadra and Nagar
Haveli and Daman and Diu < A & N Islands
< J & K (no separate data for Ladakh).
o States: Haryana < Punjab < Goa < Sikkim <
Bihar
▪ The total tree cover of the country has been
estimated to be 95,027 sq km.
o There is an increase of 1,212 sq km in the
extent of tree cover as compared to the
2017 assessment.
▪ Maximum Tree Cover (absolute area):
Maharashtra > Madhya Pradesh > Rajasthan >
J&K.
▪ Maximum Tree Cover as percentage of
geographical area: Chandigarh > Delhi > Kerala
> Goa.
▪ State-wise estimates of Tree Outside Forest
(TOF):
o Maximum extent of TOF: Maharashtra >
Odisha > Karnataka
o Maximum extent of TOF as percentage of
geographical area: Kerala > Goa >
Nagaland.
▪ There has been a decline in tree cover inside
forests due to tribal populations getting “land
titles” (patta) and there has been a rise in trees
outside the forest area due to an increase in
tree plantation and afforestation activities.
WETLANDS AND MANGROVES
▪ The mangrove cover in India is 4,975 sq km,
which is 0.15% of the country’s total
geographical area.
▪ The mangrove cover in the country has
increased by 54 sq. km (1.10 per cent) as
compared to the previous assessment.
▪ 8.13 percent of area under Recorded Forest
Areas is under wetlands.
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▪ Among the states and UTs, West Bengal has
the highest percentage of area under total
Mangrove cover followed by Gujarat and
Andaman Nicobar Islands.
▪ Amongst the States, Gujarat has the largest
area of wetlands within RFA in the country
followed by West Bengal.
▪ Among the smaller States/UTs, Puducherry
followed by A&N Islands have large areas of
wetlands within RFA.
▪ Top three states showing Mangrove cover
increase: Gujarat > Maharashtra > Odisha.
BAMBOO RESOURCES
▪ In India, bamboo grows naturally throughout
the country except in Kashmir region. India is
home to about 125 indigenous and 11 exotic
species of bamboo from 23 genera.
▪ Bamboo contributes significantly to the social,
economic & ecological development of any
region.
▪ Total bamboo bearing area of the country is
estimated as 1,60,037 sq km. There is an
increase of 3,229 sq km in bamboo bearing area
as compared to the previous estimate.
▪ States with maximum bamboo bearing area:
Madhya Pradesh > Maharashtra > Arunachal
Pradesh > Odisha.
CARBON STOCK
▪ Total carbon stock in the country's forest:
estimated to be 7,124.6 million tonnes.
▪ There is an increase of 42.6 million tonnes in
the carbon stock of the country as compared to
the last assessment of 2017.
▪ State-wise Maximum carbon stock: Arunachal
Pradesh > Madhya Pradesh > Chhattisgarh >
Maharashtra
▪ State-wise Maximum per hectare carbon
stock: Sikkim > Andaman & Nicobar Islands >
Jammu & Kashmir > Himachal Pradesh >
Arunachal Pradesh
▪ Soil organic carbon is the largest pool of forest
carbon followed by Above Ground Biomass
(AGB), Below Ground Biomass (BGB), Litter and
dead wood.
FOREST FIRES
▪ It is seen that most of the fire prone forest areas
are found in the north eastern region and the
central part of the country.

FOREST CONSERVATION
▪ Government of India proposed to have a
nation-wide forest conservation policy, and
adopted a forest policy in 1952, which was
further modified in 1988.
▪ To check indiscriminate deforestation and
diversion of forest land for industrial or
construction work the Forest Conservation Act
was enacted in 1980.
Aims of National Forest Policy:
▪ bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas
under forest cover;
▪ maintaining environmental stability and to
restore forests where ecological balance was
disturbed;
▪ conserving the natural heritage of the country,
its biological diversity and genetic pool;
▪ checks soil erosion, extension of the desert
lands and reduction of floods and droughts;
▪ increasing the forest cover through social
forestry and afforestation on degraded land;
▪ increasing the productivity of forests to make
timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependant on forests, and
encourage the substitution of wood;
▪ creating of a massive peoples movement
involving women to encourage planting of
trees, stop felling of trees and thus, reduce
pressure on the existing forest.
SOCIAL FORESTRY
▪ Social forestry means the management and
protection of forests and afforestation on
barren lands with the purpose of helping in the
environmental, social and rural development.
▪ The National Commission on Agriculture (1976)
has classified social forestry into three
categories.
1. Urban forestry
2. Rural forestry
3. Farm forestry.
URBAN FORESTRY
▪ Urban forestry pertains to the raising and
management of trees on public and privately
owned lands in and around urban centres such
as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
RURAL FORESTRY
▪ Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of
agro-forestry and community-forestry.
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AGRO-FORESTRY
▪ Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and
agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of
the waste patches.
▪ It combines forestry with agriculture, thus,
altering the simultaneous production of food,
fodder, fuel, timber, and fruit.
COMMUNITY FORESTRY
▪ Community forestry involves the raising of
trees on public or community land such as the
village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal
bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
▪ Community forestry programme aims at
providing benefits to the community as a
whole.
▪ Community forestry provides a means under
which the people of landless classes can
associate themselves in tree raising and thus,
get those benefits which otherwise are
restricted for landowners.
FARM FORESTRY
▪ Farm forestry is a term applied to the process
under which farmers grow trees for commercial
and non-commercial purposes on their farm
lands.
▪ Forest departments of various states distribute
seedlings of trees free of cost to small and
medium farmers. Several lands such as the
margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and
pastures, land around homes and cow sheds
may be used for raising trees under non-
commercial farm forestry.