Lesson 1

Universe & Solar System

 ECLIPSE....................................................................... 13
CONTENTS SOLAR ECLIPSE ................................................ 14
THE UNIVERSE .............................................................. 2
LUNAR ECLIPSE................................................ 14
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE .................................2
EVIDENCES FOR BIG BANG THEORY ..................... 3
IMPORTANT TERMS ..................................................... 4
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ..................................................... 5
ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM ........................5
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS ......................................... 5
PLANETISIMAL HYPOTHESIS ................................. 5
GASEOUS TIDAL THEORY...................................... 5
INTERSTELLAR DUST THEORY............................... 6
COMPONENTS OF SOLAR SYSTEM ....................6
THE SUN ............................................................... 6
MERCURY ............................................................. 7
VENUS .................................................................. 7
EARTH ................................................................... 7
MOON .................................................................. 8
MARS .................................................................... 8
ASTEROID BELT..................................................... 8
JUPITER................................................................. 8
SATURN ................................................................ 9
URANUS................................................................ 9
NEPTUNE .............................................................. 9
KUIPER BELT ......................................................... 9
PLUTO................................................................... 9
COMETS.............................................................. 10
METEOR ............................................................. 10
METEORITE......................................................... 10
THE EARTH ................................................................. 10
.........................................................................11
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH ................................ 11
ROTATION .......................................................... 11
REVOLUTION ...................................................... 11
IMPORTANT TERMS ........................................... 11
LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES ........................12
LATITUDES .......................................................... 12
LONGITUDES ...................................................... 13
CELESTIAL EQUATOR .......................................... 13
LONGITUDES AND TIME ..................................... 13
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THE UNIVERSE
▪ The Universe, or the Cosmos, is all of space and
time and its contents, which includes planets,
moons, minor planets, stars and galaxies, the Astronomers Contribution
contents of intergalactic space and all matter Pythagoras (5th Gave the term ‘Cosmos’.
and energy. In a nutshell, Universe is the century B.C.)
aggregate of total existence. Aristotle (4th Stated for the first time that Earth’s
▪ The Universe, at present, is said to possess century B.C.) shape is spherical.
billions of galaxies, each comprising of billions Eratosthenes Measured the Earth’s diameter for
stars. (276 – 195 B.C.) the first time.
▪ The Universe is approximately 13.8 billion Ptolemy (A.D. Gave the Geocentric (Earth
years old. This age has been estimated by the 90–168) centered) model of solar system.
scientists based on a number of direct and Nicolaus Gave the Heliocentric (sun centred)
indirect observations which are briefly Copernicus model of solar system: The theory
discussed later. (1473–1543) presented the argument that the
earth is not the centre of the
universe and presented that the Sun
IMPORTANT TERM directly affects the movement of the
• Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects
planets.
(stars, planets, comets, etc.) and phenomena that
Indian astronomers Aryabhatta (5th
originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere (such as the
solar wind, gravitational waves, etc.) century AD) & Varahamihira (6th
• Cosmology is a branch of astronomy concerned with century AD) also suggested the
the scientific study of the origin, evolution, and heliocentric view long before
eventual fate of the universe. Copernicus.
Galileo Galilei Father of Observational
QUESTION 1 (1564-1642) Astronomy:
Q. Who amongst the following was the first to Galileo constructed powerful optical
telescopes and observed the solar
state that the earth was spherical? [2001]
system. He discovered the four
(a) Aristotle
primary moons of Jupiter (known as
(b) Copernicus Galilean moons), first observed the
(c) Ptolemy rings of Saturn, observed and
(d) Strabo provided an analysis of sunspots,
Answer: A and supported heliocentrism.
Johannes Kepler He determined that planets
(1571-1631) travelled around the sun not in
circles but in ellipses. In doing so, he
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE calculated three laws (Kepler’s
As discussed earlier, origin of the Universe is Laws) involving the motions of
estimated to have occurred approximately 13.8 planets that astronomers still use in
billion years ago. Many theories have been put calculations today.
forward to explain the origin of the universe but Isaac Newton Discovered the laws of Gravity.
the most widely accepted one among the scientific William Herschel Discovered Uranus and its two
community is the “Big Bang Theory”. This theory brightest moons and infrared
was propounded by Georges Lemaître in late radiation.
1920s. Edwin Hubble Discovered that the Universe is
expanding and consists of several
galaxies.
Georges Lemaître Propounded the Big Bang Theory.

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 THE BIG BANG THEORY
▪ According to this theory, the entire universe exploded out of a single point, known as ‘Singularity’, where the entire mass
and energy of the Universe was concentrated. At this instant, matter, energy, space and time did not exist.
▪ This singularity was very
hot and dense and thus
exploded in a ‘Big Bang’ and
resulted in formation and
expansion of universe.
▪ After the explosion, the
universe expanded and
cooled rapidly. Within
500,000 years from the Big
Bang, temperature
dropped to 4500 K and gave
rise to atomic matter, i.e.
atoms of hydrogen and
helium.
▪ After 1 billion years, atoms
of hydrogen and helium
coalesced because of
gravity to form the giant
clouds that became the first
stars and galaxies.
Figure 1 – Time Scale after Big Bang and Important Events

▪ Thus, according to this theory, initially all of
space was contained in a single point of very
high-density and high-temperature state from
which the universe has been expanding in all
directions ever since.
entire Universe was contained in a single point
in space.
▪ Cosmic Microwave Background radiation: The
radiation emitted during the “Big Bang” still
persists in the universe in form of microwave

EVIDENCES FOR BIG BANG THEORY

QUESTION 2
▪ Doppler Shift in light from distant galaxies: It
Q. Which of the following is/are cited by the
describes how light changes as objects in space
scientists as evidence/evidences for the
(such as stars or galaxies) move closer or
continued expansion of universe? [2012]
farther away from us. The concept is key to
1. Detection of microwaves in space.
charting the universe’s expansion because
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in
light coming from distant stars and galaxies
space.
undergoes “red shift”.
3. Movement of asteroids in space.
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in
▪ When an object moves away from us, the light is
space.
shifted to the red end of the spectrum, as its
wavelengths get longer. It is known as “red shift”. Select the correct answer using the codes
▪ If an object moves closer, the light moves to the given below:
blue end of the spectrum, as its wavelength gets (a) 1 and 2
shorter. It is known as “blue shift”. (b) 2 only
▪ Edwin Hubble was the first to describe the redshift (c) 1, 3 and 4
phenomenon (galactic redshift) and tie it to an (d) None of the above can be cited as evidence
expanding universe. Answer: A
radiation. Studies of this radiation have helped
▪ Accelerating expansion of the Universe:
in determining the age of the Universe and it is
Edwin Hubble (1929), noted that galaxies
known as “the oldest light in the universe”.
outside our own Milky Way were all moving
▪ Scientists have estimated the age of the
away from us, each at a speed proportional to
Universe by measuring the red shift in this
its distance from us. This meant that there
cosmic radiation.
must have been an instant in time when the

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IMPORTANT TERMS
▪ Nebula: Nebula is a cloud of dust and gases
(mostly hydrogen and helium) in the space.
They are the birthplace of stars.
▪ Star: A star is a luminous sphere of hot gases
held together by its own gravity. Huge amount
of energy is produced in the core of the star by
the process of nuclear fusion (hydrogen atoms
combining to form helium).
o The life cycle of a star depends upon its
mass. High mass stars are much brighter
than low mass stars, thus they rapidly burn
through their supply of hydrogen fuel.
o A star like the Sun has enough fuel in its
core to burn at its current brightness for
approximately 9 billion years.
o A star that is twice as massive as the Sun
will burn through its fuel supply in only 800
million years. A 10 solar mass star, a star
that is 10 times more massive than the Sun,
burns nearly a thousand times brighter and
has only a 20-million-year fuel supply.
Conversely, a star that is half as massive as
the Sun burns slowly enough for its fuel to
last more than 20 billion years.
o Eventually, however, the hydrogen fuel
that powers the nuclear reactions within
stars will begin to run out and the stars will
begin to cool down and expand to become
red giants (for average stars like our sun) or
red supergiants (for massive stars).
▪ Red Giant: These are giant stars with lower
densities.
o These are formed after a star runs out of
hydrogen fuel at its core and increases its
diameter.
o Red giants are hot enough to turn the
helium at their core into heavy elements
Figure 2 – Life Cycle of Star
like carbon. This is how elements other
than hydrogen and helium were formed.
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o An exceptionally large red giant is often
known as red super giant.
▪ Planetary nebula: It is an outer layer of gas and
dust (no planets involved!) that are lost when
the star changes from a red giant to a white
dwarf.
o All planetary nebulae form at the end of
the life of a star of intermediate mass,
about 1-8 solar masses. It is expected that
the Sun will form a planetary nebula at the
end of its life cycle.
▪ White Dwarf: A white dwarf is very small, hot
star, the last stage in the life cycle of a star like
the Sun. White dwarfs are the remains of
normal stars, whose nuclear energy supplies
have been used up.
▪ Supernova: A supernova is the explosive death
of a star resulting into extremely bright bursts
of radiation.
o During a supernova, the star releases very
large amounts of energy as well as
neutrons, which allows elements heavier
than iron, such as uranium and gold, to be
produced.
o In the supernova explosion, all of these
elements are expelled out into space, and
new stars are born out of this matter
(recycling of matter in the universe!).
▪ Neutron Stars: These stars are composed
mainly of neutrons and are produced after a
supernova. These are extremely dense stars
with great gravitational pull.
▪ Black Holes: Black holes are formed from
massive stars at the end of their lifetimes. The
gravitational pull in a black hole is so great that
nothing can escape from it, not even light.
▪ Galaxy: It is a huge congregation of billions of
stars along with dust and gases, held together
by gravitational attraction. Examples: Milky
Way, Andromeda etc.
▪ Milky Way: It is our home galaxy, also known
as Akashganga. Andromeda galaxy is its closest
neighbour galaxy.
▪ Planets: Planet is an astronomical body
orbiting a star or stellar remnant that
o is massive enough to be rounded by its
own gravity,
o is not massive enough to cause
thermonuclear fusion,
o has cleared its neighbouring region of
planetesimals (smaller debris).
▪ Natural satellites or Moons: A natural satellite
or moon is an astronomical body that orbits a
planet or minor planet (or sometimes another
small Solar System body).
▪ Planetary system: A planetary system is the
gravitationally bound system of a star and the
objects that orbit it, either directly or
indirectly.
o A planetary system may consist of one (or
more) star(s) which are surrounded by
different revolving celestial bodies which
are classified as planets, comets, satellites
or moons, asteroids etc.
▪ Light Year: Distance covered by light in one
year in vacuum at a speed of 3x108 m/s. It is
equal to 9.46x 1012 km.
▪ Astronomical Unit: Mean distance between
the Sun and the Earth (1.49 x 108 km). One
light year is equal to 60,000 AU.
QUESTION 3
Q. What is the average distance (approximate)
between the sun and the earth? [2007]
(a) 70 × 105 km
(b) 100 × 105 km
(c) 110 × 106 km
(d) 150 × 106 km
Answer: D
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
▪ Our Solar System consists of the Sun, eight
planets, their satellites, asteroids, comets and
dwarf planets. It is about 4.6 billion years old.
ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Different theories have been propounded by the
scientists to explain the origin of the solar system.
Let us revise these briefly (We need not memorise
all the details about all the theories, but the names
of the theories and the respective scientist must be
memorised):
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NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
▪ Given by Immanuel Kant and further revised
by Laplace in 1796.
▪ Planets were formed out of a slowly rotating
cloud of gas and dust called a “NEBULA”.
▪ The nebula cooled gradually and contracted
shelling out rings of gases and dust.
▪ Later, the rings cooled and accumulated to
form planets, one of them being Earth and the
central region became Sun.
Figure 3 – Stages of Nebular Hypothesis
PLANETISIMAL HYPOTHESIS
▪ Chamberlain and Moulton proposed the
theory in 1904.
▪ The sun existed before the formation of
planets.
▪ Another star came close to the sun.
▪ Because of the gravitation pull of the star,
small gaseous bodies were separated from the
sun.
▪ These bodies on cooling became small planets
called as “Planetesimals”.
▪ During rotation the planetesimals collided and
formed planets.
GASEOUS TIDAL THEORY
Figure 4 – Pictorial Representation of Gaseous Tidal Theory
▪ James Jeans and Jeffrey proposed the theory
in 1925.
▪ Large star came near the sun. Due to
gravitational pull a gaseous tide was raised on
the surface of the sun.
▪ Gaseous tide detached when star moved
away.
▪ It broke into pieces-forming nine planets of the
solar system.
INTERSTELLAR DUST THEORY
▪ In 1950, Otto Schmidt revised the ‘nebular
hypothesis’, though differing in details.
▪ He considered that the sun was surrounded by
solar nebula containing mostly the hydrogen
and helium along with what may be termed as
dust.
▪ The friction and collision of particles led to
formation of a disk-shaped cloud and the
planets were formed through the process of
accretion.
COMPONENTS OF SOLAR SYSTEM
▪ Sun is the central star of our solar system.
▪ There are eight planets in our solar system:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
▪ The planets are divided into:
✓ Inner or Terrestrial planets which have
higher densities and a solid rocky surface.
These are Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars.
✓ Outer or Jovian planets which have lower
densities. These are Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
Figure 5 Our Solar System (Sizes and Distances Are Not to Scale)
▪ The terrestrial planets were formed in the
close vicinity of the Sun where it was too warm
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for gases on the surface to condense to solid
particles.
▪ The intense solar wind near the sun blew off
lots of these gases and dust from the surface
of the terrestrial planets. That’s why the
terrestrial planets have a rocky surface.
▪ The solar winds were not all that intense to
cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian
planets. That’s why the Jovian planets have
gaseous surface.
Now let us quickly revise some important facts
about different components of our solar system.
THE SUN
▪ It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with
its own heat, light and magnetic field, like any
other star.
▪ Sun’s gravity keeps the whole solar system and
its components together.
▪ Sun is about 150 million km away from the
Earth. The light from the sun reaches earth in
about 8 minutes.
▪ Nuclear fusion reactions occur in the core of
the Sun which produces energy and convective
currents in the solar gases.
▪ Because the Sun is a gaseous object, it does not
have a clearly defined surface; its visible parts
are usually divided into a 'photosphere' and
'atmosphere'.
▪ Photosphere: The visible surface of the Sun,
the photosphere, is the layer below which the
Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Photons
produced in this layer escape the Sun through
the transparent solar atmosphere above it and
become solar radiation.
▪ Sun’s atmosphere: It is composed of four
distinct parts: the chromosphere, the
transition region, the corona and the
heliosphere.
o The chromosphere, transition region, and
▪ Mercury is the smallest and the nearest planet
to the Sun.
▪ It takes only 88 days to complete one
revolution around Sun. It has no atmosphere
and no satellites.

QUESTION 4
Q. Among the following which planet takes
maximum time for one revolution around the
Sun? [2003]
(a) Earth
(b) Jupiter
(c) Mars
(d) Venus
Answer: B
Figure 6 – Structure of Sun
corona are much hotter than the surface of ▪ Mercury has no atmosphere because it is too
the Sun (photosphere). hot, the solar wind is too strong and its gravity
o Above the 'Photosphere' is red coloured is too weak.
'Chromosphere'. The temperature of the
chromosphere increases gradually with VENUS
altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K ▪ Venus is considered as 'Earth's-twin' because
near the top. its size and shape are very much similar to that
o Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about of the earth.
200 km) transition region, the ▪ It is probably the hottest planet because its
temperature rises rapidly from around atmosphere contains 90-95% of carbon
20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to dioxide with clouds of Sulphuric acid. The day
coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 and night temperatures are almost the same.
K. This increase in temperatures is due to ▪ It rotates from East to West and has no
ionisation of gases in the region. satellite.
o Beyond the transition region, lies the ▪ Its atmosphere has high albedo (reflective
Corona, which is visible from Earth during capacity), therefore it is very bright when seen
solar eclipses. Corona has the highest from the Earth. It is also called the 'morning'
temperature while photosphere has the or 'evening star'.
lowest.
EARTH
o Heliosphere is the outermost layer of the
▪ Fifth largest planet in the Solar System.
Sun’s atmosphere. It is filled with solar
▪ Blue Planet: From the outer space, the earth
plasma.
appears blue because its two-thirds surface is
▪ The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but
covered by water.
its density decreases exponentially with
▪ Distance from Sun: 149 Million Km
increasing height above the photosphere.
▪ Shape: Geoid (oblate spheroid): slightly
▪ It takes 250 million years to complete one
flattened at the Poles and bulging at the
revolution round the centre of the galaxy. This
Equator.
period is called 'Cosmic year'.
▪ Approximate Equatorial Circumference-
▪ Sun spots are dark patches notched on the
40,000 Km.
surface of the sun. They appear dark because
▪ Average Temperature: around 14oC -
they are cooler.
moderate Temperature - neither too far, nor
MERCURY
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 too close to the Sun (Goldilocks Zone- water
can exist in liquid state).
▪ It is the densest planet in the solar system. QUESTION 7
Q. Which one of the following statements is
MOON correct with reference to our solar system?
▪ Its diameter is only one-quarter that of the [2002]
earth and it is about 3,84,400 km away from (a) The earth is the densest of all the planets in
us. our solar system.
▪ The moon is tidally locked to the earth, (b) The predominant element in the
meaning that the moon revolves around the composition of earth is silicon.
earth in about 27 days which is the same time (c) The sun contains 75 percent of the mass of
it takes to complete one rotation. the solar system.
▪ As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the (d) The diameter of the sun is 190 times that of
moon is visible to us on the earth. the earth.
Answer: A
IMPORTANT TERM
Tidal locking is the name given to the situation when an
ASTEROID BELT
object’s orbital period matches its rotational period.

QUESTION 5
Q. Assertion (A): The same face of the moon
is always presented to the earth.
Reason (R): The moon rotates about its own
axis in 23 and half days which is about the
same time that it takes to orbit the earth.
Choose the appropriate codes from below:
[2005]
QUESTION 6
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
Q. Consider the following statements regarding
explanation of A.
asteroids: [1998]
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct
1. Asteroids are rocky debris of varying size
explanation of A. ▪ Millions of objects, remnants of planetary
orbiting the sun.
(c) A is true but R is false. formation, circle the Sun in a zone lying
2. Most of the asteroids are small but some have
(d) A is false but R is true. between Mars and Jupiter. They are known as
diameter as large and 1000 km.
Answer: C asteroids.
3. The orbit of asteroids lies between the orbits
▪ Asteroids are small Solar System bodies
of Jupiter and Saturn.
composed mainly of refractory rocky and
Of these statements
metallic minerals, with some ice.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
▪ Asteroids range in size from hundreds of
(b) 2 and 3 are correct kilometres across to microscopic.
(c) 1 and 2 are correct ▪ Ceres is the largest asteroid in the belt and is
(d) 1and 3 are correct considered as a dwarf planet.
Answer: C
JUPITER
▪ Largest planet of the solar system.
MARS
▪ Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium,
▪ It has a thin atmosphere comprising of
methane and ammonia.
Nitrogen and Argon.
▪ It has the great red spot which is an enormous
▪ Mars is barren, because of this it is known as
eddy in the turbulent cloud cover. It also
'red planet'.
contains dusty rings and volcanoes.
▪ It has two satellites namely 'Phobos' and
▪ Number of moons = 79.
'Demos'.
▪ Jupiter’s four large moons (Io, Europa,
▪ Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in
Ganymede, and Callisto), called the Galilean
its soil.
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 satellites because they were discovered by
Galileo in 1610.
▪ Its moon Ganymede is the largest moon in the
solar system.
SATURN
▪ It is the second largest planet of the solar
system. It is composed mostly of hydrogen,
and helium and hence it is the least dense
planet in the solar system.
▪ It has rings composed of thousands of
spiralling bands of icy rock and dust.
▪ It has 82 known satellites. It is the planet with
highest number of known natural satellites.
Among them Titan, Phoebe, Tethys and Mimas
are important.
▪ Its moon, Titan has nitrogen atmosphere and
hydrocarbons, the necessary compounds for
life.
URANUS
▪ It has the third-largest planetary radius and
fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar
System.
▪ It is the only planet that lies on its side. Hence,
one pole or the other faces the sun as it orbits.
Its north and south poles, therefore, lie where
most other planets have their equators.
Figure 8 – Axial Tilt of Planets (Notice the tilt for Venus and Uranus)
▪ Its atmosphere is made of mainly hydrogen.
The landscape is barren and there is frozen
methane cloud.
▪ It has 27 satellites; prominent ones are Aerial,
Ambrial, Titania, Miranda etc.
NEPTUNE
▪ There are five rings of Neptune. The outer ring
seems to be studded with icy moonlets while
the inner ring appears narrow and nearly solid.
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▪ It has 14 satellites like Titron, Merid, etc.
▪ It is the farthest planet from the Sun and also
the coldest.
KUIPER BELT
▪ The Kuiper Belt (a.k.a Kuiper-Edgeworth Belt)
is an area of the outer solar system that is
estimated to stretch across 20 astronomical
units (AU) of space.
▪ It contains small solar system bodies made
mostly of ice which is the frozen volatiles
(gases) such as methane, ammonia, nitrogen
and water.
▪ It also is home to the known dwarf planets
Pluto, Haumea and Make-Make.
PLUTO
▪ The dwarf planet Pluto is the largest known
object in the Kuiper belt.
▪ When discovered in 1930, it was considered to
be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006 with
THINGS TO REMEMBER
▪ The tilt of rotational axis of Venus and Uranus is so great
that these planets actually rotate in a direction that is
opposite to the other planets.
the adoption of a formal definition of planet.
▪ Pluto was moved into the list of Dwarf Planets
along with Ceres and Eris.
▪ Charon is Pluto’s moon and nearly half its size.
COMETS Planet with most Saturn
▪ A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, known moons
when passing close to the Sun, heats up and Largest Moon Ganymede (Jupiter)
begins to outgas, displaying a visible Largest Asteroid Ceres
atmosphere and sometimes also a tail. Dwarf Planets Pluto, Ceres, Haumea,
▪ Usually originate in the Kuiper belt which lies Makemake, Eris
beyond the orbit of Neptune. Planets Moons
▪ Mostly made up of dust, ice particles and
Mercury 0
gases.
Venus 0
▪ May be periodical or non-periodical.
Earth 1
▪ Example of periodical comets - Halley’s Comet-
Mars 2
appears every 76 years- last sighted in 1986.
Jupiter 79
METEOR Saturn 82
Uranus 27
Planet Rotation Revolution Neptune 14
Period Period
(earth days) (earth years)
Mercury 58.6 days 88 days THE EARTH
Venus 243 days 224.7 days
▪ Fifth largest planet in the Solar System.
Earth 1 day 365 days ▪ Blue Planet: From the outer space, the earth
Mars 1.03 days 1.88 years appears blue because its two-thirds surface is
covered by water.
Jupiter 0.41 days 11.86 years
▪ Distance from Sun: 149 Million Km (Average)
Saturn 0.45 days 29.5 years ✓ 147.5 million km at Perihelion- closest to the
Uranus 0.72 days 84 years Sun
✓ 152.2 million km at Aphelion- farthest from
Neptune 0.67 days 165 years
Sun
Pluto (Dwarf 6.39 days 248.5 years ▪ Shape: Geoid (oblate spheroid): slightly
Planet)
flattened at the Poles and bulging at the
▪ Any solid debris originating from asteroids or Equator.
comets or from outer space that falls to the ▪ Polar Diameter: 12,714 km; Equatorial
Earth, the Moon, or another planet in the solar Diameter: 12,756 km.
system is called a meteor. ▪ Approximate Equatorial Circumference-
▪ It travels at a great speed through space and 40,000 Km
becomes luminous when enters into the ▪ Surface Area: 510 million km2; Land area:
atmosphere because it is heated by friction. 148.9 million km2
▪ Ratio of land to water: 3:7;
METEORITE
✓ Northern Hemisphere – 2:3
▪ Many meteors burn out completely while
✓ Southern Hemisphere – 1:4 (southern
travelling through the atmosphere because of
hemisphere has larger surface area under
frictional heat. Therefore, they do not reach
water)
the surface of the planet or the moon.
▪ Speed of rotation around axis- 1,600 Km/hr at
▪ Some meteors do not completely burn out
the Equator- But decreases poleward.
and strike the surface of the planet or the
moon. They are called meteorites.
Now let us quickly revise some facts regarding the
solar system:
Hottest Planet Venus
Coldest Planet Neptune
Densest Planet Earth
Least Dense Planet Saturn
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 QUESTION 9
Q. Consider the following statements: [2005]
1. Total land area of earth is approximately
1475 lakh square kilometers.
2. Ratio of land area to water area of earth is
approximately 1:4.
3. Maximum percentage of earth's water is in
the Pacific Ocean.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 only ▪ The axis of rotation is inclined at an angle of
(d) 3 only 23.5⁰ resulting in varying length of days and
Answer: A nights and different seasons.

REVOLUTION
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH ▪ Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical
Let us discuss the various movements and motions orbit.
of the planet Earth. ▪ Time taken is about 365 days and 6 hours to
complete one revolution.
ROTATION ▪ The extra 6 hours become one extra day in a
▪ Earth rotates around its axis from west to east. leap year after 4 revolutions.
▪ This rotational motion has following effects: ▪ Earth is closest to the Sun on 3rd January (147
✓ Cycle of days and nights million km), called as Perihelion.
✓ Coriolis Force which acts on all moving ▪ Earth is farthest from the Sun on 4th July (153
objects on the Earth. (discussed in more million km), called as Aphelion.
detail in later lessons) ▪ Seasons are the result of the inclination of the
✓ Seasons (because of tilted axis) earth’s rotational axis.
▪ Solar day: time taken to complete one
rotation, i.e. approximately 24 hrs. IMPORTANT TERMS
▪ Speed of rotation decreases from Equator to
EQUINOX

Figure 13 –12
Figure Tilt–of the and
Polar Rotational AxisDiameter
Equatorial of Earth

Figure 14 – Earth’s Orbit, Axial Tilt, and the Seasons

polewards.

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▪ When the sun shines directly over Equator –
equal lengths of day and night at all points on
Earth.
▪ Vernal equinox (spring equinox), 21st March:
✓ spring (autumn) in northern (southern)
hemisphere.
▪ Autumn equinox: 23rd September:
✓ autumn (spring) in northern (southern)
hemisphere
SOLSTICE
▪ The Sun shines directly over one of the tropics.
▪ Summer Solstice, 21st June:
✓ Sun is over Tropic of Cancer and there is
summer (hence the name summer
solstice) in northern hemisphere with days
longer than nights.
✓ There is winter in southern hemisphere
with nights longer than days.
✓ Areas in the north of Arctic Circle see 24 hr
sunlight while areas south of Antarctic
Circle experience 24 hrs night.
✓ This happens because of the tilt in the
Earth’s rotational axis.
Figure 15 – 24 hour day and night because of axial tilt
▪ Winter Solstice: 22nd December:
✓ Sun is over Tropic of Capricorn and there is
winter (hence the name winter solstice) in
northern hemisphere with longer nights.
✓ There is summer in southern hemisphere
with longer days.
✓ Areas south of Antarctic Circle in 24 hr
sunlight while areas north of Arctic Circle
in 24 hr darkness.
LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
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QUESTION 10
Q. Variations in the length of daytime and
night time from season to season are due to
[2013]
(a) the earth’s rotation on its axis.
(b) the earth’s revolution round the sun in an
elliptical manner.
(c) latitudinal position of the place.
(d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis.
Answer: D
Figure 16 – Geographic Grid
▪ Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary lines
used to determine the location of a place on
earth & together form a Geographic Grid.
LATITUDES
▪ Latitude of any point is the angular distance of
that point on the earth’s surface, measured in
degrees (°) from the center of the earth.
▪ 1 Degree (°) = 60 minutes (‘) = 3600 seconds
(‘’)
▪ When all points with same latitude are joined
we get imaginary east-west running parallel
lines on the globe.
▪ These parallels are in form of circles with
unequal diameters. Largest circle is Equator
(0° latitude) while at poles they shrink to a
point (90° N & S).
▪ These are commonly referred to as latitudes
but the technically correct term is “Parallels of
Latitudes”. (Henceforth in this chapter,
“latitude” should be read as “parallels of
latitudes”)
▪ There are 181 latitudes in total.
IMPORTANT PARALLELS OF LATITUDES
▪ Equator (0°)
▪ Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N)
▪ Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S)
Figure 17 – Semicircles of Longitudes
Figure 18 – Parallels of latitude
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▪ Arctic Circle (66.6°N) line dividing the globe into western and
▪ Antarctic Circle (66.5°S) eastern hemispheres.
▪ International Date Line: 180⁰ longitude is
chosen as International Date Line.
▪ The west side of the line is always one day
ahead of the eastern side. A traveller crossing
the Date Line from east to west loses a day
and while crossing the Date Line from west to
east he gains a day.
▪ The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific
curves from the normal 180° meridian at the
Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga and other islands to
Figure 19 – Important Latitudes prevent confusion of day and date in some of
the island groups that are cut through by the
meridian.

CELESTIAL EQUATOR
▪ An imaginary circle around the sky directly
above the Earth's Equator.
▪ It is always 90 degrees from the poles.
QUESTION 11 ▪ All the stars rotate in a path that is parallel to
Q. If the stars are seen to rise perpendicular to the celestial Equator.
the horizon by an observer, he is located on ▪ The celestial Equator intercepts the horizon at
IMPORTANT TERMS
the:
Sidereal [2001]
Time: the points directly east and west anywhere on
▪(a)A Equator
sidereal day measures the time taken by Earth to the Earth.
(b)complete
Tropic one
of Cancer
rotation. ▪ Stars rise perpendicular to horizon at the
▪(c)It isSouth
23 hours
Pole minutes and 4.1 seconds.
56 Equator and rotate parallel to horizon at the
▪ It helps astronomers keep time and know where to poles.
(d) North Pole
point their telescopes without worrying about where
Answer:
Earth is in A its orbit.
LONGITUDES AND TIME
Solar Time
▪ Time taken by Sun to reappear at the same position in
the sky, as seen from a point on Earth, after one rotation ▪ Because one day is 24 hours long, one can
of earth is known as Solar Time. easily use time to calculate longitude.
▪ Its value is approximately 24 hours. The length of a solar ▪ 360 degree rotation = 24 hours. Therefore, one
day varies through the year, and the accumulated effect hour of time difference corresponds to 15° of
produces seasonal deviations of up to 16 minutes from
the mean.
longitude (360°/24 hours = 15°/hour) or 1
degree corresponds to 4 minutes’ time.
LONGITUDES ▪ The earth rotates from west to east, so every
▪ Longitude is an angular distance measured in 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by
degrees along the Equator, east or west of the Figure 20 – Solar Eclipse
Prime (or First) Meridian. 1 hour. Conversely, if we go westwards, local
▪ When all points with same longitude are time is retarded by 1 hour.
joined, we get imaginary semicircles of ▪ Most countries use one or more time zones
longitudes or meridians of longitude. based on any local meridian.
▪ These semicircles extend from pole to pole and ▪ The Indian Government has accepted the
the distance between two semicircles reduces meridian of 82.5° east for the standard time
from Equator to poles. All longitudes converge which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of
at the poles. Greenwich Mean Time (0° meridian).
▪ There are 360 longitudes in total.
▪ The prime meridian (0⁰), passing through
Greenwich (London) is chosen as a reference
ECLIPSE

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▪ It is defined as an astronomical phenomenon ✓ Total: When the earth passes directly in
which occurs when one spatial object comes front of the moon and casts its shadow
within the shadow of another spatial object. on the full moon.
▪ It happens when three celestial bodies are in a
straight line. This alignment of three celestial
objects in a straight line is known as a syzygy.

SOLAR ECLIPSE
▪ As observed from the Earth, a solar eclipse
occurs when the Moon passes in front of the
Sun.
▪ This occurs on a new moon phase.
▪ Depending on the distance of the moon from
the earth during the event, different types of
solar concealment can be observed. They
can be categorized as:
✓ Partial: only a portion of sunlight is

blocked.
✓ Annular: Sun can be seen around the
edges like a bright ring.
✓ Total: Sun is completely blocked by the
Moon.

QUESTION 12
Q. Assertion (A): To orbit around the Sun the
planet Mars takes lesser time than the time
taken by the earth.
Reason (R): The diameter of the planet Mars is
less than that of earth.
Codes: [2006]
(a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true and ‘R’
is the correct explanation of ‘A’.
(b) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true but ‘R’
is not the correct explanation of ‘A’.
(c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false.
(d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true.
LUNAR ECLIPSE Answer: D

▪ Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes

through the Earth's shadow.
▪ This happens only during a full moon, when
the Moon is on the far side of the Earth from
the Sun. Depending on how the sun, the
moon, and the earth line up, lunar eclipse
too can be categorized as:
✓ Partial: When only a part of the moon
moves into the shadow of the earth.

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