Environment PRAHAAR 2022 - GS 3

PRAHAAR
The final hit to UPSC Exam

Comprehensive, Integrated and Current Linked Notes for CSE Mains 2022
EXCLUSiVE FOR MAiNS 2022
Environment Ecology
Updated Reﬁned Revised Concised
And more relevant to current pattern and demand of UPSC CSE Mains 2022
Join 60 Day Daily Mains Answer Writing program

and Get all PRAHAAR booklets (PDF) free
Online & Offline Online & Offline

60 DAYS Rigorous UPSC Selection At Aﬀordable Price
Daily Answer Writing Program UPSC Mains Crash Course
2022 2022
(Mains Test Series 2022) 60 Days Class Program
Including

200+Hours 4 GS + 1 Essay Dedicated

of Classes Test (With detailed Mentorship
evaluation)
key component of 60 Day daily rigorous mains answer writing Program for CSE mains 2022
dpp.onlyias.in

+91-7007-931-912

OnlyIAS Nothing Else PRAHAAR: ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT & ECOSYSTEM ____________________________________________________________ 7

INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________________________________________ 7
Functions of ecosystem ________________________________________________________________________ 7
Importance of various services provided by ecosystem ______________________________________________ 7
Threats to ecosystems and Biodiversity ___________________________________________________________ 7
Way forward ________________________________________________________________________________ 7
Conclusion: _________________________________________________________________________________ 8
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ____________________________________________________________ 9
Biodiversity _________________________________________________________________________________ 9
India and Biodiversity: ________________________________________________________________________ 9
Importance of Biodiversity: ____________________________________________________________________ 9
Loss of biodiversity – DATA, causes and consequences______________________________________________ 10
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSES and threat to wildlife: ____________________________________________ 10
CONSEQUENCES: ____________________________________________________________________________ 11
Invasive species: ____________________________________________________________________________ 12
Biodiversity Conservation: ____________________________________________________________________ 13
Importance of People's participation in conservation of environment: _________________________________ 13
Kunming Declaration on Biodiversity ____________________________________________________________ 14
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION _______________________________________________________________17
Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) ________________________________________________________________ 17
Environmental degradation and conservation _______________________________________________19
Environmental Degradation ___________________________________________________________________ 19
Extent of Degradation in India _________________________________________________________________ 19
Environment vs Development Debate ___________________________________________________________ 22
Land Degradation ___________________________________________________________________________ 22
Land degradation neutrality (LDN) ______________________________________________________________ 24
Desertification ______________________________________________________________________________ 24
Western Ghat conservation ___________________________________________________________________ 26
Forest Conservation ____________________________________________________________________28
Introduction ________________________________________________________________________________ 28
Benefits of forest conservation_________________________________________________________________ 28
Threats to forests ___________________________________________________________________________ 28
Causes of deforestation ______________________________________________________________________ 29
International Efforts TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT FOREST __________________________________________ 30
WAY FORWARD _____________________________________________________________________________ 30
Indigenous People and forest conservation _______________________________________________________ 31
https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

1
Join our telegram: Click /OnlyIAS Nothing Else. Join IDMP: dpp.onlyias.in
Mangroves _________________________________________________________________________________ 32
Coral Reefs _________________________________________________________________________________ 33
Coral bleaching _____________________________________________________________________________ 35
Deteriorating Great Barrier Reef _______________________________________________________________ 36
Acts, Policies, PROGRAMMES and Institutions related to environmeNTAL CONSERVATION ___________38
FEATURES OF Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 _______________________________________________________ 38
Forest Conservation Act (FCA), 1980 ____________________________________________________________ 38
Biodiversity (Biological Diversity) Act, 2000 _______________________________________________________ 40
National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010 _________________________________________________________ 41
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 _____________________________________________________________ 42
Water Management and Wetland Conservation _____________________________________________44
Water Management _________________________________________________________________________ 44
Urban Flooding _____________________________________________________________________________ 46
Interlinking of rivers: ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE ______________________________________________ 47
Wetlands __________________________________________________________________________________ 49
Coastal Conservation_________________________________________________________________________ 50
Coastal Regulation Zone ______________________________________________________________________ 51
Blue Flag Certification ________________________________________________________________________ 53
CLIMATE ACTION PLAN FOR COASTAL CITIES ______________________________________________________ 53
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION ______________________________55
Earth summit 1992 __________________________________________________________________________ 55
Agenda 21 _________________________________________________________________________________ 56
Rio +5 (1997) or Earth Summit 1997 _____________________________________________________________ 56
Rio+10 (2002) or Earth Summit 2002 or World Summit on Sustainable Development _____________________ 56
Rio+20 (2012) or Earth Summit 2012 ____________________________________________________________ 56
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) ______________________________________ 56
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972) ______________________________________ 56
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) __________________________________________________ 56
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ________________________________________________ 57
Global Environment Facility (GEF) ______________________________________________________________ 57
REDD + ____________________________________________________________________________________ 57
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)___________________________________________________________ 57
Bio Economy Mission ________________________________________________________________________ 57
Air Pollution __________________________________________________________________________58
Introduction ________________________________________________________________________________ 58
DATA AND FIGURES: _________________________________________________________________________ 58

2
Sources of air pollution: ______________________________________________________________________ 59

Indoor air pollution __________________________________________________________________________ 59
Outdoor air pollution: SOURCES ________________________________________________________________ 60
DUST STORM _______________________________________________________________________________ 60
Consequences of air pollution _________________________________________________________________ 61
Economic cost of air pollution _________________________________________________________________ 61
Stubble Burning _____________________________________________________________________________ 62
Trends in Air Pollution: CPCB __________________________________________________________________ 64
New Commission for Air Quality Management ____________________________________________________ 65
FRAMEWORKS TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION ______________________________________________________ 66
Fly Ash ____________________________________________________________________________________ 67
Promotion of clean fuel_______________________________________________________________________ 68
E20 Fuel ___________________________________________________________________________________ 69
Green Fuel _________________________________________________________________________________ 69
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)___________________________________________________________ 70
The System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR) _____________________________ 71
Categorisation of Industries based on pollution ___________________________________________________ 71
E-Vehicle Policy - FAME 2 _____________________________________________________________________ 72
CAFE-2 Regulations and BS-VI Stage II Norms _____________________________________________________ 74
Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) __________________________________________________________ 74
WATER POLLUTION ____________________________________________________________________75
INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________________________________________ 75
Sources of pollution _________________________________________________________________________ 75
Effects of Water Pollution _____________________________________________________________________ 75
CAG Findings and Recommendations ____________________________________________________________ 75
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) ______________________________________________________________ 76
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) _______________________________________________________________ 76
Eutrophication ______________________________________________________________________________ 76
Control of water pollution: Bioremediation_______________________________________________________ 78
Ocean-marine pollution ______________________________________________________________________ 78
Surface (River) Water Pollution ________________________________________________________________ 81
Groundwater Pollution _______________________________________________________________________ 83
Lake Pollution: ______________________________________________________________________________ 85
PLASTIC POLLUTION ____________________________________________________________________88
Introduction ________________________________________________________________________________ 88
data and figures _____________________________________________________________________________ 88

3
Causes of plastic pollution ____________________________________________________________________ 88

Impact of plastic Pollution ____________________________________________________________________ 89
Challenges in addressing Plastic Pollution ________________________________________________________ 89
Way Forward _______________________________________________________________________________ 89
Single-use plastics ___________________________________________________________________________ 90
Marine Plastic: Problems and Solution __________________________________________________________ 90
Soil Pollution __________________________________________________________________________95
Introduction ________________________________________________________________________________ 95
Causes of Soil Pollution _______________________________________________________________________ 95
Impact of Soil Pollution _______________________________________________________________________ 95
Stubble burning and Soil pollution and land productivity ____________________________________________ 96
measures needed to Control soil pollution _______________________________________________________ 96
WASTE MANAGEMENT _________________________________________________________________97
Solid Waste Management _____________________________________________________________________ 97
Hazardous waste ___________________________________________________________________________ 101
Bio-medical waste __________________________________________________________________________ 104
E-Waste __________________________________________________________________________________ 106
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: WASTE MANAGEMENT ________________________________________________ 108
Global Warming ______________________________________________________________________109
Introduction _______________________________________________________________________________ 109
UNDERSTANDING Greenhouse Effect __________________________________________________________ 109
Greenhouse gases (GHG) ____________________________________________________________________ 109
Importance of Natural Greenhouse Effect _______________________________________________________ 110
Mitigation measures ________________________________________________________________________ 110
Current Developments ______________________________________________________________________ 113
Clean Energy And Energy Conservation ___________________________________________________122
Renewable Energy __________________________________________________________________________ 122
Ultra-Mega Renewable Energy (RE) Parks _______________________________________________________ 123
Solar Energy _______________________________________________________________________________ 123
Wind Energy ______________________________________________________________________________ 125
Offshore wind energy _______________________________________________________________________ 126
Hybrid Energy _____________________________________________________________________________ 127
Geo-Thermal Energy ________________________________________________________________________ 128
Hydro Power Energy ________________________________________________________________________ 129
Biofuels __________________________________________________________________________________ 130
National Biofuel Policy 2018 __________________________________________________________________ 131

4
METHANOL ECONOMY ______________________________________________________________________ 131

ETHANOL BLENDING PROGRAM _______________________________________________________________ 133
Hydrogen Based Energy _____________________________________________________________________ 135
Energy Needs in the Context of Climate Crisis ____________________________________________________ 136
International Solar Alliance (ISA) ______________________________________________________________ 136
One Sun-One World-One Grid (OSOWOG) _______________________________________________________ 137
Climate Change ______________________________________________________________________138
INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________________________ 139
DATA/FACTS ______________________________________________________________________________ 139
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE _________________________________________________________________ 139
CONSEQUENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE __________________________________________________________ 139
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE __________________________________________ 141
WAY FORWARD ____________________________________________________________________________ 141
CONCLUSION ______________________________________________________________________________ 141
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS: CLIMATE CHANGE ___________________________________________________ 141
Ozone Depletion ___________________________________________________________________________ 151
CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIAN AGRICULTURE ______________________________________________152
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE _________________________________________________ 152
Climate smart agriculture (CSA) _______________________________________________________________ 153
Environment-Friendly Agriculture: Sustainable Agriculture _________________________________________ 154
Organic Farming ___________________________________________________________________________ 156
Budget 2022-23 and Organic farming ___________________________________________________________ 157
Bio Fertilizers & Green Manure _______________________________________________________________ 157
Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) ________________________________________________________ 158
Current Developments: AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ______________________________________ 159
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) ____________________________________________________161
Introduction _______________________________________________________________________________ 161
Objectives of EIA ___________________________________________________________________________ 161
Importance of EIA __________________________________________________________________________ 161
8 GUIDING Principles of EIA __________________________________________________________________ 162
Process of EIA _____________________________________________________________________________ 162
EIA Notification, 2006 _______________________________________________________________________ 162
issues with EIA 2006 in India __________________________________________________________________ 163
RECOMMENDATIONS TO MAKE EIA MORE EFFECTIVE _____________________________________________ 163
Draft EIA 2020 _____________________________________________________________________________ 164
Issues associated with the Draft EIA 2020 _______________________________________________________ 164

5
The global standardS in creating Environmental Impact Assessment _________________________________ 165

Way Forward ______________________________________________________________________________ 165
Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________________ 165
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) ______________________________________________________ 165
SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (SIA) ____________________________________________________________ 166
Sustainable Development ______________________________________________________________167
Introduction _______________________________________________________________________________ 167
Need of Sustainable Development _____________________________________________________________ 167
Benefits of Sustainable Development: 17 SDG of UN ______________________________________________ 168
Challenges in achieving SDG __________________________________________________________________ 168
Ways to achieve sustainable development ______________________________________________________ 169
Way forward ______________________________________________________________________________ 169
SDG and India’s Commitment _________________________________________________________________ 169
Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________________ 170
GROSS ENVIRONMENT PRODUCT (GEP) _________________________________________________________ 170

6
ENVIRONMENT & ECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
 Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather
and landscapes, work together to form a bubble of life.
 Ecology: It is defined as a scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their physical environment with
each other.
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
 The ecosystem's functional qualities keep the components working together.
 Ecosystem functions are natural processes or energy exchanges that occur in diverse plant and animal groups
throughout the world's biomes.
 Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain. These exchanges
sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of organic matter and the production of
biomass.
IMPORTANCE OF VARIOU S SERVICES PROVIDED BY ECOSYSTE M

 Ecosystem services make human life possible by, for example, providing nutritious food and clean water,
regulating disease and climate, supporting the pollination of crops and soil formation, and providing recreational,
cultural and spiritual benefits.
THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM S AND BIODIVERSITY

 Agriculture induced: Based on data by the UN FAO, more than 40% of earth’s surface now supports agriculture,
and a bigger fraction of these lands were formerly covered by forests.
 Deforestation: This changes the ecosystem drastically and results in a dramatic loss of biodiversity.
 Anthropogenic Activities: Pollution, overfishing, destructive fishing practices using dynamite or cyanide, collecting
live corals for the aquarium market, mining coral for building materials, and a warming climate are some of the
many ways that people damage ecosystem all around the world every day.
 Destruction of the Reefs: Ocean reefs are the globe’s richest oceanic ecosystems, but human activities have led
to their destruction by upsetting the natural flow of nutrients and energy that support plant and animal species in
the marine world.
 Draining Streams/Rivers and Destruction of Critical Freshwater Aquifer Recharge Areas: Various anthropogenic
activities have heavily destroyed freshwater supplies such as rivers, streams, and aquifers.
 Overhunting and Overexploitation: Overhunting and overexploitation of natural resources through activities like
overfishing and mining have caused a reduction in the number of varied plant and animal species.
o Invasive Species: Invasive species contribute to desertification and make communities and natural
habitats more vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
o They are the second greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat loss and can reduce native plant richness
by up to 90%.
WAY FORWARD
 Understanding of the role of biodiversity: There is a need for better understanding of the role of biodiversity in
ecosystem functions and related ecosystem services.
 Policy changes for human-wildlife conflict: There is a need for policy changes that promote better management
of human-wildlife conflict, financial incentives to encourage biodiversity-friendly farming and other incentive
schemes such as payments for ecosystem services.
 Strict law enforcement: It should ensure that illegal hunting, deforestation, land use change and other human
actions that contribute to livelihoods but hamper biodiversity conservation are kept in check.
 A balanced approach: A balance between conservation efforts and development should be sought in ecosystem
conservation strategies.

7
OnlyIAS PRAHAAR: ENVIRONMENT
 Stakeholders’ participation: Provision incentives for local and indigenous people’s involvement and wise use, that
everyone must benefit in the long term.
 Building awareness and support: High awareness of risks posed by invasive alien species and about the need of
prevention and mitigation for native biodiversity is needed.
 Mitigation of impacts: A clear draft of mitigation measures and procedures must be prepared by consulting and
involve affected communities and stakeholders.
 Sustainable tourism: Check water pollution by treating industrial effluents before discharging them into the sea,
reduction is use of chemical fertilizers in farms.
 Achieving the goal of climate change: The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration will help countries race against
the impacts of climate change and biodiversity loss.
 Ecosystem restoration: It is defined as a process of reversing the degradation of ecosystems, such as landscapes,
lakes and oceans to regain their ecological functionality.
o It is fundamental to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, mainly those on climate change,
poverty eradication, food security, water and biodiversity conservation.
 Implementing recommendations of TSR SUBRAMANIAN committee reports on Environment:
o Creation of Indian Environment Service (IES): To recruit qualified and skilled human resource in the
environment sector.
o Widening Environment Protection Act: The Air Act and the Water Act is to be subsumed within the EP
Act.
CONCLUSION:
 Waste, emissions and threat produced by anthropogenic activities have an impact on ecosystems. Ecosystem
services such as provisioning, regulation, cultural and supportive characters are badly damaged by those activities.
There is a need to recognize local authorities as indispensable pillars in the implementation of the various
conservation practices for better implementation.
GREEN GDP
 Green GDP: The green gross domestic product (green GDP or GGDP) is an index of economic growth with the
environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country's conventional GDP. Green GDP monetizes
the loss of biodiversity, and accounts for costs caused by climate change and environmental damage.
NEED OF GREEN GDP:

Green national accounting is the need of the hour and it concerns itself with arriving at environmental costs, measuring
of ecology and valuation of eco-system.
 Comparison across peers and periods: Countries like China have also stated that Green GDP can be used to
make comparisons for the same country across various years.
 Accountability: Last but not the least it will bring some accountability to governments worldwide. It has become a
common practice to ensure that the market system grows while the natural system perishes.
KEY DIMENSIONS:
 Green Economy: In simpler terms, Green Economy is an economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and
ecological scarcities and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment.
 Green national accounts: When information on an economy's use of the natural environment is integrated into
the system of national accounts, it becomes green national accounts or environmental accounting.
 Environmental accounting: Which includes Physical accounting- determines the physical state of resources,
Monetary valuation- determines its tangible and intangible values
 Natural resources and cost: Green GDP are expected to account for the use of natural resources as well as the
costs involved.
o This includes medical costs generated from air and water pollution, loss of livelihood due to
environmental crises such as floods or droughts etc.
CHALLENGES IN CALCULATING GREEN GDP:

8
 Insufficient micro level data: There is not sufficient micro level data on natural capital. For this, the expert group
needs to look into solutions to bridge the data deficit.
 Enhanced budgetary allocation: The calculation of Green GDP is a complex process and hence there is a need for
enhanced budgetary allocation to bridge the data gaps.
 The externalities of economic growth: Which are not factored into conventional GDP numbers have a massive
monetary value which have the possibility to create controversies.
 Destabilizing the energy production: India is one of the largest importers of products such as fossil fuels whose
sustainability is not known in future.
o If pollution costs are included in the GDP, then it has the capacity to destabilize the current energy
production mechanism.
 Distortion: In perceived economic growth China and Norway had already started experiments with green
accounting.
o However, China dropped it in 2007 (started in 2004) after it realised that factoring in environmental
costs had a significant impact on the country’s perceived “economic growth”.
CONCLUSION:
 There is a need for a comprehensive and macroeconomic indicator which is consistent with the concept of
sustainable development as GDP is mistakenly considered as primary indicator of human well-being, whereas it is
the Green GDP that is a more accurate indicator or measure of societal well-being. The Green GDP accounting has
to make efforts across the world to factor in environmental and social costs. If such is not the case, then this
method won’t be successful as no country wants to drop the growth figures.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS:
1. Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how 2019
understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development of a region.
2. How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in conservation of 2018
flora and fauna?
BIODIVERSITY
 It is the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns it forms. The biodiversity we see today is the result of 4.5
billion years of evolution and, increasingly, of human influence as well. It forms the web of life, of which we are
an integral part and upon which we so fully depend.
INDIA AND BIODIVERSITY:

 Top hotspots: India has biodiversity hotspots in the Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma region, the Western Ghats, and
the Sundarbans.
 Mega Biodiversity Nations: With 2.4% of the world’s land area, India accounts for about 7-8% of recorded species
of the world. India is one of the 17 Mega Biodiversity Nations in the world.
 High endemic diversity: The Pride of India lies in its nearly 6,500 native plants which are still used in the indigenous
healthcare systems. It is a country with rich biodiversity.
 Tropical forests: The highest levels of terrestrial biodiversity are found in tropical forests, which host over 80 per
cent of species of terrestrial animals, plants and fungi.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIV ERSITY:

 Ecological Roles: Various species perform some or the other functions in an ecosystem. Every organism, besides
extracting its needs, also contributes something useful to other organisms.
 Maintaining cycle: Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to cycle
water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the climate.

9
 Hotspot ecosystem: It helps in soil formation, reducing pollution, protection of land, water and air resources.
These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival.
 Agro-biodiversity: Biodiversity is an important resource in day-to-day life. One important part of biodiversity is
‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-biodiversity.
 Reservoir of resources: Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of
food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.
 Social cohesive role: Many communities and cultures have co-evolved with the surroundings and the resources
provided by a biologically diverse environment. Hence, it performs an important social role as well.
 Biodiversity is essential to increase the resilience of communities and reduce their vulnerability in the face of
shocks such as climate change and natural disasters.
 Biodiversity loss can increase the incidence and distribution of certain infectious diseases which are lethal for
children.
o Diseases that spread from animals to humans are a serious threat: studies show that 75 per cent of all
emerging diseases come from wildlife, including COVID-19.
 Biodiversity is an important and irreplaceable source for medicines and advances in understanding disease,
thereby supporting child health.
 Biodiversity supports ecosystems to provide and purify water.
o Every two minutes a child dies from a water-borne disease. But through the continuous recycling of water,
biodiversity maintains ecosystem services needed to sustain drinking water supplies.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY – DATA, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

 Global Assessment Report: According to a 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
by IPBES 25% of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction as the result of human activity.
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSES AND THREAT TO WILDLIFE:

 Natural causes: Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes and other natural disasters play a huge role in
biodiversity loss in the natural ecosystem.
o Alien species invasions: When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately for any
purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species.
o Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an
obligatory way also become extinct.
 Global climate change: Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity loss. Species and
populations may be lost permanently, if they are not provided with enough time to adapt to changing climatic
conditions.
 Pollution: It alters the natural habitat. Insecticides, pesticides, sulphur and nitrogen oxides, acid rain, ozone
depletion and global warming too, adversely affect the plant and animal species.
 Increasing population: India has 4 percent global land share, about eight percent global biodiversity and around
16 percent global population. There is an enormous human footprint, which in turn is affecting biodiversity.
 Illegal Wildlife Trade: According to the FATF report on wildlife trade, Hunters can receive from USD 2.5 to 9 per
kg of pangolin scales, the price in demand countries is usually around USD 200 per kg.
 Climate Change: Global warming is making hot days hotter, rainfall and flooding heavier, hurricanes stronger and
droughts more severe, which is one of the important threats to india wildlife.
o Variation in rainfall: A slight drop or rise in average rainfall will translate into large seasonal changes.
Hibernating mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and insects are harmed and disturbed.
 Anthropogenic activities:
o Road Kill Rail Track accident: Over the last few decades, Roadkill has become a new threat to India's
wildlife, as the number of wild animals killed by motor vehicles on highways is increasing year by year.
o Changes in land and sea use: A third of Indian wetlands have been affected under combined pressure of
urbanisation, agricultural activities and pollution and other anthropogenic activities.
o Hunting and poaching: Unregulated hunting and poaching cause a major threat to wildlife in India. Along
with this, mismanagement of the forest department and forest guards triggers this problem.
o Hunting and poaching: Unregulated hunting and poaching cause a major threat to wildlife in India. Along
with this, mismanagement of the forest department and forest guards triggers this problem.
To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 10 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912
o Deforestation: Anthropogenic activities continually expanding, which leads to deforestation in wildlife

habitats.
o Over-exploitation: It is the overuse of wildlife and plant species by people for food, clothing, pets,
medicine, sport, and many other purposes.
o Man-Animal conflicts: The increase in man-animal conflicts is directly proportional to habitat destruction,
habitat fragmentation, deforestation, forest fires, droughts and other natural and anthropogenic sources.
 Over 100 elephants die due to human-related activities, which include poaching for ivory or meat,
poisoning, electrocution and collision with trains.
CONSEQUENCES:
 Population decline: When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human activities,
mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading
to decline of population.
 Food security: Reduction in biodiversity having effect on millions of people face a future where food supplies are
more vulnerable to pests and disease, and where freshwater is in irregular or short supply.
 Species extinctions: Overexploitation by humans leading to the many species extinctions in the last 500 years,
that include major species like Steller’s Sea cow, passenger pigeon.
o Domino effect: When keystone species become extinct, it creates the domino effect on that local
ecosystem.
 Increase in extreme events: Frequent floods and droughts will lead to soil erosion and thereby degrading land. It
will promote desertification in various vulnerable areas.
o Increase in Forest fires: Increased number of forest fires will expose the topsoil for erosion this will further
lead to environmental destruction.
o Marine Ecosystems: It will be affected by an increase in sea temperature and changes in ocean circulation
including ocean acidification.
o Glacial Lake Outburst: It is also predicted that there will be an increase in the phenomenon of Glacial Lake
Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the eastern and the central Himalayas, causing catastrophic flooding
downstream with serious damage to life, property, forests, farms, and infrastructure.
 Rural-urban migration: Climate change leads to a decline in agricultural productivity which results in rural-urban
migration and abandonment of agricultural land and systematic fallowing. .
 Biodiversity as a scarce resource: According to IUCN, the World Conservation Union, the monetary value of goods
and services provided by ecosystems is estimated to amount to some US$33 trillion per year.
Way forward:
 Reassessing land usage: There is an urgent need to examine land use, which in turn will improve our
understanding of how human-modified landscapes.
 Understanding Interrelationship: There is a need for better understanding of the role of biodiversity in ecosystem
functions and related ecosystem services.
 Dedicated Cadre: India needs to build an extensive cadre of human resources required to meet the enormous and
complex environmental challenges of the 21st century.
 Envisaging One Health Concept: There is a need to rethink and reimagine the concept of One Health for all living
organisms, including the invisible biota in soils that sustain our agricultural systems.
 Enabling Cultural Change: The gains of environmental change will be upheld and carried forward by the cultural
change from environmental education for millions of students, from kindergarten to postgraduate levels.
 Capacity building and Community-based joint eco-sensitive zone management: There is a need for capacity
building for the professionals in sustainability and biodiversity science.
 Strict law enforcement: Land use policy and law enforcement should ensure that illegal hunting, deforestation,
land use change and other human actions that contribute to livelihoods but hamper biodiversity conservation are
kept in check.
 Promoting Nature-based Solutions and Policy shift: There is a need to promote nature-based solutions to
numerous environmental challenges, including degradation forests, and soils, and ongoing threats from climate
change.

INVASIVE SPECIES:
 Invasive alien species (IAS): It is an animal, plant or other organism that is introduced by humans, either
intentionally or accidentally, into places outside its natural range.
 International attention: IAS are such a problem that Aichi Biodiversity Target 9 and one clause of UN Sustainable
Development Goal 15 – Life on Land specifically address the issue.
INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES AND REASON OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

 Effect of climate change: The impacts from invasive alien species (IAS) can be compounded by climate change,
the change in the Earth’s climate due to rising greenhouse gas emissions.
 Affecting ecosystem services: They may lead to changes in the structure and composition of ecosystems
detrimentally affecting ecosystem services, human economy and wellbeing.
 New pathways: Climate change is also opening up new pathways of introduction of IAS. For example, emerging
Arctic shipping passages due to melting ice caps will greatly reduce the time taken for ships to travel from Asia to
Europe. This will increase the risk of alien species surviving the journey.
 Benefit of high latitude: Many IAS have the ability to expand rapidly to higher latitudes and altitudes as the climate
warms, out-pacing native species.
IMPACT:
 Overwhelming the native ecosystem: They may lack natural predators in their new environments, allowing them
to quickly increase their abundance and spread.
 Multidimensional problem: They can carry diseases, outcompete or prey on native species, alter food chains, and
even change ecosystems by, for example, altering soil composition or creating habitats that encourage wildfires.
 Affecting human health: The alien invasive species are non-native to an ecosystem. They may cause economic or
environmental harm or even adversely affect human health.
 Micro Habitat destruction: In rubber plantations, cover crops like mucuna, a nitrogen-regulating plant, are more
likely to establish themselves in the new areas and subsequently spread into the forests through the corridors
created by landslides.
o This could affect the soil and destroy the microhabitat of that area.
 Ecological Devastation: Negative impacts of Invasive alien species (IAS) can lead to local or global extinctions of
native species and eventual ecological devastation.
 Socio-economic impacts: Studies have found that The European Union is experiencing annual damages worth EUR
12 billion as a result of IAS effects on human health, damaged infrastructure, and agricultural losses.
GOVT INITIATIVES:
 Forest protection scheme: An integrated forest protection scheme was devised to include the management of
invasive species.
 Collecting the data: The last tiger census conducted by the National Tiger Conservation Authority included a survey
of the distribution of a subset of invasive plants in tiger landscapes across the country.
 12th five-year plan: The 12th five-year plan proposed a national invasive species monitoring system.
 Legislation: From time-to-time Indian governments have enacted different legislations relating to invasive
species.
 Authorities: We have a number of different agencies charged with preventing the introduction of invasive species
and for management and control of invasive species.
INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIONS:
 IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG): They have been providing technical and scientific support for the
implementation of various measures to control the IAS since 2016.
 Species Specialist Group: The IUCN’s Species Survival Commission’s Invasive Species Specialist Group is a global
network of science and policy experts.
 The Global Invasive Species Program: It is supporting the implementation of Article 8(h) of CBD with IUCN as
partner organization and also working to address the global threat to IAS.

 IUCN’s Invasive Species Specialist Group: They have also been working to promote and facilitate the exchange of
IAS information and knowledge across the globe and ensure linkages between policy making and flow of
knowledge.
WAY FORWARD:
 Regulating movement: The most effective way to stop the negative impacts of IAS is through prevention of spread
by regulating the trade or movement of a species.
 Setting Standard procedures: Once an IAS has arrived, early detection, monitoring and eradication can stop the
species spreading.
 Legislation: In 2013, the European Commission (EC) put forward a proposal for legislation in the form of an EU
Regulation on IAS, such legislation can also be enacted in other countries to regulate issues related to Invasive
species.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
 Definition: Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity to obtain resources for
sustainable development.
 Main objectives: Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives:
o To preserve the diversity of species; Sustainable utilization of species; Sustainable utilization of the ecosystem
 Interdependence: All forms of life are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one give rise to imbalance in the
others.
 Degradation in the environment: If species of plants and animals become endangered, they cause degradation in
the environment, which may threaten human being’s own existence.
APPROACHES IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:

 In situ conservation: It is the approach of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat,
either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators.
o Main zone under the In Situ conservation: Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Wild-life Sanctuaries.
 Ex-situ conservation: In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and
placed in special settings where they can be protected and given special care.
IMPORTANCE OF PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATION IN CONSERVATION OF ENVI RONMENT:

 Meaning: It is a process where each contributor gains a better understanding of both the issues and how other
participants see the issues.
 Information exchange: It is an opportunity for participants to share their facts, experiences, knowledge, ideas,
preferences, hopes, fears, opinions, and values.
 Standard way: Public participation is most successful when it is well planned, well timed, competently staffed,
and has sufficient resources.
 Preserving Biodiversity and Averting species extinction: These tribes, along with marginalised communities living
on the fringes of forests and millions of smallholder farmers, are the best hope that India has to preserve
biodiversity and ensure food security.
 Anthropogenic disaster: The first global assessment of biodiversity by a UN-backed panel, held humans squarely
responsible for the looming mass extinction of species.
BENEFITS PUBLIC PARTICIPATION:

 Mutual education: Public participation processes are opportunities for mutual education of everyone involved.
 Behavioural change: Public participation may yield changes in behaviour, that the likelihood of people changing
their behaviours increases when they are aware, informed, and self-convinced that the change is needed.
 Encouragement of responsibility and support to government efforts: Taking part in effective public participation
encourages civic and community responsibility in meaningful ways.
 Vent for the grievances: The lack of opportunities for public participation can lead to frustration, polarization, and
even rioting.

 Two-way communication: Public participation processes fail miserably when they have been carried out as a one-
way communication or in an environment that promotes defensiveness, distrust, self-protection, or power-
brokering.
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN INDIA: CASE STUDIES

 Dongria Kondh tribe: The Dongria Kondh tribe of Niyamgiri Hills are among the best conservationists in the
world. Known for the spirited defence of their forested habitat against short-sighted industrialisation, they have
through millennia evolved a lifestyle that is in perfect harmony with nature.
 Narmada Bachao Aandolan: The movement first started as a protest for not providing proper rehabilitation and
resettlement for the people who have been displaced by the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
 Chipko movement: Mr. Bahuguna enlightened the villagers by conveying the importance of trees in the
environment which checks the erosion of soil, causes rains and provides pure air. The women of Advani village of
Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred thread around trunks of trees and they hugged the trees, hence it was called the
‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘hug the tree movement’.
 Bishnoi Movement: The Bishnois, who are known as conservators of their forest, were an inspiration to many
people’s participatory movements for Environmental protection in India.
 Save Silent Valley Movement: The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across the
Kunthipuzha River that runs through Silent Valley.
KUNMING DECLARATION ON BIODIVERSITY

In News: Recently, the Kunming Declaration was adopted by over 100 countries at the ongoing 15th Conference of
the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity in China.
 The adoption of the declaration will create momentum for a new global biodiversity pact.
 In a previous agreement, “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020”, signed in Aichi, Japan, in 2010, governments
agreed on 20 targets to try to slow biodiversity loss and protect habitats by 2020.
ABOUT DECLARATION:
 The theme of the declaration is Ecological Civilization: Building a Shared Future for All Life on Earth.
 It calls for urgent and integrated action to reflect biodiversity considerations in all sectors of the global
economy but crucial issues - like funding conservation in poorer countries and committing to biodiversity-
friendly supply chains have been left to discuss later. It is not a binding international agreement.
 It calls upon the parties to mainstream biodiversity protection in decision-making and recognise the
importance of conservation in protecting human health.
 By adopting this, the nations have committed themselves to support the development, adoption and
implementation of an effective post-2020 implementation plan, a capacity building action plan for the
Cartagena Protocol on biosafety.
 The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms
resulting from modern biotechnology.
 As per the declaration the signatory nations will ensure that the post-pandemic recovery policies, programmes
and plans contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, promoting sustainable and
inclusive development.
30 BY 30 TARGET:
 The declaration made a reference to the ‘30 by 30’ target which is a key proposal being debated at the COP15,
that would afford 30% of the Earth’s land and oceans protected status by 2030.
 Apart from this, the goal to halve the use of chemicals in agriculture and stop creating plastic waste is also being
debated.
KUNMING BIODIVERSITY FUND:
 China has also pledged to inject USD 233 million into a new fund to protect biodiversity in developing countries.
The fund is being referred to by China as Kunming Biodiversity Fund.
 It is the right step in this direction. However, some countries have reservations regarding this fund.
 Some countries have called this fund as “a drop in the bucket” given that China is the world’s biggest polluter.

 Further, some rich country donors say a new fund for conservation is unnecessary because the United Nations’
Global Environment Facility already helps developing nations finance green projects.
GLOBAL INITIATIVES TO SAVE AND CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY:
 Convention on Biological Diversity: It is a legally binding treaty to conserve biodiversity that has been in force
since 1993. India is a party to the convention.
 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora: It provides public, private
and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress, economic
development and nature conservation to take place together. India is a member of the convention.
 World Wide Fund for Nature: It is an international non-governmental organisation for the conservation, research
and restoration of the natural environment.
 Global Biodiversity Assessment: It is an independent, critical, peer reviewed scientific analysis of the current
issues, theories and views regarding the main aspects of biodiversity.
 Man and the Biosphere Program: It was launched in 1970 and has initiated programmes and activities focusing
on the diversity and the resources provided by nature, humans’ impacts on biodiversity, as well as how biodiversity
affects human activities.
MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPA) IN ANTARCTICA

 In News: India has extended its support for protecting the Antarctic environment and for co-sponsoring the
proposal of the European Union for designating East Antarctica and the Weddell Sea as Marine Protected Areas
(MPAs).
 An MPA is essentially a space in the ocean where human activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding
waters - similar to parks we have on land. These places are given special protections for natural or historic marine
resources by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national authorities.
 Antarctica is not a country. It has no government and no indigenous population. Instead, the entire continent is
set aside as a scientific preserve.
MPA IN ANTARCTICA:
 Currently, only 5% of the Southern Ocean is protected. MPAs were established in the South Orkney Islands in
2009 and the Ross Sea region in 2016.
 Another three proposals for MPAs are being considered for East Antarctica, the Weddell Sea, and the Antarctic
Peninsula.
 MPA proposals are driven by conservation and sustainable utilization principles and adhering to the global
cooperation frameworks (such as Sustainable Development Goals, UN Decade of Oceans, Convention on
Biodiversity, etc.)
 India is a signatory to these conventions or agreements.
 India urged the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) member
countries to ensure that India remains associated with the formulation, adaptation and implementation
mechanisms of these MPAs in future.
NEED TO ESTABLISH MPA:
 The health of the Southern Ocean is driven by changes to the ocean itself - such as:
o Ocean Acidification
o Changes in sea-ice concentration
o Events triggered by climate change such as heat waves and extreme weather.
 These changes affect the marine ecosystem and species of the Antarctic region.
 Further, in response to these impacts, the threat of new and invasive species in the Southern Ocean is growing
and endemic marine species like penguins are experiencing a historic die-off.
 Apart from this there is a rapid increase in melting of glaciers in Antarctica. For example, Thwaites Glacier.
 Studies show that MPAs can help vulnerable ecosystems build resilience to climate change by eliminating
additional stresses such as fishing.
 In addition, their relatively undisturbed waters provide a natural laboratory for studying how intact marine
ecosystems react to a warming and acidifying ocean.
CHALLENGES FACED BY THE ANTARCTICA:

 Territorial dispute between parties: Argentina and the UK, for instance, have overlapping claims to territory on
the continent. When combined with their ongoing dispute over the nearby Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, their
Antarctic relationship remains frosty.
 Assertive China: China is spending huge amount of money, every year, on Antarctica. There is considerable
speculation as to China’s interests in Antarctic resources, especially fisheries and minerals, and whether China may
seek to exploit weaknesses in the treaty system to secure access to those resources.
 Climate change: Climate change has the potential to cause significant biophysical change to Antarctica through
changing patterns of sea ice formation and destabilization of ice sheets.
 Changing circumstances: Tourism, rise in IUU (i.e., illegal, unreported, and unregulated) fishing, biological
prospecting (commercialization of knowledge gained from research with regard to bio-organisms) etc. are gaining
momentum. All these together may put threat to the fragile ecosystem of Antarctica.
 Conflict with the provisions of other laws: Since the conclusion of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, international law
underwent profound changes.
INDIA’S STAKE IN ANTARCTICA:
 India signed Antarctic Treaty in 1983 and soon received consultative status.
 The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the Environmental Protocol or Madrid Protocol)
entered into force for India in 1998.
 India is also a member of Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programme (COMNAP), Scientific Committee
of Antarctica Research (SCAR) and Commission for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Recourses (CCAMLR).
 India’s Research stations: Maitri at Schirmacher Hills, Bharati at Larsemann Hills (Dakshin Gangotri was the first
Indian base established in 1984).
 The Antarctic operations of India are currently funded from the budget allocated to the Ministry of Earth Sciences
under relevant head.
 The Indian Antarctica Bill, 2021:
o The Bill aims at having India’s own national measures for protecting the Antarctic environment and
dependent and associated ecosystem.
o Provides a regulatory framework for India’s Antarctic activities and protection of the Antarctic environment
as per the Antarctic Treaty, and the CCAMLR.
WAY AHEAD:
 Effective implementation of the Treaty: To resolve this situation, firstly, the Antarctic Treaty Members must
pressure every member state to the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) to implement the rules of the ATS in a strict
manner. New, more stringent environmental protection regulations will be of no avail if they are not properly
implemented.
 New regulation based on scientific findings: For this, scientists will have to learn how to translate scientific
findings into policy-relevant information. This will be a condition Sine-qua-non for a performant environmental
protection system.
 A dedicated tourism convention for the region: This convention could serve to reaffirm the philosophic base of
the Antarctic Treaty, namely international cooperation in scientific research, and in doing so combat the
commercialization of the Antarctic region.
 Behavioral change: People need to be taught how fragile the Antarctic environment and ecosystem are. They
need to understand the problems posed by cumulative impacts.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION
HUMAN–WILDLIFE CONFLICT (HWC)
 In news: Recent report between the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and WWF titled 'A future
for all - the need for human-wildlife coexistence', reveals that globally, conflict-related killing affects more than
75% of the world’s wild cat species, as well as many other terrestrial and marine carnivore species.
 HWC refers to the negative interactions between human and wild animals, with undesirable consequences for
both people and their resources and wildlife and their habitats (IUCN 2020).
HWC EXTENT IN INDIA:

 Varied forms: Human-animal conflict is seen across the country in a variety of forms, including monkey menace in
the urban centres, crop raiding by ungulates and wild pigs, depredation by elephants, cattle lifting and threats and
injury by tigers.
 Prevalent everywhere: Human-animal conflict occurs both inside Protected Areas as well as outside Protected
Areas. The intensity of the conflict is generally more in areas outside the Protected Area network than inside.
 Huge toll of big animals: In the Monsoon session (2019), the Union Environment Ministry informed the Lok Sabha
that 2398 people in India were killed by elephants while tigers claimed 224 lives in the last five years.
 Human related activities: Over 100 elephants die due to human-related activities, which include poaching for
ivory or meat, poisoning, electrocution and collision with trains.
 Human deaths: 92 people died in tiger attacks. Of these, 32 were in West Bengal alone, followed by Maharashtra
and Madhya Pradesh
 Compensation for property damage: Majority of the States awarded compensation for loss of livestock, human
injury and death, due to man-animal conflict. However, only 18 states provided compensation for property
damage.
 Crop loss: 22 states provide for compensation for crop loss by man-animal conflict, however still states like Gujarat
and Rajasthan do not provide compensation for crop loss.
REASONS HUMAN–WILDLIFE CONFLICT:

 The major causes of conflict manifested that agricultural expansion, human settlement overgrazing by
livestock, deforestation, illegal grass collection and poaching.
 To defend crop raider, farmers have been practiced crop guarding, live fencing, scarecrow, chasing, and
smoking. However, fencing, chasing, scarecrow and guarding were controlling techniques to defend livestock
predator animals.
IMPACT OF HWC:
 Impact On Wildlife and Ecosystems: HWC threatens the survival of various terrestrial and marine species. While
apex predators and emblematic key species are most at risk, more-common species and wider conservation
landscapes are also impacted.
 Impact On Social Dynamics: HWC can pit people against each other when diverse societal needs and responses
are inadequately addressed. Such conflicts can be detrimental to communities and undermine the political
credibility of governments.
 Impact On Local Communities: Local communities bear the costs of living with wildlife. These negative impacts
shape people’s risk perceptions, while cultural and social norms also influence people’s tolerance of wildlife.
 Impact On Commodity Production and Businesses: HWC can negatively affect businesses producing agricultural
goods and other commodities, leading to localised food insecurity and decreased productivity and
competitiveness for producers.
 Impact On Equity: Living with wildlife involves costs, which are unevenly distributed and disproportionately fall to
those who live near that wildlife, on the other hand, the benefits of a species’ survival are often more widely
distributed.
HUMAN-ANIMAL COEXISTENCE: STRATEGIES TO MANAGE HWC

 Moving From Conflict to Coexistence: It requires successful HWC management using integrated and holistic
approaches that take multiple elements of HWC management into consideration.
 Monitoring and enabling environment: Two important but often overlooked strategy elements are monitoring
and the creation of an enabling policy environment.
 Integrated and holistic HWC management approaches: It allows species to survive in areas where they otherwise
would have declined or become extinct.
 Increasing protected areas: National parks and other protected areas provide core habitats for some biodiverse
species, which will minimize the HWC.
NTCA GUIDELINES AND ADVISORY FOR MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT:

 Effective coordination: Chief Conservator of Forests in charge of Tiger Reserves and other forests having
significant tiger population shall strive to ensure utmost coordination with local community.
 Payment of compensation: Sharing data on payment of compensation which shall help assess conflict hot spots
as non-payment shall invariably result in an antagonistic mindset which may lead to retaliatory killing of tigers.
GOVERNMENTAL INITIATIVES:
 Empowering gram panchayats: In dealing with the problematic wild animals as per the section 11 (1) (b) of Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972.
 Stall-fed farm animals: Identification of hotspots and formulation and implementation of special plans for
improved stall-fed farm animals.
 The National Wildlife Action Plan 2017-2035 (NWAP): The year 2017 marked the latest development in the policy
environment of India, when the National Wildlife Action Plan 2017-2035 (NWAP) was launched, with a dedicated
chapter focused on managing HWC.
 Draft National Forest Policy, 2019 - Provision for dealing with errant animals:
o Using the WPA: The WPA, 1972 empowers the concerned authorities to deal with problematic animals
including declaring any protected species as vermin and to be culled. E.g., monkeys in Himachal Pradesh and
Nilgai and Wild Boar in Bihar were declared Vermin in recent times.
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) AMENDMENT BILL, 2021

In the News: In the Lok Sabha, a bill to modify the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was recently introduced.
 The legislation ensures the preservation of wild animals, birds, and plants in order to preserve the country's
ecological and environmental security.
The Bill amends the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The Act regulates the protection of wild animals, birds and
plants.
 The Bill seeks to increase the species protected under the law, and implement the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Key features of the Bill include:
 Rationalising schedules: Currently, the Act has six schedules for specially protected plants (one), specially
protected animals (four), and vermin species (one).
 The Bill reduces the total number of schedules to four by:
 reducing the number of schedules for specially protected animals to two (one for greater protection
level),
 removes the schedule for vermin species, and
 inserts a new schedule for specimens listed in the Appendices under CITES (scheduled specimens).
 Obligations under CITES: The Bill provides for the central government to designate a:
 Management Authority, which grants export or import permits for trade of specimens, and
 Scientific Authority, which gives advice on aspects related to impact on the survival of the specimens
being traded.
 The Bill prohibits any person from modifying or removing the identification mark of the specimen.
 Additionally, every person possessing live specimens of scheduled animals must obtain a
registration certificate from the Management Authority.
 Invasive alien species: The Bills empowers the central government to regulate or prohibit the import, trade,
possession or proliferation of invasive alien species.

 Control of sanctuaries: The Act entrusts the Chief Wild Life Warden to control, manage and maintain all
sanctuaries in a state.
 The Chief Wild Life Warden is appointed by the state government. The Bill specifies that actions of
the Chief Warden must be in accordance with the management plans for the sanctuary.
 Conservation reserves: Under the Act, state governments may declare areas adjacent to national
parks and sanctuaries as a conservation reserve, for protecting flora and fauna, and their habitat. The
Bill empowers the central government to also notify a conservation reserve.
 Surrender of captive animals: The Bill provides for any person to voluntarily surrender any captive
animals or animal products to the Chief Wild Life Warden.
 No compensation will be paid to the person for surrendering such items. The surrendered
items become property of the state government.
 Penalties: The Act prescribes imprisonment terms and fines for violating the provisions of the
Act. The Bill increases these fines.
 Relaxation of certain restrictions:
o Including film-making (without making any change in the habitat or causing any adverse impact to
the habitat for wildlife) as one of the purposes for which permits may be granted to enter or reside in
a sanctuary.
o Allow for transfer or transport of live elephants by person having ownership certificates in
accordance with conditions prescribed by the Central Government.
o Certain activities such as, grazing or movement of livestock, bona fide use of drinking and household
water by local communities, etc., shall be considered as non-prohibitive under section 29 i.e., allowed
without a permit in a sanctuary.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
 Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how 2019
 What are the consequences of illegal mining? Discuss the ministry of environment and forests’ concept 2013
of “GO AND NO GO” zones for coal mining.
 Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. 2019
Analyze the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
INTRODUCTION:
 The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as “The
reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs”.
EXTENT OF DEGRADATION IN INDIA

 State of land and agriculture: While in farm sector the input costs for major crops are rising, the average farmland
size is shrinking. Even the share of the insured cropped area stands at a dismal 26 per cent.
 State of climate:
o GHG emissions: There has been a 22 per cent increase in India’s GHG emissions between 2010 and 2014.
o Various global warming gases: Besides, India phased out ozone-depleting substances (ODS) such as
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) by 2011, it shifted to substances such as hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HFC), which have
high global warming potential.
o Extreme weather events: India continues to bear the brunt of extreme weather events. In 2018, 11 states
recorded major extreme weather events that claimed 1,425 lives.

 State of forests: In April 2019, the new technology recorded 69,523 forest fires, which was 9.5 times more than
that recorded by the earlier technology.
 State of wildlife: 37 species were poached or seized in 2018. Of these, 13, including lions, marked an increase over
the last year; 161 wild animals were also killed due to road and train accidents.
CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:

 Various pollution: Pollution, in its multifarious form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful to the
environment and causes environmental degradation.
 SOCIAL FACTORS:
o Overpopulation: Rapid population growth puts a strain on natural resources for their food and fodder
needs which results in the deforestation and degradation of our environment.
o Poverty is said to be both cause and effect of environmental degradation.
 Imbalance may cultivate un sustainability in light of the fact that poor people, who depend on
normal assets more than the rich, drain characteristic assets quicker as they have no genuine
prospects of accessing different kinds of assets
o Urbanization is occurring at a quicker rate in India. Such fast and spontaneous extension of urban
areas has brought about debasement of urban condition.
 The level and pattern of economic development also affected the nature of environmental problems.
 Landfills and Disturbance of land: Landfills come within the city due to the large amount of waste that gets
generated by households, industries, factories, and hospitals. Landfills pose a great risk to the health of the
environment and the people who live there.
o Large quantities of industrial and hazardous wastes brought about by expansion of chemical-based
industry have compounded the wastes management problem with serious environmental health
implications.
 Direct impacts of agricultural development on the environment arise from farming activities which contribute to
soil erosion and loss of nutrients.
o The spread of green revolution has been joined by finished misuse of land and water assets, and
utilization of manures and pesticides have expanded numerous overlaps.
 Deforestation: Urbanization, excess population growth, excess use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing,
harvest for fuelwood, and logging are some major causes of deforestation leading to decreased forest size and
putting carbon back into the environment.
 Institutional Factors:
o Although overall quality of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies and the effective
implementation of the EIA process have improved over the years.
o institutional strengthening measures such a straining of key professionals and staffing with proper
technical persons are needed to make the EIA procedure a more effective instrument for environment
protection and sustainable development.
o The shortcoming of the current framework lies in the implementation abilities of natural
foundations, both at the middle and the state.
o There is no effective coordination amongst various Ministries/Institutions regarding integration of
environmental concerns at the inception/planning stage of the project.
 Natural Causes: Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can totally crush nearby animal
and plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive in those areas.
o Land degradation can be caused by both manmade and natural reasons such as floods and forest
fires. It is estimated that up to 40 per cent of the world’s agricultural land is seriously degraded
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:

 Human health: Human health might be at the receiving end as a result of environmental degradation. Areas
exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma.
o The illness and pre-mature deaths due to ambient suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the air in mega
cities of Calcutta, Chennai, Delhi and Mumbai have risen significantly in less than five years.
o The indoor air pollution may pose an even greater hazard for human health.

 Cooking and heating with wood, crop residues, animal dung, and low-quality coal produce smoke
that contains dangerous particles and gases.
 Biodiversity loss: Biodiversity is important for maintaining the balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating
pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water sources, and stabilizing the climate. Deforestation, global warming,
overpopulation, and pollution are a few of the major causes of the loss of biodiversity.
 Depletion of ozone: The most important reason for ozone layer depletion is the production and emission of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This is what which leads to almost 80 percent of the total ozone layer depletion.
 Poverty: The inadequacy of basic survival resources and lack of quality of food is the direct result of environmental
degradation in the regions.
 Atmospheric Changes: The alterations include global warming and climate change which can increase the risks of
climatic natural disasters, and ozone layer depletion.
 Economic impact of environmental degradation: The huge cost that a country may have to bear due to
environmental degradation can have a big economic impact in terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up of
landfills, and protection of endangered species.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES TO REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
 By planting more trees: Afforestation or planting of trees can help us control environmental degradation.
o Compensatory Afforestation, Act: The enactment of the Compensatory Afforestation Act, 2016 is aimed
at ending ad-hocism and helping the central and state governments to utilise funds in a planned and
efficient manner.
o The National Afforestation Programme (NAP): The NAP of the MoEF&CC is a 100% centrally sponsored
scheme for afforestation and tree plantation and eco-restoration of degraded forests and adjoining areas
in the country.
 Rainwater harvesting: It can be used for agricultural purposes, domestic works, and cooking. Using this method,
we recycle the rainwater for our personal use and thus avoid wastage of water.
o River and Water Conservation: The Water Resources Information System (WRIS) database developed by
the Central Water Commission (CWC) along with the ISRO includes 15,615 identified rivers/streams in the
country.
 Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle: The resources are limited and cannot be renewed. There is a sudden rise in the
human population and hence the resources are being overused. We can reuse the items and recycle them.
 Reduce fuel consumption: We can use renewable energies such as CNG, solar energy, etc. They are found amply
in nature and are inexhaustible.
o The government has launched the LED project, where the government is replacing the lighting load of
the country with LEDs.
 It will reduce the carbon dioxide emissions by 80 million tonnes per annum and the economically
prudent project will help the consumer save around Rs. 40,000 crore in electricity bills annually.
 Reducing the use of fertilizers: Increased use of fertilizers to produce more crops have resulted in many health
hazards among humans and have also degraded the soil quality.
 Control population growth: Population explosion is a serious issue in developing countries and controlling
population is the need of the hour to reduce environmental degradation.
 Conserve the endangered species: A change or loss of one organism can alter the cycle, causing a discrepancy in
the environment. Hence conserving them is extremely important.
 Create awareness among people about the issue: Public consciousness must be made about the necessity of
conservation and the harmful effects of environmental degradation.
o Green Skill Development Programme (GSDP): The GSDP developed by the MoEF&CC under the ENVIS
Scheme is a new initiative to skill youth in the environment, forest and wildlife sectors and enable them
to be employed or be self-employed.
 Government regulations: National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): The overall objective of the NCAP is a
comprehensive management plan for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution besides augmenting the
air quality-monitoring network across the country
o National Green Tribunal: Established in 2010 under the NGT Act 2010. It has been set up for effective and
expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other
natural resources.

ENVIRONMENT VS DEVEL OPMENT DEBATE
DEVELOPMENT VS ENVIRONMENT
 Importance of Environment: The economic significance of the environment is evident in the range of ecosystem
services that it offers. These include:
o Provisioning services (food, irrigation, drinking water).
o Regulating services (climate regulation, water quality regulation).
o Cultural services (recreational and religious services).
o Supporting services (nutrient recycling, soil formation).
 Relation of Environment with Development: Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation are inevitable to bring in
desired levels of economic development.
 Developmental Factors Affecting Environmental Sustainability:
o Lack of Environmental Compliance: Neglect of environmental principles is a key reason why natural hazards
end up causing a significant number of avoidable casualties.
o Ill-effects of Subsidies: Subsidised nature of services like energy and electricity leads to their overuse and
undermines environmental sustainability.
o No Cost to Environmental Resources: Access to natural resources is entirely open and no individual user bears
the full cost of environmental degradation and resources are consequently overused.
o Complexity of Population Dynamics: Increasing population tends to exacerbate the linkages between
underdevelopment and environmental degradation.
CONCLUSION
 Development remains the greatest pursuit as well as a challenge, faced by humanity. However, despite the
unprecedented economic and social progress that has been made over the last century, poverty, famine and
environmental degradation still persist on a global scale. Thus, development goals must be pursued without
breaching environmental regulations.
LAND DEGRADATION
Franklin D. Roosevelt: ‘The nation that destroys its soil, destroys itself.
 Land degradation is defined as a negative trend in land condition, caused

by direct or indirect human-induced processes including anthropogenic
climate change, expressed as long-term reduction or loss of at least one of
the following: biological productivity, ecological integrity, or value to
humans.
 About 29% or about 96.4 million hectares of land in India are considered
degraded.
FACTS AND FIGURES: BY FAO

 Almost one-quarter of the world’s land area has been degraded over the
past 50 years because of soil erosion, salinization, peatland and wetland
drainage, and forest degradation.
 More than one-quarter of agricultural lands are classified as severely degraded.
LAND DEGRADATION AND INDIA

 State of India’s Environment 2019: It shows that about 30% of India’s total geographical area is being affected by
land degradation.
 82% of these degraded land lies in just nine states: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir,
Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and Telangana.
 Land desertification: It shows 1.87 million hectares of land in the country faced by the process of desertification
between 2003-15 period.

 Forest cover: Forests are one of the most important solutions to climate change and India has lost 1.6 million
hectares of forest cover since 2000.
CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION

 Vegetation degradation: Deforestation, forest fires, shifting
cultivation and degradation in grazing/grassland as well as in
scrubland.
 Water erosion: Water Erosion is the loss of soil cover mainly
due to rainfall and surface runoff water.
 Wind erosion: Wind erosion removes the topsoil, which is rich
in all plant nutrients and bacterial activities.
 Agriculture: Increasing demand for food and other
agriproducts have put tremendous pressure on native forests
in emerging and developing countries, causing deforestation
and degradation.
 Anthropogenic factors: For instance, a large number of Figure: Vicious Cycle of Land Degradation
industries discharge their metal containing effluents into freshwater without adequate treatment.
o Contaminated water when used for irrigation purposes affects soil quality and crop health of the
agricultural system.
o Dumping of nonbiodegradable trash, such as plastics.
o Urban sprawl and commercial development Vehicle off-roading.
EFFECTS OF LAND DEGRADATION

 A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land
 Reduction in agricultural productivity: Land degradation exacerbates climate change and threatens agricultural
productivity.
o It reduces soil health, water quality and damages thus in turn impact the livelihood of rural people.
 Water crisis: Land degradation has resulted in a deterioration in the quantity and quality of both surface and
groundwater resources. The less vegetative cover leads to soil erosion. Runoff increases and flooding becomes
more frequent and extensive. Groundwater recharge decreases and the water table also drops.
 Endanger food resources: With land degradation, food production is endangered and reduced. With reduced
agricultural activities and productivity, land degradation endangers future nutrition.
 Decrease in population: It leads to increased health risk due to lack of nutrition and water. It reduces human
settlement as land becomes non-productive for livelihood. This would lead to migration.
WAY FORWARD
 Afforestation: Forest degradation accounts for the major share of land degradation costs of India highlighting the
need to prevent forest degradation. Further, strategies to reduce forest dependence for fuelwood, fodder and
non-timber forest products should be made. Efforts must be made for afforestation.
o The Bonn Challenge: To bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into
restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
 Alternative fuels use: A major focus for reducing forest degradation is encouraging rural household’s dependent
on forests to switch to alternative fuel sources or at the minimum utilise fuel-efficient devices. The Ujjwala scheme
is a positive measure.
 Adoption of watershed approach: Planning based on micro-watersheds, use of remote sensing data and spatial
data in planning at the micro-watershed level. E.g., Integrated Watershed Management Programme.
 Integrated treatment methods: Incorporating contouring, gully plugging, vegetative as well as engineering-based
solutions for soil moisture conservation, covering agricultural as well as non-agricultural lands.
 Great Green Wall: Initiative by Global Environment Facility (GEF), where eleven countries in Sahel-Saharan Africa
have focused efforts to fight against land degradation and revive native plant life to the landscape
 Rio Summit: The 1992 UNCED, also known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, recognized land degradation as a
major challenge to sustainable development and led to the establishment of the UNCCD, UNFCCC and CBD.
 REDD+: Reducing GHG emissions by slowing, halting and reversing forest loss and degradation
 GLASGOW LEADERS' DECLARATION ON FORESTS AND LAND USE: Declared in Glasgow summit (COP26) where
leaders from 141 countries committed to halt and reverse forest loss and land degradation by 2030 by
strengthening their efforts to conserve and restore forests and other terrestrial ecosystems and accelerate
their restoration.
LAND DEGRADATION NEU TRALITY (LDN)

 Recently, the Prime Minister delivered a keynote address at the United Nations (UN) “High-Level Dialogue on
Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought” via video conference.
 According to the UNCCD, LDN is a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources, necessary to support
ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified
temporal and spatial scales.
 India has adopted the goal of achieving LDN by 2030 under Sustainable Development Goals (15.3).
BENEFITS OF LDN:
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) aims to maintain and restore the land-based natural capital. It plays a vital role
in tackling climate change, securing biodiversity and maintaining critical ecosystem services, while ensuring shared
prosperity and wellbeing.
STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA TO ACHIEVE LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY:

 Comprehensive National Plan: The National Action Plan (NAP) to combat desertification was launched in 2001
for 20 years. Its objectives are:
o Community based approach to development,
o Activities to improve the quality of life of the local communities,
o Awareness raising, Capacity building, etc.
 Sustainable Land and Ecosystem Management (SLEM) Programme: Which is jointly implemented by Government
of India and Global Environment Facility (GEF), aims to promote sustainable land and ecosystem management.
 Delhi Declaration: India hosted the COP 14 to UNCCD in 2019 and adopted new targets. They are:
o India raised its total area that would be restored from its land degradation status, from 21 million hectares to
26 million hectares till 2030.
o India has announced to set up a Centre of Excellence at the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, for providing
technical assistance to meet the challenges.
 Green Wall initiative: The Centre is mulling an ambitious plan to create a 1,400km long and 5km wide green belt
from Gujarat to the Delhi-Haryana border.
o Inspiration of the plan: The plan is inspired by Africa’s ‘Great Green Wall’ project, running from Senegal
(West) to Djibouti (East), which came into effect in 2007.
o The overarching objective of India’s Green Wall: It will be to address the rising rates of land degradation
and the eastward expansion of the Thar desert.
o Extension of the belt: The green belt being planned from Porbandar to Panipat will help in restoring
degraded land through afforestation along the Aravali hill range.
DESERTIFICATION
 The UNCCD defines it as “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human activities.”
 Desertification is the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert by losing its flora and
fauna, this can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human activities or improper agriculture. It
occurs on all continents except Antarctica.
DATA AND FIGURES: DESERTIFICATION STATUS IN INDIA AND THE WORLD

 According to the Government’s data recently presented to the UNCCD, India lost 31%, or 5.65
million hectares (MHA), of grassland area in a decade.
India  The extent of degraded land in India is over 105 million hectares or about 32% of India's areas.
 More than 80% of the country’s degraded land lies in just nine states.

The United Nations Decade for Deserts (2010-2020) and the fight against Desertification, UNCCD:
 More than 1.5 billion people directly depend on land that is slowly being degraded.
Global  Every year 75 billion tons of fertile soil is lost to land degradation.
scenario  Similarly, 12 million hectares of land are lost every year to desertification and drought alone.
This is an area that could produce 20 million tons of grain.
 Desertification and land degradation cause USD 42 billion in lost earnings each year.
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION:
'Climatic variations' and 'Human activities' can be regarded as the two main causes of desertification. removal of the
natural vegetation cover, agricultural activities in the vulnerable ecosystems of arid and semi-arid areas, which are
thus strained beyond their capacity.
IMPACTS OF DESERTIFICATION
 Environmental impacts: Destruction of Vegetation, Soil infertility; Increased soil erosion; Increased vulnerability
to natural disasters; Land degradation; Water pollution; Loss of biodiversity & extinction of species.
 Economic impacts: Increased occurrences of natural hazards like: Floods, landslides, draughts; Threatens
agricultural productivity; Repercussive impacts increase poverty; The overall productivity of the economy
decreases.
 Social Impacts: Rise of famine, poverty, social conflicts; Forces mass migrations i.e., environmental migration.
 Political Impacts: Desertification-induced movement of people also has the potential of adversely affecting local,
regional, and even global political
STEPS TO MITIGATE DESERTIFICATION:

 Salt traps: Involve the creation of so-called void layers of gravel and sand at certain depths in the soil. Salt traps
prevent salts from reaching the surface of the soil and also help to inhibit water loss.
 Irrigation improvements: This can inhibit water loss from evaporation and prevent salt accumulation.
 Cover crops: prevent soil erosion from wind and water. They can also reduce the local effects of drought. On larger
scales, plant cover can help maintain normal rainfall patterns.
 Crop rotation: Involves the alternation of different crops on the same plot of land over different growing seasons.
 Rotational grazing: process of limiting the grazing pressure of livestock in a given area.
 Terracing: Involves the creation of multiple levels of flat ground that appear as long steps cut into hillsides. The
technique slows the pace of runoff, which reduces soil erosion and retards overall water loss.
 Windbreaks: Involve the establishment of lines of fast-growing trees planted at right angles to the prevailing
surface winds.
 Dune stabilization: Involves the conservation of the plant community living along the sides of dunes.
 Charcoal conversion improvements: Include the use of steel or mud kilns or high-pressure compacting equipment
to press the wood and other plant residues into briquettes.
WAY FORWARD
 Sustainable Land Use: It refers to practices and technologies that aim to integrate the management of land, water,
and other environmental resources to meet human needs while ensuring long-term sustainability, ecosystem
services, biodiversity, and livelihoods.
 Managing the rural-urban interface: Cities designed for sustainability in the wider landscape can reduce
environmental costs of transport, food, water, and energy, and offer new opportunities for resource efficiency.
 Alternative Farming and Industrial Techniques: For example, Organic farming, biodynamic farming, no tillage
farming, urban and peri-urban farming, natural farming, etc.
 Establish economic opportunities outside drylands: Desertification can also be avoided by creating economic
opportunities in drylands urban centres and areas outside drylands.
 The practice of Sustainable Agriculture: Sustainable farming or agriculture is using farming practices considering
the ecological cycles. It simply means the production of food, plants and animal products using farming techniques
that prove to be beneficial for public health and promote economic profitability.
 Raise awareness about desertification: The world day to combat desertification and drought is observed every
year to promote public awareness of international efforts to combat is a welcome move.

 Effective utilization of water: Command Area Development was launched in 1974 to improve irrigation potential
utilization and to optimize agricultural production through efficient water management.
 Comprehensive national level policy: National Mission on Green India: It is a part of the NAPCC. It was approved
in 2014 with the objective of protecting, restoring and enhancing India’s diminishing forest cover with a deadline
of 10 years.
o Desert Development Programme: It was launched in 1995 to minimize the adverse effect of drought and
to rejuvenate the natural resource base of the identified desert areas.
o Though, these programs are same but they are lacking in convergence and cooperation.
 Mapping of deserted and potential degrading areas: Having quality data will help us in making effective policy
tools.
o Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India: It was released by ISRO in 2016. Combating
desertification and land degradation is one of the thrust areas covered by it.
WESTERN GHAT CONSERVATION

 The Western Ghats is an extensive region spanning over six States and home to many endangered plants and
animals. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site and according to UNESCO, the Western Ghats are older than the
Himalayas. They influence Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that
sweep in from the southwest during late summer.
Presently Flash floods and back-to-back landslips in Kerala bring into focus, once again, the fragile ecosystem of the
western ghats.
ABOUT THE WESTERN GHATS:

 Hotspot of biological diversity: The Western Ghats is one of the eight hotspots of biological diversity in the world
and is spread across six states i.e., Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
 Extension of Western ghats: The hill ranges of the Western Ghats, a global biodiversity hotspot, extend along the
west coast of India from the river Tapti in the north to the southern tip of India.
 House of biodiversity: Their positioning makes the western ghats biologically rich and bio geographically unique,
a veritable treasure house of biodiversity. They contain more than 30 percent of all plant, fish, herpeto-fauna,
bird, and mammal species found in India.
 Area coverage: Covering an area of 180,000 km square, or just under 6 per cent of the land area of India.
 Endemic species: 50 per cent of India’s amphibians and 67 per cent of fish species are endemic to this region, for
example, Nilgiri tahr, lion-tailed macaque, etc.
 Laws protecting the western ghats: The following laws underline the protective measures for the western ghats:
Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972; Indian Forest Act of 1927; Forest Conservation Act (1980).
IMPORTANCE OF WESTERN GHATS

 Hydrological and watershed functions: It feeds a large number of perennial rivers of peninsular India.
 Role in monsoon: The mountains of the Western Ghats and their characteristic montane forest ecosystems
influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that mediate the warm tropical climate of the region.
 Climate change: The forests of Western Ghats play a significant and important ecological function in the
sequestration of atmospheric CO2 and hence have an important role in climate change.
 Biodiversity:
o exceptional levels of plant and animal diversity and endemicity. For example, 52% of tree species found in
the Western Ghats are endemic, 65% of amphibians found here are endemic.
 Economic importance:
o Minerals: The Western Ghats are rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores in parts of their ranges.
o Plantation: Pepper and cardamom, which are native to the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats have been
taken up as plantation crops on a large scale. Other large-scale plantations include tea, coffee, oil palm and
rubber.
o Forest based industries: The forests of Western Ghats are an important source of timber and support a large
number of forest-based industries such as paper, plywood, poly-fibres and matchwood.
o Tourist hotspot: There are a number of tourist centres that have sprung up in the Western Ghats; for example:
Ooty, etc.
o There have been important pilgrimage centres in the region; prominent amongst these being
Sabarimalai in Kerala, Madeveshwaramalai in Karnataka and Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
THREATS TO THE WESTERN GHATS

 Threats related to mining:
o Demand for iron ore: With a steep increase in iron ore prices and demand for lower grade ores, mining
activities have grown rapidly especially in Goa and often in violation of all laws, resulting in serious
environmental damage and social disruption.
o Sand mining: it has emerged as a major threat in Kerala. Unsustainable mining has increased vulnerability to
landslides, damaged water sources and agriculture, thus negatively affected the livelihoods of the people living
in those areas.
 Livestock grazing: Livestock grazing within and bordering protected areas by high densities of livestock (cattle and
goats) is a serious problem causing habitat degradation across the Western Ghats.
 Human-wildlife conflict: For example, villagers living close to Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in the State of Karnataka,
lose approximately 11 per cent of their annual grain production to raiding elephants annually.
 Plantations: Plantations owned by private individuals and the corporate sector continue to grow in the Western
Ghats and constitute an important source of fragmentation of natural habitat.
 Encroachment by human settlements and Deforestation: Human settlements where legal and/or traditional
rights of land ownership occur both within and outside protected areas all across the Western Ghats.
 Pollution: The unrestricted use of agrochemicals in the vicinity of forests, particularly in tea and coffee estates,
causes serious damage to aquatic and forest ecosystems.
 Climate change: The changes in land use and deforestation have led to big variations in the duration and intensity
of rainfalls. Climate change has been considered a cause of floods in many regions in the recent past.
WAY FORWARD
 A better understanding of functions: There is a need for a better understanding of the role of biodiversity in
ecosystem functions and related ecosystem services.
 Policy change: There is a need for policy changes that promote better management of human-wildlife conflict,
financial incentives to encourage biodiversity-friendly farming and other incentive schemes such as payments for
ecosystem services.
o Land use policy and law enforcement: It should ensure that illegal hunting, deforestation, land-use
change and other human actions that contribute to livelihoods but hamper biodiversity conservation are
kept in check.
 Balance of efforts: A balance between conservation efforts and development should be sought and concerned
state governments should come to a consensus for the implementation of ESA in the Western Ghats.
 Implementing the recommendations of Kasturirangan Committee (2012):
o Bring area under ESA: Instead of the total area of Western Ghats, only 37% of the total area is to be
brought under ESA.
o Complete ban: On projects of mining, quarrying and sand mining in ESA.
o No thermal power projects: To be allowed and hydropower projects are allowed only after detailed
study.
 Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (2011):
o The committee headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil: Also known as the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel
(WGEEP) in 2011 recommended that all of the Western Ghats be declared as the Ecological Sensitive Areas
(ESA) with only limited development allowed in graded zones.
o Ecologically Sensitive Areas: The panel had classified the Western Ghats into Ecologically Sensitive Areas
(ESA) 1, 2 and 3 of which ESA-1 is a high priority, almost all developmental activities (mining, thermal
power plants etc) were restricted in it.

FOREST CONSERVATION
 What are the consequences of illegal mining? Discuss the ministry of environment and forests’ concept 2013
of “GO AND NO GO” zones for coal mining.
INTRODUCTION
 Meaning: Forest conservation is the practice of planning and maintaining forested areas for the benefit and
sustainability of future generations. Forest conservation involves the upkeep of the natural resources within a
forest that are beneficial for both humans and the ecosystem.
 SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
 Seventh Schedule: The 42nd Amendment to the Indian Constitution of 1976 moved forests from the State List to
the Concurrent List of the Constitution.
BENEFITS OF FOREST C ONSERVATION

 Forest restoration is a crucial climate mitigation strategy: They regulate ecosystems, protect biodiversity, play an
integral part in the carbon cycle, support livelihoods, and can help drive sustainable growth.
 Habitats for biodiversity and livelihood for humans: They are home to 80% of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity,
and they also form the source of livelihood for many different human settlements, including 60 million indigenous
people.
o Forests provide jobs for more than 13 million people across the world: In addition, 300 million people
live in forests, including 60 million indigenous people.
 After oceans, forests are the world’s largest storehouses of carbon: They provide ecosystem services that are
critical to human welfare.
 Living filters: Forests are “living filters” for rivers and streams — absorbing sediments and storing and transforming
excess nutrients and pollutants. They can reduce nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations by up to 99 percent.
 Unmatched biodiversity: Tropical forests cover roughly 10 percent of Earth’s land mass but are home to at least
half of all living species on the planet.
 Populations in perspective: An estimated 350 million people around the world depend on forests for their
livelihoods — more than the population of the United States.
o Support 1 billion people: More than 1 billion rural people depend on forests to some extent for food, and
252 million people who live in forests and savannas have incomes of less than $1.25 per day.
 Increases biodiversity: A green ground cover provides a habitat for birds, butterflies and insects, especially in the
city where concrete and asphalt dominate.
 Increases the feeling of well-being: Living and working in a green environment has a positive effect on the well-
being of people. Greenery offers relaxation and reduces stress.
 Provides a rainwater buffer: Replace paving stones with plants, a green area absorbs rainwater. It helps to stabilize
the groundwater level, reduces the peak load on the sewage system and reduces the risk of flooding.
 Offers healing environment: Greenery encourages faster recovery for patients, resulting in a shorter hospital stay.
 Erosion protection: On embankments, pre-cultivated plant mats and vegetation blankets ensure that the soil does
not get washed away by the rain. It offers a solid, anti-erosion layer.
THREATS TO FORESTS
 Deforestation: Deforestation or removal of a forest for urban use and plantation is the biggest threat to the
wildlife of India, India is one of the top 10 countries in the world in the amount of forest loss in 2009, affecting the
wild animals and birds.
o India has about 31 million hectares, or 11% of its area under forest cover. Over the past 20 years,
India has lost 328,000 hectares of humid primary forest.
o Deforestation and destruction of wetlands are among the leading causes of annual floods in heavily
urbanized areas in Kerala and the cities of Mumbai and Chennai.

 Land use and rapid exploitation: Since 1850, roughly 35% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions resulted directly from
land use changes, especially from forest conversions.
o Habitat loss: Habitat destruction by human activity like mining for natural resources is one of the
primary causes of wild species extinction in India and disturbance of the forest ecosystem.
 Pollution: Like most of the countries, India is also struggling with the quantities of plastic waste generated by
humans which poses a serious threat to the forests.
 Forest fire: Fires are a natural and beneficial element of many forest landscapes, but they are problematic when
they occur in the wrong place, at the wrong frequency or at the wrong severity. Each year, millions of acres of
forest around the world are destroyed or degraded by fire.
o Natural disasters: For instance, Hurricanes effects on vegetation include sudden and massive tree
mortality, complex patterns of tree mortality (including delayed mortality), and altered patterns of
forest regeneration. Hurricanes can also result in buried vegetation and carbon sinks.
 Invasive species: Invasive plant species can displace important native vegetation because the invasive species
often lack natural predators.
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
 Developmental projects: Like hydroelectric projects, dam construction, mining activities, etc., result in massive
destruction of forests.
 Increasing population: High demand for fuelwood and food due to increasing population creates pressure on
forest resources.
o Urbanization: The rapid establishment of industries and urban cities is another reason for increased
demand and lead towards deforestation.
 Industrial requirements: Industries producing boxes, furniture, plywood, and paper heavily depend on forests’
raw material requirements.
o Mining and its associated activities: They require the removal of vegetation to a great extent,
resulting in defacing topography and destruction of landscape in the area.
 Shifting cultivators practice: Such as slash and burn agriculture and are responsible for clearing approx. 5 lakh
hectares of forests annually.
 Forest fires: Each year, fires burn millions of hectares of forest worldwide. Fires are a part of nature but degraded
forests are particularly vulnerable.
 Illegal and unsustainable logging: Illegal logging occurs in all types of forests across all continents from Brazil to
Indonesia, destroying nature and wildlife, taking away community livelihoods and distorting trade.
 Climate change: Forest loss is both a cause and an effect of our changing climate. Climate change can damage
forests, for instance by drying out tropical rainforests and increasing fire damage in boreal forests.
IMPLICATIONS OF LOSS OF FORESTS

 Loss of Habitat: One of the most dangerous and unsettling effects of loss of forest is the loss of animal and plant
species due to their loss of habitat. 70% of land animals and plant species live in forests.
 Temperature variations: Loss of forest results in a more drastic temperature variation from day to night, much
like a desert, which could prove fatal for many inhabitants.
 Increased Greenhouse Gases: In addition to the loss of habitat, the lack of trees also allows a greater amount of
greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere.
 Water in the Atmosphere: The trees also help control the level of water in the atmosphere by helping to regulate
the water cycle.
o In deforested areas, there is less water in the air to be returned to the soil. This then causes dryer soil and
the inability to grow crops.
 Soil Erosion and Flooding: Further effects of deforestation include soil erosion and coastal flooding. Without
forests, the soil erodes and washes away, causing farmers to move on and perpetuate the cycle.
 Destruction of Homelands: The loss of forests has an immediate and direct effect on their lifestyle that we in the
highly industrialized parts of the world, despite our own dependency on what the rainforest provides, will never
know. The level of immediacy is exponentially greater for indigenous peoples.
 Loss of net present value: It is a mandatory one-time payment that a user has to make for diverting forestland for
non-forest use, under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
To join courses, Click here 29 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT FOREST

 United Nation Conference on Environment and Development: The Rio Summit 1992 is also called the Earth
Summit. This summit led to the development of the following documents:
1. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: It contained 27 principles that were supposed to guide
countries in future sustainable development.
2. Agenda 21: It is an action plan concerning sustainable development, but it is non-binding.
3. Forest Principles: It makes many recommendations for conservation and sustainable development forestry
and is non-binding.
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): It is a step towards conserving biological diversity or biodiversity with
the involvement of the entire world.
 Forest Conservation Programme (FCP): The goal of the FCP is to maintain and, where necessary, restore forest
ecosystems to promote conservation, sustainable management and an equitable distribution of the full range of
forest goods and services.
 Bio Carbon Fund Initiative: The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL) is a multilateral
facility that promotes and rewards reduced greenhouse gas emissions and increased sequestration through better
land management, including REDD+ climate smart agriculture, and smarter land use planning and policies.
 Bonn Challenge: It is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into
restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
o The main objective of the convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in
countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification.
 REDD: It stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. The objective of the REDD
initiative was to mitigate climate change by reducing the net emission of greenhouse gases from forests (through
their degradation) by means of better forest management, particularly in the developing countries.
 REDD+: It is an extension of the REDD initiative. The "+" here includes, "sustainable management of forests,
conservation, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks". REDD+ is a more comprehensive forest management
initiative which includes incentives for conservation and sustainable management of forests.
 The Paris agreement on climate change: It was called upon country Parties to take action to implement and
support REDD+.
 India and NDC: India has communicated in its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under Paris Agreement,
that it will capture 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of Carbon dioxide through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
 National REDD+ Strategy: Introduced in 2018 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, the
strategy seeks to address drivers of deforestation and forest degradation and also develop a roadmap for
enhancement of forest carbon stocks and achieving sustainable management of forests through REDD+ actions.
 Forest Carbon Partnership Facility: Global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and Indigenous
peoples focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest carbon stock
conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing
countries (activities commonly referred to as REDD+).
WAY FORWARD
 Regulated and Planned Cutting of Trees: One of the main reasons for deforestation is commercial felling of trees.
 Control over Forest Fire: In order to save forests from fire it is necessary to adopt the latest techniques of
firefighting. There must be a trained staff of firefighters to control the fire.
 Reforestation and Afforestation: The “sustained yield concept” dictates that whenever timber is removed, either
by block cutting or by selective cutting, the denuded area must be reforested.
 Check over Forest Clearance for Agricultural and Flabitation Purposes: Most of the present-day agricultural land
was once forested and then cleared for the use of agriculture. But now it has reached the stage where further
clearance will be dangerous for the entire ecosystem.
 Proper Utilisation of Forest Products and Forests: There is a need to use all this waste material. Now several uses
have been developed and products like waterproof glues, board, etc., can be obtained.
 Forests can easily be used or developed as tourist centres: By using them as tourist centres the country can earn
substantial foreign exchange. This practice has been adopted by many countries, both developed and developing.

 The recognition of Community Forest rights: It would shift forest governance in India towards a community
conservation regime that is more food security and livelihood oriented.
 Community Forest Rights: The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 was enacted with objectives of
o To undo the historical injustice occurred to the forest dwelling communities,
o To ensure land tenure, livelihood and food security of the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other
traditional forest dwellers,
o To strengthen the conservation regime of the forests by including the responsibilities and authority of
Forest Rights holders for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological
balance.
 Large-scale awareness and information dissemination campaigns: They are required at local level informing both
tribal and lower-level officials.
o National Afforestation Programme (NAP): The overall objective of the NAP scheme is ecological
restoration of degraded forests and to develop the forest resources with peoples' participation, with
focus on improvement in livelihoods of the forest-fringe communities, especially the poor
 Protected Areas: viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves all over the
country covering the important habitats have been created as per the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972 to provide better protection to wildlife, including threatened species and their habitat.
 Promoting social forestry: Benefits of social forestry include:
o Fuel, fodder, timber, supplementary food and income from surplus forest products and tree derived resources
for rural people.
o Form villagers into a well-knit community and increased social cohesion.
o Reclamation of waste lands and degraded lands along with soil conservation and green cover.
o Protection of agricultural fields from winds and dust storms.
o Check desertification
 Promoting agro forestry.
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND FOREST CONSERVATION
ISSUES OF THE INDEGENOUS PEOPLE:

 Disruption After Designation of the Status of World Heritage Site: The approach adopted to isolate the
indigenous people from their natural habitats to protect biodiversity is the root cause of conflict between them
and conservationists.
 Lax implementation of the Forest Rights Act: Many states in India have a dismal record in implementing the Forest
Rights Act (FRA).
 Development vs Conservation: Often, the combined stretch of land claimed by Indigenous people has been taken
away for building dams, mining, laying railway lines and roads, power plants, etc.
 Illegal Encroachment of Land: The government records also reveal that 43 lakh hectares of forest land encroached
legally and illegally until 1980 when the Forest Conservation Act came into force.
ROLE OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN FOREST CONSERVATION

 Conserving natural flora: The magico-religious belief of plants’ tribal communities as a god and goddess habitat
leads to their conservation in their natural habitat.
 Application of Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous people and biodiversity complement each other. Over time,
the rural communities have gathered a pool of indigenous knowledge for the cultivation of the medicinal plants
and their propagation.
 Conserving the Sacred Groves: India’s ethnic people have played a vital role in preserving the biodiversity of
several virgin forests and have conserved flora and fauna in sacred groves of tribals.
WAY FORWARD
 Recognition of the Rights of the Indigenous People: For preserving the rich biodiversity of the region, the
recognition of the rights of the forest dwellers who depend on the forests is as important as the declaration of
natural habitat as a World Heritage Site.
 Effective Implementation of the FRA: The government must make an effort to build trust between its agencies in
the area and the people who depend on these forests by treating them as equal citizens like everyone else in the
country.
 Traditional Knowledge of the Tribal People for Conservation: The Biodiversity Act, 2002 mentions the equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of the use and knowledge of biological resources with the local communities.
MANGROVES
 Mangroves are salt-tolerant vegetation that grows in intertidal regions of rivers and estuaries. They are referred
to as ‘tidal forests’ and belong to the category of ‘tropical wetland rainforest ecosystem’.
 Mangrove forests globally: They occupy around 2,00,000 square kilometres across the globe in tropical regions of
30 countries.
MANGROVES IN INDIA:
 Coverage: Mangroves cover 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
 There has been a net increase of 17 sq km of mangrove cover in the country as compared to 2019 assessment.
Odisha has shown most gain in 8 sq km and Maharashtra 4 sq km.
 Largest Mangrove Forest: Sundarbans in West Bengal are the largest mangrove forest regions in the world. It is
listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The forest is home to the Royal Bengal tiger, Gangetic dolphins and
Estuarine crocodiles.
 Bhitarkanika Mangroves: The second largest mangrove forest in India is Bhitarkanika in Odisha created by the two
river deltas of River Brahmani and Baitarani. It is one of the most significant Ramsar wetlands in India.
 Godavari-Krishna Mangroves, Andhra Pradesh: The Godavari-Krishna mangroves extend from Odisha to Tamil
Nadu.
IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVES
 The mangroves show an edge effect: Which means that they have large species diversity in comparison to marine
or terrestrial ecosystems.
 Mangroves are among the most productive terrestrial ecosystems: They are also a natural, renewable resource,
for instance, Sundarbans in the Gangetic delta supports around 30 plant species of mangroves.
 Mangroves provide ecological niches for a wide variety of organisms: They serve as breeding, feeding and nursery
grounds for fisheries and provide timber and wood for fuel.
 Mangrove forests act as water filters and purifiers as well: When water from rivers and floodplains flow into the
ocean, mangroves filter a lot of sediments, hence protecting the coastal ecology including coral reefs.
 Employment benefits: They provide numerous employment opportunities to local communities and augment
their livelihoods.
 Mangroves act as shock absorbers: They reduce high tides and waves and protect shorelines from erosion and
also minimise disasters due to cyclones and tsunami.
CAUSES OF DEPLETION OF MANGROVES

 Sea level rise and coastal erosion: Due to global warming, the sea levels are continuously rising. The rising sea
levels have flooded large areas of mangrove forests. This has resulted in their depletion.
 Reduction in river water levels: The mangroves are more prevalent in areas where the rivers meet the sea. The
system requires a fine balance between salt and sweet water to survive.
 Invasion by alien species: Introduction of non-native and alien species of plants and animals are causing threat to
the endemic species of the region.
 Clearing: Large tracts of mangrove forests have been cleared to make room for agricultural land, human
settlements, industrial areas, shrimp aquaculture etc.
 Over harvesting: They are also overexploited for firewood, construction wood and pulp production, charcoal
production, and animal fodder.
 Damming of rivers: Dams built over the river courses reduce the amount of water and sediments reaching
mangrove forests, altering their salinity level.

 Destruction of coral reefs: When they are destroyed, even stronger-than-normal waves reaching the coast can
wash away the fine sediment in which the mangroves grow.
 Pollution: Mangroves also face severe threats due to fertilisers, pesticides, discharge of domestic sewage and
industrial effluents carried down by the river systems.
 Climate change: Unusually low rainfall and very high sea surface and air temperatures caused severe threats to
the survival of mangrove forests.
EFFORTS TAKEN TO PROTECT THESE MANGROVES

 UNESCO Designated Sites: The inclusion of mangroves in Biosphere Reserves, World Heritage sites and UNESCO
Global Geoparks contributes to improving the knowledge, management and conservation of mangrove
ecosystems throughout the world.
 International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem (ISME): The ISME is a non-governmental organization established
in 1990 to promote the study of mangroves with the purpose of enhancing their conservation, rational
management and sustainable utilization.
 Blue Carbon Initiative: The International Blue Carbon Initiative is focused on mitigating climate change through
the conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems.
 Mangroves for the Future Initiative: IUCN and UNDP developed a unique initiative to promote investment in
coastal ecosystem conservation called the “Mangroves for the Future (MFF)”.
 National Mangrove Committee: The Government of India set up a National Mangrove Committee in 1976 which
advises the government about conservation and development of mangroves.
 Judiciary of India conservation efforts on mangroves: In 2005, the Mumbai High Court had classified mangroves
as forests. In 2018, the High Court called the destruction of mangroves an offence to the fundamental rights of
the citizens under article 21 of the Constitution.
WAY FORWARD
 Systematic and periodic environmental monitoring of existing mangroves: The various faunal species dependent
on these forests must also be documented.
 Use of bio-restoration to revive degraded stretches of mangroves: These techniques help maintain the original
biodiversity. Ecological restoration revives the mangroves at a faster rate than natural regeneration.
 Restoration efforts: Instead of monoculture plantation of mangrove species, restoration efforts should involve
sufficient species diversity. This will raise forests that are more resilient to the impacts of climate change.
 Legislation requirements: A major need is the enforcement of legislative mandates.
 Private sector establishments: Near the mangroves can be incentivised to take up conservation activities.
 Community participation for conservation and management: The communities dependent on these forests can
be supported to take up alternative economic activities to increase sustainable use of these mangroves.
 Cultural advantages can be leveraged in mangrove conservation: E.g.: Bon Bibi is a forest goddess worshipped
by people of different faiths (Hindus & Muslims) in the Sundarbans.
CORAL REEFS
 Coral reefs are one of the most biologically diverse marine ecosystems on the Earth. Coral reefs play an important
role in marine ecosystems and support the habitats of flora and fauna in the sea.
 India with its coastline extending over 7,500 km and subtropical climatic conditions has very few coral reef areas.
GROWTH CONDITIONS FOR CORAL REEFS

 Temperature of water: The temperature of the water should not be below 20°C. The most favourable temperature
for the growth of the coral reefs is between 23°C to 25°C.
 Saline condition: Corals can survive only under saline conditions with an average salinity between 27%. to 40%.
 Shallow water: Coral reefs grow better in shallow water having a depth less than 50 m. The depth of the water
should not exceed 200m.
IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS

 Sustain biodiversity: Ecologically, coral reefs are important because they are the counterpart to the tropical rain
forest in terms of species diversity and biological productivity in the Ocean.
 Protect coastlines: Coral reefs protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical storms.
 Nutrition and Habitat: Coral reefs provide habitats and shelter for many marine organisms. They are the source
of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for marine food chains and assist in carbon and nitrogen fixing
 Economic: The fishing industry depends on coral reefs because many fish spawn there and juvenile fish spend time
there before making their way to the open sea.
o The Great Barrier Reef generates more than1.5 billion dollars every year for the Australian economy, from
fishing and tourism.
 Climate change record: In addition, coral reefs are climatologically important because they provide an accurate
long-term record of the climate change and help in extending our knowledge of seasonal climate variability in
many remote tropical oceans.
FACTORS AFFECTING CORAL REEFS

 Extreme climate conditions: High temperature of water leads to the decline of these corals as they cannot survive
in high temperatures. As estimated by scientists, most of the coral reefs of the world will soon decline with the
increasing rates of ocean warming.
 Overfishing: It is another major concern as it is leading to an ecological imbalance of the coral reefs.
 Coastal development: Development of coastal infrastructure and tourist resorts on or close by these coral reefs
causes significant damages.
 Pollution: The toxic pollutants which are dumped directly into the ocean can lead to the poisoning of the coral
reefs as it increases the nitrogen level of the seawater leading to an overgrowth of algae.
 Sedimentation: Construction along the coasts and islands lead to soil erosion increasing the sediments in the river.
As a result, it can smother corals by depriving them of the light needed to survive.
 Snowflake Coral – A Threat to Biodiversity: Carijoa Riisei also known as snowflake coral is an invasive species
discovered recently by the scientists off the coast of Thiruvananthapuram and Kanyakumari.
o These fast-growing species were found at a depth of 10m off Kovalam in Thiruvananthapuram and at a
depth of 18m off Enayam in Kanyakumari.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON CORALS

 Climate change leads to: A warming ocean: causes thermal stress that contributes to coral bleaching and
infectious disease. Sea level rise: may lead to increases in sedimentation for reefs located near land-based sources
of sediment. Sedimentation runoff can lead to the smothering of coral.
METHODS OF CORAL RESTORATION

 Biological restoration: Biological restoration uses various methods involving coral growth and transplanting to
assist the restoration of a coral reef.
 Structural restoration: Structural restoration generally involves the construction of artificial reefs, sinking of
wrecks, or relocation of rocks/dead coral heads.
 Physical restoration: Physical restoration involves addressing the conditions in which the corals are growing to
improve their health, growth rates, or reproductive ability.
INITIATIVES TO PROTECT CORALS REEF

 Global initiatives:
o International Coral Reef Initiative: The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is an informal partnership
between Nations and organizations which strives to preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems around the
world.
o Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN): It works through a global network of researchers to provide
the best available scientific information on the health of coral reef ecosystems, for their conservation and
management.
o Global Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA): GCRA is a worldwide coalition of volunteer scientists, divers,
environmentalists and other individuals and organizations, committed to coral reef preservation.

o The Global Coral Reef R&D Accelerator Platform: will advance the next generation of science and technology
needed to secure a future for coral reefs in the face of climate change and other pressures.
 National initiatives:
o Mineral accretion technology: In India, the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with help from Gujarat’s Forest
department, is attempting a process to restore coral reefs using “biorock” or mineral accretion technology.
o National Coastal Mission Programme: It is to protect and sustain coral reefs in the country.
CORAL BLEACHING
 UN Report: The United Nations has reported that:
o 70% of the Earth's coral reefs are threatened,
o 20% have been destroyed with no hope for recovery,
o 24% are under imminent risk of collapse, and,
o an additional 26% are at risk due to longer-term threats.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) has released a report on the status of coral reefs across the world.
 According to the report in the last decade, the world lost about 14 per cent of its coral reefs.
REASONS FOR CORAL BLEACHING

 Rise in Sea Temperature: Most coral species live in waters close to the warmest temperature they can tolerate
i.e., a slight increase in ocean temperature can harm corals. El Nino elevates the sea temperature and destroys
coral reefs.
 Ocean Acidification: Due to rise in carbon dioxide levels, oceans absorb more carbon dioxide. This increases the
acidity of ocean water and inhibits the coral's ability to create calcareous skeletons.
 Solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation: Changes in tropical weather patterns result in less cloud cover and more
radiations which induce coral bleaching.
 Infectious Diseases: Penetration of bacterium like vibrio shiloi inhibits photosynthesis of zooxanthellae. These
bacteria become more potent with elevated sea temperatures.
 Chemical Pollution: Increased nutrient concentrations affect corals by promoting phytoplankton growth, which in
turn supports increased numbers of organisms that compete with coral for space.
 Increased Sedimentation: Land clearing and coastal construction result in high rates of erosion and a higher
density of suspended silt particles which can reducing light availability and potentially reducing coral
photosynthesis and growth.
 Deep water trawling, which involves dragging a fishing net along the sea bottom.
 Billions of bits of plastic waste are entangled in corals and sickening reef.
 Human Induced Threats: Overfishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff, coral mining, development
of industrial areas near coral ecosystems also adversely impacts corals.
IMPACT OF CORAL BLEACHING

 Changes in coral communities and reduction in genetic diversity: It can affect the species that depend on them,
such as the fish and invertebrates that rely on live coral for food, shelter.
o Loss of such marine animals can disturb the entire food chain.
 Coral bleaching can cause large shifts in fish communities: This can translate into reduced catches for fishers,
which in turn impacts food supply and associated economic activities.
 Coral reefs protect coastlines.
WAY FORWARD
 Immediate global action: To reduce future warming above COP 21 goals is fundamental to coral reef survival.
 Establish a high-profile movement: That makes way for a shift in societal behaviour to reduce adverse impacts on
coral reefs and adopt a more sustainable lifestyle.
 Engage all stakeholders: Engage leaders of industry, Heads of State, and ministries of finance in the discussion so
as to educate, inform and expand the dialogue.
 Explore new, innovative, scalable solutions: That traverse the scientific disciplines, including management and
policy solutions, and expand the dialogue and awareness of the issues and solutions.

 Halting unplanned coastal development: It would play a significant role in reversing the decline of reefs in some
locations.
 Promoting sustainable fishing: And providing opportunities for ecotourism can help conserve corals.
 Treatment of industrial waste: Harmful industrial waste must be treated before being disposed of in bodies of
water.
DETERIORATING GREAT BARRIER REEF

 Context: Recently, the IUCN has highlighted that Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is
in a critical state and deteriorating as climate change warms up the waters in
which it lies.
 Reefs and islands: It are the world’s most extensive and spectacular coral reef
ecosystem composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands.
 Composition: This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny
organisms, known as coral polyps.
CONCERN:
 Rising sea temperature: Coral along large swathes of the 2,300-kilometre reef have been killed by rising sea
temperatures linked to climate change, leaving behind skeletal remains in a process known as coral bleaching.
 Coral bleaching: When corals face stress by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they
expel the symbiotic algae zooxanthellae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white.
 Australian status change: In August 2019, Australia downgraded its long-term outlook to "Very Poor" for the first
time and there are high chances that it will be considered for the List of World Heritage in Danger.
UNESCO had recommended that its World Heritage Committee add the world's largest coral reef ecosystem off the
northeast Australian coast to the World Heritage in Danger list, mainly due to rising ocean temperatures.
 But Australia has garnered enough international support to defer an attempt by the United Nations' cultural
organisation to downgrade the Great Barrier Reef's World Heritage status because of damage caused by climate
change.
CORAL REEFS AND CLIMATE CHANGE

 Corals are the backbone of marine ecosystems in the tropics. They are threatened by rising water
temperatures caused by global warming and they are among the first ecosystems worldwide that are
on the verge of ecological collapse.
 High temperatures hit coral reefs especially hard by causing widespread bleaching events, where
corals eject the symbiotic algae in their tissues.
 Coral bleaching, which is becoming stronger and more frequent due to heat stress.
Significance of Coral reefs for Ocean ecosystem
 Economic Significance: Coral reefs have an estimated global value of £6 trillion each year, due in part
to their contribution to fishing and tourism industries and the coastal protection they provide.
 Harbour Biodiversity: Coral reefs support more species per unit area than any other marine
environment, including about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other
species.
 Support Livelihood: Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well as jobs
and businesses through tourism and recreation.
 Buffer against Natural disasters: Coral reef structures buffer shorelines against 97 percent of the
energy from waves, storms, and floods, helping to prevent loss of life, property damage, and erosion.
o When reefs are damaged or destroyed, the absence of this natural barrier can increase the
damage to coastal communities from normal wave action and violent storms.

 Give story line of evolution: Corals are an important paleoclimate archive in the ocean because their
calcium carbonate skeletons incorporate the chemical properties of past oceans and so reflect past
climate and environmental conditions.
But some coral communities are becoming more heat tolerant as ocean temperatures rise. For Example,
Phoenix Islands Protected Area (PIPA) in the central Pacific Ocean recovered and experienced minimal losses
during a heatwave event in 2009-2010.
INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR) 2021

In News: The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) recently released the India State of
Forest Report (ISFR) 2021.
Report on the State of the Forests in India:
 The Forest Survey of India, under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, publishes an
evaluation of India's forest and tree cover every two years.
 Forest Cover Assessment in Tiger Reserves and Tiger Corridor Areas of the Country is one of the new chapters
in ISFR 2021.
 Based on research conducted by FSI in partnership with ISRO's Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad,
Above Ground Biomass Estimation utilising Synthetic Aperture Radar data.
 Based on research conducted by FSI in partnership with BITS Pilani, Goa campus, mapping of climate change
hotspots in Indian forests.
Key trends:
 The Total Forest and Tree cover is 24.62% of the geographical area of the country.
 The Total Forest cover is 7,13,789 sq km which is 21.71% of the geographical area of the country.
 The Tree cover is 2.91% of the geographical area of the country.
 Trees Outside Forests (TOF): TOF: 29.29 million hectares (36.18% of the total forest and tree cover of India).
 States having largest extent of TOF: Maharashtra followed by Odisha and Karnataka.
 The top five states in terms of increase in forest cover: Andhra Pradesh> Telangana> Odisha> Karnataka>
Jharkhand.
 Largest forest cover in India: Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh > Odisha >
Maharashtra
 The states from the North eastern region of the country have the highest percentage of forest cover w.r.t.
total geographical area of the state.
 Mizoram (84.53%) > Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%) > Meghalaya (76.00%) > Manipur (74.34%) >
Nagaland (73.90%).
 Forest cover in the hill districts is 40.17% of the total geographical area of these districts. A decrease of 902
sq km (0.32%) in 140 hill districts of the country.
 The total forest cover in the tribal districts is 37.53% of the geographical area of these districts.
 Total forest cover in the North-Eastern region is 64.66% of its geographical area. The current assessment
shows a decrease of forest cover to the extent of 1,020 sq km (0.60%) in the region.
 Total Carbon Stock: The total carbon stock in forests is estimated as 7,204.0 million tonnes an increase of
79.4 million tonnes since 2019.
 Forest Prone to Fire: The analysis reveals that 22.27% of the forest cover is prone to forest fire.
 Bamboo Forests: The total bamboo bearing area of the country is estimated as 1,49,443 sq km. There is a
decrease of 10,594 sq km in the bamboo bearing area as compared to the estimate of ISFR 2019.

ACTS, POLICIES, PROGRAMMES AND INSTITUTIONS RELATED TO

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
 How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020 differ from the existing EIA 2020
Notification, 2006?
 What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the Government of 2020
India?
 What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water 2020
conservation and water security?
 How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in conservation of 2018
flora and fauna?
 Environmental impact assessment studies are increasingly undertaken before project is cleared by the 2014
government. Discuss the environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants located at Pitheads.
 The Namami Gange and National mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and causes of mixed 2015
results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga better than
incremental inputs?
FEATURES OF WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 197 2

 Prohibition of hunting: It prohibits the hunting of any wild animal specified in Schedules I, II, III and IV of the Act
with limited exceptions.
 Prohibition of Cutting/Uprooting Specified Plants: It prohibits the uprooting, damage, collection, possession or
selling of any specified plant from any forest land or any protected area.
 Declaration and Protection of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks: The Central Government can constitute
any area as a Sanctuary, provided the area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or
zoological significance.
 Constitution of Various Bodies: The WPA act provides for the constitution of bodies to be established under this
act such as the National and State Board for Wildlife, Central Zoo Authority and National Tiger Conservation
Authority.
 Government Property: Hunted wild animals (other than vermin), animal articles or meat of a wild animal and ivory
imported into India and an article made from such ivory shall be considered as the property of the Government.
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT (FCA), 1980

 Context: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has proposed several amendments to
the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (FCA), which may enable infrastructure projects to come up in the forest areas
more easily.
INTRODUCTION: THE FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980:

 The FCA is the principal legislation that regulates deforestation in the country.
 It prohibits: The felling of forests for any “non-forestry” use without prior clearance by the central government.
 Requires consent: The clearance process includes seeking consent from local forest rights-holders and from
wildlife authorities.
 Central government power: The Centre is empowered to reject such requests or allow it with legally binding
conditions.
 The FCA is brief legislation with only five sections of which:
o Section 1 defines the extent of coverage of the law,
o Section 2 restricts activities in forest areas and the rest deals with the creation of advisory committees, powers
of rule-making and penalties.

 Supreme Court judgement: In a landmark decision in 1996, the Supreme Court had expanded the coverage of FCA
to all areas that satisfied the dictionary definition of a forest; earlier, only lands specifically notified as forests were
protected by the enforcement of the FCA.
AMENDMENTS PROPOSED:
 Exemptions given: They propose to grant exemptions to railways, roads, tree plantations, oil exploration, wildlife
tourism and ‘strategic’ projects in forests.
 Aim of Proposal: The proposal also aims to empower state governments to lease forest land to private individuals
and corporations.
 Strengthening FCA: The amendments, however, propose two changes to strengthen the applicability of the FCA,
according to the documents accessed:
o To complete the process of forest identification in a time-bound manner
o To enable the creation of ‘no-go’ areas, where specific projects would not be allowed.
CONCERNS REGARDING AMENDMENTS:

 Impact on the powers of Gram Sabha: An integral part of the forest clearance process is the requirement
of consent of the Gram Sabha. The creation of exceptions to the requirement of forest clearances directly results
in the cancellation of the application of this progressive legal provision.
 Exploring and extracting oil and natural gas from beneath the forest lands is proposed to be allowed by drilling
holes from outside the forest areas without harming the underground water aquifers. This provision, however,
may turn controversial as experts still differ on the efficacy of this technology.
 Concerns regarding redefining forest land: Dilution of definition of forests may lead to exclusion and degradation
of certain forested areas.
 Corporate ownership: The relaxation of forest rules will facilitate corporate ownership and the disappearance of
large tracts of forests.
 Impact on protection rights provided under Forest Rights Act, 2006: Proposal to exempt plantations and other
such lands in revenue records marked as forests after 1996 from the purview of FCA, can allow change in land use
at will. This can take such lands out of the purview of the Gram Sabha and affect the legal rights of Scheduled
Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs).
 Building of Biodiversity threatening infrastructure: Roads and railway lines can accelerate deforestation and
create permanent barriers, leading to destruction of wildlife habitat and obstruction free movement of wild
animals.
 Fragmentation of forests: One time exemption for private residences on private forest will lead to fragmentation
of forests, and open areas such as the Aravali mountains to real estate.
 Against federal spirit: The most prominent issue in the amendments is the overarching powers of the Centre,
under which it can penalise the state governments too. Several states design their own forests rules, at times in
violation of the Central Act, other times to preserve their forest areas. In both the cases however, Centre can
penalise states, which experts said is against the federal structure.
 Pressure from Ecotourism: Use of forest land for non-permanent structures for eco-tourism would disturb forest
areas.
 Unknown nature of plantation: While the amendments emphasize on creation of an enabling regulatory
environment for setting up plantations, to enhance carbon sink, it does not define what the nature of these
plantations should be and where they can take place.
 Lack of consultation: with forest-dwelling communities, whose livelihoods and rights are likely to be affected by
the amendments.
 Infringement on right of states: The amendments propose changes in recording of land revenue. However, land
revenue is categorically a State subject in Schedule VII of the Constitution.
NEED FOR AMENDMENT IN THE PRESENT ACT:

 The essential tension in the FCA is that the state is committed to a principle of increasing forest cover, and this
makes it harder to access land for infrastructure projects by States and private entities.

 Presently, identification of forest land is subjective and arbitrary to some extent. For instance, it includes lands
bearing vegetation irrespective of ownership and classification even if they are considered forest based on some
locally defined criteria.
 New environmentally friendly technologies which enables exploration or extraction of oil & natural gas deep
beneath without impacting the forest soil or aquifer are coming up.
 Presently, current definition of forest, as updated under the T N Godavarman case, includes private areas which
restrict the right of an individual to use his/her own land for any non-forestry activity.
 Obtaining approval from central government for projects of national importance is difficult leading to time and
cost overrun of projects.
 There are several contrasting entries of the same land in revenue records and in the forest records, such as in
case of plantations. This has created a scope of mis-interpretation and litigation.
 If the amendment is brought in, these Ministries will no longer need clearance for their projects, nor pay
compensatory levies.
 There are no prohibitory (only regulatory) provisions in the Act for non-forestry use of pristine forest.
BIODIVERSITY (BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY) ACT, 2000

Introduction: It aims at the conservation of biological resources, managing its sustainable use and enabling fair and
equitable sharing benefits arising out of the use and knowledge of biological resources with the local communities. It
was born out of India’s attempt to realise the objectives enshrined in the United Nations CBD 1992 which recognizes
the sovereign rights of states to use their own Biological Resources.
FEATURES OF THE ACT:

 The Act prohibits the following activities without the prior approval from the National Biodiversity Authority:
o Any person or organisation (either based in India or not) obtaining any biological resource occurring in India
for its research or commercial utilisation.
o The transfer of the results of any research relating to any biological resources occurring in, or obtained from,
India.
o The claim of any Intellectual Property Rights on any invention based on the research made on the biological
resources obtained from India.
 The act envisaged a three-tier structure to regulate the access to biological resources:
o The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
o The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)
o The Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) (at local level)
 Special Funds: The Act provides these authorities with special funds and a separate budget in order to carry out
any research project dealing with the biological natural resources of the country.
 Under this act, the Central Government in consultation with the NBA:
o Shall notify threatened species and prohibit or regulate their collection, rehabilitation and conservation
o Designate institutions as repositories for different categories of biological resources
 Offence type under this Act: The act stipulates all offences under it as cognizable and non-bailable.
 Grievance redressal: Any grievances related to the determination of benefit sharing or order of the National
Biodiversity Authority or a State Biodiversity Board under this Act, shall be taken to the National Green Tribunal
(NGT).
Recent development: the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Bill, 2021 was tabled in the Parliament.
Proposed amendments:
 The Bill amends the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 to simplify compliance requirements for domestic
companies.
 Users of codified traditional knowledge and AYUSH practitioners will be exempted from sharing benefits
with local communities.
 The Bill removes research and bio-survey activities from the purview of benefit sharing requirements.

 Benefit sharing will be based on terms agreed between the user and the local management
committee represented by the National Authority.
 The Bill decriminalises all offences under the Act.
 States can declare Threatened species: Central government can delegate the power to notify any species
which is near-extinction as a threatened species to the state government.
 Expansion of NBA: 11 additional members to be added to NBA, including:
 6 ex-officio members dealing with wildlife, forestry research, and Panchayati Raj
 4 representatives from SBBs (on a rotational basis), and
 1 Member-Secretary (must have experience in biodiversity conservation), who will be the chief
coordinating officer of the NBA.
Concerns associated with the proposed amendments:
 Ambiguity in the exemption for codified traditional knowledge: The 2002 Act requires users of biological
resources and associated knowledge to share benefits with local communities.
 The Bill exempts users of “codified traditional knowledge” from this requirement. The Bill has not
defined the term ‘codified traditional knowledge’.
 A broad interpretation of this term might exempt almost all traditional knowledge from benefit sharing
requirements.
 Local communities may not have a direct say in benefit sharing: The Bill removes the direct role of local bodies
and benefit claimers in determining mutually agreed terms.
 The Act states that while granting approvals for various activities, National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
will determine terms for benefit sharing.
 Such approval should be in accordance with the mutually agreed terms between the applicant,
concerned local bodies, and benefit claimers.
 Benefit claimers are persons who are conservers of biological resources, or creators or holders of
associated traditional knowledge.
 The Bill amends this to require that approvals should be in accordance with mutually agreed terms
between the applicant and the concerned Biodiversity Management Committee represented by NBA.
 Thus, benefit claimers and local people will not be directly involved in setting the terms and conditions.
 Further, there is no provision for a mechanism for obtaining prior informed consent of the local and indigenous
communities. This may be in contrast with the framework under Nagoya Protocol.
 Offences and Penalties: Under the Act, offences are punishable with imprisonment of up to five years or a fine,
or both.
 The Bill decriminalises the offences and makes them punishable with a penalty. The penalty is between
one lakh rupees and Rs 50 lakh, and in case of continuing contravention, there may be an additional
penalty of up to one crore rupees.
 There is a lack of substantive legislative guidance on adjudging the penalty
 There is a wide range of penalties that can be levied, between one lakh rupees and one crore rupees, i.e.,
the maximum penalty is 100 times the minimum penalty.
 There is no guidance to the adjudicating officer on how to assess the penalty within this range.
 Issues regarding changes in definitions:
 Threat of Bio-piracy: Due to deletion of the term Bio utilisation, an array of activities like characterisation,
envenomisation and bioassay, which are undertaken with commercial interest, may go undetected.
 Replacing ‘biological resources or knowledge’ with just ‘results of research’ may open channels for
anyone who has once obtained permission from the NBA to transfer the biological resource or knowledge
to any third party without any restrictions or the cognisance of the NBA.
 Uncertainty regarding regulation of bio surveys: Studies and tests that researchers use to understand
physical, chemical and other characteristics of a resource.
Conclusion
It is necessary to refocus on safeguarding the interests of local communities and sharing earnings with them. A three-
tier structure of Central and State boards, as well as local committees, should be used to conserve India's vast
biodiversity and associated knowledge, as well as biological diversity and local growers.
NATIONAL GREEN TRIBU NAL (NGT) ACT, 2010

 Established in October, 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010.
 Established for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to:
o Environmental protection
o Conservation of forests and
o Other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and
o Giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE TRIBUNAL:

 Headed by: The Tribunal is headed by the Chairperson who sits in the Principal Bench in Delhi and has at least ten
but not more than twenty judicial members and at least ten but not more than twenty expert members.
 Cities of establishment: NGT is set up at five places of sittings and will follow circuit procedure for making itself
more accessible. New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai
shall be the other four places of sitting of the Tribunal.
FUNCTIONS OF THE TRIBUNAL:

 Specialised judicial body: Equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving
multi-disciplinary issues.
o The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908,
but shall be guided by principles of natural justice and hence the Tribunal's orders are binding.
 Speedy environmental justice: And helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts. The Tribunal is
mandated to make and endeavor for disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the
same
Issues with NGT:
 No jurisdiction over Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 handicaps NGT to act to protect the flora and fauna.
 NGT has never functioned in full capacity: NGT Act prescribes that the tribunal shall consist of a full-time
chairperson and not less than 10 judicial and 10 expert members.
 Closure of the regional branches: Four zonal benches have been completely shut over the past one year.
 No experts on the panel: As the environment related matters become increasingly complicated, NGT requires
more and more specialized expert members. But govt. has not shown any interest in this regard.
 Issues related to implementation of the orders: There is no institutional mechanism to ensure that the
environmental regulatory authorities comply with the orders of the tribunal.
FEW ACHIEVEMENTS:
 Curbing noise pollution: As per statutory mandate of Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000.
 Prevention and remedying pollution: In river Mandovi in Goa and Rivers Sutlej and Beas in Punjab.
 In 2017: The Art of Living Festival on Yamuna Food Plain was declared violating the environmental norms, the NGT
panel imposed a penalty of Rs. 5 Crore.
 Interim ban on plastic bags: The NGT, in 2017, imposed an interim ban on plastic bags of less than 50-micron
thickness in Delhi because “they were causing animal deaths, clogging sewers and harming the environment”. etc.
ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986

 The roots of the enactment of the EPA lies in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at
Stockholm in June, 1972 (Stockholm Conference), in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
improvement of the human environment. The Act implements the decisions made at the Stockholm Conference.
 The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the protection and
improvement of the environment.
 It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing
environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different
parts of the country.
 The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and improvement of the
environment.
FEATURES OF THE ACT:

 Powers of the Central Government: The Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures as it
deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment in
coordination with the State Governments.
 Restriction on Pollutant Discharge: No individual or organisation shall discharge/emit or permit to discharge/emit
any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards.
 Compliance with Procedural Safeguards: No individual shall handle or shall be caused to handle any hazardous
substance except in accordance with the procedure and without complying with the safeguards, as prescribed.
 Powers of Entry and Inspection: Any person empowered by the Central Government shall have a right to enter
(with the assistance deemed necessary) at any place:
o For the inspection of compliance of any orders, notifications and directions given under the Act.
o For the purpose of examining (and if required seizing) any equipment, industrial plant, record, register,
document or any other material object may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence punishable
under this Act.
 Establishment of Environmental Laboratories: The Central Government, as per the Act, is entitled to:
o Establish environmental laboratories.
o Recognise any laboratory or institute as environmental laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted to
such a laboratory.
o To make rules specifying the functions of environmental laboratories.
 Appointment of Government Analyst: A Government Analyst is appointed by the Central Government for the
analysing the samples of air, water, soil or other substance sent to a recognised environmental laboratory.
 Penalties for Offences: Non-compliance or Contravention to any of the provisions of the Act is considered as an
offence.
EPA 1986 RULES:

 Environmental Impact Assessment: Under the Environment (Protection) Rules, EIA of 29 specified projects falling
under sectors such as Industries, Mining, Irrigation, Power, Transport, Tourism etc., require clearance from the
Central Government before establishment.
 Biomedical and Hazardous Wastes: Under the EPA, 1986, the Central Government has also made Biomedical and
Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989.
 Environmental Audit: Every person carrying on any industry or operation requiring consent under the Water Act,
1974 or Air Act, 1981 or hazardous waste rules, 1989 issued under EPA, 1986 shall submit an environmental audit
report for each financial year ending 31st March in a prescribed form to the State Pollution Control Board.
 To increase forest-based livelihood incomes.
 To enhance annual Carbon sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonnes in the year 2020.

WATER MANAGEMENT AND WETLAND CONSERVATION

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION:
 What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water 2020
conservation and water security?
 Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. 2019
Analyse the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples.
 What is wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the context of wetland conservation. Cite 2018
two examples of Ramsar sites from India.
 Not many years ago, river linking was a concept but it is becoming reality in the country. Discuss the 2017
advantages of river linking and its possible impact on the environment.
 Rehabilitation of human settlements is one of the important environmental impacts which always 2016
attracts controversy while planning major projects. Discuss the measures suggested for mitigation of
this impact while proposing major developmental projects.
 The Namami Gange and National mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and causes of mixed 2015
results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga better than
incremental inputs?
 What do you understand by run of the river hydroelectricity project? How is it different from any other 2013
hydroelectricity project?
 Enumerate the National Water Policy of India. Taking river Ganges as an example, discuss the strategies 2013
which may be adopted for river water pollution control and management. What are the legal provisions
for management and handling of hazardous wastes in India?
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use
of water resources.
MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:

 Spatial and temporal variation in water: Availability, recurring droughts and frequent floods. Increased
vulnerability due to climate change
 Demand and supply: Rising population, increasing water demand and falling per capita availability.
o More than 100 million people live in poor water quality areas.
 Over exploitation and depletion of groundwater resources: Water table in India declining every year by 0.4 m.
Indiscriminate extraction of groundwater; inefficient irrigation practices; rapid urbanization are major causes.
 Faulty cropping pattern has led to water wastage and consequent stress on water resources.
 Poor water quality: The major reasons for contamination of water are: sewage and wastewater drainage into
water bodies, release of chemicals and effluents into rivers, streams and other surface water bodies.
o 54% of India’s total area faces high to extreme water stress.
 Poor Storage: Poor storage infrastructure allows India to store only 6 percent of rainwater, compared to 250 per
cent stored by developed nations.
IMPACT OF WATER CRISIS:

 Economic Risks: As the water crisis worsens, production capacity utilization and new investments in capacity may
both decline, threatening the livelihoods of millions, and commodity prices could rise steeply for consumers due
to production shortages.
o Such circumstances can lead to economic instability and disrupt growth.
 Risk to food security: About 74% of the area under wheat cultivation and 65% of the area under rice cultivation
faces significant levels of water scarcity.
 Groundwater resources, which account for 62% of irrigation water, are declining in 52% of the cases and highlight
a serious water concern for the agriculture sector.

 Health: Shortage of water is a major obstacle to public health and development. The World Bank estimates that
21% of communicable diseases in India are linked to unsafe water and the lack of hygiene practices.
o Inadequate sanitation is also a problem for 2.4 billion people. They are exposed to diseases, such as
Cholera and Typhoid fever, and other water-borne illnesses. 2 million people, mostly children, die each
year from diarrheal diseases alone.
 Disputes: Increasing inter-state water disputes/ conflicts. Example: Cauvery Water Dispute primarily between
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Mahanadi water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh
 Adverse effect on biodiversity: The main threats facing biodiversity globally are: destruction, degradation and
fragmentation of habitats. reduction of individual survival and reproductive rates.
 Risk of energy shortages:
o 70% of India’s thermal power plants are likely to face high water stress by 2030, severely hampering India’s
energy production and economic activity.
 Environmental Risks: Risk of biodiversity destruction - The rich biodiversity of India faces a serious threat from
human activities undertaken in pursuit of creating additional water sources.
o As per 2017 Global Risks Report of the World Economic Forum, in terms of impact on humanity, the water
crisis is ranked as the 3rd most important global risk.
 As per NITI Aayog report released in June 2019, India is facing the worst-ever water crisis in history.
Approximately 600 million people or roughly around 45 % of the population in India is facing high to severe water
stress.
o As per the report, 21 Indian cities will run out of their main source of water i.e., groundwater by 2020.
o The report goes on to say that nearly 40 % of the population will have absolutely no access to drinking
water by 2030 and 6 % of India’s GDP will be lost by 2050 due to the water crisis.
 Water storage in India is about 209 m3 per person far below the minimum threshold of 1,000 m3 per person for
identifying water scarcity in a country.
o In addition, the per capita availability of water has reduced from 2,209 m3 per year in 1991 to 1545 m3 per
year in 2011.
WAY FORWARD:
 Use of efficient irrigation practices: micro-irrigation practices like drip and sprinklers.
o National Water Policy: Draft National Water Policy introduced in 2012; Aims to govern the planning and
development of water resources and their optimum utilization.
 Micro irrigation: These processes help in achieving high efficiency and reduce water use as in the conventional
methods.
 Use of traditional water management practices: Johads of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Ahar Pyne of
Bihar, Zabo system of Nagaland.
o National Project on Aquifer Management: To map and manage all aquifer systems in India
 Increasing water storage capacity: Rainwater Harvesting in both urban and rural areas, farm ponds, percolation
tanks etc; Decentralised water storage.
o Atal Bhujal Yojana: To recharge ground water sources and ensure efficient use of water by involving
people at local level.
 Sustained measures to prevent pollution of water bodies: Contamination of groundwater and ensure proper
treatment of domestic and industrial waste water: regulating industrial clusters, bioremediation.
o Assessment of groundwater resources to be done on a regular basis.
 Reducing water consumption: For agriculture, industry and households by securing water efficiency and reuse of
water (efficient wastewater treatment).
 Adopting technology: Based solutions to reduce leakages during water supply.
 The UN World Water Development Report 2018: It stresses nature-based solutions (NBS) to sustainably and
economically manage water resources.
 Other steps for the management can be: Water management reforms; Effective water governance; Desalination
to cope with fresh water shortage; Community participation in water conservation efforts.
 National River Linking Project: Interlinking project aims to address the issue of uneven distribution water but has
proved to be contentious between the government and civil society groups

 Model Bill for Conservation, Protection and Regulation of Groundwater, 2016: The various proposals given are-
Move groundwater from Easements Act as a private property resource to a Common Pool Resource; demarcation
of “groundwater protection zones”; development of a groundwater security plan.
 Implementing Mihir shah report:
o Urgent revamp of the current water management system: Change in both surface water as well as ground
water management policies; view groundwater and surface water in an integrated, holistic manner.
o Need of restructuring: Restructure of Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board and
Constitute National Water Commission (NWC) to deal with water policy, data and governance.
 Adopting integrated water resource management: IWRM is based on the three principles: Social Equity,
Economic Efficiency and Environmental Sustainability.
1. Social equity: It means ensuring equal access for all users.
2. Economic Efficiency: It means bringing the greatest benefit to the greatest number of users possible with the
available financial and water resources.
3. Ecological Sustainability: It requires that aquatic ecosystems are acknowledged as users and that adequate
allocation is made to sustain their natural functioning.
URBAN FLOODING
 Recently, torrential rains that took place in Hyderabad have caused massive urban floods. In many Indian cities,
urban floods have become a frequent phenomenon in recent years.
CAUSES OF URBAN FLOOD:

 Direct Factors:
o Natural: Global climate change; change in weather pattern; heavy rainfall.
o Urbanization/manmade: Flood plain encroachments; continuous development; loss of natural drains;
increased impervious areas like roads, roofs, etc.
 Indirect Factors: Improper and inadequate drainage system; on road vehicle parking; attitude of people; improper
or no waste management.
URBAN FLOOD: MAN-MADE DISASTER

 Inadequate Drainage Infrastructure Terrain Alteration: Cities like Hyderabad, Mumbai relies on a century-old
drainage system, covering only a small part of the core city.
 Reducing Seepage: Indian cities are becoming increasingly impervious to water, not just because of increasing
built up but also because of the nature of materials used.
 Lax Implementation: Even with provisions of rainwater harvesting, sustainable urban drainage systems, etc, in
regulatory mechanisms like the Environmental Impact Assessment.
 Encroaching Natural Spaces: The number of wetlands has reduced to 123 in 2018 from 644 in 1956. Green cover
is only 9 per cent, which ideally should have been at least 33 per cent.
WAY FORWARD:
 Need For Holistic Engagement: Urban floods of this scale
cannot be contained by the municipal authorities alone.
o The Metropolitan Development Authorities,
National Disaster Management Authority, State
revenue and irrigation departments along with
municipal corporations should be involved in such
work together.
 Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make
cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which
falls upon it.
 Wetland Policy: There is a need to start paying attention to the
management of wetlands by involving local communities.

 Drainage Planning: Watershed management and emergency drainage plan should be clearly enunciated in policy
and law.
 Water Sensitive Urban Design: These methods take into consideration the topography, types of surfaces natural
drainage and leave very less impact on the environment.
 Vulnerability analyses and risk assessments should form part and parcel of city master plans. Tools such as
predictive precipitation modelling can help do that and are also able to link it with the adaptive capacity of urban
land use.
 Convergent Approach: These can all be delivered effectively through an urban mission along the lines of the Atal
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), National Heritage City Development and
Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Smart Cities Mission.
CONCLUSION
 Urban Flood management will not just help control recurring floods but also respond to other fault lines, provide
for water security, more green spaces, and will make the city resilient and sustainable.
INTERLINKING OF RIVERS: ENVIRONMENTAL PE RSPECTIVE

 The Prime Minister and the Chief Ministers of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh signed an agreement to
implement the first phase of the Interlinking of Rivers project. The tripartite agreement aims to implement the
Ken-Betwa River Link Project (KBLP).
ABOUT KEN-BETWA LINK PROJECT:

 Both the Ken and Betwa river are tributaries of the river Yamuna.
 It is the first project under the National Perspective Plan for the interlinking of rivers.
 Under this project, water from the Ken River will get transferred to the Betwa river.
 This project will spread across the districts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
ABOUT THE NATIONAL RIVER LINKING PROJECT (NRLP):

The interlinking of rivers is a large-scale civil engineering project that aims to effectively manage water resources in
India. The government aims to achieve this by building a network of reservoirs and canals through a National River
Linking Project (NRLP). It is also known as the National Perspective Plan.
 Main objective: It is to transfer water from water ‘surplus’ basins suffering from floods to water ‘deficit’ basins
suffering from drought/scarcity.
 Implementation: The implementation of the NRLP will form a gigantic South Asian Water Grid with a network of
nearly 3000 storage dams. The then Ministry of Irrigation prepared this plan of interlinking of rivers in August
1980.
 Managing authority: The NRLP is managed by the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) under the
Ministry of Jal Shakti.
 The plan proposes 30 river links to connect 37 rivers across India under two components:
o Himalayan Rivers Development Component: Under this, 14 river links are identified.
o Peninsular Rivers Development Component or the Southern Water Grid: This includes 16 river links. Ken
Betwa Link Project is one among them.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERLINKING OF RIVERS:

 Hydrological Imbalance of India: India has a large-scale hydrological imbalance with an effective rainfall period of
28 to 29 days.
o Further, there are certain regions that receive very high rainfall and cause flooding.
o On the other hand, there are regions with heavy water shortages and face droughts. Interlinking would
transfer the water from flood-prone regions to drought-prone regions.
 Improve the inland navigation: Interlinking of rivers will create a network of navigation channels. Water transport
is cheaper, less-polluting compared to the road and railways.
 The benefit of irrigation: The interlinking of rivers has the potential to irrigate 35 million hectares of land in the
water-scarce western peninsula.

 Development of power: The interlinked rivers have the

potential to generate a total power of 34000 MW (34 GW).
o This will help India to reduce coal-based power
plant usage.
 Other benefits:
o Water supply: The project envisages a supply of clean
drinking water amounting to 90 billion CBM (Cubic
Meter).
o Similarly, interlinking of water also provides water for
industrial use amounting to 64.8 billion CBM.
o Apart from that, interlinking can help the survival of
fisheries, protect wildlife in the summer months due
to water scarcity.
o India can also explore an additional line of defence in
the form of waterline defence.
CHALLENGES IN INTERLINKING OF RIVERS:

 Environmental Challenges: The critics of the interlinking of rivers point out certain major environmental
challenges with interlinking. They are,
o Submergence of vast areas of land in reservoirs: The construction of dams leads to large-scale submergence
of land.
o Getting permits from Environmental agencies: The submergence of land many times falls within the wildlife
and protected areas. For example, In the Ken-Betwa Link Project land alone, nearly two-thirds of the land falls
within the Panna Tiger Reserve.
 Social Challenges: The large-scale submergence of land has to be compensated by displacing people in that area.
Especially the poor and tribal people located near the forests.
 International Challenges: Countries like Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh will get impacted due to the Interlinking
of Rivers project.
 Political Challenges: Water is a state subject in India. So, the implementation of the NRLP primarily depends on
Inter-State co-operation. Several states including Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, and Sikkim have already
opposed the NRLP.
 Economic Challenges: NRLP is a highly capital-intensive project. The project will need Rs.5.6 lakh crores (estimated
cost with the base year of 2000).
SUGGESTIONS:
 Integrated water resource management: It is the key for India. India needs to conserve every drop of water,
reduce wastage, equitable distribution of resources at the same time enhances groundwater.
 Concept of virtual water: Instead of interlinking rivers, India can try the concept of virtual water.
 Investing money in other areas: The government can invest the money in other areas instead of investing money
for the interlinking of rivers. Such as,
o Conducting awareness campaigns to reduce water and food wastage. For example, the recent catch the rain
campaign.
o Can create Rainwater harvesting systems like that it created toilets with Swachh Bharat Mission. This will not
only increase the groundwater recharge but also reduce soil erosion.
SUPREME COURT ON RIVER INTERLINKING:
 The court said that the execution of the policy falls within the ambit of the Centre and state governments but
under the constitutional provisions, it is empowered to pass an order for completion of the project which is
beneficial to the country as a whole.
CONCLUSION:
 We need to understand the importance of achieving small things. After all, “Big visions are realized through small
steps only”. So, the government has to conduct a detailed hydrological, geological, meteorological and
environmental analysis of the interlinking of rivers. In that, the government must analyze the alternatives also.
WETLANDS
 Under the Ramsar International Wetland Conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as: “Wetlands are areas of
marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or
flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six
metres”.
IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS:
 Aquaculture: Wetlands are used to harvest fish/aquatic animals for
human consumption and pharmaceuticals.
 Flood control: they act as a barrier to absorb excess water.
 Groundwater replenishment: The surface water which is the water
visibly seen in wetland systems only represents a portion of the overall
water cycle which also includes atmospheric water and groundwater.
 Shoreline stabilisation and storm protection: Tidal and intertidal
wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones.
 Nutrient retention: Wetland vegetation uptake and store nutrients
found in the surrounding soil and water.
 Water purification: Many wetland systems possess biofilters, hydrophytes, and organisms that in addition to
nutrient up-take abilities have the capacity to remove toxic substances that have come from pesticides, industrial
discharges, and mining activities.
 Climate change mitigation and adaptation: they have mitigation effects through their ability to sink carbon, and
adaptation effects through their ability to store and regulate water.
THREATS TO WETLANDS:
 Urbanization: Wetlands near urban centres are under increasing developmental pressure for residential, industrial
and commercial facilities. Urban wetlands are essential for preserving public water supplies.
 Agriculture: Vast stretches of wetlands have been converted to paddy fields. Construction of a large number of
reservoirs, canals and dams to provide for irrigation significantly altered the hydrology of the associated wetlands.
 Pollution: Wetlands act as natural water filters. However, they can only clean up the fertilizers and pesticides from
agricultural runoff but not mercury from industrial sources and other types of pollution.
 Climate Change: Increased air temperature; shifts in precipitation; increased frequency of storms, droughts, and
floods; increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration; and sea level rise could also affect wetlands.
 Dredging: The removal of material from a wetland or river bed. Dredging of streams lowers the surrounding water
table and dries up adjacent wetlands.
 Invasive Alien Species: Indian wetlands are threatened by exotic introduced plant species such as water hyacinth
and salvinia. They clog waterways and compete with native vegetation.
WETLAND PROTECTION EFFORTS IN INDIA:

 National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP): GoI operationalized NWCP in close collaboration with
concerned State Government during the year 1985-86.
o The Scheme aims for conservation and wise use of wetlands in the country so as to prevent their further
degradation.
 The National Environmental Policy 2006: It recognized the importance of wetlands in providing numerous
ecological services. Based on the directives of Policy and recommendations made by National Forest Commission.
 National wetland protection strategy: National wetland strategy should encompass -
o Conservation and collaborative management;
o Prevention of loss and promotion of restoration;
ROLE OF URBAN WETLANDS:
 Historical Importance: The value of wetlands, especially in urban settings, is evidenced through our history. In
southern India, the cholas, the Hoysalas built tanks all over the state.

 Multi-layered Role: Wetlands not only support high concentrations of biodiversity, but also offer a wide range of
important resources and ecosystem services like food, water, fiber, groundwater recharge, water purification,
flood moderation, storm protection, erosion control, carbon storage and climate regulation.
WAY FORWARD:
 Protection: The primary necessity today is to protect the existing wetlands. There are thousands of wetlands that
are biologically and economically important but have no legal status.
 Planning, Managing and Monitoring: Wetlands that come under the Protected Area Network have management
plans but others do not.
o National Wetland Decadal Change Atlas titled National Wetland Inventory and Assessment-2006-07 and
2017-18 was prepared by the Space Applications Centre (SAC) of ISRO.
 At the national level, the total wetland area has been estimated at 15.98 Mha, which is around
4.86 per cent of country's total geographic area.
 Comprehensive Inventory: The inventory should involve the flora, fauna, and biodiversity along with wetland
direct and indirect values
 Legislation: Environment Impact Assessment is needed for major development projects and highlighting threats
to wetlands needs must be included and appropriate measures to be formulated.
 Coordinated Approach: Because Wetlands are common property with multi-purpose utility, their protection and
management also need to be a common responsibility.
 Research: There is a necessity for research in the formulation of a national strategy to understand the dynamics
of these ecosystems. This could be useful for the planners to formulate strategies for the mitigation of pollution.
 Building Awareness: For achieving any sustainable success in the protection of these wetlands, awareness among
the general public, educational and corporate institutions must be created.
RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS:

 Convention framework: The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental
treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and
wise use of wetlands and their resources.
 Parties and wetlands sites: There are presently 169 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 2,234 wetland
sites, totalling 215 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International
Importance.
 Only global treaty on wetland: Ramsar Convention is the only global environment treaty dealing with a particular
ecosystem. It is an international treaty for the conservation and “wise-use” of wetlands
 Need of the convention: The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was developed as a means to call international
attention to the rate at which wetland habitats were disappearing, in part due to a lack of understanding of their
important functions.
COASTAL CONSERVATION
 The Indian coastline runs over a distance of 7500 km (5700 kms on mainland) distributed along nine coastal
states, two groups of islands and four union territories. The coastal belt comprises a wide range of ecosystems
extending from sandy beaches and mangroves to coral reefs and rocky shores.
SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT:

 For resources: It is important to enhance coastal resource efficiency and utilisation. For example, The Indian Ocean
contains vast amounts of minerals, including the cobalt, zinc, manganese and rare earth materials.
 Energy security concerns: The main energy resources present in the Indian Ocean are petroleum and gas hydrates.
Along with this tidal energy is also important that would provide electricity to locals.
 For employment generation: It will provide jobs, improved livelihoods to many. This will help in inclusive growth.
E.g., improving fishery resources exploitation can provide livelihood to many.
 Environmental Protection: Coastal management includes habitat conservation activities such as mangrove
afforestation/shelter beds, restoration of sea plants, eco-restoration of sacred groves etc. This is important for the
security of coastal communities and helps in preventing floods.

 Sustainable development: blue economy, through sustainable use of oceans, has great potential for boosting
economic growth.
 Tourism boost: Coastal management includes creation of infrastructure for tourism, restoration and recharge of
water bodies, beach cleaning and development, and other small infrastructure facilities.
 Pisciculture and food security: Marine fisheries wealth around Indian coastline is estimated to have an annual
harvestable potential of 4.4 million metric tonnes. Thus, coastal management would provide a boost to the fishery
sector through development of infrastructure.
 Efficient transportation and logistics: better connectivity in the region will significantly cut the transport cost and
will reduce logistics inefficiencies.
MAJOR PROBLEMS OF COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA:

 Approaches of administration: The ‘top-down’ approach of administrative decision making in CZM is a major
issue.
 Coordination between centre and states: Lack of coordination among various organs including various ministries
and departments for efficient coastal development.
 Disasters like tsunami: It poses great danger to coastal infrastructure and communities. It not only jeopardises
coastal management efforts but also destroys valuable national assets.
 Weather forecast problem: Lack of good weather forecasting technology also adds to the loss caused by various
disasters.
 Climate change: Increasing climate change leads to rise in sea level that is endangering coastal security and
infrastructure.
COASTAL SAND MINING AND IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT:

 Coastal sand mining has an impact on the landscape and contributes to coastal erosion. The loss of sand from
coastal regions causes rivers and estuaries to deepen, as well as the widening of river mouths and coastal
inlets.
 Frequent tropical cyclones and tsunamis.
 Coastal sand mining also has many negative impacts on society: It affects the livelihood of the people, health,
science, beauty, climate and damages infrastructure.
THE NATIONAL CENTRE FOR SUSTAINABLE COASTAL MANAGEMENT:

 Introduction: It is established under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change to undertake studies
and research in the area of Coastal Zone Management including coastal resources and environment.
 Objective:
o It aims to promote integrated and sustainable management of the coastal and marine areas in India for the
benefit and wellbeing of the traditional coastal and island communities.
o It also intends to promote sustainable coasts through increased partnership, conservation practices, scientific
research and knowledge benefit and well-being of current and future generations.
COASTAL REGULATION Z ONE

 Introduction: The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has notified the 2019 Coastal
Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms, replacing the existing CRZ norms of 2011.
 The new CRZ norms: They have been issued under Section 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
 Aim of the new norms: The new CRZ norms aim to promote sustainable development based on scientific
principles.
OBJECTIVE OF CRZ REGULATIONS 2019:

 To promote sustainable development based on scientific principles taking into account the natural hazards such
as increasing sea levels due to global warming.
 To conserve and protect the environment of coastal stretches and marine areas, besides livelihood security to the
fisher communities and other local communities in the coastal area.

SALIENT FEATURES OF CRZ REGULATIONS 2019:

 Floor Space Index Norms eased: As per CRZ, 2011 Notification, the Floor Space Index (FSI) or the Floor Area Ratio
(FAR) had been frozen.
 Tourism infrastructure permitted in coastal areas: The new norms permit temporary tourism facilities such as
shacks, toilet blocks, change rooms, drinking water facilities, etc. in Beaches.
 Streamlining of CRZ Clearances: The procedure for CRZ clearances has been streamlined. Now, the only such
projects which are located in the CRZ-I (Ecologically Sensitive Areas) and CRZ IV (area covered between Low Tide
Line and 12 Nautical Miles seaward) will be dealt with for CRZ clearance by the Ministry.
 No Development Zone of 20 meters for all Islands: For islands close to the mainland coast and for all Backwater
Islands in the mainland, No Development Zone of 20 meters has been stipulated in wake of space limitations and
unique geography of such regions.
 Pollution abatement: To address pollution in Coastal areas, the treatment facilities have been made permissible
in CRZ-I B area subject to necessary safeguards.
 Critically Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CVCA): Sundarban region of West Bengal and other ecologically sensitive
areas identified as under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 such as Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch in
Gujarat, Achra-Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu, Bhitarkanika etc., are treated as Critical
Vulnerable Coastal Areas.
o These Critical Vulnerable Coastal Areas will be managed with the involvement of coastal communities
including fisher folk.
TWO SEPARATE CATEGORIES FOR CRZ-III (RURAL) AREAS:

 CRZ-III A: The A category of CRZ-III areas are densely populated rural areas with a population density of 2161 per
square kilometre as per 2011 Census.
o Such areas have a No Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters from the High Tide Line (HTL) as against 200
meters from the High Tide Line stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011.
 CRZ-III B: The B category of CRZ-III rural areas have population density of below 2161 per square kilometre as per
2011 Census. Such areas have a No Development Zone of 200 meters from the HTL.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO CONSERVE COASTS:

 Draft Environmental and Social Management Framework:
o Draft ESMF has been prepared in support of a project proposal for “Enhancing climate resilience of India’s
coastal communities” by the Government of India (GoI) to the Green Climate Fund (GCF).
o The objective of the draft ESMF project is to enhance the resilience of the lives and livelihoods of the most
vulnerable populations, particularly women, in the coastal areas of India.
 Society of Integrated Coastal Management:
o Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM) has been established under the aegis of the Ministry of
Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
o It has a vision for a vibrant, healthy and resilient coastal and marine environment for the continuous and
enhanced outflow of benefits to the country and the coastal community.
o SICOM is the national project management unit of India in strategic planning, management, execution,
monitoring and successful implementation of the ICZMP-Phase-I.
 Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan: It is a process for the management of the coast using an integrated
approach, regarding all aspects of the coastal zone, including geographical and political boundaries.
 Coast Guard Act, 1978: The ICG has been accordingly nominated in 1986 as the Central Coordinating Authority for
oil-spill response in the Maritime Zones of India.
SHAILESH NAYAK COMMITTEE (2014) REPORT ON COASTAL REGULATION ZONE:

 Major objective: The committee recommended relaxation on the terms set up by the CRZ 2011 notification. The
major objective behind the recommendations was to boost tourism, port construction and real estate.
 Suggestions: The committee suggested diluting the regulatory powers of the Central Government in the coastal
areas.
o Except for those activities which require environmental clearances all other activity should fall under the
ambit of state and local planning bodies.
 Suggestions outcome: Based on the recommendations of Shailesh Nayak committee, the suggestions were given
by the coastal states and union territories, and the CRZ 2018 notifications were issued.
WAY FORWARD:
 Better spatial planning: Along with reducing unnecessary construction is the need of the hour.
 Using green infrastructure: Adopting recycled and alternative substitute materials such as oil palm shell, bottom
ash, strictly adhering to Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), etc. can help in reducing coastal sand mining.
 Strengthening standards and best practices: Also strengthening standards and best practices to curb irresponsible
extraction.
 Investment increase: Investing in sand production and consumption measurement should be adopted at policy
level.
 Awareness generation: Providing people with necessary information regarding the need of management is
considered one of the core areas of management.
CONCLUSION:
 Coastal management is important to develop and sustainably utilise the coasts for sustainable development. What
is required is use of technology, community participation and removal of bottlenecks like lack of coordination at
various levels.
BLUE FLAG CERTIFICATION

 In News: Recently, On the occasion of International Coastal Clean-Up Day, for the first time eight beaches of India
are recommended for the coveted International eco-label, the Blue Flag Certification.
 The eight beaches are: Shivrajpur in Gujarat, Ghoghla in Daman & Diu, Kasarkod and Padubidri beach in Karnataka,
Kappad in Kerala, Rushikonda in Andhra Pradesh, Golden beach of Odisha and Radhanagar beach in Andaman and
Nicobar.
WHAT IS BLUE FLAG CERTIFICATION:

 It is a globally recognised label that has been accorded by a Denmark based international agency called the
foundation for environment education.
 The blue flag tag is provided to beaches that adopt an eco-tourism model.
 It is provided to those beaches that provide clean and hygienic bathing facilities to the tourist or the beach goers
and also to beaches that provide safe and healthy environment, clean facilities and hygienic amenities and
promote sustainable development of the area.
 The Blue Flag Programme for beaches and marinas is run by the international, non-governmental, non-profit
organisation FEE (the Foundation for Environmental Education).
 On the lines of Blue Flag certification, India has also launched its own eco-label BEAMS (Beach Environment &
Aesthetics Management Services).
SIGNIFICANCE OF BLUE FLAG CERTIFICATION RECOGNITION:

 Receiving Blue Flag Certification is an indication of high environmental and quality standards and certified
beaches are considered the world’s cleanest beaches. Certification will promote tourism to the listed beaches in
India.
 India is now the first country in the “Asia-Pacific” region which has achieved this feat in just about 2 years’ time
and is now in the league of 50 “BLUE FLAG” countries.
CLIMATE ACTION PLAN FOR COASTAL CITIES

 In News: Amid warnings of climate change leading to extreme weather events like high-intensity floods and
landslides in the city, the Brihan-mumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) is drafting a Mumbai Climate Action Plan
(MCAP) in a bid to tackle climate challenges.
 A climate action plan is a detailed and strategic framework for measuring, planning, and reducing greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions and related climatic impacts and provides preventative measures to address the negative
outcomes of climate change.

 The plan demonstrates how the city will adapt and improve its resilience to climate hazards that impact the city
as well as risks that may increase in the coming years.
WHAT IS THE MUMBAI CLIMATE ACTION PLAN?

 Amid warnings of climate change leading to extreme weather events in the city, the civic body has started
preparing the Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP).
 It will look at climate resilience with mitigation and adaptation strategies by focusing on six areas —
1. Sustainable waste management
2. Urban greening and Biodiversity
3. Urban flooding and Water Resource Management
4. Building Energy Efficiency
5. Air Quality and
6. Sustainable Mobility
 The plan is expected to be ready by November ahead of the United Nations Climate Change (COP26) conference
at Glasgow, Scotland.
NEED OF CLIMATE ACTION PLAN FOR COASTAL CITIES:

 Coastal flooding and sea level rise: Coastal cities are exposed to storm surges, erosion, and saltwater intrusion.
Climate change and sea level rise will likely exacerbate these hazards.
o Sea level rise could erode and inundate coastal ecosystems and eliminate wetlands.
 Extreme weather events: Data from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) shows that both the number and
intensity of cyclones have increased in the Arabian Sea since the 1980s, threatening the densely populated coastal
areas.
 Increased food insecurity: Climate change in coastal cities is causing reduced crop nutrition and yields, fish
depletion and the loss of plant and insect species.
 Biological hazards: Particularly vector-borne and water-borne diseases. Higher temperatures, and prolonged wet
conditions which affect coastal cities disproportionately, are more favourable for the mosquitos, rodents and
other animals that carry vector-borne diseases.
 To prevent destruction of life and property: Natural disasters and shoreline erosion are two of the main threats
that coastal communities face. Such communities are particularly vulnerable to hurricanes and tsunamis.
WAY FORWARD:
 Proper implementation and funding support: Climate action plans for coastal city level should have clear
short- and long-term implementable action and have necessary financial, institutional and policy support.
Guiding Principles for Coastal City Climate Action Planning: It aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
adopt low emission development trajectories (mitigation), as well as adapt to the impacts of climate change
(adaptation) and build local climate resilience.

 Coastal risk assessment: The coastal data along with future climate projections should be used to prepare an
in- depth coastal risk assessment that will inform us
how we can be disaster-proof and make our
coastline resilient.
 Improve access to Climate Information Services
(CIS): Given the high rates of information utilisation
and sharing, CISs access should improve the ability
of people to make informed decisions on how to
capitalise upon or prepare for future conditions,
increasing their vulnerability to climate shocks and
food insecurity.
 Building capacity: Addressing climate change is a
complex challenge that requires involvement from
multiple city government departments or agencies,
political support for action.
 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ): To deal with issues
of rising frequency and severity of the cyclones,
flood etc., there is an urgent need to follow the CRZ
rules to develop and manage the coastal regions on scientific principles, considering the current global
challenge of climate change and sea-level rise.
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

 Explain the concepts “Environmental Sustainability” and “Sustainable Development of People”? 2012
 Should the pursuit of carbon credit and clean development mechanisms set up under UNFCCC be 2014
maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with
respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.
EARTH SUMMIT 1992

 Earth Summit 1992 is also known as The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
 Earth Summit 1992 succeeded in raising public awareness of the need to integrate environment and
development.
 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the current rate of
biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.
 As a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio+10) was held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South
Africa.
 In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also held in Rio and is also commonly
called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.
Outcomes Of the Summit:

 Agenda 21
 Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 Convention on Biological Diversity
 Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of all type of forest
 The Earth Charter
Landmark Agreements:
 An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the Climate Change Convention which in turn led
to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
 Important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened for signature:
a) Convention on Biological Diversity.

b) United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
AGENDA 21
 Agenda 21 is a commitment to sustainable development, which was agreed by many of the world’s governments.
It is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It was an outcome
of the Earth Summit 1992.
 It is the blueprint for sustainability in the 21st century. Provides options for combating the deterioration of land,
air and water, whilst conserving habitats and their diversity.
RIO +5 (1997) OR EARTH SUMMIT 1997

 In 1997, the UN General Assembly held a special session in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to appraise the status of Agenda
21 (Rio +5).
 For the first international Earth Summit convened to address urgent problems of environmental protection and
socio-economic development.
RIO+10 (2002) OR EARTH SUMMIT 2002 OR WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 Rio+10 affirmed UN commitment to Agenda 21, alongside the Millennium Development Goals (MDG).
 Johannesburg Declaration: Committing the nations of the world to sustainable development, eradication of
poverty and fixing specific targets for different countries to be achieved in a time bound manner.
RIO+20 (2012) OR EARTH SUMMIT 2012

 Rio+20 (2012) or United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development.
 In Rio, Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals and converge with the post 2015 development agenda.
UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD)

 Aim: to improve living conditions of the people, to maintain and restore the land and soil productivity and to
mitigate the effects of drought.
 It is a legally binding international agreement linking environmental development and sustainable land
management.
 The convention addresses especially Arid, semi-arid and dry sub humid areas of the world and these three
together known as ‘dry land.’ These are considered to be some of the most vulnerable ecosystems in the world
and these regions provide the livelihood of more than 1.2 billion people.
 Five regions are identified where they affect more: Africa, Asia, Latin America and Caribbean, North
Mediterranean, Central and Eastern Europe.
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT (1972)

 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference) was an
international conference convened under United Nations auspices held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16,
1972.
 It was the first United Nations (UN) conference that focused on international environmental issues.
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME (UNEP)

 An agency of the United Nations, UNEP is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within
the United Nations system.
 UNEP provides the technical assistance for a variety of international conventions, including the Montreal Protocol
on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987), the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989), and the United Nation Convention on Biodiversity
(1992).

 UNEP helps to implement the Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998).
 UNEP also coordinates the work of UN agencies with respect to desertification and the regional seas (with special
attention to the Mediterranean Sea).
INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)

 IPCC assessments provide a scientific basis for governments at all levels to develop climate-related policies, and
they underlie negotiations at the UN Climate Conference –UNFCCC.
 Aim: to provide political leaders with periodic scientific assessments concerning climate change, its implications
and risks, as well as to put forward adaptation and mitigation strategies.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (GEF)

 The GEF was established in October 1991 as a pilot program with the World Bank to assist in the protection of
the global environment and to promote environmental sustainability development.
 It was restructured and became a permanent, separate institution in 1992 during the Rio Earth Summit with
objectives to help tackle our planet’s most pressing environmental problems.
 It is independently operated as a financial organization that provides grants for projects related to:
Biodiversity, Climate Change, International Waters, Land Degradation, The Ozone Layer, Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POP), Mercury, Sustainable Forest Management, Food Security, Sustainable Cities.
REDD +
 It aims to incentivize developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks.
 It creates a financial value for the carbon stored in forests by offering incentives for developing countries to
reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable development.
 Under the REDD +, technical support provided by three agencies: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDG)

 The SDGs agenda was accepted by all members of the United Nations in 2012 at the Rio De Janeiro Council Meet
with an aim to promote a healthy and developed future of the planet and its people.
 On 25 September 2015, the United Nations adopted the resolution on “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development”, which has 169 targets in 17 goals called SDGs.
 These goals are legally non-binding and have succeeded the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which
were adopted in 2000 for fifteen years in the Rio 20+ summit.
BIO ECONOMY MISSION

 In News: The National Mission on Bio-economy was launched in Shillong, Meghalaya by the Institute of Bio-
resources and Sustainable Development (IBSD).
WHAT IS THE BIO ECONOMY?

 The bio-economy, or bio-based economy, is a new model for industry and the economy. It involves using
renewable biological resources sustainably to produce food, energy and industrial goods.
 It also exploits the untapped potential stored within millions of tons of biological waste and residual materials.
 The transition from a fossil fuel-based to a biobased economy is expected to reduce our dependence on fossil
fuels and achieve more sustainability as well as contribute to climate and environmental protection
NATIONAL MISSION ON BIOECONOMY:

 Aim: In order to boost the rural economy by utilizing bio-resources.
 The purpose of the mission is to boost rural economy by utilizing bio-resources. Besides, it can be optimally
utilized can create a large number of jobs at village level

 Value addition of the unique bio-resources through industrial biotechnology and provision of bio services, with
tailored packages that are relevant to specific regions across India.
 The mission is unique to south-east Asia and India has become one of the few countries to have tapped bio-
resources, which when optimally utilized can create a large number of jobs at village level.
 The mission could have the potential to generate new solutions for the planet’s major challenges in the field of
energy, health, food, water, climate change and deliver social, environmental and economic benefits.
CONCLUSION:
 This mission will envisage the development of a roadmap for an actionable policy testimonial for the
transformation of India through job creation from small scale livelihood enterprises to commercial scale
production for increased economic growth through technological packages to increase primary production, value
addition of the unique bio-resources through industrial biotechnology and provision of bio services to specific
regions across India.
AIR POLLUTION
 Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the 2021
World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What
changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards ?
(Answer in 150 words)
 What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the Government of 2020
India?
 Should the pursuit of carbon credit and clean development mechanism set up under UNFCCC be 2014
maintained even through there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with
respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.
INTRODUCTION
 Air pollution is defined as the introduction of pollutants, organic molecules, or other unsafe materials into Earth’s
atmosphere. This can be in the form of excessive gases like carbon dioxide and other vapours that cannot be
effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.
 According to the WHO, each year air pollution is responsible for nearly seven million deaths around the globe.
Nine out of ten human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the WHO’s guideline limits for pollutants, with
those living in low- and middle-income countries suffering the most.
DATA AND FIGURES:

 According to WHO, toxic air is now the biggest environmental risk of early death, responsible for one in nine of
all fatalities.
 It kills 7 million people a year, far more than HIV, tuberculosis and malaria combined.
 An estimated 4.2 million premature deaths globally are linked to ambient air pollution, mainly from heart disease,
stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and acute respiratory infections in children.
 World Bank: According to a 2016 World Bank report, the lost lives and ill health caused are also a colossal
economic burden. $225bn is lost labour income in 2013, or $5.11tn per year (about $1m a minute), if welfare
losses are also added.
 In 2019: EPCA declared a “public health emergency” in New Delhi as pollution levels entered the ‘severe plus’
category.

 SC on pollution: ‘Why are people in this gas chamber… better to finish them with explosives.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION:

 Mobile sources: such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains
 Stationary sources: such as power plants, oil refineries,
industrial facilities, and factories
 Area sources: such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood
burning fireplaces
 Natural sources: such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and
volcanoes
INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

 Meaning: If indoor air is contaminated by smoke, chemicals, smells, or particles. Unlike outdoor air pollution, the
effect of indoor air pollution is health-related and less of an environmental issue.
 Indoor air pollution (IAP) caused 64 percent fewer fatalities in India during the previous two decades (1990-2019),
according to a paper published in the Lancet magazine.
CAUSES:
 In colder regions, building and heating methods make use of airtight spaces, less ventilation, and energy-efficient
heating.
 Sometimes synthetic building materials smells from household care and furnishing chemicals can all be trapped
indoors.
 As less fresh air gets indoors, the concentration of pollutants such as pollen, tobacco smoke, mold, pesticides,
radon, asbestos and carbon monoxide trapped inside the building increases and people breathe in.
COMMON INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS:

 Numerous indoor air pollutants have been recognized to have harmful impacts on IAQ and human health. The
main indoor air pollutants include NOx, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (VOCs), SO2, O3, CO, PM,
radon, toxic metals, and microorganisms.
EFFECTS OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION ON HEALTH:
 On the Vulnerable sections: About 2 million premature deaths per year, wherein 44% are due to pneumonia, 54%
from Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), and 2% from lung cancer.
 According to the State of Global Air Report 2019, an estimated 846 million people in India were exposed to
household air pollution in 2017. That forms around 60% of the country’s population.
 Women and children: The most affected groups are women and younger children, as they spend maximum time
at home.
 The illnesses associated: With indoor air pollution are respiratory illnesses, viz., acute respiratory tract infection
and COPD, poor perinatal outcomes such as low birth weight and stillbirth etc.
 Ground-level ozone exposure raises the risk of death from respiratory disorders, particularly cardiovascular
diseases.
 PM 2.5 exposure was the third largest cause of type 2 diabetes-related fatalities and disability in 2017.
 Airway inflammation can be caused by nitrogen oxide (NOx). Long-term exposure can reduce lung function and
make you more allergic to allergens.
 Particulate matter from cigarette smoke and mosquito coils in a closed indoor setting might cause a rise in
cardiovascular and respiratory disease cases after extended exposure.
WAY FORWARD:
 Simple measures: Such as, cooking with appropriate ventilation, avoiding the use of incense sticks and candles,
room fresheners, etc., and restricting the infiltration of outdoor air, especially on days when pollution levels are
high, can help to keep a check on indoor air pollution in urban households.
 Fully seal the building: It is important to note that buildings in India often have natural ventilation and tend to be
leaky.
 Measuring standard: There is a big gap in the lack of a standard to measure indoor air pollution that needs to be
resolved.
 Policy action: Household air pollution needs to remain a focus for policy action, especially in Asia and Africa, where
the use of solid fuel for residential cooking and heating is still very high.
RECENT DEVELOPMENT
 A study published by the Collaborative Clean Air Policy Centre states that the single greatest contributor to
air pollution in India is the burning of solid fuels in households.
 The burning of such solid fuels, like firewood, impacts the health of household members and accounts for
somewhere between 22% to 52% of all ambient air pollution in India.
 The study postulates that, based on this evidence, switching to cleaner fuels such as LPG for household use
will have a dramatic impact on pollution levels and health problems due to pollution.
 The study asserts that immediate action is required to rectify the harm caused by HAP.
o It points to initiatives undertaken by the government of India to promote LPG for use in households
as opposed to the traditionally used solid fuels, such as the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana.
 However, the study claims that more effort is required, in particular, increasing the use of electricity as a
substitute in these scenarios, and ensuring that the use of LPG is sustained.
OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION: SOURCES

Air pollution is caused by solid and liquid particles and certain gases that are suspended in the air.
 These particles and gases can come from car and truck exhaust, factories, dust, pollen, mold spores, volcanoes
and wildfires.
o The solid and liquid particles suspended in our air are called aerosols.
 Combustion of fossil fuels: Fossil oil is largely made up of carbon and hydrogen which form CO2 and water
following combustion in air. The combustion of fossil oil also creates SOx and NOx and these are believed to have
a detrimental effect on the environment, the atmosphere and the ozone layer.
 Industrial processes: Manufacturing industries release a large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
organic compounds, and chemicals into the air, thereby depleting the quality of air.
o Waste incineration: Waste incineration creates and/or releases harmful chemicals and pollutants,
including: Air pollutants such as particulate matter, which cause lung and heart diseases.
 Agricultural processes: Fumes from nitrogen-rich fertilizers and animal waste combine in the air with combustion
emissions to form solid particles in the air.
o Agricultural air pollution comes mainly in the form of ammonia, which enters the air as a gas from
heavily fertilized fields and livestock waste.
 Natural processes: The processes that create air pollution - such as Sulphur and chlorine gases from volcanic
activity, smoke and ash from wildfires, dust storms, and biological decay.
 Coal-based thermal power stations contribute over half Sulphur dioxide (SO2), 30% oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
about 20% particulate matter (PM), etc.
DUST STORM
In News: A second dust storm has been blamed for the latest pollution outbreak in Mumbai, according to the System
of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR).
 DUST STORM are global meteorological danger that has an impact on agriculture, energy, the environment,
aviation, and human health.
 Dust storms are caused by a combination of geography and plant diversity and abundance.
 Flat places with scant vegetation or dunes, for example, are more vulnerable to severe storms because these
features allow winds to develop momentum.
Dust Storms in India: What Causes Them?
 Warm temperatures in the Middle East caused dust to rise in the air.
 Storms were able to penetrate India because the temperature in the western sections of the nation, near the
Arabian Sea, was warmer.
Impact of Dust storms:

 The warming effect is caused by the deposition of dust on glaciers.

 Reduces crop production by burying seedlings and causing plant tissue loss, among other things.
 Larger particles can irritate or infect the skin and eyes, while tiny particles can cause respiratory problems like
asthma.
 Additionally, boost the nutrient concentration in deposition zones to benefit plants.
CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION

 Percentage of increase in deaths due to air pollution: It kills 800 people every hour or 13 every minute. This
accounts for more than 3 times the amount of people who die from malaria, tuberculosis and AIDS combined each
year.
 In children, it is associated with low birth weight, asthma, childhood cancers, obesity, poor lung development
and autism, among others.
 Marginalised section more vulnerable: Poor people are more vulnerable to air pollution because they are the one
who spend more time on roads
 Household air pollution: It causes about 3.8 million premature deaths each year. The vast majority of them are in
the developing world, and about 60% of these deaths are among women and children.
 Exposure to high levels of air pollution can cause a variety of adverse health outcomes. It increases the risk of
respiratory infections, heart disease and lung cancer.
o Both short- and long-term exposure to air pollutants have been associated with health impacts.
 Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects:
o Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. In the environment,
acid rain damages tree and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for
some fish and other wildlife.
o It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our national heritage.
 Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can impact wildlife in a
number of ways.
o Like humans, animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations
of air toxics over time.
o If the concentration of ammonia in water is above 1 ppm it is toxic to fishes.
 Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen)
stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity.
o Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sources contribute to the
amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems.
o Ammonia reduces the amount of oxygen: In water as it is transformed to oxidised forms of nitrogen.
Hence, it also increases Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
 Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color,
texture, and form of what we see.
 Ozone depletion: The "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-
depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons.
 Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways. Ground-level ozone
can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of
tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as
harsh weather).
o As described above, crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV
radiation caused by ozone depletion.
ECONOMIC COST OF AIR POLLUTION

 According to the analysis by Greenpeace (NGO), the cost to the economy due to air pollution (PM 2.5 air pollution)
claimed approximately 54,000 lives in Delhi in 2020.
REPORT ON INDIAN CITIES:

 Delhi: The estimated air pollution-related economic losses were USD 8.1 billion, which amounts to 13% of Delhi's
annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
 Mumbai: An estimated 25,000 avoidable deaths in Mumbai in 2020 have been attributed to air pollution from PM
2.5 and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2).
GLOBAL SCENARIO:
 Global deaths: Globally, approximately 1,60,000 deaths have been attributed to PM 2.5 air pollution in the five
most populous cities — Delhi (India), Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo (Brazil), Shanghai (China) and Tokyo (Japan).
 Total amount: In 2020, the estimated economic cost of PM 2.5 air pollution exceeded USD 5 billion in 14 cities
included in the analysis.
INDICATORS USED IN MEASUREMENT:

 PM 2.5 Measurements: Real-time ground-level PM 2.5 measurements were collected from different places and
combined together in IQAir’s database. IQAir is an air quality technology company.
 Willingness To Pay: To show the impact of air pollution-related deaths on the economy, the approach used by
Greenpeace is called ‘willingness-to-pay’ — a lost life year or a year lived with disability is converted to money by
the amount that people are willing to pay in order to avoid this negative outcome.
 Cost Estimator: The ‘Cost Estimator’, an online tool that estimates the real-time health impact and
economic cost from fine particulate matter.
INITIATIVES TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA:

 Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region (NCR) and Adjoining Areas: It coordinates
efforts of state governments to curb air pollution, and will lay down the parameters of air quality for the region.
 Bharat Stage (BS) VI norms: These are emission control standards put in place by the government to keep a check
on air pollution.
 Dashboard for Monitoring Air Quality: It is a National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) based
dashboard, built on data from the Central Pollution Control Board’s National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
(NAAQM) Network which was started in 1984-85 and covers 344 cities/towns in 29 states and 6 UTs.
 National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, it is a comprehensive pan-India air pollution abatement
scheme for 102 cities.
 National Air Quality Index (AQI): It focuses on health effects one might experience within a few hours or days
after breathing polluted air.
 National Ambient Air Quality Standards: They are the standards for ambient air quality with reference to various
identified pollutants notified by the Central Pollution Control Board.
 Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): It aims at providing clean-cooking fuel to the poor households and
bringing in qualitative charges in the living standards.
STUBBLE BURNING
 Context: The Supreme Court-appointed Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) raised
concerns about early burning of crop residue in Punjab and Haryana.
 According to a SAFAR: It estimates which uses the INSAT-3, 3D and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) satellite, the fire counts have increased from zero to 42 in a few days.
 In 2019: About 9.8 million tonnes of the total estimated crop residue of 20 million tonnes were burnt in Punjab.
Similarly, in Haryana, of the total 7 million tonnes, 1.24 million tonnes of stubble were burnt.
REASONS FOR STUBBLE BURNING

 Mechanised harvesting: Mechanised harvesting extracts the rice grains only leaving behind huge residue. Manual
harvesting is not an option for farmers because of the huge labour charges and the increased time taken.
 Implementation of the Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act (2009): It made the time period of stubble
burning coincident with the onset of winter in Northern India.

o Late transplanting of paddy during Kharif season to prevent water loss as directed by PPSW Act (2009) had
left farmers with little time between harvesting and preparing the field for the next crop and hence
farmers are resorting to the burning of stubble.
 High Silica Content: Rice straw is considered useless as fodder in the case of non-basmati rice, because of its high
silica content.
IMPACTS OF STUBBLE BURNING

 On health: Stubble burning has been identified as a major health hazard and a reason for breathing illness,
irritation of eyes and respiratory tract diseases.
 Air pollution: Stubble burning releases toxic pollutants like Methane, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Volatile organic
compound (VOC) in air.
o Average contribution of stubble burning to the concentration of PM2.5 in Delhi-NCR during peak phase
has increased from 10% in 2019 to over 15% this year with Punjab reporting an increase of 48% in fire
incidents while these declined by 28% in Haryana.
 Smog impact: Clouds of ash and smoke from stubble burning can travel more than a thousand kilometres aided
by the Westerly winds coming from the Mediterranean region and create obstinate and non-clearing clouds.
 Soil fertility and nutrition: Burning husk on the ground destroys the nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, Sulphur,
and potassium from the topsoil, making it less fertile.
o The heat generated by stubble burning penetrates into the soil, leading to the loss of moisture and useful
microbes.
 Heat Penetration: Heat generated by stubble burning penetrates into the soil, leading to the loss of moisture and
useful microbes.
 Economic loss: Crop residue holds high productive value in the biofuel and fibre industry. Burning it deprives the
farmers of higher economic returns.
ADVANTAGES OF STUBBLE BURNING:

 It is the cheapest and quickest way to deal with crop waste.
 It destroys weeds including those that are resistant to herbicides.
 It kills other pests also, such as slugs.
 It can decrease nitrogen tie-up.
INITIATIVES TO TACKLE STUBBLE BURNING:

 Budget of the 2018-19: Special scheme to encourage farmers in these states to shift to alternative ways of dealing
with agricultural waste.
 Central sector scheme: on ‘Promotion of Agricultural Mechanization for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue in
the States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and NCT of Delhi’. The scheme provides for In-situ crop residue
management machinery to the farmers on subsidy and establishment of Custom Hiring Centres (CHCS).
 Biomass utilization for power generation: The Union Ministry of Power has brought out a policy for biomass
utilization for power generation through co-firing in pulverized coal-fired boilers.
 SATAT Scheme: Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) scheme was launched by the
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
o Its objectives include reducing pollution from burning of agricultural / organic waste and utilising more
than 62 million metric tonnes of waste generated every year in India.
 Zero tillage: The government is also taking steps to popularize zero tillage farming where the crop seed will be
sown through drillers without prior land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are
present.
 PUSA Decomposers: Recently, scientists have developed a bio-decomposer technique called ‘PUSA Decomposers’
for converting crop stubble into compost.
o Improves the fertility: The decomposer improves the fertility and productivity of the soil as the stubble works
as manure and compost for the crops and lesser fertiliser consumption is required in the future.
o Efficient and effective: It is an efficient and effective, cheaper, doable and practical technique to stop stubble
burning.

o Eco-friendly: It is an eco-friendly and environmentally useful technology and will contribute to achieving the
Swachh Bharat Mission.
STUBBLE BURNING: CHHATTISGARH MODEL

 An innovative experiment has been undertaken by the Chhattisgarh government by setting up gauthans.
 A gauthan is a dedicated five-acre plot, held in common by each village, where all the unused parali (stubble) is
collected through parali daan (people’s donations) and is converted into organic fertiliser by mixing with cow dung
and few natural enzymes.
 The government supports the transportation of parali from the farm to the nearest gauthan.
WAY FORWARD
 Incentivise farmers for not burning the stubble and provide economic value for the crop residue: The stubble
can be converted into fodder or organic fertilizer or fuel.
o The government should also subsidise or incentivise the industries that are engaged in converting stubble
into economically viable products.
 Efforts should be made to improve the combine harvester that farmers use to harvest the crop: Improvement
should be made in the technology used in such machines so that minimal residue is left behind.
 Centralized control room: It must be set up to issue directions both for ensuring that appropriate technology to
tackle this issue is within the reach of farmers and also ensure enforcement of non-compliance.
 Encourage and incentivise the farmers: To go for early paddy, so as to give them enough time to harvest and
thereafter prepare their fields for the next Rabi crop.
 Sow alternate crops: Encourage farmers to sow alternate crops and shift them away in the long run from paddy
to maize, fruits, vegetables and cotton.
 An expansion of schemes like the MGNREGA for harvesting and composting of parali: An integrated
regenerative rural development model of narwa (rivulet regeneration), ghuruwa (composting) and baari (kitchen
garden) through a participatory process using MGNREGA.
 Turbo Happy Seeder: It not only cuts and uproots the stubble but can also drill wheat seeds in the soil that have
just been cleared up. The straw is simultaneously thrown over the sown seeds to form a mulch cover.
 Establishing Farm Machinery Banks for custom hiring of in-situ crop residue management machinery.
 Financial incentives to small and marginal farmers: To engage in the management of the residue of their non-
basmati variety rice crop in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTION: CPCB

 According to a recent study commissioned by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the rate of increase in
pollution levels in southern and eastern India is far greater than the Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP). It has also found
that air pollution in rural areas has increased at par with urban India.
IMPORTANT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY:

 The rate of increase of PM2.5: It is over eastern and southern India is more than 1.6% per year during this period,
and less than 1.2% annually in the IGP.
 Exceeding NAAQS parameters: 436 cities/towns with a population of more than 1 lakh in 2019 exceeded the
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 40 micrograms per metric cube (μg/m3).
 Population-weighted 20-year average PM2.5 over India: It is 57.3 μg/m3, with a larger increase observed
between 2010 and 2019 than in the 2000-09 period. As of 2019, 99.5% of districts in India did not meet the World
Health Organisation (WHO) air quality guideline of 10 μg/m3.
 State-wise Data:
o NAAQS and Indian states: Ambient PM2.5 exceed the annual NAAQS of 40 μg/m3 in every state except for
Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Nagaland.
o The PM2.5 level in the IGP: Which has a population of more than 70 crore, and the western arid region is
more than double the annual NAAQS.
 Unfavourable meteorological conditions: In eastern and peninsular India, along with increase in emissions, has
led to an overall increase in PM 2.5.

ANALYSIS:
 Air-pollution concentration: While in absolute terms the level of air pollution continues to be the highest in the
IGP, the rate of increase in air pollution is much higher in southern India and certain areas of eastern India.
 South and Eastern India concerns: If the focus continues to be on IGP and the increasing pollution (levels) in
southern and eastern India is not addressed now, in another 10 years these regions will also have the same
problem as northern India does.
URBAN-RURAL DIVIDE:
 Exposure of PM in urban and rural Delhi: On PM2.5 levels cutting across the urban-rural divide, the study cites
the example of Delhi, where it increased by 10.9% between 2001 to 2015. During the same period, PM2.5 exposure
in rural India rose by 11.9%.
 A steady air pollution rise: In rural India is due to high reliance on solid fuel for domestic use, which is the largest
contributor to ambient PM2.5 in India. This implies that poor air quality in India is not an urban-centric problem.
 Rural pollution policies: Air pollution in rural areas is rarely discussed with air pollution policies which continue to
focus on urban centres.
 Various schemes expectation and delivery: Schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) are expected
to decrease the pollution levels but it lacks a mechanism to track its progress.
NEW COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

 Context: The MoEFCC is set to table the Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region
and Adjoining Areas Bill, 2021 in Parliament during the Monsoon Session.
BACKGROUND AND NEW CHANGES:

 Initially, the Commission for Air Quality Management ordinance was promulgated by the President in October,
2020 but the bill to replace the ordinance was not passed in the budget session of Parliament, as a result of which
the commission ceased to operate in March, 2021.
 New ordinance: Subsequently, the MoEFCC brought a second ordinance in April 2021, with modifications due to
the farmers’ protest.
o The government has decriminalised the act: Of stubble burning and withdrawn the clause for possible jail
time.
o Environmental compensation fees: However, environmental compensation fees are levied on those who are
found to be engaged in stubble burning, including farmers.
 About the Bill: It provides for the constitution of a Commission for better coordination, research, identification,
and resolution of problems related to air quality in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining areas.
 Adjoining areas: They have been defined as areas in the states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh
adjoining the NCR where any source of pollution may cause adverse impact on air quality in the NCR.
 Dissolved: It also dissolved the Environment Pollution Prevention and Control Authority established in the NCR in
1998.
COMPOSITION:
 Headed by: It will be headed by a full-time chairperson who has been a Secretary to the Government of India, or
a Chief Secretary to a State government.
 The commission will also have three members, Experts, comprising stakeholders from sectors like industry,
agriculture, transport or construction and also representatives of several ministries.
FUNCTIONS:
 Coordinating actions: Taken by concerned state governments (Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar
Pradesh).
 Planning and executing plans: To prevent and control air pollution in the NCR.
 Providing a framework: For identification of air pollutants.
 Conducting research and development: Through networking with technical institutions.

 Training: And creating a special workforce to deal with issues related to air pollution.
 Preparing various action plans: Such as increasing plantation and addressing stubble burning.
POWERS:
 Power to issue directions: The new body will have the power to issue directions and entertain complaints as it
deems necessary for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the air in the NCR and adjoining areas.
 Parameters for control of air pollution: It will also lay down parameters for control of air pollution (such as
permissible levels of emissions and discharge of pollutants).
 In charge of identification: It will also be in charge of identifying violators, monitoring factories and industries and
any other polluting unit in the region, and will have the powers to shut down such units.
 Power to overrule: It will also have the powers to overrule directives issued by the state governments in the
region, that may be in violation of pollution norms.
WAY FORWARD:
 Legal and regulatory changes: To tackle public issues like air pollution, a democratic conceptualisation is needed.
 Massive augmentation of intra-city public transport: There is a need for the massive augmentation of intra-city
public transport, and to move industries, power plants and other users away from polluting fuels like coal to
natural gas, electricity and renewable energy to ensure clean combustion.
 Thorough review of the various laws and institutions: The government should undertake a thorough review of
the various laws and institutions in order to look at their efficacy and utility.
FRAMEWORKS TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION
AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

 Definition: Air pollution is defined as the presence of any liquid or gaseous substances in the atmosphere in such
a concentration which tends to be injurious to man, animals, plants or environment. The Air Act was passed under
Article 253 of the Constitution of India and in pursuance of decisions of Stockholm Conference.
 Objective: to provide means for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in order to preserve the
quality of air.
 Pollution boards duties: The Central and State Boards have been entrusted with the task of controlling and
preventing air pollution. The State Boards have to lay down and enforce standards for prevention and control of
air pollution.
 Emission control: The State Government and the respective Board(s) may give instructions to the concerned
Authority in-charge for Registrations under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939, to ensure emission standards for
automobiles.
o Failure to comply with the conditions prescribed for this purpose is punishable with fine and
imprisonment.
 Penalty on polluter: The State Boards have powers to sue a polluter in a court of law to punish him for polluting
the air and the expenses incurred by the Board will be recovered from the polluter.
 Noise as pollution: The Act also includes noise under the category of air pollutants in 1987.
CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (CPCB)

 CPCB Constitution: CPCB is a statutory organisation which was constituted in September, 1974 under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
 Functions under the Act: It was entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1981.
 It serves: As a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests
under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 Important functions:
o To Promote Cleanliness of Streams and Wells in Different Areas of The States By Prevention, Control And
Abatement Of Water Pollution.
o To Improve the Quality of Air and To Prevent, Control or Abate Air Pollution In The Country.

BHARAT STAGE EMISSION STANDARDS (BS)

 Introduced in the year 2000 in India.
 Standards are given by: They are set by the CPCB under the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change.
 Objective: To keep air pollutants emitted by the internal combustion engine of vehicles under control.
 Standards are based on: They are based on European (EURO) emission standards.
 However, the emission norms were made more stringent only with the enforcement of Bharat Stage IV (BS4).
Thereafter, the Government of India skipped the implementation of BSV in 2016 and decided to introduce Bharat
Stage VI (BS6) in 2020 instead.
IMPACT OF THE SHIFT:

 Making automobiles BS VI compatible: It will increase the cost of production for the manufacturing companies
which in turn will make the vehicles costlier for the buyers.
 Friendly engines: This includes making changes to their production line to turn out BS VI fuel friendly engines that
will become mandatory by the year 2020.
 Cost increase: Some companies may even have to import engines and other parts but in the end, it will be the car
buyer’s burden because vehicles with BS VI engines will cost more than the BS IV vehicle.
 Diesel vehicles and economy segment motorcycles: It will also see a sharp increase in their prices.
 Using a pre-BS IV car using BS VI fuel can be detrimental to the engine life: There may be trouble with injection
pumps, oil seals and injectors leading to higher wear and tear, consequently higher emissions.
ADVANTAGES OF THE SHIFT:

 Cut down air pollution: By reducing toxic substances in the air, BS-VI will help reduce air pollution.
 BS-VI will reduce NOx drastically: Thus, improving air quality, NOx is the primary cause of a lot of health issues,
especially respiratory issues.
 The lower Sulphur in BS VI: It will help reduce harmful exhaust emissions like NO2, CO, SO2.
 Better performance: Vehicles that have emission control systems will perform even better with BS-VI.
 Option of retrofitting: For old vehicles, BS-VI standards open up an option of retrofitting.
 Changes in oil refining technique: Oil companies are making significant changes in their oil refining technique. The
new standard requires that the use of Sulphur in diesel should come down to 10 PPM, whereas according to the
BS -II, it was up to 500 PPM.
 The Auto Fuel Vision Policy, 2025 in June 2014: It had recommended a 75 paise cess to recoup additional
investments projected for producing cleaner fuels.
FLY ASH
 Context: National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) Limited has invited Expression of Interest (EOI) for sale of
fly ash, in its endeavour to achieve 100% utilization of fly ash, from the designated plants of the Middle East and
other regions.
IMPORTANT POINTS
 Fly Ash: It is a by-product from burning of coal in the thermal power generation. It is called fly ash because it is
transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases. It is collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic
precipitators or bag filters.
 Composition: Fly ash includes substantial amounts of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3), Ferric Oxide
(Fe2O3) and Calcium Oxide (CaO).
 Properties: Resemble Portland cement but is chemically different. Portland cement is a binding material in the
form of a finely ground powder that is manufactured by burning and grinding a mixture of limestone and clay.
 Uses: It is used in concrete and cement products, road base, metal recovery, and mineral filler among others.
HARMFUL EFFECTS:
 Fly ash particles are toxic air pollutants. They can trigger heart disease, cancer, respiratory diseases and stroke.
 When combined with water they cause leaching of heavy metals in ground water.
 It also pollutes the soil, and affects the root development system of trees.

FLY ASH UTILISATION POLICY:

 NTPC has collaborated with Cement manufacturers: Around the country to supply Fly Ash.
 To promote the use of Fly Ash bricks in building construction: NTPC has set up Fly Ash brick manufacturing Plants
at its Coal based Thermal Power Plants.
o These bricks are being utilized in Plants as well as township construction activities exclusively.
o On average, 60 million Fly Ash bricks are being manufactured annually by NTPCs own Fly Ash brick Plants.
o Construction and Transportation: The non-complying power plants will provide ash free-of-cost to agencies
engaged in construction activities within a 300 km radius with all transportation cost to be borne by TPPs
 As per the MoEF&CC directives: NTPC stations must keep at least 20% of total Fly Ash produced in reserve for the
issue to Fly Ash brick/blocks/tiles manufacturers and issuing Fly Ash free of cost to them.
 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban): It has focused on new construction technologies such as using fly ash bricks
that are innovative, and environmentally friendly.
 A web portal ASHTRACK: For monitoring of fly ash generation and utilization and a mobile based application titled
“ASHTRACK” has been launched by the Government.
 Maharashtra: It was the first state to adopt the Fly Ash utilization policy.
 GST rates: GST rates on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%.
 The Union Environment Ministry has proposed to extend the measurement of air quality to 22 state capitals and
44 other cities with a population exceeding one million.
 Introduction of Polluter Pays Principle: A fine of Rs 1,000 per tonne of unutilized ash has been introduced if the
plant does not achieve at least 80% ash utilization annually or in three years.
Recently The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has extended fly ash utilization deadline
for thermal power plants with the introduction of penalties for noncompliance.
PROMOTION OF CLEAN FUEL

 Developing countries like India are confronting the vulnerabilities associated with climate change on one hand
and the challenges of development and poverty alleviation on the other, which are closely associated with
providing energy access to the energy poor in the country.
 National Sample Survey 68th round: The dominant fuel used in rural India still consists of firewood, with around
two thirds of the households still dependent on them.
BENEFITS OF LPG OVER TRADITIONAL FUEL:

 Health-related benefits: Including improved quality of life as a result of less human suffering, reduced health-
related expenditure as a result of less illness and the value of productivity gains resulting from less illness and
fewer deaths.
 Time savings: From reduced drudgery from collecting and preparing biomass for use, usually by women and
children and from more efficient and rapid cooking and heating, increasing the time available for other social and
economic activities.
 Fuel savings: From using a more efficient stove.
 The avoided economic cost of environmental degradation: Caused by the use of solid fuels, including reduced
deforestation and increased agricultural productivity where agricultural residues and dung are used as fertiliser
rather than fuel, as well as reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and black carbon.
 Other less tangible benefits: Such as increased personal esteem, prestige and comfort levels that result from a
cleaner, tidier and more modern home environment.
 LPG does not produce harmful pollutants: Such as Sulphur Oxides and Nitrogen Oxide, like traditional fuels. It has
50% fewer carbon emissions than coal and 20% fewer than oil.
WHAT SHOULD POLICYMAKERS DO?

 Information, Education and Awareness campaign: Policymakers should communicate the harms of solid fuels and
the benefits of cleaner fuels. A large campaign communicating those solid fuels harm respiratory health may
change these beliefs.
 Ease of registration: A set of guidelines should be given to the LPG distributors to ease new customer registration,
especially for poor customers.
 Grievance redressal: A toll-free grievance number should be set up and advertised well.
 Instalment schemes: Monthly instalment facilities should be made available for a household that has difficulties
arranging for one-time lump sum payments towards start-up cost.
 Reducing prices: Reducing the cost of LPG cylinder refills in rural areas, where residents are poorer and solid fuels
are easier to access, would help.
 Gender equality: Promoting gender equality within households, particularly in cooking and related tasks is
needed. public policy must recognise that in households, if men would do his share of the cooking, a complete
transition to LPG would happen.
 Female literacy: Female literacy is an important determinant of the use of cleaner cooking fuels. Female education
is a huge challenge and females have usually lower access to education facilities. Therefore, education among
females should be strongly promoted.
LEADED PETROL
 Leaded gasoline was recently phased out of the globe when Algeria, the last country to use it, ran out of
supplies following a two-decade effort headed by the UNEP-led Global Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles
(PCFV).
Leaded Petrol's Health Effects
 Tetraethyl lead is a toxin that is readily absorbed by the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract.
 Exhaust fumes, evaporation losses, and unintentional spills pollute the air, dust, soil, water, and crops when
released.
 Because it affects brain development, it can cause heart disease, cancer, stroke, and decreased IQ (particularly
in youngsters).
E20 FUEL
Context: The Indian government has invited public comments for introducing adoption of E20 fuel to promote green
fuel like ethanol.
KEY POINTS:
 Composition: E20 fuel is a blend of 20% of ethanol with gasoline. The current permissible level of blending is 10%
of ethanol, though India reached only 5.6% of blending in 2019.
 Significance:
o It will help in reducing emissions of carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, etc.
o It will help reduce the oil import bill, thereby saving foreign exchange and boosting energy security.
 Compatibility of Vehicles: As per the government, the compatibility of the vehicle to the percentage of ethanol in
the blend of ethanol and gasoline shall be defined by the vehicle manufacturer and the same shall be displayed
on the vehicle by putting a clearly visible sticker.
GREEN FUEL
 Introduction: Green fuel, also known as biofuel, is a type of fuel distilled from plants and animal materials, believed
by some to be more environmentally friendly than the widely-used fossil fuels that power most of the world.
 Types:
Bioethanol  It is derived from corn and sugarcane using the fermentation process.
 It is derived from vegetable oils like soybean oil or palm oil, vegetable waste oils, and animal
Biodiesel fats by a biochemical process called “Transesterification.”
 It is produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter like sewage from animals and
Biogas humans.
 It is produced in the same way as bioethanol i.e., through the fermentation of starch.
Biobutanol
 Biohydrogen, like biogas, can be produced using a number of processes such as pyrolysis,
Biohydrogen gasification or biological fermentation.
INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE BIOFUELS

 Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme: To extract the fuel from surplus quantities of food grains such as maize,
jawar, bajra fruit and vegetable waste.
 Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana, 2019: The objective of the scheme is to create an ecosystem for setting up
commercial projects and to boost research and development in the 2G Ethanol sector.
 GOBAR (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources) DHAN scheme, 2018: It focuses on managing and converting
cattle dung and solid waste in farms to useful compost, biogas and bio-CNG, thus keeping villages clean and
increasing the income of rural households. It was launched under Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin).
 Repurpose Used Cooking Oil (RUCO): It was launched by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
and aims for an ecosystem that will enable the collection and conversion of used cooking oil to biodiesel.
 National Policy on Biofuels, 2018: The Policy categorises biofuels as "Basic Biofuels" to enable extension of
appropriate financial and fiscal incentives under three categories:
o First Generation (1G) ethanol & biodiesel and "Advanced Biofuels".
o Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-in fuels.
o Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc
WAY FORWARD
 Tapping the resources: India being a large agricultural economy, there is a large number of agricultural residues
available, therefore the scope of producing biofuels is immense in the country. Biofuels can help in rural and
agricultural development in the form of new cash crops.
 Efforts for producing sustainable biofuels: They should be made by ensuring use of wastelands and municipal
wastes that get generated in cities. A properly designed and implemented biofuel solution can provide both food
and energy.
 A community-based biodiesel distribution programme: That benefits local economies, from the farmers growing
the feedstock to local businesses producing and distributing the fuel to the end consumer, will be a welcome step.
NATIONAL CLEAN AIR PROGRAMME (NCAP)

 Context: The NGT has directed the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to modify the
National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) which proposes 20-30% reduction of air pollution by 2024.
IMPORTANT POINTS
 Launched in: It was launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019.
 National framework: It is the first-ever effort in the country to frame a national framework for air quality
management with a time-bound reduction target.
 Help in reduction: It seeks to cut the concentration of course (particulate matter of diameter 10 micrometre or
less, or PM10) and fine particles (particulate matter of diameter 2.5 micrometre or less, or PM2.5) by at least 20%
in the next five years, with 2017 as the base year for comparison.
 The NCAP includes: 102 non-attainment cities, across 23 states and Union territories, which were identified by
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) on the basis of their ambient air quality data between 2011 and 2015.
 NGT’s View: The enforcement of the ‘Sustainable Development’ principle and ‘Public Trust Doctrine’ requires stern
measures to be adopted to give effect to the mandate of international obligations related to environmental
quality, for which the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was enacted.
o Public Trust Doctrine: It states that the sovereign, or state, holds the trust of people to manage the designated
resources for the benefit of the people.
o Right to Clean Air: Stood recognized as part of Right to Life and failure to address air pollution is a denial of
Right to Life under Article 21.
NGT’S DIRECTIONS:
 Timeline: To reduce air pollution by 20-30% by 2024 needs to be reduced. The target of reduction needs to be
increased.
 Review and take action: It suggested the Ministry to review and take action in terms of shift to e-vehicles and
CNG vehicles, intensifying the public transport system, mechanical cleaning of roads, enhancement of public
parking facilities, improvement in fuel quality, and traffic management.

 Quality Monitoring Systems: It directed the state pollution control boards to ensure the assessment and
installation of the requisite number of real-time online continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Systems within
six months.
 Expert team: It also directed an expert team of the CPCB to design a model for source apportionment and carrying
capacity assessment within two months which may be replicated for all the non-attainment cities.
THE SYSTEM OF AIR QUALITY AND WEATHER FO RECASTING AND RESEARCH (SAFAR)
 Introduction: It is a national initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) to measure the air
quality of a metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and the location-specific air quality of the
city.
 Developed By: The Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune and is operationalized by the India
Meteorological Department (IMD).
 True color LED display: That gives out a real-time air quality index on a 24x7 basis with color-coding (along with
72 hours advance forecast).
 Objective of the project: It is to increase awareness among the general public regarding the air quality in their city
so that appropriate mitigation measures and systematic action can be taken up.
o It organizes awareness drive by educating the public (prompting self-mitigation), and
o It also helps the policy-makers to develop mitigation strategies keeping in mind the nation’s economic
development.
 SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational in Delhi:
o Monitors all weather parameters: like temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV
radiation, and solar radiation.
o Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Sulphur Dioxide
(SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
 World Meteorological Organization: They have recognized SAFAR as a prototype activity on the basis of the high-
quality control and standards maintained in its implementation.
 Economic system: SAFAR system would benefit cost savings to several other sectors like agriculture, aviation,
infrastructure, disaster management, tourism, etc. which directly or indirectly gets affected by air quality and
weather.
CATEGORISATION OF INDUSTRIES BASED ON PO LLUTION

 Context: A new categorization of industries based on their pollution load has been released by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
 The purpose of the categorization: It is to ensure that the industry is established in a manner which is consistent
with the environmental objectives.
o New criteria: It will prompt industrial sectors willing to adopt cleaner technologies, ultimately resulting in
generation of fewer pollutants.
o New categorization system: Another feature of the new categorization system lies in facilitating self-
assessment by industries as the subjectivity of earlier assessment has been eliminated.
o Re-categorization: It is a part of the efforts, policies and objectives of the government to create a clean &
transparent working environment in the country and promote the Ease of Doing Business.
 Categories and criteria for categorisation: The MoEFCC has developed the criteria of categorization of industrial
sectors based on the Pollution Index which is a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents (water
pollutants), hazardous wastes generated and consumption of resources.
 References for the categorization: For this purpose, the references are taken from the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Cess (Amendment) Act, 2003, Standards so far prescribed for various pollutants under
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Doon Valley Notification, 1989 issued by MoEFCC.
 The Pollution Index (PI): Of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing value of PI denotes
the increasing degree of pollution load from the industrial sector. The following are the criteria on ‘Range of
Pollution Index' for the purpose of categorization of industrial sectors.
 Implications of categorisation: There shall be no necessity of obtaining the Consent to Operate for White category
of industries. An intimation to concerned SPCB/ PCC shall suffice. No Red category of industries shall normally be
permitted in the ecologically fragile area/ protected area.
E-VEHICLE POLICY - FAME 2

 Government of India notified FAME India Scheme [Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric
Vehicles in India] for implementation with effect from 1st April 2015, with the objective to support hybrid/electric
vehicles market development and Manufacturing ecosystem.
 Context: Electric and hybrid vehicle (xEVs) manufacturers will have to indigenise a significant portion of
components to avail benefits under a revised set of rules of the phase 2 of the FAME, or FAME 2 scheme.
 Objective: The FAME India Scheme is aimed at incentivising all vehicle segments i.e. 2 Wheeler, 3 Wheeler Auto,
Passenger 4 Wheeler Vehicle, Light Commercial Vehicles and Buses. The scheme covers Hybrid & Electric
technologies like Mild Hybrid, Strong Hybrid, Plug in Hybrid & Battery Electric Vehicles.
 Focus areas: Technology development; Demand Creation; Pilot Projects; Charging Infrastructure.
 Target: National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) has set a huge target to deploy 48 lakh 2W EVs and 15
lakh 4W EVs by 2020.
 Analysis of technology development: There are two types of technology related to FAME: Battery Electric Vehicles
(BEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs).
STEPS UNDER FAME FOR TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

 Nodal body: Under the FAME-India scheme, a nodal body, the DHI-DST Inter-Ministerial Technology Advisory
Group (IM-TAG) on Electric Mobility has been set up.
 R&D programme: A few long-term projects are already underway under the auto-cess funded R&D programme.
 Alliances between industries and academia: A collaborative approach between the industry and academia is
envisaged, which would include government-funded as well as PPP projects.
 Creating demand for EV’s: Incentives, in the form of discounts, are provided under FAME. The discount amount is
about one-third of the difference between the price of an EV and a comparable petrol vehicle.
STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT:
 Infrastructure creation: The government has to set up additional power generation infrastructure in order to make
EVs more attractive.
 Smart grids: In India, it can play a significant role in improving the charging infrastructure. Smart grids can help in
optimising electricity needs at peaking demand hours for utility purpose and for BEV charging. For example, Bosch
has set up one such infrastructure in Germany with Mobile connectivity to provide information.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
 India needs the auto industry's active participation to ease electric mobility transition: The auto and battery
industries could collaborate to enhance customer awareness, promote domestic manufacturing, promote new
business models, conduct R&D for EVs and components, and consider new business models to promote EVs.
 Phased manufacturing plan: Government should focus on a phased manufacturing plan to promote EVs, provide
fiscal and non-fiscal incentives for phased manufacturing of EVs and batteries.
 Potential policies: Different government departments can consider a bouquet of potential policies, such as
congestion pricing, low emission/exclusion zones, parking policies, etc. to drive adoption of EVs.
WAY FORWARD:
 India’s electric vehicle market is poised for growth with a blend of policies, such as FAME II, and the automotive
industry’s willingness to provide new mobility solutions to the citizens of the country. Such a transformation will
create enormous economic, social and environmental benefits for the citizens of India.
VEHICLE SCRAPPAGE POLICY

 In News: The vehicle scrappage policy is a government programme to replace old vehicles from Indian roads. The
policy is expected to reduce pollution, create job opportunities and boost demand for new vehicles. The policy has
been proposed by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.

 The Vehicle Scrapping Policy is aimed at creating an eco-system for phasing out unfit and polluting vehicles in an
environment friendly and safe manner. The policy intends to create scrapping infrastructure in the form of
Automated Testing Stations and Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities across the country.
NEED OF THE POLICY:

 The number of light medium vehicles (LMVs) older than 20 years is estimated to be 51 lakhs, out of which 34 lakhs
are more than 15 years old. There are about 17 lakh medium/heavy commercial vehicles that are older than 15
years.
 Older vehicles cause more pollution. This policy is expected to cut down vehicular air pollution by 25- 30%.
 Older vehicles have less fuel efficiency.
 Older vehicles are short on the latest safety features, thus having them removed from the roads will increase
road safety.
 Environmental benefits: Reduced emissions from the new vehicles as they are BSVI compliant. The increased oil
efficiency of new vehicles will reduce the oil needs and hence their imports. Improve the circularity of economy
as it will promote growth of recycle industry.
 Boost to automotive industry: As it will lead to increase in demand for new vehicles. Ease the supply of raw
materials due to supply of scrap.
 Financial benefits: Enhanced tax collections for govt. due to enhanced car sales. It will lead to the establishment
of more scrap yards in the country and lead to effective recovery of waste from old vehicles. In the new fitness
centres, 35 thousand people will get employment and see an investment of Rs 10,000 crores.
 Foreign experiments along the same
direction: Several countries including
the US, Germany, Canada and China
have introduced vehicle scrappage
policies to boost their respective
automotive industries and check
vehicular pollution.
 Improved road safety: As the newer
vehicles have better safety features such
as Airbags, better control and braking
systems.
 Formalization of scrapping industry: The
Centre will look to integrate informal
scrapping yards with formally registered
vehicle scrapping facilities.
INCENTIVES FOR SCRAPPING OLD VEHICLES

AND BUYING NEW ONES:
 Vehicle manufacturers can give up to 5%
discount for buying new vehicles
 Zero new registration fee
 Scrap value equivalent of 4-6% of ex-
showroom price of new vehicles
 States can give up to 25% and 15% rebate on road tax for personal and commercial vehicles, respectively
 Reduced maintenance cost and increased savings from fuel
DISINCENTIVES FOR KEEPING OLD VEHICLES: States can levy an additional ‘Green Tax’, Hike in renewal of registration
fee for private vehicles, Increase in renewal of fitness certification for commercial vehicles, Automatic deregistration
of unfit vehicles
VEHICLES TO BE EXEMPTED: Strong hybrids and electric vehicles, Vehicles using alternative fuels such as CNG, ethanol
and LPG, Farm and agricultural equipment such as tractors, tillers and harvesters

CAFE-2 REGULATIONS AND BS-VI STAGE II NORMS

 Context: The auto industry has requested the government to defer the implementation of Corporate Average Fuel
Efficiency (CAFE-2) regulations and BS-VI stage II norms to April 2024, given the impact of the lockdown measures.
As of now, the CAFE-2 norms and BS-VI stage II norms are set to come into effect in 2022 and April 2023
respectively.
IMPORTANT POINTS
 Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE-2) Regulations: CAFE or Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency/Economy
regulations are in force in many advanced as well as developing nations, including India.
 Aim of CAFE-2: They aim at lowering fuel consumption (or improving fuel efficiency) of vehicles by lowering Carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions, thus serving the twin purposes of reducing dependence on oil for fuel and controlling
pollution.
 Corporate Average of CAFE-2: It refers to the sales-volume weighted average for every auto manufacturer. The
idea of CAFÉ is to push manufacturers to achieve fuel efficiency targets by producing and selling more fuel-efficient
models, including electric vehicles
 Launch of CAFE-2 norms in India: The CAFÉ standards were first notified in 2017 by the Union Ministry of Power
(MoP) under Energy Conservation Act, 2001. The regulation is in accordance with the fuel consumption standards
of 2015 that aim to increase fuel efficiency of vehicles on the road by 35% by 2030.
 Nodal agency: The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) is the nodal agency responsible for
monitoring and reporting a summary of annual fuel consumption by automobile manufacturers at the end of each
fiscal year.
 Regulation was introduced in two target phases: Carbon dioxide emission target of 130 gram/kilometre by 2022-
23 and 113 g/km 2022-23 onwards.
 Applicability: The norms are applicable for petrol, diesel, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG) passenger vehicles.
CLIMATE AND CLEAN AIR COALITION (CCAC)

 Context: Climate and Clean Air Coalition leaders agreed to reduce short-lived climate pollutants by 2030.
 The Climate and Clean Air Coalition is a voluntary partnership of governments, intergovernmental organizations,
businesses, scientific institutions and civil society organizations committed to improving air quality and
protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-lived climate pollutants.
 Its global network currently includes over 120 state and non-state partners, and hundreds of local actors carrying
out activities across economic sectors.
IMPORTANT POINTS
 Approach of CCAC to reduce short-lived climate pollutants: The Coalition's partners and initiative participants
work in cooperation with key short-lived climate pollutant emitters and other stakeholders from around the world
to encourage, enable and catalyse action to reduce emissions. To achieve real and ambitious reductions, the
Coalition focuses on four key strategies:
o Enable transformative action: By providing knowledge, resources, and technical and institutional capacity to
act and supporting the sharing of information, experience, and expertise.
o Mobilize support: For action to put short-lived climate pollutants on the policy map through advocacy at all
levels of government and in the private sector and civil society.
o Increase the availability of and access to financial resources: To support the successful implementation of
scalable, transformational action.
o Enhance scientific knowledge: To help decision-makers scale up action and promote the multiple benefits of
action on short-lived climate pollutants.
 Funding of CCAC: The Coalition’s activities are financed through a multi-donor ‘The Climate and Clean Air Trust
Fund’, which is administered through UN Environment.
 Goal of CCAC: The Coalition’s goal is to reduce short-lived climate pollutants beyond the recommendations made
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its special report Global Warming of 1.5°C.

 Recommendations made by the IPCC: According to the report, there needs to be considerable cuts in emissions
of black carbon.
 Benefits of increasing action on short-lived climate pollutants: It can avoid an estimated 2.4 million premature
deaths from outdoor air pollution annually by 2030.
 India and CCAC:
o India formally joined the Climate & Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), becoming the 65th country to join the
partnership.
o India plans to work with Climate Clean and Coalition countries on best practices and experiences for the
effective implementation of India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
WATER POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
 Water pollution can be defined as the addition of certain substances to water which can be organic, inorganic,
biological, radiological, heat etc., which degrades the quality of water so that it becomes unfit for use.
 SDG 14: The official wording is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development".
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
There are four main types of air pollution sources:
 mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains; stationary sources – such as power plants, oil
refineries, industrial facilities, and factories
 area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood burning fireplaces and natural sources – such as
wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes
EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

 Lower dissolved oxygen: Polluted water contains lower Dissolved Oxygen due to higher biological and chemical
oxygen demand, and can threaten or even eliminate sensitive organisms such as plankton, molluscs, and several
species of fish.
 Threats to many species: Hot waters discharged from industries lower the dissolved oxygen content and threaten
the survival of several species.
 Threats to aquatic species: Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals are highly toxic to aquatic
species.
 Diseases: Polluted waters contain disease-causing pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasitic protozoa, worms
etc. They are a cause of water-borne diseases such as jaundice, cholera, typhoid, amoebiasis etc.
 Mercury compounds in wastewater: They are converted by bacterial action into extremely toxic methyl-mercury,
which can cause numbness of limbs, lips, tongue, deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement. They are
known to cause the Minamata disease.
 Water contaminated with cadmium: They can cause itai-itai disease which is also called ouch-ouch disease. It is a
painful disease of bones and joints. It can also cause cancers of lungs and liver.
 Adverse impact on the water bodies: India’s 14 major, 55 minor and several hundred small rivers receive millions
of litters of sewage, industrial and agricultural wastes.
o Groundwater accounts for nearly 80 percent of the rural domestic water needs and 50 percent of the
urban water needs in India.
o It is generally less susceptible to contamination and pollution when compared to surface water bodies.
CAG FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
PROBLEMS WITH THE ACTS (FINDINGS OF CAG):

 The Water Act, 1974 does not address the issue of restoration of the polluted water bodies.
 It also does not define stricter financial and non-financial penalties to environmental offenders.

 The CPCB/MOEF does not compile any information on cases of violations relating to water pollution filed by the
SPCBs and amount of penalty/fine realized.
 MoEFCC has not framed any legislation which specifically identifies pollution as an environmental offence and
restoration of water bodies as a priority action.
 Provisions for the generation of resources for prevention of pollution, treatment of polluted water and ecological
restoration of polluted water bodies are not adequate.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF CAG:
 MoEF/States, in the policy on water pollution, need to specifically take into account prevention and control of
water pollution as well as ecological restoration of degraded water bodies.
 MoEF/Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) should initiate steps, along with the Ministry of Water Resources
and all the States to draw up a comprehensive inventory of all rivers, lakes and groundwater sources in India.
 There is a need to strictly enforce the provisions of the Acts, and review the existing levels of penalty in various
Acts relating to control and prevention of water pollution.
 Legislations should be introduced by MoEFCC/States to specifically prevent water pollution from both point and
non-point sources.
 It should also introduce legislation for the restoration of degraded water bodies so that these degraded water
bodies do not pose risks to the ecological environment and human health.
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DE MAND (BOD)

 In simpler words, the amount of oxygen needed by biological organisms such as bacteria in a given water sample
for a breakdown of organic matter by oxidation process is called the Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
SIGNIFICANCE:
 Measures the amount of oxygen: BOD measures the amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms for the process
of decomposition of the organic matters in the water bodies.
 Organic pollutants: It symbolizes the amount of organic pollution present in an aquatic ecosystem.
 Regulates COD: Also regulates the chemical oxidation (COD) of inorganic matter.
 Wastewater treatment: Used in sewage treatment or wastewater treatment to destroy and decay organic wastes
through the aerobic organisms.
 Organic matter in soil: Determines the amount of organic matter present in soils, sewages, sediment, garbage,
sludge, etc.
 BOD uses: Used in the medicinal & pharmaceutical industries to test the oxygen consumption of cell cultures.
 Indicator of the level of environmental pollution: Biological oxygen demand can be used as an indicator of the
level of environmental pollution. For instance, the higher the levels of organic matter (in polluted water bodies or
sewage), the greater the BOD.
 High BOD meaning: Consequently, a high Blood Oxygen Demand level means the amount of dissolved oxygen
available for other marine organisms such as fish is low.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

 COD is a measure of the capacity of water to consume oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter and
the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as Ammonia and nitrite. COD measurements are commonly made on
samples of waste waters of natural waters contaminated by domestic or industrial wastes.
 Difference between BOD and COD: The main difference between BOD and COD is that BOD is the amount of
oxygen which is consumed by bacteria while decomposing organic matter under aerobic conditions whereas COD
is the amount of oxygen required for the chemical oxidation of total organic matter in water.
EUTROPHICATION
 Eutrophication is the process in which a water body becomes overly enriched with nutrients, leading to plentiful
growth of simple plant life. The excessive growth (or bloom) of algae and plankton in a water body are indicators
of this process.

 Eutrophication is considered to be a serious environmental concern since it often results in the deterioration of
water quality and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water bodies. Eutrophic waters can eventually become
“dead zones” that are incapable of supporting life.
EUTROPHICATION AND ALGAL BLOOM

 Eutrophic water body: It is a body of water rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant population, the
decomposition of which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen.
 Eutrophication is the response: To the addition of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or
artificially, fertilising the aquatic ecosystem.
 Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria): They thrive on the excess nutrients and their population
explosion covers almost the entire surface layer. This condition is known as algal bloom.
HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS (HABs)

 HABs: Most algal blooms are not harmful, but some produce toxins. These are known as Harmful Algal Blooms
(HABs).
 Toxicity: Some algal blooms when died or eaten, release neuro & hepatotoxins which can kill aquatic organisms &
pose a threat to humans. E.g., Shellfish poisoning.
 Adversely affect commercial and recreational fishing: HAB events adversely affect commercial and recreational
fishing, tourism, and valued habitats, creating a significant impact on local economies and the livelihood of coastal
residents.
EFFECTS OF EUTROPHICATION:
 Loss of freshwater lakes: Eutrophication eventually creates a detritus layer in lakes and produces successively
shallower depth of surface water.
 The water body is reduced into a marsh: Eventually, the water body is reduced into a marsh whose plant
community is transformed from an aquatic environment to a recognizable terrestrial environment.
 Restrict sunlight penetration: Algal Blooms restrict the penetration of sunlight resulting in the death of aquatic
plants and hence restricts the replenishment of oxygen.
 New species invasion: Eutrophication may cause the ecosystem to be competitive by transforming the normal
limiting nutrient to abundant level. This causes shifting in species composition of the ecosystem.
 Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease in water transparency (increased turbidity).
 Affects navigation: Due to increased turbidity; creates colour (yellow, green, red), smell and water treatment
problems; increases biomass of inedible toxic phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae and bloom of gelatinous
zooplankton.
Nutrient pollution (eutrophication) depletes oxygen in coastal waterways as fertiliser, sewage, animal and
aquaculture waste promote the growth of algae, which deplete oxygen as they decompose. The main features of a
coastal area that becomes deoxygenated are:
 High biological production from over-enrichment by high nitrogen and phosphorus loads;
 a stratified water column from salinity, temperature, or both, mostly in water depths of less than 100 m;
 and long water residence time allow for the development of phytoplankton blooms, the containment of
fluxed organic matter, and the development of sturgeon.
MITIGATION OF EUTROPHICATION:
 Treatment: Treating Industrial effluents domestic sewage to remove nutrient-rich sludge through wastewater
processing.
 Riparian buffer: Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land created near the waterways, farms, roads,
etc. in an attempt to filter pollution. Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer zones instead of
deposition in water (Wetlands, estuaries are natural riparian buffers).
 Increase in: The efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorus fertilisers and using them at inadequate levels.
 Nitrogen testing & modelling: N-Testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of fertiliser required for crop
plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.

 Organic farming: Encouraging organic farming can be vital in mitigating eutrophication.

 Reduction: In nitrogen emission from vehicles and power plants.
CONTROL OF WATER POL LUTION: BIOREMEDIATI ON

 Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to degrade the environmental contaminants into
less toxic forms. Microorganisms can be specifically designed for bioremediation using genetic engineering
techniques.
IN SITU BIOREMEDIATION:
 In situ: It involves treatment of the contaminated material at the site.
 Bioventing: Supply of air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of indigenous
bacteria.
 Biosparging: Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations
and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring bacteria.
 Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance the degradation process.
EX-SITU BIOREMEDIATION:
 Ex situ: involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
 Landfarming: contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until
pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their
aerobic degradation of contaminants.
 Bioreactors: it involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an
engineered containment system.
 Composting: Composting is nature’s process of recycling decomposed organic materials into a rich soil known as
compost.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOREMEDIATION:
 Useful for the destruction of a wide variety of contaminants, the destruction of target pollutants is possible.
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOREMEDIATION:
 Bioremediation is limited to biodegradable compounds, Not all compounds are susceptible to rapid and complete
degradation, Bioremediation often takes a longer time than other treatment processes.
OCEAN-MARINE POLLUTI ON
 The oceans cover over 70% of the globe. Its health, wellbeing of humanity and the living environment that sustains
us all are inextricably linked. Yet neglect of ocean acidification, climate change, polluting activities and over-
exploitation of marine resources have made oceans, one of the earth’s most threatened ecosystems.
 Marine pollution, also known as ocean pollution, is the spreading of harmful substances such as oil, plastic,
industrial and agricultural waste and chemical particles into the ocean.
DATA AND FIGURES:

 Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods.
 Globally, the market value of marine and coastal resources and industries is estimated at $3 trillion per year or
about 5 per cent of global GDP.
 Marine fisheries directly or indirectly employ over 200 million people.
 Coastal waters are deteriorating due to pollution and eutrophication. Without concerted efforts, coastal
eutrophication is expected to increase in 20 percent of large marine ecosystems by 2050.
 Roughly 80 per cent of marine and coastal pollution originates on land – including agricultural run-off, pesticides,
plastics and untreated sewage.
CAUSES OF OCEAN POLLUTION:

 Sewage: Sewage or polluting substances flow through sewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean.
 Toxic Chemicals from Industries: Industrial waste which is directly discharged into the oceans, results in ocean
pollution. Also, they raise the temperature of the ocean and cause thermal pollution. Aquatic animals and plants
have difficulty surviving at higher temperatures.
 Land Runoff: Land-based sources account for approximately 80% of marine pollution.
o The runoff picks up man-made, harmful contaminants that pollute the ocean, including fertilizers,
petroleum, pesticides and other forms of soil contaminants.
 Large Scale Oil Spills: Pollution caused by ships is a huge source of ocean pollution, the most devastating effect of
which is oil spills. Crude oil lasts for years in the sea and is extremely toxic to marine life, it suffocates the marine
animals to death. Crude oil is also extremely difficult to clean up.
 Ocean Mining: Ocean mining sites drilling for silver, gold, copper, cobalt, and zinc create sulfide deposits up to
three and a half thousand meters down into the ocean.
 Plastic Pollution: In 2006, the UNEP estimated that every square mile of ocean contains 46,000 pieces of floating
plastic.
o For example, the North Pacific Gyre is now referred to as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, where waste
material from across the North Pacific Ocean, including coastal waters off North America and Japan, are
drawn together.
 Carbon dioxide and climate changes: In addition to all these factors, the oceans are highly affected by carbon
dioxide and climate changes, which impacts primarily the ecosystems and fish communities that live in the ocean.
In particular, the rising levels of CO2 leads to ocean acidification.
 Other factors: Like coastal tourism, port and harbour developments, damming of rivers, urban development and
construction, mining, fisheries, aquaculture etc., are all sources of marine pollution threatening coastal and marine
habitats.
 Atmospheric acidity impact oceanic ecology: Human emissions of pollutants have caused significant changes to
the acidity of the atmosphere. Increased acidity in the atmosphere is disrupting the ecological balance of the
oceans.
o Atmospheric acidity affects the quantity and distribution of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and iron)
delivered to the ocean.
o Increasing acidity since the Industrial Revolution increased the proportions of phosphorus and iron that
are soluble by 14 per cent and 16 per cent respectively. These increases will have had a direct fertilizing
effect on marine phytoplankton."
o Over the same time period, pollutant emissions have at least doubled the amount of nitrogen added to
the oceans via the atmosphere.
EFFECTS OF OCEAN POLLUTION:

 Effect of Toxic Wastes on Marine Animals: The long-term effect on marine life can include cancer, failure in the
reproductive system, behavioural changes, and even death.
 Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs: Oil spill floats on the surface of the water and prevents sunlight from
reaching marine plants and affects the process of photosynthesis.
 Depletes Oxygen Content in Water: As a result, the chances of survival of marine animals like whales, turtles,
sharks, dolphins, penguins for a long time also goes down. Excessive nutrients from sewage outfalls and
agricultural runoff have contributed to the number of low oxygen (hypoxic) areas known as dead zones, where
most marine life cannot survive, resulting in the collapse of some ecosystems.
 Eutrophication: When a water body becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive
growth of algae or algal bloom. This process also results in oxygen depletion of the water body.
 Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals: Chemicals from pesticides can accumulate in the fatty tissue
of animals, leading to failure in their reproductive system.
 Effect on Food Chain: Small animals ingest the discharged chemicals and are later eaten by large animals, which
then affects the whole food chain.
GLOBAL INITIATIVES:
 The Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities: The GPA is the only global intergovernmental mechanism directly addressing the connectivity between
terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems.
 MARPOL convention (1973): It covers pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental
causes. It lists various forms of marine pollution caused by oil, noxious liquid substances, harmful substances in
packaged form, sewage and garbage from ships, etc.
 The London Convention (1972): Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution
and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.
 Greenpeace: It is an environmental NGO that is dedicated to conserving the oceans and marine life across the
globe. Its grassroots efforts have resulted in the ban of destructive fishing practices, companies changing their
fishing policies, and the creation of whale sanctuaries.
PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION:

 Implement renewable energy sources: Such as wind or solar power, to limit off-shore drilling.
 Limit agricultural pesticides: And encourage organic farming & eco-friendly pesticide use.
 Proper sewage treatment: And exploration of eco-friendly wastewater treatment options.
 Cut down on the industry and manufacturing waste: And contain it into landfills to avoid spillage.
 Use of Biotechnology: Bioremediation (use of specific microorganisms to metabolize and remove harmful
substances) to treat oil spills.
 Minimizing carbon footprint: At individual level reduce carbon footprint by adopting a "green" lifestyle.
 Global treaty: Have a global treaty on banning single-use plastics and collaborative efforts to clean up the ocean.
Impact of climate change on Ocean
 Marine life: Warming oceans have driven the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale population
from its traditional and protected habitat, exposing the animals to more lethal ship strikes, disastrous
commercial fishing entanglements and greatly reduced calving rates.
 Interfere with Oceanic circulation: Due to a warming climate, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation is slowing down, causing the Gulf Stream to move North, injecting warmer and saltier slope
water into the Gulf of Maine.
 The warming Gulf of Maine has reduced the abundance of copepods, the tiny crustaceans that serve as the
right whales' favourite snack.
o This has reduced right whale calving rates and forced the whales to abandon their mid-summer
feeding grounds in the Gulf of Maine. Instead, the whales have headed north to the cooler waters of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
 Promote Catastrophic Events: The rise and fall of sea levels influence the likelihood of volcanic eruptions on
the Greek island of Santorini.
o Falling sea levels remove mass from the Earth's crust and the crust fractures as a result. These
fractures allow magma to rise and feed eruptions at the surface.
 Global Sea level Rise: The rate at which sea levels are rising is accelerating by about 0.1mm per year each
year.
o More than 60% of sandy beaches in Gambia and Guinea-Bissau may be lost to erosion by rising seas,
while Australia is expected to lose nearly 12,000 km of sandy coastline.
Ocean pollution
Ocean pollution is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and
industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilisers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage.
 Some debris sinks, some is eaten by marine animals that mistake it for food, and some accumulates in ocean
gyres.
 Other forms of pollution that impact the health of the ocean come from sources like oil spills or from
accumulation of many dispersed sources.
 More than 80% arises from land-based sources and it reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, deposition
from the atmosphere – where airborne pollutants are washed into the ocean by rain and snow – and direct
dumping, such as pollution from waste water treatment plants and discarded waste.
Ocean pollution is heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coastlines of low-income and
middle-income countries.
CAUSES OF DEOXYGENATION
 The primary causes of deoxygenation are: Eutrophication (increased nutrient run-off from land and sewage
pollution); Nitrogen deposition from burning of fossil fuels; Widespread impacts from ocean warming.
 Ocean oxygen loss is closely related to: Ocean warming and acidification caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide
emissions and biogeochemical consequences related to anthropogenic fertilization of the ocean.
 Reduced mixing of oxygen-rich water near the surface: As the ocean warms, its water holds less oxygen and
becomes more buoyant, resulting in reduced mixing of oxygen-rich water near the surface with the ocean depths,
which naturally contain less oxygen.
 Nutrient pollution: It causes oxygen loss in coastal waters. Fertiliser, sewage, animal and aquaculture waste cause
excessive growth of algae, which in turn deplete oxygen as they decompose.
OCEAN MICROPLASTICS
The world's sea floor is littered with an estimated 14 million tonnes of microplastics, broken down from the masses
of rubbish entering the oceans every year, according to Australia's national science agency.
 Microplastics are plastic particles less than 5mm in diameter. They contribute to over 80% of the ocean
debris. The plastic materials discarded by humans’ traverse through land and are passed to the oceans by
wind or rivers.
Impact of microplastics
 Affect the food chain: Marine organisms such as fish, crabs and prawns consume these microplastics by
misidentification as food. Humans consume this seafood which leads to several health complications.
 Affect the health of marine organisms: Various studies have shown that once ingested, microplastics can
settle in the stomach and lead to reduction in feeding capacity of organisms.
o They can also be detrimental to the intestinal function and reproductive system.
 Ocean pollution: Plastic pollution that ends up in the ocean deteriorates and breaks down, ending up as
microplastics.
 Impact on human health: The impact of marine plastic pollution on human health tops a list of health-
related concerns over marine threats.
Mitigation of Ocean Pollution:
 Nutrient reduction methods with legislative requirements, set specified targets, and used monitoring to
discover problems and respond to management strategies. These can be adapted to the requirements and
economy of the local area.
 Work on climate change: a significant climate mitigation effort is required, primarily through urgent, radical,
and massive worldwide reductions in greenhouse gas emissions caused by human activity.
 Increased oxygen observation and experimentation—by integrating existing programmes and networks and
focusing on areas where more data can help analyse the current state and trends of oxygen change.
 Assessments of the consequences on human economies and societies, particularly where fisheries,
aquaculture, and livelihoods are threatened.
 Fishery management that is adaptive and ecosystem-based, spatial planning to establish refugia that
improve ecosystem resilience, activities that minimise local ecosystem stress, capacity building, and socio-
ecological adjustments that lessen human impacts could all be explored.
Conclusion
Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods. In this context, ocean
health must be treated as a global issue and all nations should act in concert to implement Sustainable
Development Goal, 14 i.e. To conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
SURFACE (RIVER) WATER POLLUTION

 Surface water includes river, lake and pond water but here only river water pollution is discussed as lake water
pollution is discussed separately.
IMPORTANCE OF RIVERS IN INDIA:

 Agriculture: According to a World Bank report titled ‘Issues and Priorities for Agriculture’, India has about 195
million hectares of land under cultivation.
o Of this, about 63% or nearly 125 million hectares is rain-fed, while the remaining 37% or 70 million
hectares of the agricultural land depends on irrigation.
 Irrigation: Generally, rivers around agricultural zones provide much-needed water for irrigation.
 Wildlife conservation: Several wildlife sanctuaries of India are located on banks of rivers and their backwaters.
These national parks are home to several endangered species that feature on the Red List of the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Hence rivers in India are critical to their survival.
 Livelihood: Rivers of India also provide livelihood to millions of people including fishermen, sand dredgers and
various other professions.
SOURCES OF RIVER POLLUTION

 Sources of river pollution include runoff from mismanaged wastewater treatment plants, sewage, industrial
runoff, as well as storm runoff which delivers high concentrations of contaminants such as oil and sediment
from roads.
 Excess fertilizers and pesticides: It may reach the ground water by leaching or may be mixed with surface water
of rivers, lakes and ponds by runoff and drainage.
 Chemicals & Effluents: Industrialisation along the river belt is polluting the water with chemicals and other
industrial effluents. While large corporations adopt advanced techniques to treat effluents , smaller firms often
have no such considerations and violate environmental safety standards.
o For example, the river Yamuna is now severely affected with the Ammonia pollution and heavy froths
are seen in Yamuna.
 Garbage Dumping: High population density around the river banks and the reckless dumping of non-
biodegradable waste, especially plastics, is further adding to water pollution.
 Washing & Sewage: Laundering clothes on river banks is a common sight in India. Modern detergents are made
of chemicals that contaminate river waters. Defecating around river banks is yet another horrible practice in rural
parts of the country that contributes to rising pollution of rivers in India.
 Cremation & Last Rites: Cremation grounds in rural India are located on the banks of rivers like Varanasi.
 Sand Dredging: High-quality sand from river beds is needed for India’s booming construction industry. This has
led to rising pollution in Indian rivers.
 FORMALIN (METHANAL) CONTAMINATION: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has banned
formaldehyde in fresh fish, while the International Agency for Research on Cancer labelled the chemical a
carcinogen.
POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES OF RIVER WATER POLLUTION:

 Loss of Livelihood: Fishermen and fish farms that once flourished on banks of various Indian rivers are finding it
increasingly difficult to find sufficient catch of edible fish.
 Impact on Flora & Fauna: Chemical, effluents and sewage that pollute Indian rivers is causing several species of
aquatic life to go extinct or move away to safer havens.
 Food Security: Fish from polluted rivers is found to be high in mercury, lead and cadmium and hence, unfit for
human consumption. Also, edible fish is contaminated with Salmonella, Shigella and other harmful microbes found
in human faeces. Thus, such fish is unfit for human consumption.
 Drinking Water: According to NITI Aayog, a whopping 200,000 people lose their lives every year due to various
problems caused by consuming contaminated water.
 Agriculture: While agriculture is impacted adversely by rising pollution of rivers, it is also one of the reasons for
contaminating waters. Polluted water does not allow seeds to germinate and cause stunted growth, denying
farmers of a bumper harvest.
 Loss of Export Revenue: Freshwater fish varieties including the famous Hilsa, Rohu, Katla and prawns from Indian
rivers once had a high demand in foreign countries, especially in the Middle East.
o Sadly, river water pollution has caused these varieties of prized fish to get contaminated with disease-
causing microbes and chemicals.
MEASURES TO CONTROL RIVER POLLUTION:

 Reducing the effluent concentration of the waste input by: Wastewater treatment; Industrial in-plant process
control; Eliminating effluent constituents by pre-treatment prior to discharge to sewer systems or by different
product manufacturing for an industry.
 Reducing the upstream concentration: By upstream point and non – point source controls.
 Reducing the effluent volume by:

o Reduction of direct industrial discharge volumes into the municipal sewer system.
o Reduction in infiltration into municipal sewer systems.
o Reduction of waste volumes through process modifications in industries.
 Increasing the upstream flow: By low flow augmentation, i.e., releases from upstream reservoir storage or from
diversion from nearby water bodies.
 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): And other aquatic weeds are used to upgrade wastewater treatment
lagoons and treat chemical wastewaters.
 Rejuvenating the rivers: National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) take measures for prevention, control, and
abatement of environmental pollution in river Ganga. It aims to ensure continuous adequate flow of water so as
to rejuvenate the river, Ganga.
o Namami Gange Project: It integrates the efforts to clean and protect the Ganga River in a comprehensive
manner.
o National Mission for Clean Ganga launched the CAPACITY BUILDING INITIATIVE ON ‘MAKING WATER
SENSITIVE CITIES IN GANGA BASIN.
 It forms part of the ongoing efforts by NMCG aimed to ensuring convergence of the Namami
Gange Mission with national flagship urban missions.
 Implementing national water policy: National Water Policy (2012) aims to take cognizance of the existing
situation, to propose a framework for creation of a system of laws and institutions and for a plan of action with a
unified national perspective.
o It suggests frameworks to conserve water resources through optimal, economical, sustainable and
equitable means.
 Taking integrated water management as per the national water mission: It ensures integrated water resource
management leading to water conservation, less wastage, equitable distribution forming better policies.
 Biomonitoring: Researchers in ecology are testing a new method that can vastly expand bio-monitoring using
eDNA, in rivers to catalogue and count species.
o eDNA is isolated from environmental samples, in contrast to genomic DNA that is extracted directly from
specimens
GROUNDWATER POLLUTION
 Ground water is the water that seeps through rocks and soil and is stored below the ground.
GROUNDWATER RESOURCE AND USE IN INDIA: FEW FACTS

 Total usable water resources: 1,123 BCM/year; out of which share of surface water is 690 BCM/year and that of
groundwater is 433 BCM/year.
 After keeping aside 35 BCM/year for natural discharge, the net annual ground water availability for India is 398
BCM. Natural discharge occurs as seepage to water bodies or oceans in coastal areas and as transpiration by plants
whose roots extend up to the water table.
DEPLETION OF GROUNDWATER
 According to a recent Central Ground Water
Board (CGWB) Report, Punjab was found to be
the highest groundwater exploited state in
India followed by Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana
 According to a 2016 Parliament committee
report on water resources, nine states – in
south, west and central India- groundwater
levels are now described as “critical”. “Critical”
remark implies a stage where 90 percent of
groundwater has been extracted, with
significant decline in recharge capability.

 16 states and two Union Territories were categorised as “over-exploited”, which means 100% of groundwater
has been drawn, with little chance of recharge.
EXTENT OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION IN INDIA:

Groundwater contamination is the presence of certain pollutants in groundwater that are in excess of the limits
prescribed for drinking water.
 Arsenic: West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh.
 Fluoride: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
 Iron: Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Karnataka. Localized pockets in Bihar, UP, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and North Eastern States
 Uranium: 16 states in north western, southern and south-eastern India. High prevalence in Rajasthan and Andhra
Pradesh. In India Uranium is not included in list of contaminants monitored in drinking water specifications
provided by the Bureau of Indian Standards.
 Nitrate: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa. Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
 Salinity:
o Inland: Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat; to a lesser extent in Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar and Tamil Nadu.
o Coastal: Minjur area of Tamil Nadu, Saurashtra Coast, Subarnrekha, Salandi, Brahamani outfall regions of
Odisha, Pondicherry, Sundarbans region.
CAUSES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION:

 Natural:
o Groundwater naturally contains impurities due to the nature of geological formations.
o Natural arsenic pollution occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates anaerobic
conditions in the aquifer, thus releasing arsenic.
o Occurrence of fluoride is close related to the abundance and solubility of fluoride-containing minerals such as
fluorite.
o In India, uranium concentration is also related primarily to natural causes.
 Agriculture: Intensive use of chemical fertilizers in farms result in leaching of the residual nitrate causing high
nitrate concentrations in groundwater; Excessive and improper irrigation practices.
 Industrial Waste: Industrial effluents and municipal waste seeps through the soil and pollutes the groundwater.
Toxic industrial waste releases traces of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, zinc and mercury. Example: Shallow
aquifer in Ludhiana city is polluted by a stream which receives effluents from 1300 industries.
 Municipal waste: Pollution by landfills, septic tanks; Indiscriminate disposal of human and animal waste on land;
faulty onsite sanitation structures; leaky sewer lines.
 Indiscriminate extraction of groundwater: Indiscriminate extraction of groundwater for irrigation purposes has
led to inland salinity problem in parts of Punjab, Haryana. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater from coastal
aquifers has led to induced pollution in the form of seawater intrusion. For example: In Kachchh, Gujarat.
IMPACT OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION:

 Health Impact: Poor drinking water quality results in various diseases. For example, arsenic poisoning can lead to
skin diseases, gastro-intestinal diseases and cancer. Fluoride contamination leads to damaged joints, bone
deformities, fluorosis.
o Prolonged intake of high Iron content water can cause haemochromatosis. Viral and bacterial diseases
due to contamination of groundwater by mixing of sewage and infiltration from latrine pits
 Soil and Agriculture: Contamination of groundwater leads to reduction in soil quality and affects productivity.
High salinity has resulted in a decrease in agricultural productivity. Example: in Punjab and Haryana
 Economic: High clean-up costs; High costs for alternative water supplies; Increased disease burden- higher costs
for health.
 Environment: Groundwater pollution can cause certain types of nutrients that are necessary in small amounts to
become far too abundant to sustain normal life in a given ecosystem.
o When groundwater that supplies lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, and swamps becomes contaminated, this
slowly leads to more and more contamination of the surface water.
ISSUES WITH MANAGEMENT:

 No real-time monitoring: The Central Pollution Control Board and the CGWB do not carry out real-time monitoring
of water pollution in rivers, lakes and groundwater sources. The network of monitoring stations is not dense.
 Water quality analysis: Excludes critical parameters that help detect pollution by fertilizer and pesticide, heavy
metals and other toxic effluents.
 Lack of regulation: For over-extraction of groundwater resource Rules on groundwater access give landowners
the right to pump on their land. However, landowners are not legally liable for any damage caused to the water
resources as a result of over extraction.
WAY FORWARD:
 Replenishing the aquifers in overexploited areas is essential: Financial and legal incentives should be given to
individuals to recharge the common groundwater source. Example: In Chennai, rooftop rainwater harvesting has
been made compulsory for buildings over three stories. The captured water is directed into the ground to recharge
the aquifer.
 Wastewater Treatment: Treated wastewater can be a safe source for groundwater recharge
o Salinity Ingress Prevention Scheme, Gujarat: Regulates lifting underground water; Provisions for recharge
dam/ recharge wells; Change in cropping patterns; Fresh water barriers; Rejuvenation of salinity land of
oceanic area.
 Demineralization: Demineralization using RO system can remove all hazardous impurities from drinking water
 Implementation of pollution control laws: For prevention of future contamination of aquifers.
o National Project on Aquifer Management: Objective is to achieve equitable, safe and sustainable
management of India’s groundwater resources through improved systems of resource mapping,
utilization and governance.
 Quality drinking water: Government should supply quality drinking water to heavily polluted areas.
 Restrict: The landowner’s rate of extraction.
 Overexploitation: Groundwater resources should be charged.
 Mapping of aquifers can help determine the quantity as well as quality of groundwater.
 Research and Development: In areas of water treatment technologies
 Public awareness: To increase the effectiveness and to create a positive mindset.
 Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India in its Performance Audit of Water Pollution in India (2011-12)
suggested the following measures:
o Establish enforceable water quality standards
o Penalties need to be levied for violations of water quality standards,
o Source control of pollutants through sewage and agricultural runoff entering water bodies in projects for
conservation and restoration of lakes
CONCLUSION:
 No single action whether community based, legislation, traditional water harvesting systems, or reliance on
market forces will in itself alleviate the crisis in India. The effective answer to the freshwater crisis is to integrate
conservation and development activities – from water extraction to water management – at the local level; making
communities aware and involving them fully is therefore critical for success. All this will ultimately pave the way
for combining conservation of the environment with the basic needs of people.
LAKE POLLUTION:
 Ulsoor Lake Pollution: Polluted by a vast floating layer of non-recycled debris comprising plastic bags and water
bottles and even sacks. It witnesses frequent foaming on the surface.
 Bellandur Lake: Pollution in Bengaluru.
CAUSES OF LAKE POLLUTION:

 Siltation of lakes: Due to dumping of enormous quantities of sediments due to accelerated rate of soil erosion.
 Toxic effluents: From the urban areas. Washing and dumping: Of tailings or waste sludges from factories into
stagnant water. Inorganic nutrients: From agricultural fields.
 Acid rain: they are often called ' Lake Killers’. Sewage tank: It has become more or less a sewage tank because of
untreated sewage water entering into the lake through various inlets.
 Improper sewage system: Due to which untreated sewage water overflows and joins stormwater drains, mixes
with rainwater, which in turn flows to Bellandur Lake via Koramangala and Challaghatta Valley.
 Lack of effluent treatment plants: To treat industrial wastes from small factories that also get into the stormwater
drains.
MEASURES NEEDED FOR URGENT RESTORATION AND REMEDIAL ACTIONS FOR LAKE POLLUTION:
 Desiltation of the lake: It is to eliminate contaminants.
 Stop all encroachments Of the lake with suitable fencing. Only stormwater Should be allowed into the lake. Plastic
bags prevention: From draining into the lake.
 Drain water treatment: From slums around the lake to be treated before draining into the lake. Preferably,
connect the slum stormwater and wastewater drain to the nearby Cox Town sewage drain as it is close to the
slums.
 Prohibit submergence: Of idols during the festival season. Slum dwellers removal: Remove all slum dwellers from
the region.
 Cultivate and harvest fish: along with aquatic plants to deplete the nitrogen and phosphate content.
 Reviving National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP): Implemented since 2001 to address pollution issues in urban
lakes.
NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC ECO-SYSTEMS

NPCA envisages halting and reversing the continued degradation and loss of wetlands in the country and ensuring
their conservation and integrated management by promoting a cross sectoral planning and decision making.
 The programme mandates a shift from the sectoral approaches adopted till date for management of these
ecosystems, and instead focuses on mainstreaming their full range of biodiversity and ecosystem services
into development programmes being pursued at national and state / UT levels.
Aim
 Holistic development: Through an integrated and interdisciplinary strategy with a shared regulatory
framework, it strives to achieve comprehensive conservation and restoration of lakes and wetlands for
targeted water quality betterment as well as improvements in biodiversity and ecosystem.
 The project would help to reduce pollutant loads and promote biodiversity, as well as the commodities and
services that these water bodies give to stakeholders.
WATER POLICY AND ACTION PLAN FOR INDIA 2020
 In news: After three national water policies--1987, 2002 and 2012--India has prepared a new national policy
on water, key to addressing problems with water quality and ensuring water security for all.
 The new National Water Policy (NWP) calls for a multi-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder approach to water
management.
 The water expert Mihir Shah, chairperson of the 13-member committee that has drafted the NWP and has
asked it to be implemented by 2030 to solve the water crisis of the country.
 Plans are also afoot to set up a National Bureau of Water Use Efficiency. Building consensus among the states
within the constitutional framework is a precondition for making these changes.
NEED FOR A WATER POLICY:
 Indiscriminate extraction of groundwater: India is the largest extractor of groundwater in the world. Nearly
600 million Indians face high to extreme water stress, which is set to worsen with the average annual per
capita water availability estimated to fall by 37% over half a century to 2050, potentially making India water
scarce.
 Haphazard Urbanisation: Rapid urbanisation is leading to more informal sourcing of water, mainly through
tankers using groundwater, increasing demands for long-distance import of water.

 Inequitable access: Only 47% of urban households have individual water connections. Urban areas produce
62,000 million litres of sewage every day. According to the CPCB, the installed capacity to treat this sewage is
only 37% and just 30% is actually treated.
o Some of these plants do not function, either because of high recurring costs, or because they do not
have enough sewage to treat.
 Inefficient "command-and-control" approach: In this type of approach the rules and regulations within the
policies are framed by the government agencies without giving due consideration to the region-specific, socio-
economic, political, geographic and institutional factors. Such ‘one-shoe-fits all’ policies may not reflect the
preferences of the farmers and other stakeholders
 Sustainable and effective water governance: At present Governance of water suffers from three kinds of
“hydro-schizophrenia”: That between irrigation and drinking water, surface and groundwater, as also water
and wastewater. Government departments, working in silos, have generally dealt with just one side of these
binaries.
KEY POINTERS OF THE POLICY:

 Sustainable and equitable management of groundwater: Participatory groundwater management is the key.
 Natural solutions: These include incentivizing rejuvenation of catchment areas through compensation for eco-
system services.
o Specially curated “blue-green infrastructure” such as rain gardens and bio-swales, restored rivers with
wet meadows, wetlands constructed for bio-remediation, urban parks, permeable pavements, green
roofs, etc. are proposed for urban areas.
 Prior & primary importance to river protection and revitalization: Steps to restore river flows include: Re-
vegetation of catchments, regulation of groundwater extraction, river-bed pumping and mining of sand and
boulders.
o The NWP outlines a process to draft a Rights of Rivers Act, including their right to flow, to meander
and to meet the sea.
 Water quality: It proposes that every water ministry, at the Centre and states, include a water quality
department.
o It suggests a task force on emerging water contaminants to better understand and tackle the threats
they are likely to pose.
 The policy advocates adoption of state-of-the-art, low-cost, low-energy, eco-sensitive
technologies for sewage treatment.
 Reduce-Recycle-Reuse (3R): It has been proposed for integrated urban water supply and wastewater
management, with treatment of sewage and eco-restoration of urban river stretches, as far as possible
through decentralised wastewater management.
o All non-potable use, such as flushing, fire protection, vehicle washing must mandatorily shift to
treated wastewater.
 Dedicated task group for effective implementation: The proposed task group will oversee and coordinate the
implementation, monitoring and assessment of progress on the policy.
o The task group will also develop a 10-year action plan with the active involvement of stakeholders at
all levels, within one year of its setting up.
 Crop diversification: Irrigation consumes 80-90 per cent of India’s water, most of which is used by rice, wheat
and sugarcane.
 Deploy Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system: Trillions of litres stored in big dams, which
are still not reaching farmers.
o Irrigated area could be greatly expanded at very low cost by deploying pressurised closed conveyance
pipelines, combined with SCADA systems and pressurised micro-irrigation.
 Reforming governance of water: The policy suggests creation of a unified multi-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder
National Water Commission (NWC), which would become an exemplar for states to follow. Government water
departments include professionals predominantly from civil engineering, hydrology and hydrogeology.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY AND ITS MANDATE:

 Setting standard: To evolve a mechanism to set up an efficiency bar especially in domestic and industrial sectors.

 Ensuring River Basin Approach: To bring a paradigm shift in water management and to look at the river basin or
the sub basin as the hydrological unit instead of the administrative and political boundaries.
 Facilitation: To propose a River Basin Management Bill which envisages setting up of river basin authorities which
would be managed by a two-tier structure- a governing council and an executive board. The governing council will
mainly be executing a river basin management plan.
 Consensus building: It will be the first time when there will be a consensus building mechanism at the political
level in the river basin ensuring solving issues and problems at the basin level only instead of coming to the centre.
 Integrated water management: Bureau forces the integration of water resources with other resources like land
and issues like the environment and quality of the resource.
PLASTIC POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
 Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (e.g. plastic bottles, bags and microbeads) in
the Earth's environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, and humans. Plastics that act as pollutants
are categorized into micro, meso or macro debris, based on size.
DATA AND FIGURES

 CPCB report on waste generation through plastic: A 2017 report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
pegs the amount of plastic waste generated in India at 25,940 tonnes per day.
 India notified the Plastic Waste Management Rules in 2016: Which replaced the earlier Plastic Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules, 2011.
o As per the Rule ‘17(3)’ of the rules: Each State Pollution Control Board or Pollution Control Committee shall
prepare and submit the Annual Report to the CPCB on the implementation of these rules by the 31st July of
each year.
 NGT order: In March 2019, ordered all states and UTs (except for Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, and
Puducherry) to submit action plans for implementing Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 by April 30, 2019.
 Failure of states: However, 25 states failed to send their action plans to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
by the designated date.
CAUSES OF PLASTIC POLLUTION

 High usage: Due to its qualities like easy availability, affordability, manufacturability, durability, and discard ability.
 Urbanisation & Population growth: Increase in demand for cheaper & readily available materials. Between 2001-
2015 itself, more plastics have been made than any other plastic manufactured in history simply because of rapid
urbanization and rising consumer demands.
o A 2017 report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) pegs the amount of plastic waste generated
in India at 25,940 tonnes per day.
 Affordability: As plastics are the cheapest and most affordable materials to manufacture, their production has
tripled in recent decades to take care of the ever-rising consumer demands.
 Reckless Disposal: Plastic is among the easily disposed of items due to their lightweight and use period.
 Slow decomposition rate: Plastics take hundreds of years to decompose because they have strong chemical bonds
that simply make them last.
 Marine Shipping and fishing industry: The shipping and fishing industry also contributes to plastic pollution,
especially in the oceans.
 Cosmetic & personal care industry: Cosmetic and personal care industry that has introduced
microplastics/microbeads (plastic particles of 5mm diameter or less) in products such as toothpaste and shower
gels, damages the marine ecosystem by releasing toxins which eventually enters into the food chain.
 Exponential rise in plastic production: From the 1950s to the 1970s, only a small amount of plastic was produced,
and as a result, plastic waste was relatively manageable.
o However, between the 1970s and the 1990s, plastic waste generation more than tripled, reflecting a
similar rise in plastic production.
IMPACT OF PLASTIC POLLUTION

 Environmental Pollution: According to a toxics link study on plastic waste, it contributed directly to ground, air
and water pollution.
 Soil Pollution: Toxic chemicals leach out of plastic through landfill sites, is linked to decreasing crop productivity,
impacting food security, birth defects, impaired immunity, endocrine disruption and other ailments.
 Poisoning Ocean: Every year, up to 13 million tons of plastic leak into our oceans, where it smothers coral reefs
and threatens vulnerable marine wildlife.
 Air Pollution: Disposing of plastic waste by burning it in open-air pits releases harmful gases like furan and dioxin.
 Health Impact: Plastic bags often provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes and pests thus increase the
transmission of vector-borne diseases like malaria.
 Invasive Species: Plastic waste can also be a mode of transport for species, potentially increasing the range of
certain marine organisms or introducing species into an environment where they were previously absent. This, in
turn, can cause subsequent changes in the ecosystem of the region.
 Bioaccumulation: Plastic bags are often ingested by animals who mistakenly take them for food due to which toxic
chemicals enter the human food chain.
 Financial Loss: The total economic damage to the world’s marine ecosystem caused by plastic amounts to at least
$13 billion every year.
 Exuberating Natural Disaster: Encroachment and clogging of city drainage with plastic and solid waste often leads
to suburban flooding e.g., Mumbai’s experience of annual flooding during monsoon season due to water clogging
etc.
 Social Cost: The social damage continuously being inflicted is inestimable as every sphere of life gets affected by
it like tourism, recreation, business, the health of humans, animals, fish and birds.
CHALLENGES IN ADDRESSING PLASTIC POLLUTI ON

 Not prioritized by the state authorities: Waste management is the last in the list of priorities of municipal
corporations. Many States/UTs have not constituted a State Level Monitoring Committee (SLMC)Body to monitor
implementation of PWM Rules.
 Lack of expertise: Among the state pollution control boards and the dearth of understanding of the scale of the
plastic waste challenge.
 Presence of a communication gap: Between the state and central government officials.
 Poor response of companies/ producers: Which are mandated to set up systems either individually or collectively
in cities to ensure the collection of non-recyclable waste. They are supposed to submit their plans to states, which
has been lacking till now.
 Lack of accurate data: Only 14 of India’s 35 state pollution control boards filed information on plastic waste
generation in 2017-18, as per CPCB. The states have been unable to gather real-time data on its generation.
 Large-scale presence of the informal sector: Over 90 percent of the plastic industry is informal, thus trying to
reach and work with these manufacturers becomes a challenge. It is further compounded due to the presence of
illegal units.
 As plastic does not break down naturally, it is polluting natural systems, including rivers and oceans.
 The production, use and disposal of plastics also creates significant greenhouse gas emissions throughout the
different stages of the plastic value chain.
WAY FORWARD
 Raising awareness: Amongst the public of the harm caused by plastic pollution through education and outreach
programs to modify behaviour.
o On World Environment Day, 2018 the world leaders vowed to “Beat Plastic Pollution” & eliminate its use
completely.
 Promote Alternatives: Before the ban or levy comes into force, the availability of alternatives needs to be
assessed, hence the government may:

o Provide economic incentives to encourage the uptake of eco-friendly and fit-for-purpose alternatives that do
not cause more harm.
o Support can include tax rebates, research and development funds, technology incubation, public-private
partnerships and support to projects that recycle single-use items and turn waste into a resource that can be
used again.
o Reduce or abolish taxes on the import of materials used to make alternatives.
 Provide incentives to the alternative industry: By introducing tax rebates or other conditions to support its
transition from the plastic industry.
 Expanding the use of biodegradable plastics or even edible plastics: Which are made from various materials such
as bagasse (the residue after extracting juice from sugarcane), corn starch, and grain flour.
o The Group of 20 (G20) environment ministers, agreed to adopt a new implementation framework for
actions to tackle the issue of marine plastic waste on a global scale.
 Use of microbeads: In personal care products and cosmetics must be prohibited.
 Swachh Bharat Mission: The Swachh Bharat Mission should emerge as a platform for plastic waste management.
 Assessments of single-use plastics: Target the most problematic single-use plastics by conducting a baseline
assessment to identify the most problematic single-use plastics, as well as the current causes, extent and impacts
of their mismanagement.
o Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: It states that every local body has to be responsible for setting
up infrastructure for segregation, collection, processing, and disposal of plastic waste.
 Assess the potential social, economic and environmental impacts (positive and negative): Of the preferred short-
listed plastic waste management measures/actions, by considering how will the poor be affected, or what impact
will the preferred course of action have on different sectors and industries.
o Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018: It introduced the concept of Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR).
SINGLE-USE PLASTICS
 Introduction: Also referred as disposable plastics, are commonly used for plastic packaging and include items
intended to be used only once before they are thrown away or recycled. They have a higher carbon footprint and
are more resource and water intensive to produce.
 Single-use plastics are the most challenging to tackle: Single-use plastics or disposable plastics are commonly
used for plastic packaging, accounting for 36% of 400 million tonnes of plastic produced annually, and other items,
grocery bags, food packaging, bottles, straws, containers, cups and cutlery.
 Difficulty in collection: Many times, the packaging is not effectively collected, ending up in landfills and drains in
the cities and these single-use plastic items clog rivers, other water bodies and finally end up in the ocean.
 Higher cost of collection: The design of plastics and plastic-containing products is often a barrier to higher rates
of plastic collection and recycling.
 Recent efforts to tackle the single-use plastics in India: India has pledged to phase-out all single use plastics by
2022. However, India’s efforts at piloting a resolution at the fourth United Nations Environment Assembly for a
global phase-out of single use plastics by 2025 failed in the face of strong opposition from the United States.
MARINE PLASTIC: PROB LEMS AND SOLUTION

 Context: According to the Central Pollution Control Board’s (CPCB) Annual Report on Implementing the Plastic
Waste Management Rules, 2016, the plastic waste generated in 2018-19 was 3.3 million tonnes per year (roughly
9,200 tonnes per day).
FACTS AND FIGURES:

 Plastic: It is a synthetic organic polymer made from petroleum with properties ideally suited for a wide variety of
applications, including packaging, building and construction, household and sports equipment, vehicles,
electronics and agriculture. Plastic is cheap, lightweight, strong and malleable.
 Production of plastics: Over 300 million tons of plastic are produced every year, half of which is used to design
single-use items such as shopping bags, cups and straws.
 Recycling of plastics: Only 9% of plastic waste is recycled. Approximately 12% is burnt, while 79% has accumulated
in landfills.
 IUCN: According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), at least 8 million tons of plastic end
up in the oceans every year.
SOURCES OF MARINE PLASTIC:

 The main sources of marine plastic: They are land-based, from urban and storm runoff, sewer overflows, beach
visitors, inadequate waste disposal and management, industrial activities, construction and illegal dumping.
 Ocean-based plastic origin: Mainly from the fishing industry, nautical activities and aquaculture.
CONCERNS OF MARINE PLASTIC WASTE:

 Plastic waste blocks our sewers.
 The financial costs of marine plastic pollution are significant as well: According to a forecast made in March
2020, the direct harm to the blue economy of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations will be USD 2.1 billion
per year.
 Enormous social costs accompany these economic costs: Residents of coastal regions suffer from the harmful
health impacts of plastic pollution and waste brought in by the tides.
 Affecting coastal community: Boats may become entangled in abandoned or discarded fishing nets or their
engines may become blocked with plastic debris.
STEPS TAKEN SO FAR:

 Glolitter Partnerships Project: It is launched by the IMO and the FAO aims to prevent and reduce marine plastic
litter from shipping and fisheries. It will also assist developing countries in reducing marine litter, including plastic
litter, from within the maritime transport and fisheries sectors, and to decrease the use of plastics in these
industries.
 Alliance to End Plastic Waste: founded in 2019 in Singapore as a non-profit organisation to help solve this serious
and complex issue – 8 million tons of plastic waste entering the ocean every year. Nearly fifty companies across
the plastics value chain have joined the Alliance.
 Specific to India: Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 state that every local body has to be responsible for
setting up infrastructure for segregation, collection, processing, and disposal of plastic waste. Ban on Single-Use
Plastics in a bid to free India of single-use plastics by 2022.
SOLUTIONS:
 Designing a product: Identifying plastic items that can be replaced with non-plastic, recyclable, or biodegradable
materials is the first step.
 Pricing: Plastics are inexpensive which provide fewer economic incentives to employ recycled plastics. Balancing
price structure with environmental health should be a priority.
 Technologies and Innovation: Developing tools and technology to assist governments in measuring and
monitoring plastic garbage in cities.
 Promoting a plastic-free workplace: All single-use goods can be replaced with reusable items or more sustainable
single-use alternatives.
 Producer responsibility: Extended responsibility can be applied in the retail (packaging) sector, where producers
are responsible for collecting and recycling products that they launch into the market.
 Municipal and community actions: Beach and river clean-ups, public awareness campaigns and disposable plastic
bag bans and levies.
 Multi-stakeholder collaboration: Government ministries at the national and local levels must collaborate in the
development, implementation and oversight of policies related to plastic waste management.
PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT AMENDMENT RULES, 2021

 In News: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change recently notified the Plastic Waste Management
Amendment Rules, 2021, prohibiting identified single-use plastic items by 2022.
 In the 4th United Nations Environment Assembly held in 2019, India had piloted a resolution on addressing single-
use plastic products pollution, recognizing the urgent need for the global community to focus on this very
important issue.

 Single-use plastics, often also referred to as disposable plastics that are extensively used for plastic packaging and
include objects that are meant to be used once and then discarded or recycled.
Extent Of PLASTIC WASTE Generation
 India generates approximately 9.46 million tonnes (MT) of plastic waste per year. This figure is based on the
Central Pollution Control Board’s projection that an estimated 25,940 tonnes per day of plastic waste generated
in the country.
 Of this, nearly 60 percent is collected and recycled while the remaining 40% of the plastic waste remains
uncollected and littered in the environment.
SALIENT FEATURES OF AMENDMENT TO PLASTIC WASTE RULES:
• Prohibition: The manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of following single-use plastic,
including polystyrene and expanded polystyrene, commodities shall be prohibited with effect from the 1st
July, 2022.
• Compostable plastic: The provisions will not apply to commodities made of compostable plastic.
• Timeline: The government has given industry ten years from the date of notification to comply with any
future bans on plastic commodities other than those included in this notification.
• Thickness of plastic bags: The allowable thickness of plastic bags will be increased from 50 mm to 75
microns on September 30, 2021, and to 120 microns on December 31, 2022.
• Monitoring agency: The Central Pollution Control Board, along with state pollution bodies, will monitor
the ban, identify violations, and impose penalties already prescribed under the Environmental Protection
Act, 1986.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): According to the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, the
plastic packaging waste that is not covered under the phase out of identified single-use plastic items must
be collected and managed in an environmentally sustainable manner through the Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) of the Producer, Importer, and Brand Owner (PIBO).
• Task Force: States and UTs had constituted the special task force for elimination of SUP and effective
implementation of the PWM Rules, 2016.
 Environment Ministry has also set up a national-level task force for making coordinated efforts in
this direction.
 State /UT Governments and concerned Central Ministries/Departments have also been requested
to develop a comprehensive action plan for elimination of SUP and its implementation in a time
bound manner.
IMPACTS OF SINGLE USE PLASTICS:
 Environment: It eventually leads to choking of drainage and river systems, littering of the marine ecosystem, soil
and water pollution and open air burning leading to adverse impact on environment.
 Disposal problems: They don't biodegrade; instead, they break down into tiny particles of plastic known as
microplastics. Plastic bags can take thousands of years to disintegrate.
 Human health: Toxins and persistent pollutants found in some of these plastic items leak into human bodies
causing damage to the brain system, lungs, and reproductive organs.
 Energy intensive: Production of plastic material are very energy intensive. They require a lot of water for their
production. Thus, using plastic bags is not advisable.
 Threat to aquatic life: Being non-recyclable, plastic bags end up in the oceans. While they reach, they break up
into tiny little pieces and are consumed by wildlife.
 Interference with the food chain: Studies determine that the chemicals affect the biological and reproduction
process resulting in reduced numbers of offspring thus disrupting the food chain.
CHALLENGES TO PHASE OUT SINGLE-USE PLASTIC:
 Effective waste collection: India lacks systems for effective waste separation, collection, and recycling.
 National Policy for recycling plastics: There is no policy in place for recycling plastics. There are also difficulties in
establishing a recycling plant due to environmental concerns voiced by various state Pollution Control Boards.
 Easy availability: Plastic carry-bags pose a special problem. Although they are strong, lightweight and useful and
can be saved, cleaned and reused many times, this is mostly not done because they are available very cheap and
are, therefore, not valued (often shops give plastic carry bags for free).
 Large consumption: India consumes close to 16.5 million tonnes of plastic, of which close to 30% constitute SUP.
Transitioning in a short period i.e., by 2022 may turn out to be difficult.

 Opposition by plastic industry: The All-India Plastic Manufacturers' Association (AIPMA), has requested the
government to push the deadline for phasing out SUP products by a period of one year to 2023 owing to economic
distress faced by manufacturing units due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
 Attitudinal change: Changing one's behaviour to avoid using single-use plastic is difficult.
 Lack of adequate infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure for segregation and collection is the key reason for
inefficient plastic waste disposal.
WAY FORWARD:
 Effective waste management: To strengthen processing, there is a need to invest extensively in increasing waste
source segregation and supporting end-to-end waste segregation.
o India becomes first Asian country to launch Indian Plastic pact with the aim to tackle plastic pollution in
the country, bringing together businesses from across the Indian plastics value chain to move towards a
circular plastics system.
 Monetising the waste: Source separation of waste, coupled with segregated collection and transportation, has
been weak links in the waste supply-chain. Imposing penalties or fines is easier said than done in a democratic
setup.
o One way to ensure better collection of plastic waste is to ensure that the ‘junk’ has a value attached that
is ‘redeemable’ in the immediate future.
 Infrastructure: The key to efficient waste management is to ensure proper segregation of waste at source and to
ensure that the waste goes through different streams of recycling and resource recovery through proper
infrastructure and access to technology. There is a need for collective efforts from the Union/state governments
and municipalities in developing and using the infrastructure.
 Adopting affordable and viable alternatives: There is need to promote alternatives like cotton, khadi bags and
biodegradable plastics. Raise awareness among people to minimise their use of plastics.
o Many government offices in various states like Kerala made the switch to ink pens and steel cutlery to
ensure articles like plastic water bottles, disposable teacups and plastic carry bags are no longer used
across the office premises
 Sustainable products: The government should put money into fostering the formation of businesses that supply
sustainable products as an alternative to non- recyclable ones.
 4Rs (Reduce, Rejuvenate, Reuse, and Recycle): The focus should be on using 4Rs principle to conserve the
environment from plastic waste disposal.
o Utilising plastic for road surfacing: Governments are using plastics for road surfacing and many states are
considering to implement this pioneering tactic to manage their plastic waste.
o Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are a few states that have already begun work on these lines.
 Circular Economy: With focus on resource efficiency and recovery, circular economy is the need of the hour as it
is restorative and regenerative by design.
o This means materials constantly flow around a ‘closed loop’ system, rather than being used once and then
discarded.
CIRCULAR PLASTIC ECONOMY AND INDIA PLASTIC PACT

 In News: The India Plastics Pact, the first in Asia, will be launched in September in collaboration with Confederation
of Indian Industries (CII) and World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
 Recently, a report published on closing the plastic circular Gap, suggested that there is a dire need to make large
scale global interventions to manage plastic waste.
 The Plastics Pacts are business-led initiatives and transform the plastics packaging value chain for all formats and
products. The Pacts bring to get here very one from across the plastics value chain to implement practical
solutions.
ABOUT NEWS:
 The India Plastics Pact is an ambitious, collaborative initiative that aims to bring together businesses,
governments and NGOs across the whole value chain to set time-bound commitments to reduce plastics from
their value chains.
 While the India Plastics Pact will be active in India, it will link globally with other Plastics Pacts.

 The Pact will develop a road map for guidance, form action groups composed of members, and initiate innovation
projects.
 Members’ accountability is ensured through ambitious targets and annual data reporting.
 The vision, targets and ambition of the India Plastics Pact are aligned with the circular economy principles of the
Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s New Plastics Economy.
AIM OF PACT:
 The Pact aims to transform the current linear plastics system into a circular plastics economy that will:
o Reduce the use of problematic plastics,
o Retain valuable materials in the economy for use in other products,
o Generate jobs, investment and opportunities in the plastics system in India.
 It aims to promote public-private collaborations that enable solutions to eliminate the plastics we do not need,
bring innovation to packaging design, and to capture the value of the plastics we use.
NEED FOR PLASTIC PACTS:

 India generates 9.46 million tonnes of plastic waste annually.
 40% plastic waste goes uncollected.
 43%ofallplastics produced in India are used for packaging, majority of them being
Indian Scenario: single-use.
 However, viewed from the angle of livelihoods, post-consumer segregation, collection
and disposal of plastics make up about half of the income of 1.5- 4 million waste-pickers
in India.
 Mismanagement of more than 7.7 billion metric tonnes of plastic waste globally over the
next 20 years is expected, which is equivalent to 16-times the weight of the human
population.
Global Scenario:  Among the many applications of plastic, plastic packaging is the largest.
EXPECTED OUTCOME OF PACT:
 It can be expected to boost demand for recycled content, investments in recycling infrastructure, jobs in the waste
sector, and beyond.
 The Pact will support the Extended Producer Responsibility framework of the government and improve solid
waste management as envisioned in the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
 Integral to the Pact’s framework is the involvement of the informal waste sector crucial to post- consumer
segregation, collection and processing of plastic waste.
 Apart from benefits to society and economy, delivering the targets will drive circularity of plastics and help tackle
pollution.
 They will lead to significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
CHALLENGES IN PLASTIC RECYCLING IN INDIA:
 Lack of awareness leads to the mixing of all kinds of waste.
 Due to plastic density, it occupies more space and cost double to transport.
 Myths and lack of recycled plastic products acceptance in-market leads more plastic waste to landfills.
 Plastic requires manual segregation before recycling. There is a lack of infrastructure and government policies
with regard to this.
 Unprofitability of recycling enterprises due to lack of assured quantity of segregated waste, technological know-
how, legal compliance etc.
 Lack of R&D investments limit technological innovation: For instance, recycling of Multi Layered Packaging (MLPs)
is expensive as separating various layers of this packaging is difficult owing to adhesive nature of various layers,
while single use plastics are a low value input for plastic recyclers to produce quality outputs.
 Enhanced complexities due to COVID: Our improved, hyper-hygienic way of life in the fear of transmission has
conveniently shifted our behavioral patterns like increased demand for plastic-packaged food and groceries, and
the use of disposable utensils.
WAY AHEAD FOR CIRCULAR PLASTIC ECONOMY:
 Sustainable alternative choices based on the principle of 4Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Recover): For example,
buyback schemes to put back plastics into circular economy loops.

 Regulation supporting incentive structure to make biodegradable alternatives affordable for large-scale
adoption and use.
 Strengthening the waste management practices i.e., segregated collection and processing waste through material
recovery facilities in cities.
 Material Recovery Facilities (dry waste collection centres) have been set up by Bangalore Municipalities where
recyclable plastic waste can be sold at pre- decided rates.
 Upcycling the plastic waste: Using non-recyclable plastics to make roads or recover
energy from them, using them as alternate fuels to replace fossil fuel.
 Design benchmark to be developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for quality control and creating a market
for products produced from the recycled feedstock.
 Strongly application EPR policies in consensus with state urban development bodies.
STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT TO PROMOTE CIRCULAR PLASTIC ECONOMY:
 Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 state that every local body has to be responsible for setting up
infrastructure for segregation, collection, processing, and disposal of plastic waste.
 Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018 introduced the concept of Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) which make a manufacturer responsible for managing plastic waste after a consumer has used
their product.
 Government notifies the Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2021, prohibiting identified single use
plastic items by 2022. Thickness of plastic carry bags increased from 50 to 75 microns from September, 2021 and
to 120 microns from December, 2022.
To encourage innovation in development of alternatives to identified single use plastic items and digital solutions to
plastic waste management, the India Plastic Challenge – Hackathon 2021, has been organized for students of Higher
Educational Institutions and startups recognized under Startup India Initiative.
SOIL POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
 Definition: Addition of certain substances in soil degrades its physical, chemical and biological characteristics and
reduces the productivity of the soil; this change is termed as soil pollution.
 It is a build-up of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents in
the soil which have adverse effects on plant growth, human and animal health.
 A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture, and mineral content of the soil or which
disturbs the biological balance of the organisms in the soil.
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION

 Industrial wastes: Industrial wastes include chemicals such as mercury, lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, cyanides,
thiocyanates, chromates, acids, alkalies, organic substances etc.
 Fertilizers and manures: Chemical fertilizers are added to the soil for increasing crop yield. Excessive use of
chemical fertilizers reduces the population of soil-borne organisms and the crumb structure of the soil.
 Radioactive wastes: Radioactive elements from mining and nuclear power plants find their way into water bodies
and then into the soil.
IMPACT OF SOIL POLLUTION

 On Agriculture: Reduced soil fertility, Reduced nitrogen fixation, Increased erosion, Loss of soil and nutrients,
Reduced crop yield.
 On Health: Dangerous chemicals entering the underground water, Biomagnification, the release of pollutant
gases, the release of radioactive rays causing health problems
 On Environment: Reduced vegetation, Ecological imbalance, Imbalance of soil flora and fauna
 On Urban Areas: Clogging of drains, Inundation of areas, Foul smell and release of gases, Problem of waste
management.
STUBBLE BURNING AND SOIL POLLUTION AND L AND PRODUCTIVITY

Crop residue burning in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh has been known, but nowadays it's spreading
more frequently in other parts of country.
 In addition to wheat and paddy, sugarcane leaves are most commonly burnt.
 More than 500 million tonnes of parali (crop residues) is produced annually in the country, cereal crops (rice,
wheat, maize and millets) account for 70 per cent of the total crop residue.
o Of this, 34 per cent comes from rice and 22 per cent from wheat crops, most of which is burnt on the
farm.
o According to an estimate, 20 million tonnes of rice stubble is produced every year in Punjab alone, 80
per cent of which is burnt.
 A study estimates that crop residue burning released 149.24 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2), over 9
million tonnes of carbon monoxide (CO), 0.25 million tonnes of oxides of sulphur (SOX), 1.28 million tonnes of
particulate matter and 0.07 million tonnes of black carbon.
o These directly contribute to environmental pollution, and are also responsible for the haze in Delhi
and melting of Himalayan glaciers.
 The heat from burning paddy straw penetrates 1 centimetre into the soil, elevating the temperature to 33.8 to
42.2 degree Celsius. This kills the bacterial and fungal populations critical for a fertile soil.
 Burning of crop residue causes damage to other micro-organisms present in the upper layer of the soil as well
as its organic quality.
o Due to the loss of ‘friendly’ pests, the wrath of ‘enemy’ pests has increased and as a result, crops are
more prone to disease. The solubility capacity of the upper layers of soil have also been reduced.
 According to a report, one tonne stubble burning leads to a loss of 5.5-kilogram nitrogen, 2.3 kg phosphorus, 25
kg potassium and more than 1 kg of sulfur all soil nutrients, besides organic carbon.
 Burning crop residue is a crime under Section 188 of the IPC and under the Air and Pollution Control Act of 1981.
However, government’s implementation lacks strength.
SOLUTIONS TO THE BURNING PROBLEM

In 2014, the Union government released the National Policy for Management of Crop Residue.
 Since then, crop residue management has helped make the soil more fertile, thereby resulting in savings of Rs
2,000/hectare from the farmer’s manure cost.
 Farmers can also manage crop residues effectively by employing agricultural machines like:
o Happy Seeders (used for sowing of crop in standing stubble)
o Rotavator (used for land preparation and incorporation of crop stubble in the soil)
o Zero till seed drill (used for land preparations directly sowing of seeds in the previous crop stubble)
o Baler (used for collection of straw and making bales of the paddy stubble)
o Paddy Straw Chopper (cutting of paddy stubble for easily mixing with the soil)
o Reaper Binder (used for harvesting paddy stubble and making into bundles)
These machines are too costly and the state governments should come forward and provide better subsidy so
that farmer can afford these machines.
MEASURES NEEDED TO CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION

 Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use: Applying biofertilizers and manures can reduce chemical fertilizer
and pesticide use.
o Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil
pollution.
 Reusing of materials: Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, and cloth can be reused at domestic
levels rather than being disposed of, reducing solid waste pollution.
 Get a better understanding of the soil environment quality baseline: In order to properly control and prevent
soil erosion, it is paramount that every stakeholder understands the baseline of soil environment quality, which
can be done by carrying out sensitizations and surveys on soil pollution.

 Develop necessary legislation on soil pollution control: The existing registrations such as urban and rural
planning, agricultural practices, and land management should be revised and updated to include contemporary
soil pollution control and prevention measures.
 Proper management of agricultural land and the practice of organic farming: Poor utilization of land is a major
concern in the prevention and control of soil pollution.
o Agricultural land pollution usually causes the loss of soil fertility as it involves the loss of organic matter,
topsoil and nutrients, and the soil’s ability to retain water.
 Proper Solid Waste Treatment: It is important to dispose of solid waste properly by treating it before it’s released
into the environment.
 Strictly control the pollution of new soil: Before any new land is used, thorough research should be conducted to
ensure whether the land is suitable for the intended use.
 There should also be stringent measures put in place against those who dump harmful or poisonous substances
to the mudflat, sand, swampland, and salt marshes as well as those who discharge pollutants illegally.
 Strengthen policies that manage pollution sources: The best way to control soil pollution is to strictly control the
mining and industrial pollutants.
o In addition to controlling the pollutants, daily environment supervision should be enhanced.
o To ensure accountability, the companies in the specified area should conduct soil research at least once
annually and release the information to the public.
WASTE MANAGEMENT
 What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are 2018
continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating
in our habitable environment?
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

 “Wastes” are materials which are discarded after use at the end of their intended life-span. Waste management
is a collective activity involving segregation, collection, transportation, reprocessing, recycling and disposal of
various types of wastes.
 Waste management differs for different types of wastes and for wastes in different geographical locations such as
urban, rural and hilly areas.
 Classification of waste: Depending on the physical state of waste, wastes are categorized into solid, liquid and
gaseous.
o Solid Wastes are categorized into municipal wastes, hazardous wastes, medical wastes and radioactive
wastes.
FACTORS BEHIND THE GENERATION OF SOLID WASTE:

 Geographical Industrially and technologically developed regions: Like Delhi, Bengaluru generates more solid
wastes when compared with less industrialized places like Shimla or Kashmir.
 Socio-cultural practices: Practices such as dumping waste in rivers, performing rituals which generate a lot of solid
wastes.
 Packaging of food items: It is seen that the volume of waste generated is likely to be small and degradable where
the population is of rural origin while the urban populations are more likely to generate larger volumes of non-
degradable waste, especially where packaged food is consumed more.
 Frequency of collection of solid waste.
 Characteristics of population: e.g., Income and education levels, also profession classes.
 Extent of salvage and recycling of wastes.
 Legislation regarding solid waste generation, collection and its disposal.
 Public attitude towards solid waste.

IMPACT OF WASTE DUMPING:

 Environmental impact:
o Release of methane from decomposition of biodegradable waste under anaerobic conditions which can cause
fires and explosions. It is also a major contributor to global warming.
o Problem of odour especially during summers and drainage blockage in monsoons.
o Migration of leachates to receiving water.
 Health Impact:
o Uncontrolled burning of waste releases Dioxins and Furans, which are a major cause of respiratory disease
and cause smog.
o Dumping sites provide breeding sites for mosquitoes thus increasing the risk of diseases.
 Surface water contamination: Wastes that end up in water bodies negatively change the chemical composition
of the water.
o It affects all ecosystems existing in the water. It can also cause harm to animals that drink from such
polluted water.
 Soil contamination: Hazardous chemicals can get into the soil. It can harm plants when they take up the
contamination through their roots.
o If humans eat plants and animals that have been in contact with such polluted soils, there can be a
negative impact on their health.
 Pollution: Poor waste management practices can result in land and air pollution and can cause respiratory
problems and other adverse health effects as contaminants are absorbed from the lungs into other parts of the
body.
 Leachate: A major problem arising from landfills is the discharge of leachate which is formed by water passing
through the tip and thus becoming contaminated with various organic and inorganic pollutants.
VARIOUS METHODS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:

 Landfill: This method involves burying off the waste in the vacant locations around the cities. The dumping site
should be covered with soil to prevent contamination. Suitable trees should be planted to hold the soil.
o Advantage of Landfills: If designed carefully they can serve as an economical and quite sanitized method for
waste dumping.
o Disadvantage: Mostly unplanned dumping occurs in suburbs and slums which causes serious environmental
and health hazards. E.g.: release of poisonous gases, secretion of toxic liquid, destruction of vegetation.
 Incineration: It is controlled by high temperature oxidation (burning/thermal treatment) of primarily organic
compounds that produce thermal energy, CO2 and water.
o Advantages: Useful to deal with large quantities of organic hazardous waste and produce electricity.
o Disadvantages: The installation is expensive (high cost of equipment and skilled operators) and Generates ash
and toxic gases (HCL, CO, SO2).
 Other Thermal Methods:
o Pyrolysis: In this process the solid is converted into liquid state and liquid is converted into gas. These products
of treatment can then be used for the production of energy.
o Gasification: The material to be treated is directly converted into SynGas (synthetic gas) which has hydrogen
and carbon dioxide as its components.
 Bioremediation: Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade environ-
mental contaminants into less toxic forms.
o Bioremediation techniques are more economical than traditional methods and pollutants can be treated
on site, thus reducing exposure risks for personnel.
 Phytoremediation: It’s a plant based sustainable, cost efficient, and environment friendly technology. It uses
plants to get rid of contaminants from the environment.
 Vermiculture: It is also known as Earthworm farming. In this method, Earthworms are added to the compost.
These worms break the solid waste and along with the earthworms’ excreta, the compost becomes rich in
nutrients.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN INDIA’S WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:

According to MoEF&CC 62 million tonnes of waste is generated annually in the country by the 377 million people living
in urban India, the world’s third-largest garbage generator at present, out of which 5.6 million tonnes is plastic waste,
0.17 million tonnes is biomedical waste, hazardous waste generation is 7.90 million tonnes per annum and 15 lakh
tonnes is e-waste.
 The per capita waste generation in Indian cities ranges from 200 grams to 600 grams per day.
 Rapid urbanization: With rapid urbanisation, there is substantial increase in solid waste generation which has
strained the Solid Waste Management System.
o India generates: Over 150,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) per day.
o According to the World Bank, India’s daily waste generation will reach 377,000 tonnes by 2025.
 Efficient waste management: Most Urban local bodies in India struggle to provide efficient waste management
services due to financial problems, lack of infrastructure and technology.
o Waste collection and treatment: Only 83% of waste is collected and less than 30% is treated
 Issues with segregation: Though solid waste management rules mandate source segregation of wastes, it has
largely not been followed. Due to improper segregation of waste, much of recyclability of waste is lost.
 Disposal of waste: Most of the municipal authorities deposit solid waste at open dump sites without any leachate
treatment. These sites emanate foul smell and are breeding grounds for pests and insects causing disease. Liquid
seeping out of waste pollutes groundwater. Landfill sites are also responsible for air pollution.
 Processing/ recovery from waste: Most of the funds for solid waste management is allotted to collection and
transportation, with very less left for processing or resource recovery and disposal. Also many waste-to-energy
plants are non-operational.
 Waste management sector: The waste management sector in India is constituted primarily of the informal
workers who come from the urban poor. The rag pickers, who are instrumental in waste recycling, are highly
vulnerable to health damages owing to poor work conditions.
 Poor community participation: Apathy on the part of management and also poor community participation is a
major constraint in solid waste management in India.
SLUDGE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA:

 Nearly 80 % of the sludge — a human excreta and water mixture that bears disease carrying bacteria and
pathogens — remains untreated and is dumped into drains, lakes or rivers, posing a serious threat to safe and
healthy living.
 SECC 2011: 1,82,505 households in rural areas are reported as manual scavengers. They face serious health
hazards due to the absence of a proper disposal system or safety regulations in place.
 More than 70 % households: With safe sanitation facilities are based on such onsite systems, and in a majority of
cities there are no sewered networks or sewage treatment plants.
 National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP), 2008, emphasizes the need for proper collection, treatment and
disposal of septage from onsite installations.
NATIONAL POLICY ON FAECAL SLUDGE AND SEPTAGE MANAGEMENT (FSSM):

 To set the context, priorities, and direction: For and to facilitate, nationwide implementation of FSSM services in
all ULBs such that safe and sustainable sanitation becomes a reality for all in each and every household, street,
town and city.
 Enable and support synergies: Among relevant Central Government programs such as SBM, AMRUT and the Smart
Cities Mission to realise safe and sustainable sanitation for all at the earliest, possibly by the year 2019.
 Mitigate gender-based sanitation: Insecurity directly related to FSSM, reduce the experience of health burdens,
structural violence, and promote involvement of both genders in the planning for and design of sanitation
infrastructure.
 Roles and responsibilities: Of various government entities, agencies and key stakeholders such as the private
sector, civil society organisations and citizens for effective implementation of FSSM services throughout the
country.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016:

 Source segregation of waste: Rules have mandated the source segregation of waste in order to channelise the
waste to wealth by recovery, reuse and recycle.
 Waste generator: It will have the responsibility of segregating the waste into wet, dry and Hazardous. They will
have to pay a fine to the waste collector and a spot fine for littering around; the amount will be decided by the
local body.
 Waste processing facilities: It will have to be set up by all local bodies having 1 million or more population within
two years.
 Integration: Rules have mentioned about the integration of rag pickers, waste pickers and kabadiwalas from the
informal sector to the formal sector by the state government.
 Development: Developers of Special Economic Zone, industrial estate, industrial park to earmark at least 5 % of
the total area of the plot for recovery and recycling facility.
 Mandatory Segregation- All waste generators will have to segregate and store the waste generated by them under
three separate categories, in suitable bins before handing it over to authorised rag pickers or waste collectors.
These are: biodegradable, non-bio-degradable and domestic hazardous waste.
 Burning of Solid Waste has been prohibited.
 Rag pickers are to be integrated in the formal system.
 Collect Back scheme for packaging waste: As per the rules, brand owners who sale or market their products in
packaging material which are non‐biodegradable, should put in place a system to collect back the packaging waste
generated due to their production.
 Star Rating Protocol for Garbage Free Cities:
o Aim: It aims to enthuse the cities with a spirit of healthy competition to improve their overall cleanliness and
allow multiple cities to be awarded the same star rating. The major focus in the ratings will be on waste storage
and litter bins.
o Online database: An online database was also launched in order to capture the progress of states and cities
on their SBM components, thereby enhancing the robustness and transparency of Mission monitoring.
LIMITATIONS OF THE REVISED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES:

 No strict penalty: They fail to incentivize and impose a strict penalty in case of poor implementation.
 No decentralized management: The rules have not pushed for decentralized management of waste but have
encouraged centralized treatment such as waste to energy, the present state of which is not good in the country.
 Non-inclusion of informal sector: The informal sector has been considerably neglected in the new rules.
 Fine and monitoring: It is not clear about the fine amount to be imposed on plastic manufacturers or how the
monitoring system would be carried out.
 The SWM Rules, 2016 diminish hopes in pushing for adoption of a decentralised mechanism for solid waste
management.
RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE:

 Construction and demolition waste (C&D): It is generated during the construction, renovation, and demolition of
buildings or structures. Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules 2016 was released by the Ministry
of Environment.
 These wastes include materials: Such as concrete, bricks, wood and lumber, roofing, drywall, landscape and other
wastes.
 Defines duties: It clearly defines the duties of Waste Generator, Service providers and Contractors, State
Government and Local Authorities and Pollution Control boards.
 C&D’s potential: C&D wastes can revolutionize the construction industry, especially the Housing Industry, if they
are properly reused.
 Solid waste management buffer zone: It provides information on waste and emission minimisation and recycling
of waste.
WAY FORWARD-WASTE MANAGEMENT:

 Ensure proper segregation: The key to efficient waste management is to ensure proper segregation of waste at
source and to ensure that the waste goes through different streams of recycling and resource recovery.
 Installation of waste-to-compost and bio-methanation plants: Waste to energy is a key component of SWM.
Installation of waste-to-compost and bio-methanation plants would reduce the load of landfill sites.

 Encourage research and development: There is a need to encourage research and development so as to reinvent
the waste management system in India. The focus should be on recycling and recovering from waste and not
landfill. Further, it is important to encourage recycling of e-waste so that the problem of e-waste.
 Public- Private Partnership models: For waste management should be encouraged to create a better management
system.
 Laying down clear technical norms: It is important that Bio-mining and Bio-remediation is made compulsory for
areas wherever it can be applied. It shouldn’t be left to the discretion of municipalities to decide whether there
are geographical constraints that prevent the use of the aforementioned techniques.
 Scientific Capping: Capping, if it is inevitable, should be done scientifically with underground pits that have a good
bottom and sideliners, and proper piping and gas extraction systems to prevent the escape of leachate and gases.
 Decentralization of waste management: It is important that waste management is decentralized.
o Ambikapur in Chhattisgarh and Vellore present a very good example of the same where the waste was
collected in a decentralized manner, composted naturally and is planted.
 Implementing associated laws in their letter and spirit.
 Promote cyclic economy: by promoting the philosophy of reduce, reuse,6 8+recycle and refurbished.
o South Korea is one of the few countries to separate and recycle food waste. It has also launched landfill
recovery projects such as the Nanjido recovery project which have successfully transformed hazardous
waste sites into sustainable ecological attractions.
 Waste to energy generation: by using modern technologies like pyrolysis, gasification etc.
CONCLUSION:
 It is important that the decision-makers at all levels of government opt for more innovative and green approaches
rather than falling for the technology-extensive costly methods of waste disposal which are normally being lobbied
for by the manufacturers of such technologies.
HAZARDOUS WASTE
 "Hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of any of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable,
explosive or corrosive characteristics causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether
alone or when in contact with other wastes or substances.
HOW HAZARDOUS WASTE AFFECTS HUMAN HEALTH and Environment:

 The occurrence of adverse health effects: It is dependent on the way the hazardous chemical enters the body.
Some hazardous chemicals absorb rapidly through the skin, while others don’t at all.
 The toxicity of a chemical: It also determines the effect on the body. There are many hazardous chemicals that
are toxic in very small amounts, whereas others can have large volumes of exposure before there is a reaction.
 Hazardous waste and human body: Having hazardous chemicals in the human body causes adverse reactions to
all persons of the society.
o However, a fetus and young child is more susceptible to adverse reactions than an adult because their
developing organs may be permanently damaged.
o Valproate has been associated with a variety of major and minor malformations, including a 20-fold
increase in neural tube defects, cleft lip and palate, cardiovascular abnormalities, genitourinary defects,
developmental delay, endocrinological disorders, limb defects, and autism.
 Some potential health conditions in people of all ages include: Behavior abnormalities, Cancer, Physiological
malfunctions (e.g., kidney failure, reproductive impairment), Genetic mutations, Physical deformations, Birth
defects.
 Impact on water quality: When chemicals make their way into our rivers and lakes, they make this water unsafe
for drinking. Animals drinking this water will get sick and die, and plants that rely on the water will be destroyed.
o Ultimately, the hazardous waste will have limited the ability of the surrounding ecosystem to survive.
 Forest fire: Some hazardous waste is flammable. It has the potential to ignite or explode, causing a fire. In the
wrong circumstances, this could result in widespread wildlife death and damage to the environment, which
could take years to put right.
 Mutations in Wildlife: Evidence has been released suggesting certain fish that habitually swim in severely polluted
estuaries along the US East Coast, have mutated to develop a strong resistance to hazardous waste.

 Short- and Long-Term Effects: Sometimes substances produce toxic effects after just one release — this is what
we refer to as “acute toxicity”.
o chronic toxicity: However, other substances begin to have a significant impact after a certain period and
prolonged exposure.
o As an example, we can look to toxins such as lead and mercury. When these toxins are present in the
environment for many years, they accumulate. Wildlife and people then absorb these toxic substances
when they eat fish or other prey — resulting in damaging, long-term effects on the environment.
ISSUES IN HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT:

 ISSUES SPECIFIC TO INDIA: There is a fairly comprehensive legal and regulatory framework in place in India to
address its hazardous waste management. Some of these challenges includes:
o Lack of Financial Resources
o Shortage of Staff and skilled human resources
o Lack of Standardized Protocols and Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs)
o Lack of competent legal authority.
 OTHER ISSUES:
o UNEP Report: Much of the 40 million tonnes of electronic waste produced around the world like old
smartphones, TVs, laptops and obsolete kitchen appliances etc. finds its way illegally to Asia and Africa every
year.
o Illegal trade: Close to 90 per cent of the world's electronic waste - worth nearly $19 billion - is illegally traded
or dumped each year, to destinations halfway across the world.
o West and East: While the European Union, the U.S. and Japan are the primary origins of e-waste shipments,
China, India, Malaysia and Pakistan are the main destinations.
o In Africa, Ghana and Nigeria are the biggest recipients of e-waste. Illegal trade is driven by the
relatively low costs of shipment and the high costs of treatment in the developed countries.
o Toxic time bomb: The vast majority of illegal e-waste ends up in landfills, incinerators, and in ill-equipped
recycling facilities. What is not reusable is simply dumped as waste, creating immense problems and leading
to what has been described as a 'toxic time bomb’.
o Asian cities catching up: While Europe and North America are by far the largest producers of e-waste, Asia's
cities are fast catching up as consumers of electronic goods and as generators of e-waste.
CAUSE OF HAZARDOUS WASTE:

 Improper disposal of hazardous waste: It may pose serious risks to human health and the environment. For
example, waste that is disposed of improperly may leach into the groundwater, where they may cause long term
contamination of a region's water supply.
 Agriculture and hazardous waste: Hazardous waste have particularly serious consequences in agricultural
communities, which depend on groundwater aquifers for irrigation and personal consumption.
 Contamination due to improper disposal of hazardous waste: It can also be harmful in urban areas, especially
slums, if untreated waste flows into open drains and enters water distribution systems.
 Others: They may cause inadequate storage, transportation, or treatment.
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES OR CONTAMINANTS IN THE MUNICIPAL WASTE STREAM:

 Components of electronic waste: Such as cadmium and lead and PVC sheathing on cables.
 Household chemicals: Such as bleach, oven cleaners, mineral turpentine and paints.
 Nano sized ingredients: Products incorporating nanoparticles such as zinc and titanium oxide in sunscreen and
cosmetics and skin gel containing nano silver.
 Commercial and industrial waste stream: Hazardous substances in the commercial and industrial waste stream
(e.g., chemicals, heavy metals).
 Construction and demolition waste stream: Hazardous materials in the construction and demolition waste stream
(e.g., Asbestos).
 Others: Outside those waste streams bi-solids, particularly sewage sludge, may be contaminated by a range of
household chemicals, heavy metals and pharmaceuticals.

INTERNATIONAL INTERVENTIONS ON HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT:

 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: Aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of
persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are defined as “chemical substances that persist in the environment,
bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the
environment”.
 Basel Convention: It is to prevent the transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries
(LDCs).
o However, it does not address the movement of radioactive waste.
o The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their
environmentally sound management, and to assist LDCs in the environmentally sound management of the
hazardous and other wastes they generate.
 Rotterdam Convention: PIC is one of the main provisions of the Rotterdam Convention of 1998 that states that
parties that are importing the chemicals as listed in Annex III of the Convention have to formally obtain and
disseminate the decision of receiving future shipments of such chemicals.
HAZARDOUS AND OTHER WASTES (MANAGEMENT & TRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT) RULES, 2016
 The rules make state governments responsible: For environmentally sound management of hazardous and other
wastes and mandate them to set up industrial space or sheds for recycling, pre-processing and other utilization of
hazardous or other waste.
 Prohibit waste import: Solid plastic waste has been prohibited from import into the country including in Special
Economic Zones (SEZ) and by Export Oriented Units (EOU).
 Producers and consumers of electronic goods: They have a responsibility under the E-waste (Management and
Handling) Rules 2011 to ensure proper disposal, but progress has been slow for various reasons.
 The onus on garbage management: It would continue to be the responsibility of municipal bodies; they would be
allowed to charge user fees and levy spot fines for littering and non-segregation.
 Making it incumbent on a wide variety of groups: Hotels, residential colonies, large bulk producers of consumer
goods, ports, railway stations, airports and pilgrimage spots to ensure that the solid waste generated in their
facilities are treated and recycled.
 New rules distinguish hazardous waste from others waste: Such as waste tyre, paper waste, metal scrap and used
electronic items
 India has banned the various imports: Of solid plastic waste, including PET bottles, as part of new hazardous waste
management rules that aims to prevent the country from becoming a dumping yard for industrialized nations.
 Single window clearance: Procedure has been simplified to merge all the approvals as a single window clearance
for setting up of hazardous waste disposal facility and import of other wastes.
 States must also submit annual reports: Regarding implementation of these rules to the environment ministry.
This is because workers employed in unscientific hazardous waste management practices suffer from neurological
disorders, skin diseases, genetic defects and cancer.
 Annual inventory: The rules also mandate state pollution control boards to prepare an annual inventory of the
waste generated, recycled, recovered, utilised including co-processed, waste re-exported and waste disposed.
Analysis of the Rules:

 Extended Producers' Responsibility (EPR): The MoEFCC has notified e-waste management rules, 2016, in which
producers are for the first time covered under EPR.
o The rules prescribe a waste collection target of 30 per cent waste generated under EPR for the first two
years, progressively going up to 70 per cent in the seventh year of the rule.
 Rules prescribe stringent financial penalties for non-compliance: However, the study said the unorganised sector
in India is estimated to handle around 95 per cent of the e-waste produced in the country.
 Environment Ministry has tightened rules: By putting the onus on manufacturers, dealers, retailers and
refurbishes of electronic goods to ensure that electronic or e-waste goods are collected and "scientifically"
recycled.
 Experts welcomed the ban on import of plastic waste: But cautioned about allowing used electronic items as e-
waste is already a huge problem in India. As per official estimates, every day, 15,000 tonnes of plastic waste are
generated in India of which only 9,000 tonnes are collected and processed.
 Resource recovery and disposal of hazardous waste in an environmentally sound manner: The rules are
environment and industry-friendly.
o The provisions of the new rules are in line with this government's priority for Ease of Doing Business and
Make in India, but with responsible concerns for sustainable development.
WAY FORWARD:
 Fostering environmentally sound recycling and conservation of resources,
 Making the rules easier to understand,
 Facilitating better compliance, and
 Providing flexibility in how certain hazardous waste is managed.
 Each hazardous waste needs to be treated and disposed of in different ways.
 Reuse products if it’s safe to do so. For example, paint thinner that has been used to clean paint brushes can be
strained and reused.
HAZARDOUS WASTE RECYCLING, TREATMENT, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL:

 Recycling hazardous waste has a variety of benefits: It includes reducing the consumption of raw materials and
the volume of waste materials that must be treated and disposed of.
o However, improper storage of those materials might cause spills, leaks, fires, and contamination of soil
and drinking water.
 Treatment Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs):
o It provides temporary storage and final treatment or disposal for hazardous wastes.
o Since they manage large volumes of waste and conduct activities that may present a higher degree of risk,
TSDFs are strictly regulated.
o The TSDF requirements establish generic facility management standards, specific provisions governing
hazardous waste management units and additional precautions designed to protect soil, ground water and air
resources.
BIO-MEDICAL WASTE
 According to Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules of India "Any waste which is generated during
the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto
or in the production or testing of biologicals”.
FEW FACTS:
 CPCB report: According to a report filed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India generates about 101
Metric Tonnes per day (MT/day) of COVID-19 related bio-medical waste in addition to the regular bio-medical
waste generation of about 609 MT per day.
 Hazardous waste: It has been found that only 15% of the bio-medical waste that is generated is hazardous.
However, all the waste needs to be treated.
 Waste from the hospitals: By a hospital, the quantum of waste that is generated in India is estimated to be 1-2 kg
per bed per day in a hospital and 600 gm per day per bed in a general practitioner's clinic.
 Total bio-medical waste generation in the country: It is 484 Tonnes Per Day (TPD) from 1,68,869 healthcare
facilities (HCF), out of which 447 TPD is treated.
BIO-MEDICAL WASTE CONSISTS OF:

 Biomedical waste is not limited to medical instruments; it includes medicine, waste stored in red biohazard bags,
and materials used for patient care, such as cotton and Band-Aids.
KEY FEATURES OF BIO-MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES 2016 (AMENDED IN 2018):

 Widened jurisdiction: The ambit of the rules was widened to include vaccination camps, blood donation camps,
surgical camps etc.
 Pre-treatment of waste: Waste generated in laboratories, microbiological waste, blood samples and blood bags
to be pre-treated through disinfection or sterilisation on-site in the manner as prescribed by WHO.

o Bhopal Municipal Corporation (BMC) and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) have signed an
agreement to set up the country’s first e-waste clinic in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
 Phasing out: Of use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves and blood bags by March 2019.
 Better segregation: Bio-medical waste has been classified into 4 categories: Untreated human anatomical waste,
Animal anatomical waste, Soiled waste and Biotechnology waste.
 Storage of waste: Provision within the premises for a safe, ventilated and secured location for storage of
segregated biomedical waste.
 Training: Regular Training and Immunisation of all health care workers.
 Ensure proper Transportation: And handling of waste without any adverse effect to the human health and the
environment
 Record maintenance and monitoring: Of the activities related to bio-medical waste management.
 Establish GPS and Bar-coding facility: At Common biomedical waste treatment facility.
 Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs) shall apply to the Central Pollution Control board (CPCB) for
registration to undertake activities prescribed in the Rules.
 Separate e-waste collection targets have been drafted for new producers, i.e., those producers whose number
of years of sales operation is less than the average lives of their products.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH POOR HEALTH CARE WASTE MANAGEMENT:

 Various injuries: From sharps to all categories of health care personnel and waste handlers.
 Increase risk of infections: To medical, nursing and other hospital staff. Increase in risk associated with hazardous
chemicals and drugs being handled by persons handling wastes.
 Poor infection control: It can lead to nosocomial infections in patients particularly HIV, Hepatitis B & C.
 Poor waste management: It encourages unscrupulous persons to recycle disposables and disposed drugs for
repackaging and reselling.
 Resistant development: Development of resistant strains of microorganisms.
 Health-care waste contains potentially harmful microorganisms that can infect hospital patients, health workers
and the general public.
o Other potential hazards may include drug-resistant microorganisms which spread from health facilities
into the environment.
 air pollution arising as a result of the release of particulate matter during medical waste incineration.
BIOMEDICAL WASTE TREATMENT

 According to the recommendations of WHO and other health organizations, hazardous medical waste should be
treated as close as possible to the point of its production (operating theatres, laboratories, etc.).
o This requires responsibility from all hospital employees involved in the process, so that the segregation of
the waste is performed at the stage of its generation.
 Various methods for biomedical waste treatment are:
o Incineration: Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained
in waste materials.
o Industrial plants for waste incineration are commonly referred to as waste-to-energy facilities.
o Chemical disinfection: Chemical disinfection consists of adding a disinfectant (generally a strong oxidant) to
the water, which reacts with the organic matter and microbial organisms. Most frequent chemical disinfection
compounds are chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and chloramines.
o Wet (autoclaving) and dry thermal treatment: Wet thermal—or steam—disinfection is based on exposure of
shredded infectious waste to high-temperature, high-pressure steam, and is similar to the autoclave
sterilization process.
o Microwave irradiation: Disinfection with microwave irradiation occurs mainly through the combination of
moisture and (low) heat.
o In contrast to microwaves, the heat for autoclaves is generated outside of the waste material, and
thus the material to be treated is heated starting from the surface.
o Land disposal: The discharge, deposit or injection of any waste onto or into the soil or other land surfaces.

o Inertization: The process of inertization involves mixing waste with cement and other substances before
disposal, in order to minimize the risk of toxic substances contained in the wastes migrating into the surface
water or groundwater.
CONCLUSION:
 Scientific disposal of Biomedical Waste through segregation, collection and treatment in an environmentally sound
manner minimizes the adverse impact on health workers and on the environment.
E-WASTE
 E-Waste refers to all items of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by
its owner as waste without the intent of re-use.
FACTS AND FIGURES:

 Biggest contributors to the level of e-waste at present: They are household appliances such as irons, vacuum
cleaners, washing machines and fridges. But the rapidly-growing "Internet of things" - internet-connected gadgets
- is expected to generate e-waste at a faster rate, as connectivity becomes embedded into everyday items.
 UN Report: 50 million tonnes of e-waste generated every year will more than double to 110 million tonnes by
2050, making it the fastest growing waste stream in the world.
 India and electronic waste generation: India is the third largest electronic waste generator in the world after
China and the USA as per the Global E-waste Monitor 2020.
MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTE IN INDIA

 First law on e-waste management: The government passed the first law on e-waste management in 2011, based
on Extended Producer Responsibility. However, it did not set collection targets.
 The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016: They were enacted in supersession of the 2011 Rules.
o A manufacturer, dealer, refurbished and Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) were also brought under
the ambit of these Rules.
o PRO is a professional organization authorized or financed collectively or individually by producers, which can
take the responsibility for collection and channelization of e-waste generated from their products to ensure
environmentally sound management.
 Amendments of The E-Waste Management Rules, 2016: Objective of E-Waste (Management) Amendment Rules,
2018 is to channelize the e-waste generated in the country towards authorized dismantlers and recyclers in order
to further formalize the e-waste recycling sector.
 India’s first E-waste clinic: It is going to be set up in Bhopal that would enable segregation, processing and disposal
of waste from both household and commercial units.
 International Best practice: In October 2019, the EU adopted new Right to Repair standards, which means that
from 2021 firms will have to make appliances longer-lasting, and will have to supply spare parts for machines for
up to 10 years.
 Producer Responsibility Organisation: It is an organisation that helps producers meet their EPR targets through
various recyclers and dismantlers.
 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) It is a strategy designed to promote the integration of environmental
costs associated with goods throughout their life cycles into the market price of the products. Three basic
objectives of EPR:
1. Manufacturers shall be incentivised to improve the environmental design of their products and the
environmental performance of supplying those products.
2. Products should achieve a high utilisation rate.
3. Materials should be preserved through effective and environmentally-sound collection, treatment.
ISSUES WITH E WASTE:

 Hazardous to human health: E-waste consists of toxic substances such as liquid crystal, lithium, mercury, nickel,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), selenium, arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, lead etc.
o These pollutants are not taken care of properly, or they are taken care of by an informal sector and
recycled without properly protecting the workers.
 Environmental effects of e-waste:

o The toxic materials from electronic devices are released into bodies of water, groundwater, soil and air,
affecting both land and sea animals.
o Improper management of e-waste also contributes to global warming. A total of 98 Mt of CO2 equivalents
were released into the atmosphere from discarded fridges and air conditioners that were not managed in an
environmentally sound manner.
 Low recycling capacity: Almost all e-wastes contain some form of recyclable material, including plastic, glass, and
metals; however, due to improper disposal methods and techniques these materials cannot be retrieved for other
purposes. Only 17.4% of the total e-waste was collected and recycled globally.
 Dumping in Developing countries:
o A large amount of e-waste from developed countries is dumped into developing countries impacting the
environment and the health of the people there.
o Even with International treaties such as Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes, illegal shipment and dumping of e-wastes continue to take place.
MEASURES TO MANAGE E-WASTE:

 Formal collection of e waste: By the designated organizations, producers, and/or the government via retailers,
municipal collection points, and/or pick-up services.
 Recycling e-waste: Recycling e-waste enables us to recover various valuable metals and other materials from
electronics, saving natural resources (energy), reducing pollution, conserving landfill space, and creating jobs.
o The value of raw materials in the global e-waste generated in 2019 is equal to approximately $57
billion USD.
 E-waste Legislation: Governments around the world are developing national e-waste policies and legislation that
lay out plans or courses of action and indicate, in a non-binding manner, what can be achieved by a society,
institution, or company. India passed the first law on e-waste management in 2011.
 E-waste data need: Understanding the quantities and flows of e-waste provides a basis for monitoring, controlling,
and ultimately preventing illegal transportation, dumping, and improper treatment of e-waste.
 Create awareness: On the environmental benefits of recycling among consumers.
 Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has initiated an e-waste awareness programme
under Digital India, to create awareness among the public about the hazards of e-waste recycling by the
unorganised sector, and to educate them about alternate methods of disposing their e-waste.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE HAZARDOUS AND OTHER WASTES (MANAGEMENT & TRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT)
AMENDMENT RULES, 2019:
 Solid plastic waste: It has been prohibited from import into the country including in Special Economic Zones (SEZ)
and by Export Oriented Units (EOU).
 Exporters of silk waste: They have now been given exemption from requiring permission from the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
 Electrical and electronic assemblies and components: Manufactured in and exported from India, if found
defective, can now be imported back into the country, within a year of export, without obtaining permission from
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
 Industries which do not require consent: Under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 and Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, are now exempted from requiring authorization also under the
Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management & Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, provided that hazardous
and other wastes generated by such industries are handed over to the authorized actual users, waste collectors
or disposal facilities.
CONCLUSION:
 In India, the amount of E-waste generated is rising rapidly. With the increasing dependence on electronic and
electrical equipment, the rise of E-waste generation is well expected in the country. However, the management
of the same is a major challenge faced by the country. Indians are still to realize the associations between the
cause of generation of E-waste and its effects including detrimental health and environmental effects.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: WASTE MANAGEMENT


1. WASTE-TO-ENERGY CONSERVATION
 Context: Recently Karnataka Chief Minister B.S. Yediyurappa laid the foundation stone for a 11.5 MW waste-to-
energy plant near Bidadi. This plant is expected to process 600 tonnes per day of inorganic waste.
 The waste-to-energy plants usually accept the RDF material generated in organic composting plants. They also
segregate the wet and inorganic material near the plant, convert organic waste to compost, and inorganic waste
to energy.
NEED OF SUCH PLANTS:

 Varieties of waste generation in Bengaluru: It generates close to 5,000 tonnes of waste daily, of which about
2,500 tonnes is organic, about 1,000 tonnes inert material (sweeping waste) and 1,500 tonnes inorganic.
 Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF): This inorganic material, which consists of bad quality plastics and used cloth pieces,
can be processed as RDF. This material has a calorific value of more than 2,500 kJ/kg, and can be used to generate
steam energy, which can be converted into electric energy instead of burning coal and other materials used in
traditional waste-to-energy plants.
 Present situation of inorganic waste: At present, Inorganic waste that is not fit for recycling are landfilled or left
unhandled in waste plants and cause fire accidents.
 Proposed plant value: The proposed plant can source 600 tonnes per day of this RDF and generate 11.5 MW of
power equivalent to 2.4 lakh units of power per day.
 Plant significance: This will reduce the city’s dependency on unscientific landfills, reduce fire accidents, and
provide a permanent solution to recover value from inorganic waste.
CHALLENGES FACED BY WASTE TO ENERGY PLANTS IN INDIA:

 Poor quality of waste: The Waste to Energy plants require fine inorganic material with less than 5% moisture and
less than 5% silt and soil contents, whereas the moisture and inert content in the mixed waste generated in the
city is more than 15%-20%.
 Lack of segregation at source: Since segregation at source doesn’t happen in the city, the collected waste material
needs to be sieved using 80mm-100 mm sieving machines, which lets through organic material with more than
80mm-100 mm particle sizes into the inorganic waste. In addition, the sticky silt and soil particles will also reduce
the calorific value.
 Cost of Power is high: Generally, the tariff at which the power is purchased by energy plants across the country is
around ₹7-8 KwH which is higher than the ₹3-4 per KwH generated through coal and other means.
3. POLYCRACK TECHNOLOGY
 Context: The country’s first Government-owned Waste-to-Energy Plant was recently commissioned at the
Mancheswar Carriage Repair Workshop in Odisha.
ABOUT POLYCRACK:
 It is the world’s very first patented heterogeneous catalytic process which converts multiple feedstocks into
hydrocarbon liquid fuels, gas, carbon as well as water.
 The waste generated will become the feeder material for the waste to energy plant.
 The energy which will be produced at the plant, will be in the form of light diesel oil and this oil will be used to
light furnaces.

GLOBAL WARMING
INTRODUCTION
 Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the
troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global climate patterns.
 Global warming can occur from a variety of causes, both natural and human induced.
 In common usage, “global warming” often refers to the warming that can occur as a result of increased emissions
of greenhouse gases from human activities.
 Due to this, there are variations in climatic patterns leading to floods, cyclones, storms, water scarcity and
desertification. The additional changes are melting of the glaciers, erosion of the soil systems and rise in sea levels
etc.
UNDERSTANDING GREENHOUSE EFFECT

 The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets the earth's lower atmosphere and
warms it, maintaining the temperature suitable for living things to survive.
 Just as greenhouses, that keeps the air warm inside its chamber, water vapor and greenhouse gases warm the
Earth.
 Around 75% of the solar energy that reaches the earth is absorbed by the earth’s surface while the rest of it
radiates back to the atmosphere without which the planet would be too cold for humans.
 Some of it is trapped by the gases in the atmosphere which are called greenhouse gases and mostly by carbon
dioxide.
GREENHOUSE GASES (GHG)

 Water vapour: Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere. In the warm and wet tropics, it may account
for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less
than one per cent of the air.
o It absorbs both incoming (a part of incoming) and outgoing solar radiation.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial
radiation.
o It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is
largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
o Concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2): Reached 413.2 parts per million in 2020 and is 149% of the pre-
industrial level, as per the GREENHOUSE GAS BULLETIN.
 Ozone (O3): It is in very small proportions at the surface. Most of it is confined to the stratosphere where it absorbs
the harmful UV radiation. At ground level, pollutants like NO2 react with volatile organic compounds in the
presence of sunlight to produce ozone (tropospheric ozone).
 Methane (CH4): It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes and biological matter. The emission of this
gas can be restricted by using animal wastes and biological matter to produce gobar gas (methane).
o ACCORDING TO THE GLOBAL METHANE ASSESSMENT, Methane’s atmospheric concentration has more
than doubled since pre-industrial times
 Nitrous Oxide (N2O): NO and NO2 emissions cause global cooling through the formation of (OH) radicals that
destroy methane molecules, countering the effect of GHGs.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO): It is a short-lived greenhouse gas. It has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating
concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with other atmospheric
constituents that would otherwise destroy them.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their part in ozone depletion.
 Hydrofluorocarbons: Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, and fire
retardants. These chemicals were developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Sulphur hexafluoride: Sulphur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing,
as well as a tracer gas for leak detection.

 According to the GREENHOUSE GAS BULLETIN, from 1990 to 2020, radiative forcing – the warming effect on our
climate - by long-lived greenhouse gases increased by 47%, with CO2 accounting for about 80% of this increase.
IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT

 'Greenhouse gases' are crucial to keeping our planet at a
suitable temperature for life. Without the natural greenhouse
effect, the heat emitted by the Earth would simply pass
outwards from the Earth's surface into space and the Earth
would have an average temperature of about -20°C.
MITIGATION MEASURES
EMISSION NORMS FOR THERMAL POWER PLANTS

 In 2015, the MoEFCC notified specific standards for the
thermal power plants (TPPs) to control the emissions under
“Environment (Protection) Amendment Rules, 2015”. The
deadline for the same has been extended to 2022 for over 300 such units.
 The emission norms provide different mechanisms to reduce the emissions and usage of water such as:
o Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) process for controlling SOx emissions.
o Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system for controlling NOx
emissions.
o Electro-Static Precipitators (ESPs) are to be deployed for control of particulate matter (PM) in thermal power
stations.
o Installation of cooling towers in order to change over to closed cooling water systems for controlling water
consumption.
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
 Carbon sequestration is the process of capture and long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide to mitigate
global warming and to avoid dangerous impacts of climate change.
 The Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) chain consists of three parts:
1. Capturing the carbon dioxide,
2. Transporting the carbon dioxide, and
3. Securely storing the carbon dioxide emissions, underground in depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline
aquifer formations.
TYPES OF SEQUESTRATION:
 Terrestrial Sequestration: Trees are natural sequesters of carbon, they take carbon from the atmosphere, utilize
it in the process of photosynthesis as well as store it in the form of biomass or wood.
 Wetland restoration: Wetland soil is an important natural carbon pool or sink. Wetlands conserve 14.5 % of the
soil carbon found in the world. But only 6 % of the world’s land is composed of wetland.
 Ocean Sequestration: Oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere because the concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere is greater than that in the oceans. This difference in partial pressure of CO2 results in the gas being
absorbed into the world's oceans.
 Subterranean injection or Geological sequestration: Carbon dioxide can be injected into depleted oil and gas
reservoirs and other geological features, or can be injected into the deep ocean.
POTENTIAL OF ARTIFICIAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION:

 Faster Sequestration: Natural sequestration is a slow process compared to artificial sequestration. Thus, it can
complement natural sequestering to achieve goals which are necessary to fight climate change.
 Increase in Productivity: Enhanced agricultural yield and better oil recovery as a result of stored carbon in
underground chambers such as old oil reservoirs, aquifers and coal seams.
 Employment Generation: This new and emerging field is attracting private players and venture capitalists, which
in turn can help in employment generation.
CHALLENGES OF ARTIFICIAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION:

 Lack of technology: A growing number of corporations are pouring money into so-called engineered carbon
removal techniques. However, these technologies are at a nascent stage and need an overhaul to be exploited.
 High Cost: Carbon removal technologies remain too expensive for widespread use. Artificial carbon sequestration
is costly, energy intensive, relatively untested and has no other side benefits.
 Environmental Concerns: Carbon dioxide may be stored deep underground. Reservoir design faults, rock fissures,
and tectonic processes may act to release the gas stored into the ocean or atmosphere leading to unintended
consequences such as ocean acidification etc.
CARBON SINK
 A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon that it releases, while a carbon source is anything that
releases more carbon than is absorb
 Forests, soils, oceans and the atmosphere all store carbon and this carbon moves between them in a continuous
cycle. This constant movement of carbon means that forests act as sources or sinks at different times.
 Natural sinks: Oceans (Largest on earth) + Photosynthesis by plants.
o Oceans are the largest active carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide
that humans put into the air.
 Artificial sinks: Landfills + Carbon capture and storage proposals.
CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGY TO REDUCE CO2 IN ATMOSPHERE

 Energy is crucial for economic growth, global prosperity and equity, but unsustainable use of energy resources
is also associated with environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, which is largely responsible for
global warming and climate change.
 Presently, Coal is regarded as the dirtiest energy resource with the highest carbon emission coefficient, but it
plays a vital role in electricity generation worldwide.
 CCTs are technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal
throughout the stages of coal life cycle i.e., Conditioning of coal before use  Efficient technology choices during
combustion  Post combustion carbon capture.
IMPORTANCE:
 Dominance of coal: Coal is the world's most abundant and widely distributed fossil fuel source. of energy (~37%)
and it is believed that coal-generated energy will remain part of the global energy mix in the near future.
 Emissions from coal will exacerbate local and regional pollution problems like acid rain & increased ground-level
ozone levels and global climate change unless cleaner and more efficient coal technologies are used.
 Sustainable Development: Moving the current average global efficiency rate of coal-fired power plants from 33%
to 40% could cut two gigatons of CO2 emissions, while allowing affordable energy for economic and social
development.
HIGH EFFICIENCY LOW EMISSION (HELE) TECHNOLOGIES:

 Pre-combustion preparatory technologies:

o Coal Washing (also called as Coal Beneficiation): This method removes unwanted minerals by mixing crushed
coal with a liquid and allowing the impurities to separate and settle.
o Low NOx burners: Any fuel that is burned in high enough temperatures will form NOX. These burners reduce
the creation of nitrogen oxides, by restricting oxygen and manipulating the combustion process.
 Combustion methodologies for efficiency improvement:
o Fluidized bed combustion (FBC): FBC boilers typically allow the fuels to stay inside the boiler much longer than
other boilers, which ensures more complete combustion.
o Coal Gasification: It bypasses the conventional coal burning process altogether by converting coal into a gas.
o Supercritical and ultra-supercritical power plants: Traditional Thermal Power plants i.e. Subcritical power
plants have an efficiency of around 35%.
 Non-GHG emission reduction technologies:
o Flue gas desulfurization ("FGDs" or "scrubbers"): It controls the coal burn to minimize emissions of sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates by spraying flue gas with limestone and water.
o Electrostatic precipitators (EP): Removes particulates that aggravate asthma and cause respiratory ailments
by using electric fields to attract charged particles in the flue gas then capturing them on collection plates.
BS-VI INITIATIVE
 Bharat Stage norms are the automotive emission norms which the automotive manufacturers have to comply
with to sell their vehicles in India.
 According to the BS–VI norms only those vehicles will be sold and registered in India from 1st April 2020 onwards,
which comply with these norms.
DATA/FACTS:
 According to the United Nations, 9 out of 10 people on the planet are now breathing polluted air.
 As per WHO, this polluted air has led to a growing global health crisis, causing about 7 million deaths per year.
 In India, air pollution kills one lakh children under the age of five every year and is responsible for 12.5% of all
deaths in the country.
IMPORTANCE:
 Reduce air pollution: By reducing toxic substances in the air, BS-VI will help reduce air pollution.
 Reduce Nitrous Oxide: BS-VI will reduce NOx drastically, thus improving air quality.
 Reduction of harmful emission: The lower sulphur in BS VI will help reduce harmful exhaust emissions like NO2,
CO, SO2.
 Low density of oil will reduce air pollution: The new standard requires that the use of sulphur in diesel should
come down to 10 PPM, this change will affect the density of diesel oil resulting in the improvement in the quality
of oil as well as help reduce air pollution.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES:

 High Production cost: Making automobiles BS VI compatible will increase the cost of production for the
manufacturing companies which in turn will make the vehicles costlier for the buyers.
 Fuel: Using a pre-BS IV car using BS VI fuel can be detrimental to the engine life. There may be trouble with
injection pumps, oil seals and injectors leading to higher wear and tear, consequently higher emissions.
 No scrap policy for old vehicles: It is said that by 2020, all vehicles that will be seen on Indian roads would have
BS VI engines, however, the government has not announced any new rule for old vehicles, a scrap policy for
outdated automobiles.

CONCLUSION:
 Upgrading to stricter fuel standards helps tackle air pollution. Global automakers are betting big on India as vehicle
penetration is still low here, when compared to developed countries. The experience of countries such as China
and Malaysia show that poor air quality can be bad for business. Therefore, these reforms can put India ahead in
the race for investments too.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
2. AGRICULTURAL EMISSIONS IN INDIA

 In News: Recently the Union Government launched the Green-Ag Project to reduce emissions from agriculture.
 While the agriculture sector is responsible for climate change due to GHG emissions, it is also severely impacted
by the effects of changing climate. Climate change is also threatening India’s agricultural growth with frequent dry
spells, heat waves and erratic rainfall.
DATA/FACTS:
 In India, agriculture and livestock accounts for 18% of Gross National Emissions, the third-highest sector after
energy and industry.
 Out of this more than 85% of emissions are due to cattle production system, rice cultivation and ruminant meat
and remaining 15% comes from other crops and nitrous oxide emitted from fertilisers.
 Most of the GHG emission from Indian agriculture takes places from states like Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, West
Bengal etc.
SOURCE OF EMISSIONS:
 Enteric fermentation: Methane (CH4) emissions from enteric fermentation is a major source of GHGs emission.
Microbes in the digestive tract, or rumen, decompose and ferment food, producing methane as a by-product.
 Rice cultivation: GHG emissions from rice cultivation consist of methane gas from the anaerobic decomposition
of organic matter in paddy fields due to standing water in the rice fields.
 Manure management: Manure contains two chemical components that can lead to greenhouse gas emissions
during storage and processing, organic matter that can be converted into methane and nitrogen that leads to
nitrous oxide emissions.
 Synthetic fertilisers: GHG emissions from synthetic fertilisers such as urea consist of nitrous oxide gas from
synthetic nitrogen additions to managed soils due to volatilisation.
 Crop residues: GHG emissions from crop residues consist of nitrous oxide gas deriving from the decomposition of
nitrogen in crop residues and burning of crop residues. E.g., Stubble burning in the outskirts of Delhi causing rise
of particulate matter.
 Energy use: Irrigation uses highly inefficient water pumps and accounts for around 70% of the energy consumption
of agriculture causing emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide gases.
CHALLENGES:
 High population & demand: The demand for food grain production to feed the growing population of India has
substantially increased which creates a challenge for sustainable agriculture.
 Unfair government policies: Highly subsidised nitrogen-based fertilizers in India lead to farmers overreliance on
nitrogen-based fertilizers which are a major source of nitrogenous emissions.
 Poor agro-tech advancement: Farmers’ adoption of the technology largely depends on the socio-economic and
political environment, hence farmers with poor socio-economic conditions cannot adopt it.
 Lack of knowledge: To implement available technologies adequate dissipation of knowledge among the farming
community is lacking.

GOVERNMENT MEASURES:
 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: India’s National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), among
eight NAPCC missions, aims to tackle agricultural emissions and enhance food security.
 Neem Coated Urea: A policy introduced in 2015 made neem coating of urea compulsory to reduce nitrous oxide
emissions.
 Soil health cards to use fertilizers efficiently and according to the need of soil.
 Reduce emission from energy: India has installed 200,000 solar water pumps and another 2.5 million are planned
to reduce emissions from energy use in agriculture.
 Creating sustainable and climate-resilient agricultural systems is part of India’s plan to meet a pledge to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change international treaty to reduce the emissions intensity
of its GDP by up to 35% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.
 Green India Mission, launched in 2014, which aims to expand tree cover by 5 million hectares and increase the
quality of another 5m hectares of existing cover in 10 years.
 The Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF): Concept introduced in Andhra Pradesh in 2015 is a low-input, climate-
resilient type of farming that encourages farmers to use low-cost locally sourced inputs. It eliminates the use of
chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
WAY FORWARD:
 Focus on agriculture for inclusive growth: If India is aiming to transition to a green economy and achieve its
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it will have to pay greater attention to the agricultural sector.
 Incentivization towards climate-smart crops: Instead of encouraging resource intensive cultivation through
inputs-based subsidies, align incentives towards resource conservation while rewarding outcomes and not merely
outputs such as yields.
 Sustainable alternative to chemical farming: Concepts such as Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA),
which seek to optimise the use of locally available resources replacing external inputs is receiving increased
attention as a sustainable alternative to chemical farming.
 Technological measures: Adoption of zero tillage (no-till farming) to minimise disturbing the soil by tillage and
reduce emissions from fuel that would have been consumed for tillage operations.
 Enabling environment: However, in the long run, switching to a more robust alternative for sustainable agriculture
will require building an enabling environment with better income support for the farmers.
 Focus on food and nutritional security: The government could then supply the nutritious, climate-smart food-
grains to its citizens utilising its PDS and mid-day meal scheme, thereby ensuring food and nutritional security.
 Institutional measures: Strengthening of private and public research and development for sustainable
development of agriculture.
 Mass awareness about climate change, global warming, and the role of the livestock sector in climate change and
the impact of climate change on the livestock sector.
CONCLUSION:
 With increasing population and the need to enhance food production, one has to address the challenge of meeting
the growing demand for food production while controlling and reducing the GHG emissions from agriculture.
MONTREAL PROTOCOL (1989): KIGALI AMENDMENT

 It is an international treaty that regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals
referred to as ozone depleting substances (ODS).
 The ODS, when released to the atmosphere, damage the ‘stratospheric ozone layer’ that protects the earth against
the harmful levels of UV radiation from the sun.
 It mandated the complete phase-out of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs and other ODS.

KIGALI AMENDMENT TO MONTREAL PROTOCOL:

 The Kigali Amendment aims for the phase-down of HFCs by cutting their production and consumption.
 The goal is to achieve over 80% reduction in HFC consumption by 2047.
 Given their zero impact on the depletion of the ozone layer, HFCs are currently used as replacements of
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in air conditioning, refrigeration and foam
insulation, however they are powerful greenhouse gases.
 Under the amendment:
o Developed countries will reduce HFC consumption beginning in 2019.
o Most developing countries will freeze consumption in 2024,
o Some developing countries including India with unique circumstances will freeze consumption in 2028.
 The plan also provides financing to certain countries, to help them transition to climate-friendly alternatives.
 With the Kigali Amendment, the Montreal Protocol has become an even more powerful instrument against
global warming.
SIGNIFICANCE AMENDMENT FOR INDIA:

 India has successfully met the phase-out targets of all the Ozone Depleting Substances as per the Montreal
Protocol Schedule.
 India is one of the first countries in the world to launch a cooling action plan in 2019. This comprehensive plan
is aimed at reducing cooling demand, enabling refrigerant transition, enhancing energy efficiency and better
technology options with a 20-year time horizon.
 The signing of the Kigali Amendment is a cue for the markets to make a faster transition from HFCs to cleaner
gases.
 It would boost domestic manufacturing and employment generation goals.
 The ratification would signify that India is ready to compete in the market for low-Global Warming Potential
GWP (climate-friendly) refrigerants, which will spur domestic innovation and attract international investments.
 The decision would pave the way for India to achieve its climate change mitigation goals and cooling
commitments. India is among a small group of countries on track to meet its climate commitments under the
Paris Agreement.
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY AND TARGETS:

 National strategy for phase down of Hydrofluorocarbons as per the applicable phase down schedule for India will
be developed after required consultation with all the industry stakeholders by 2023.

 Amendments to the existing legislation framework, the Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control)
Rules to allow appropriate control of the production and consumption of
Hydrofluorocarbons to ensure compliance with the Kigali Amendment will
be done by mid-2024.
MAJOR IMPACT, INCLUDING EMPLOYMENT GENERATION POTENTIAL:

 Hydrofluorocarbons phasedown is expected to prevent the emission of up
to 105 million tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases,
helping to avoid up to 0.5 degree Celsius of global temperature rise by
2100, while continuing to protect the ozone layer.
 Implementation of HFC phase down under the Kigali Amendment through
the adoption of low-global warming potential and energy-efficient
technologies will achieve energy efficiency gains and carbon dioxide
emissions reduction - a "climate co-benefit,"
 HFCs phrase down implementation will involve synergies with on-going
government programmes and schemes of the Government of India with
the objective to maximize the economic and social co-benefits, besides
environmental gains.
 There would be scope for domestic manufacturing of equipment as well
as alternative non-HFC and low-global warming potential chemicals to
enable the industry to transition to the low global warming potential
alternatives as per the agreed HFC phase down schedule.
 In addition, there would be opportunities to promote domestic innovation
for new generation alternative refrigerants and related technologies.
INDIA AND MONTREAL PROTOCOL (1989):

 India became Party to the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol in 1991 and 1992 respectively.
 India has proactively phased out the production and consumption of CFCs except use in Metered Dose Inhalers
(MDIs) used for treatment of Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ailments from 2008.
 Subsequently, the use of CFCs in MDIs has been phased out from 2012.
 An Ozone Cell has been setup (under the Environment Ministry) as a National Ozone Unit (NOU) to render
necessary services for effective and timely implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its ODS phase-out
program in India.
WAY FORWARD:
 Bring all stakeholders to same understanding through a clear message, providing public support with
commitment to the goals of the treaty.
 Encourage Leadership and innovation through flexible instruments. For instance, the flexibility of Montreal
Protocol allowed moving from modest to strict controls.
 Following principles of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC) to allow
greater time limit for developing countries.
 Transfer of Technology or substances to assist developing countries in energy efficient and environment friendly
technologies/products.
 Incremental Funding to promote performance and assist in capacity building.
 Trade provisions which limit restrictions between signatories only. E.g., once primary CFC producing countries
signed, others had to sign up or face loss of access to associated technologies.
 Follow ‘Precautionary Principle’ i.e., to take action even if science is still in doubt, preventing more damaging
consequences if actions are postponed.

 Provide a stable framework, promoting long-term research and innovation from industry for mutual benefits.
 Non-punitive compliance procedure with institutional support to prepare action plans.
CLIMATE ACTION PLAN FOR COASTAL CITIES

 In News: Amid warnings of climate change leading to extreme weather events like high-intensity floods and
landslides in the city, the Brihan-mumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) is drafting a Mumbai Climate Action Plan
(MCAP) in a bid to tackle climate challenges.
 A climate action plan is a detailed and strategic framework for measuring, planning, and reducing greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions and related climatic impacts and provides preventative measures to address the negative
outcomes of climate change.
 The plan demonstrates how the city will adapt and improve its resilience to climate hazards that impact the city
as well as risks that may increase in the coming years.
WHAT IS THE MUMBAI CLIMATE ACTION PLAN?

 Amid warnings of climate change leading to extreme weather events in the city, the civic body has started
preparing the Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP).
 It will look at climate resilience with mitigation and adaptation strategies by focusing on six areas —
1. Sustainable waste management
2. Urban greening and Biodiversity
3. Urban flooding and Water Resource Management
4. Building Energy Efficiency
5. Air Quality and
6. Sustainable Mobility
 The plan is expected to be ready by November ahead of the United Nations Climate Change (COP26) conference
at Glasgow, Scotland.
NEED OF CLIMATE ACTION PLAN FOR COASTAL CITIES:

 Coastal flooding and sea level rise: Coastal cities are exposed to storm surges, erosion, and saltwater intrusion.
Climate change and sea level rise will likely exacerbate these hazards. Sea level rise could erode and inundate
coastal ecosystems and eliminate wetlands.
 Extreme weather events: Data from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) shows that both the number and
intensity of cyclones have increased in the Arabian Sea since the 1980s, threatening the densely populated coastal
areas.
 Increased food insecurity: Climate change in coastal cities is causing reduced crop nutrition and yields, fish
depletion and the loss of plant and insect species.
 Biological hazards: Particularly vector-borne and water-borne diseases. Higher temperatures, and prolonged wet
conditions which affect coastal cities disproportionately, are more favourable for the mosquitos, rodents and
other animals that carry vector-borne diseases.
 To prevent destruction of life and property: Natural disasters and shoreline erosion are two of the main threats
that coastal communities face. Such communities are particularly vulnerable to hurricanes and tsunamis, and as
more people move to the coast, the potential of such events causing catastrophic loss of life and property damage
also rises.
WAY FORWARD:
 Proper implementation and funding support: Climate action plans for coastal city level should have clear
short- and long-term implementable action and have necessary financial, institutional and policy support.
Guiding Principles for Coastal City Climate Action Planning: It aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
adopt low emission development trajectories (mitigation), as well as adapt to the impacts of climate change
(adaptation) and build local climate resilience.
 Coastal risk assessment: The coastal data along with future climate projections should be used to prepare an
in- depth coastal risk assessment that will inform us how we can be disaster-proof and make our coastline
resilient.
 Improve access to Climate Information Services (CIS): Given the high rates of information utilisation and
sharing, CISs access should improve the ability of people to make informed decisions on how to capitalise upon
or prepare for future conditions, increasing their vulnerability to climate shocks and food insecurity.
 Building capacity: Addressing climate change is a complex challenge that requires involvement from multiple
city government departments or agencies, political support for action. To be effective, climate change action
planning requires a comprehensive and integrated cross-sectoral approach, with actors working across
administrative boundaries.
 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ): To deal with issues of rising frequency and severity of the cyclones, flood etc.,
there is an urgent need to follow the CRZ rules to develop and manage the coastal regions on scientific
principles, considering the current global challenge of climate change and sea-level rise.
OZONE LEVELS EXCEEDING PERMITTED LEVELS

 In News: Recently, a Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) study has found that ozone levels are exceeding
the permitted levels even during winter in Delhi-NCR, making the smog more “toxic”.
 Despite the pandemic and lockdowns, more days and locations witnessed higher and longer duration of ozone
spells.
KEY POINTERS IN THE REPORT:
 Now a Year-round Menace:
o Contrary to the notion that Ozone is a summer phenomenon, it has been found that gas has emerged as an
equally strong concern during winter as well.
 Occasional Exceedance:
o The city-wide average largely remains within the standard with just occasional exceedance. But the ‘good’
category days have fallen to 115 days in 2020, which is 24 days less than in 2019 in Delhi.
o A location-wise analysis shows that exceeding the eight-hour average standard is quite widely distributed in
the city.
o Even smaller towns of NCR, including Bulandshahr in Uttar Pradesh and Bhiwani in Haryana, appeared in the
top 20 list of ozone-afflicted towns and cities. South Delhi locations dominate the list with four mentions in
top 10.
SUGGESTIONS GIVEN BY THE REPORT:
 The study shows that the transport sector is the highest contributor to NOx and VOCs, hence there is a need to
take strong action on these high emitters of NOx and VOCs including vehicles and other industries.
 Ozone levels are found to be exceeding the mark of 100 μg/m3 even during winter and are highly sensitive to
solar radiation. Reducing the gases will also reduce secondary particles formed from these gases.
 Ozone is now a round-the-year problem that is urgent and the situation demands refinement of a clean air action
plan to add strategies for ozone mitigation, with stronger action on vehicles, industry and waste burning.
It is important to calibrate AQI (Air Quality Index) to report the most polluted eight-hour average of the day, ideally
making it an hourly alert. Also the current practice of only city averaging needs to change to include alerts based on
the worst affected area as is the global good practice.
CLIMATE CHANGE 2021 REPORT: IPCC

 In News: Recently, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released the first part of its Sixth
Assessment Report (AR6) titled “Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis”.
 It is prepared by the scientists of Working Group-I. The two remaining parts would be released in 2022.

 It noted that global net-zero by 2050 was the minimum required to keep the temperature rise to 1.5 degree
Celsius.
 It sets the stage for the Conference of Parties (CoP) 26 conference in November 2021.
KEY OBSERVATION OF THE REPORT:
Average Surface Temperature:
 The average surface temperature of the Earth will cross 1.5 °Cover pre-industrial levels in the next 20 years (By
2040) and 2°C by the middle of the century without sharp reduction of emissions.
 In 2018, the IPCC’s Special Report Global Warming of 1.5°C had estimated that two-fifths of the global population
lived in regions with warming above 1.5°C.
 The last decade was hotter than any period of time in the past 1,25,000 years. Global surface temperature was
1.09°C higher in the decade between 2011-2020 than between 1850-1900.
 This is the first time that the IPCC has said that the 1.5°C warming was inevitable even in the best-case scenario.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Concentrations:
 They are the highest in at least two million years. Humans have emitted 2,400 billion tonnes of CO2 since the late
1800s.
 Most of this can be attributed to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels.
 The effect of human activities has warmed the climate at a rate unprecedented in 2,000 years.
 The world has already depleted 86% of its available
carbon budget.
RECENT DEVELOPMENT :
The IPCC published the second part of the Sixth Assessment
Report, titled "Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation,
and Vulnerability," which is the contribution of Working
Group II to the report.
 Theme: Climate change consequences, hazards
and vulnerabilities, and adaptation alternatives
are discussed in the report's second section.
Key findings:
 Over 3.5 billion people, or over half of the world's population, live in climate-vulnerable areas, according
to the UN.
o Indian Scenario: According to the research, India is one of the most susceptible hotspots, with
multiple areas and major cities at high risk of climate disasters like flooding, sea-level rise, and
heat waves.
o Mumbai, for example, is at risk of floods and sea-level rise, while Ahmedabad is at risk of severe
heat waves.
 Risks that are complex, compound, and cascading: According to the current assessment, many disasters
caused by climate change are predicted to occur in various regions of the world during the next two
decades.
o Various climate hazards will occur at the same time, as will multiple climatic and non-climatic
dangers, increasing total risk and risks cascading across sectors and geographies.
 Near-Long-Term Risks: Even if sufficient efforts are made to reduce global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius
over pre-industrial levels.
 Variation by Region: The vulnerability of ecosystems and humans to climate change varies greatly
between and within areas.
o Patterns of intertwining socio-economic growth, unsustainable ocean and land usage, injustice,
marginalisation, historical and continuing patterns of inequity such as colonialism, and
governance are all driving these trends.
 Climate Change's Health Effects: It's been discovered that climate change is increasing vector-borne and
water-borne illnesses like malaria and dengue fever, particularly in Asia's sub-tropical regions.
 Current Adaptation and Its Advantages: There has been progress in adaptation planning and execution
across all sectors and areas, resulting in a variety of benefits.
o However, given observed adaptation gaps, adaption progress is unevenly distributed.
o Many projects place a high priority on reducing immediate and near-term climate risk, which limits
the scope for transformative adaptation.
 Gaps in Adaption: The research also identifies significant gaps between current adaptation efforts and
what is necessary.
o These gaps, according to the report, are caused by "a lack of money, political commitment,
credible information, and a feeling of urgency."
RD
3 PART OF THE IPCC REPORT
It is titled 'Mitigation of Climate Change'.
Key highlights
 Updated global assessment: It investigates the sources of world emissions and presents an updated global
assessment of climate change mitigation progress and promises.
o It demonstrates how emission reduction and mitigation measures have progressed, as well as
the impact of national climate commitments on long-term emissions targets.
 Emissions of greenhouse gases: Global greenhouse gas emissions averaged their highest levels in human
history from 2010 to 2019, although the rate of rise has moderated.
o Limiting global warming to 1.5°C will be impossible to achieve without quick and significant
reductions in emissions across all sectors.
o However, there is a growing body of evidence that climate action is taking place.
 Costs of solar and wind energy, as well as batteries: Since 2010, the costs of solar and wind energy, as
well as batteries, have dropped by up to 85%.
 Nations were falling behind: It was discovered that countries were falling behind on the policies and
actions required to achieve net zero emissions, and that present policies and actions might result in
temperatures rising by as much as 3 degrees Celsius, which would be disastrous.
Indian Sub-continent Specific Findings:
 Heatwaves: Heatwaves and humid heat stress will be more intense and frequent during the 21st century over
South Asia.
 Monsoon: Changes in monsoon precipitation are also expected, with both annual and summer monsoon
precipitation projected to increase. The South West Monsoon has declined over the past few decades because of
the increase of aerosols, but once this reduces, we will experience heavy monsoon rainfall.
 Sea Temperature: The Indian Ocean, which includes the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, has warmed faster than
the global average. The sea surface temperature over Indian ocean is likely to increase by 1 to 2 °C when there is
1.5°C to 2°C global warming. In the Indian Ocean, the sea temperature is heating at a higher rate than other areas,
and therefore may influence other regions.
 Net-Zero Emissions: It means that all man-made greenhouse gas emissions must be removed from the
atmosphere through reduction measures, thus reducing the Earth’s net climate balance, after removal via natural
and artificial sink, to zero. This way human kind would be carbon neutral and global temperature would stabilise.
 Current Situation:
o Several countries, more than 100, have already announced their intentions to achieve net-zero emissions by
2050. These include major emitters like the United States, China and the European Union.
o India, the third largest emitter in the world, has been holding out, arguing that it was already doing much
more than it was required to do, performing better, in relative terms, than other countries.
o Any further burden would jeopardise its continuing efforts to pull its millions out of poverty.

o IPCC has informed that a global net-zero by 2050 was the minimum required to keep the temperature rise
to 1.5°C. Without India, this would not be possible.
o Even China, the world’s biggest emitter, has a net-zero goal for 2060.
Impact of Global Warming:

 Sea- Level Rise:
o Sea-level rise has tripled compared with 1901-1971. The Arctic Sea ice is the lowest it has been in 1,000 years.
o Coastal areas will see continued sea-level rise throughout the 21st century, resulting in coastal erosion and
more frequent and severe flooding in low-lying areas.
o About 50% of the sea level rise is due to thermal expansion (when water heats up, it expands, thus warmer
oceans simply occupy more space).
 Precipitation & Drought: Every additional 0.5 °C of warming will increase hot extremes, extreme precipitation and
drought. Additional warming will also weaken the Earth’s carbon sinks present in plants, soils, and the ocean.
 Heat Extremes: Heat extremes have increased while cold extremes have decreased, and these trends will continue
over the coming decades over Asia.
 Receding Snowline & Melting Glaciers:
o Global Warming will have a serious impact on mountain ranges across the world, including the Himalayas.
o The freezing level of mountains are likely to change and snowlines will retreat over the coming decades.
o Retreating snowlines and melting glaciers is a cause for alarm as this can cause a change in the water cycle,
the precipitation patterns, increased floods as well as an increased scarcity of water in the future in the states
across the Himalayas.
o The level of temperature rise in the mountains and glacial melt is unprecedented in 2,000 years. The retreat
of glaciers is now attributed to anthropogenic factors and human influence.
INDIA AND INDCS: PARIS CLIMATE CHANGE COMMITMENTS

In News: The Union Minister of Power and New and Renewable Energy emphasised India's achievements in the energy
transition at the India-ISA (International Solar Alliance) Energy Transition Dialogue 2021.
INDCS of India
 To achieve 40% of cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel by 2030.
 To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and
tree cover.
 Reducing emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% from 2005 levels by 2030.
Achievements of India
 Achieved coveted milestone of 100 GW of installed Renewable Energy Capacity.
 38.5% of India’s installed power generation capacity is based on clean renewable energy source.
 India has achieved emission reduction of 28% over 2005 levels, against the target of 35% by 2030 committed
in its NDC.

CLEAN ENERGY AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

RENEWABLE ENERGY
 To reduce the adverse impacts of growing use of energy on the environment, it is important to improve energy
use efficiency and switch to environment friendly energy sources known as renewable or inexhaustible.
 Improved energy efficiency and better energy management will help in preventing environmental damage and
help in financial saving.
 Renewable energy comprises of: Solar energy, Hydel energy, Biomass, Geothermal energy, Tidal energy, Wind
energy, Co-generation.
DATA/FACTS
 India’s renewable energy capacity is the fourth largest in the world. Installed solar capacity has grown to 36
gigawatts in 2020.
 India has 80 gigawatts of renewable energy, which is nearly 20% of its total installed capacity.
IMPORTANCE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

 Sustainable: Renewable energies are sources of clean, inexhaustible and increasingly competitive energy.
 Mitigate climate change and global warming: Renewables do not emit greenhouse gases in energy generation
processes, making them the cleanest, most viable solution to prevent environmental degradation.
 Inexhaustible: Unlike conventional energy sources, clean energies are just as available as the sun from which they
originate and adapt to natural cycles, hence their name “renewables”.
 Reducing energy dependence: The indigenous nature of clean sources gives local economies an advantage and
brings meaning to the term “energy independence”. Dependence on fossil fuel imports can compromise the
security of energy supply.
 Creating employment opportunities: Renewable energy particularly installation and services (e.g., solar energy,
wind energy, etc.) can create local jobs opportunities.
 Market assurance: From the economy point of view, renewable sources provide the market and revenue
assurance which no other resources can provide.
 Power supply: Providing 24*7 power supply to 100% of the households, sustainable form of transports is some of
the goals that can only be achieved through sustainable power that comes from renewables.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH RENEWABLE ENERGY

 Higher Capital Costs: While renewable energy systems need no fuel and can deliver substantial long-term savings,
their up-front costs can still be prohibitive.
 Unreliable and interrupted: Renewable energy systems rely on natural resources such as sunlight, wind, and
water, and therefore, their electricity generation can be as unpredictable as the weather.
 Integration with the Main Grid: Integrating the renewables with the main grid is the area India needs to work
upon. To accelerate the uptake of renewables, storage and battery solutions are needed in large quantities.
 Location: Most renewable energy plants occupy large areas of space.
 Drawbacks of wind energy technology: The turbines have caused noise pollution and also kill birds while
functioning.
 Consequences of Hydropower plants: The dams destroy the habitat of the aquatic organisms and also hinder their
migration pattern.
 Agricultural Sector: Much power is consumed in the agricultural sector. The challenge is to provide sufficient
power and energy to every household and to the agricultural sector as well.
INDIA’S KEY FOCUS FOR NEXT FIVE YEARS

 The Twin Challenge: India has a twin challenge of providing more energy as well as cleaner energy to the masses
in India.
 Methanol and Biomass: Looking for other alternatives such as methanol-based economy and biomass.
 Hydrogen based FCV: Hydrogen in technology is likely to change the landscape of renewables, shifting towards
Hydrogen Based Fuel Cells Vehicles (FCV) is another area of focus.
 Grid Integration: It is the practice of developing efficient ways to deliver variable renewable energy (RE) to the
grid.
ULTRA-MEGA RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE) PARKS

 Ultra-Mega Solar Power Projects, also known as Ultra Mega Solar Parks, are a series of solar power projects
planned by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
OBJECTIVE
 To facilitate the solar project developers to set up projects in a plug and play model.
 To provide a huge impetus to solar energy generation by acting as a flagship demonstration facility to encourage
project developers and investors.
 To enable states to bring in significant investment from project developers to meet its Solar Renewable Purchase
Obligation mandate and to provide employment to the local population
 To reduce carbon footprint by avoiding emissions equivalent to the solar park’s installed capacity and generation.
FEATURES
 The scheme was rolled out in 2014 to set up at least 25 Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects targeting
over 40 GW of solar power installed capacity to be set up by 2021-22 (earlier it was 20 GW by 2020).
 The scheme envisages supporting the States/UTs in setting up solar parks at various locations in the country with
a view to creating the required infrastructure for setting up solar power projects.
 Grid-connected solar power project: The scheme facilitates and speeds up the installation of grid-connected solar
power projects for electricity generation on a large scale.
 The capacity of the solar parks shall be 500 MW and above. However, smaller parks are also considered where
contiguous land may be difficult to acquire in view of difficult terrain and where there is an acute shortage of non-
agricultural land.
SOLAR ENERGY
 In the broadest sense, solar energy supports all life on earth and is the basis for almost every form of energy we
use. The radiation that is received from the sun and utilized in the form electricity and thermal energy by using
various available technologies like photovoltaic panels, solar heater etc.
DATA/FACTS
 India lying in the tropical belt has an advantage of receiving peak solar radiation for 300 days, amounting 2300-
3,000 hours of sunshine equivalent to above 5,000 trillion kWh.
 India's INDC’s commitment includes 100 GW of solar power out of 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022.
 Installed solar capacity has grown to 36 GW in 2020.
 Rooftop solar power accounts for 2.1 GW, of which 70% is industrial or commercial.
 India's solar waste is estimated to be around 1.8 million by 2050 also needs to be tackled.
TYPES
1. Solar for grid connected electricity: Grid interactive solar energy is derived from solar photovoltaic cells and
concentrated solar power Plants on a large scale.
2. Solar for off-grid solutions: While, the areas with easier grid access are utilizing grid connectivity, the places where
utility power is scant or too expensive to bring, have no choice but to opt for their own generation.
NEED OF SOLAR ENERGY

 Energy security: India’s energy demands are largely fulfilled by non-renewable sources of energy and due to the
scarcity of these fossil resources, India had to spend a huge sum on the import of non-renewable resources.
Abundance of solar energy can fulfill India’s clean energy demands and security.
 Economic development: India being a developing economy needs proper electricity for industrial growth and
agriculture.
 India also needs self-sufficiency and minimal cost in power generation, assured regular supply, which will boost
industries and economy. Also, it will facilitate new employment opportunities.
 Social development: The problem of power cuts and unavailability of electricity especially in rural areas, leads to
improper human development. Mostly energy demands are fulfilled by subsidised kerosene, leading to loss for
exchequer.
 Environment concern: India’s large part of energy demand is fulfilled by thermal energy largely dependent on
fossil fuels, leading to climate change and global warming. It can be substituted by solar energy which is a clean
form of energy resource.
 Ambitious targets under UNFCCC: India’s INDCs declare that by 2030, we’ll reduce the emission intensity of our
GDP by 33-35% below the 2005 level.
o Also, we commit to increase the share of non-fossil fuel-based electricity to 40% by 2030.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH SOLAR ENERGY

 Lack of funding: Lack of easy and cheap funding, and increasing cheap imports from China and Taiwan is hurting
the domestic industry.
 Re-structuring: The fundamental restructuring of the country’s power and energy infrastructure will be its biggest
challenge.
o The Krishi Urja Suraksha evam Utthan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) scheme was launched in 2019 to provide
solar pumps to farmers along with an opportunity to generate solar energy on uncultivable/barren land.
It has a target of 25,750 MW solar capacity by 2022.
 High Cost: Cost associated with solar power generation is more when compared to coal.
o National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the Government of India and State Governments to promote
ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India's energy security challenge.
 Transmission & Distribution losses that at approximately 40 percent make generation through solar energy
sources highly unfeasible.
o One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG): It focuses on a framework for facilitating global cooperation,
building a global ecosystem of interconnected renewable energy resources (mainly solar energy) that can
be seamlessly shared.
 Lack of land availability: Per capita land availability is very low in India, and land is a scarce resource.
o Rooftop solar installations as opposed to large-scale solar power generation plants can be installed on the
roofs of buildings, as mandated under rooftop solar scheme.
 Legal challenge at WTO: India’s domestic content requirement clause is facing legal challenge at WTO. India is
facing a challenge to balance Prioritising domestic goals and WTO commitments.
 Lack of internal demands: Manufacturers are mostly focused on export markets that buy Solar PV cells. This could
result in reduced supplies for the local market.
 Unequal competition: Competition from Ultra Supercritical Coal Power Generation Plants which are cheaper,
lesser emissions and higher efficiency.
WAY FORWARD
 Use of waste lands: Based on the assumption that 3% of wasteland in each state can be used for solar power
projects.
 Promoting decentralized plants: To promote the usage of rooftop solar power and other solar appliances
schemes should be introduced, based on the existing schemes for LED distributions.
 Manufacturing: The production of flat glass and its raw materials must expand to eliminate supply constraints or
future imports
 Hybrid solar plants: Solar panels can be located in the space between the towers of wind - power plants. This type
of plants is already set up in Himalayan regions that can be extended to other terrains.

 Financing mechanisms: The Ministry of Finance should come up with innovative financing measures to promote
these capital-intensive renewable energy projects.
 Financing measures such as Clean Energy Fund, generation-based incentive linked loan repayment and green
bonds are some of those.
o Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) that provide an incentive to those who generate green power by
providing financial incentives for every unit of power they generate.
o Viability Gap Funding schemes: The VGF scheme for setting up grid-connected solar power is provided
through the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI).
 Promotion of research and development in the renewable energy sector, especially in storage technology.
 Anti-dumping measure: Proper mechanism should be provided to tackle China's dumping of solar equipment.
WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is a form of renewable energy which is generated by converting the kinetic energy present in the wind
into mechanical energy which is, in turn, converted into electricity.
DATA/FACTS
 Five nations’: Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain and India account for 80% of the world’s installed wind energy
capacity.
 According to the MNRE, the estimated potential of generating wind energy in India, at a mast height of 100 metres
above the ground, is 302 GW.
 India’s electricity generation from wind reached 39.2 GW a year in March 2021. An addition of another 20 GW
over the next five years is expected to happen soon.
 Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) for wind generation has been 11.39% between 2010 and 2020, and for
installed capacity, it has been 8.78%.
 More than 95% of commercially exploitable resources are located in seven states: Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
NEED OF WIND ENERGY

 Alternative to fossil fuel: A country like India or any region where energy production is based on imported coal or
oil will become more self-sufficient by using alternatives such as wind power.
 Climate change and global warming mitigation: It does not contaminate, it is inexhaustible and reduces the use
of fossil fuels, which are the origin of greenhouse gasses that cause global warming.
 Economic benefit: Wind energy is a “native” energy, because it is available practically everywhere on the planet,
which contributes to reducing energy imports and to creating wealth and local employment.
 Scope in remote areas: In remote areas or areas with a weak grid, wind energy can be used for charging batteries
or can be combined with a diesel engine to save fuel whenever wind is available.
 Geographical advantages: India is a country having around 7,700 km long coastline and in all of its exclusive
economic zones, it has enough opportunity to harness wind energy.
 Wind power is cost-effective: Wind is one of the lowest-priced energy sources available today.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH WIND ENERGY

 Lack of land availability: The construction of wind energy farms requires large areas, competition for suitable
land with high wind speeds and grid connectivity has grown intense, making land acquisition in a timely manner
an arduous task for developers. The possible solutions can be:
o National Offshore Wind Energy Policy: For offshore wind energy, India has a very vibrant policy which
came up in October 2015, known as National Offshore Wind Energy Policy framework.
 The objective is to develop offshore wind energy in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) along
the Indian coastline.
o Solar-Wind Hybrid Policy: The main objective of the policy is to provide a framework for promotion of
large grid connected wind-solar photovoltaic (PV) hybrid systems for optimal and efficient utilization of
wind and solar resources, transmission infrastructure and land.

 Not cost competitive: Wind power must still compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis.
Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm may or may not be cost competitive.
 Infrastructural lacunae: good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity
is needed. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity from the wind farm to the city.
 Noise pollution and visual impacts: Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment
compared to other conventional power plants, there is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades,
aesthetic (visual) impacts.
 Lethal to birds: The turbine blades may damage local wildlife. Sometimes birds have been killed by flying into the
rotors.
WAY FORWARD
 India needs to delink grid development with energy generation.
 GoI needs to trust the market: It is the market which has led to low tariffs for solar as well as the wind, so
imposition of ceiling leads to arbitrary curtailment of free flow of market mechanism.
 India should first fully exploit onshore potential and it should also utilize next few years for creating all the data
that any investor would require before investing in the offshore wind energy sector.
 Competitive private investment: At each stage of harnessing energy from winds, India needs competitive private
investment to drive the progress.
o Excise duty exemption: Full exemption on excise duty is being provided on Pig Iron (SG grade) and ferro-
silicon-magnesium for use in the manufacture of cast components of wind-operated electricity
generators.
o Government waived the Inter State Transmission System charges and losses for inter-state sale of solar
and wind power for projects to be commissioned by March 2022.
 This will encourage setting up of the projects in states that have greater resource potential and
availability of suitable land
 There is a merit in developing solar and wind in a complementary manner. From a grid security perspective, as
compared to solar, wind is better in monsoon and night. Also, such a system will require a lower investment.
 Commitment to the Paris Agreement: India should take on the challenge of being among the top five countries in
the world in getting rid of fossil fuels in the energy sector.
OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

 In News: Recently, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has set a target of installing 5 GW of
offshore capacity by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030.
 The onshore wind energy potential estimated by the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) stands at 300 GW
at 100m hub height.
 In this scenario, offshore wind can be seen as a viable option in order to protect the precious land resources.
 India is blessed with a coastline of nearly 7,600km with relatively shallow waters (within 12 nautical miles of the
coast) near to shore in most parts showing good prospects of generate 127 GW of offshore wind energy.
IMPORTANCE OF OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

 Free from interruption: Power output from offshore wind energy plants will be steady, almost free from
interruption.
 Wind speeds are significantly higher at offshore locations.
 Offshore wind farms have a higher CUF (Capacity Utilisation Factor) than onshore wind farms. Therefore, offshore
wind power allows for longer operating hours.
 Offshore windmills do not need land. So, there is no impact on real estate value of land as in case of onshore
windmills. Offshore wind power is therefore suited for a land-short country like India.
 Many coastal areas have very high energy needs. It can fulfil the demand of the heavily populated coastal regions
with no significant environmental costs.
 Less visual impacts: As these sites are located far from land, they have less visual impact which helps with public
acceptance issues.

 At a global level, it has been observed that offshore wind energy is being better than onshore wind in terms of
efficiency.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

 Higher installation cost: Cost of setting up an offshore wind project is higher. The production and installation of
power cables under the seafloor to transmit electricity back to land can be very expensive.
 Land acquisition issues: It has been observed in the recent past that many onshore wind energy projects are
adversely affected due to land acquisition issues.
 Installation difficulty: There are difficulties in installing large wind power turbines in open seas.
 Lack of skilled workforce: Local substructure manufacturers, installations vessels and trained workers are lacking
in India.
 High maintenance cost: The action of waves and even high winds, particularly during storms or hurricanes, can
damage wind turbines.
WAY FORWARD
 Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO): Power distribution companies, open access consumers and captive users
can purchase clean energy as part of their total electricity consumption through a renewable purchase obligation.
 Lower taxes: The GST Law exempts electricity and power sales from GST. In contrast, wind power generation
companies cannot claim input tax credits when they pay GST to purchase goods and/or services for setting up the
project.
 Feed-in tariff: Discoms can adopt feed-in tariff (FiT) regulations and make offshore wind power procurement
mandatory.
 Deemed generation provision: Offshore wind projects need to be protected against curtailment concerns because
of the inability of State Load Dispatch Centres (SLDCs) to absorb large quantities of power that may be generated.
 Develop sub-sea substations: The underwater power evacuation and subsea substations could be developed by
the Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.
HYBRID ENERGY
 Solar and wind power being variable in nature pose certain challenges on grid security and stability.
 Since the RE resources are intermittent in nature therefore, hybrid combinations of two or more power
generation technologies, along with storage can improve system performance.
 Superimposition of wind and solar resource maps shows that there are large areas where both wind and solar
have high to moderate potential.
DATA/FACTS
 India added 65-70GW of wind and solar capacity so far, with wind and solar contributing 9.5% of generated
energy in 2019.
 If the government target of 175GW is achieved by 2022, this share could exceed 15-16%.
INHERENT CHALLENGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
 It relies on intermittent sources, producing energy only when the sun is shining or the wind is blowing.
 Its output is constrained to specific hours of the day.
 Its use leads to lower utilization of transmission lines. This can create issues in matching peak power demand
with renewable output and raise the costs of transmission.
NEED FOR THE RENEWABLE HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM

 Address limitations: Hybrid systems can address limitations in terms of fuel flexibility, efficiency, reliability,
emissions and/ or economics.
 Efficiency: Incorporating heat, power, and highly efficient devices (fuel cells, advanced materials, cooling systems,
etc.) can increase overall efficiency.
 Conservation: Conserve energy for a hybrid system when compared with individual technologies. 3/4th achieving
higher reliability can be accomplished with redundant technologies and/or energy storage.
 Maximization: Some hybrid systems typically include both, which can simultaneously improve the quality and
availability of power. Hybrid systems can be designed to maximize the use of renewable energy.

 Complementary to each other: Studies revealed that in India solar and wind resources are complementary to each
other and hybridization of these two technologies would help in minimizing the variability including land and
transmission system.
 Potential: Hybrid systems capture the best features of each energy resource and can provide grid-quality
electricity, with a power range between 1 kilo watts (kW) to several hundred kilo watts.
 Steady supply of electricity: Hybrid systems can provide a steady community-level electricity service, such as
village electrification, offering also the possibility to be upgraded through grid connection in the future.
NATIONAL WIND-SOLAR HYBRID POLICY MEASURES 2018

 Hybridization of existing wind/solar PV plants: No additional connectivity or transmission capacity charges shall
be levied by the respective transmission entity for hybridization at existing wind/solar PV plants
 Battery storage: May be added to the hybrid project to reduce the variability of output power from wind solar
hybrid plant providing higher energy output for a given capacity at delivery point, by installing additional capacity
of wind and solar power in a wind solar hybrid plant.
 Regulatory requirements: The Central Electricity Authority and CERC shall formulate necessary standards and
regulations for wind-solar hybrid systems
 Quality: For wind turbines, solar modules and balance of systems, the technical guidelines issued by the Ministry
from time to time for grid connected systems will be followed.
WAY FORWARD
 Reaching the non-electrified rural population is currently not possible through the extension of the grid, since
the connection is neither economically feasible, nor encouraged by the main actors.
 Renewable energy sources are currently one of the most, if not the only, suitable option to supply electricity in
fragmented areas or at certain distances from the grid.
 Hybrid systems have proved to be the best option to deliver “high quality” community energy services to rural
areas at the lowest economic cost, and with maximum social and environmental benefits.
GEO-THERMAL ENERGY
 Geothermal Energy is a mature renewable energy technology that has a potential to provide clean and reliable
energy for power generation and direct heating/cooling.
 Geothermal Energy can be utilized for both electric power production and direct heat applications including
Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) for space or district heating, generating hot water for domestic or industrial
use, etc.
SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

 Environmentally Friendly: It is an environmentally-friendly resource as it has the potential to meet heating,
cooling and electricity demands for the future.
 Renewable: It is a source of renewable energy that will last until the Earth is destroyed by the sun in around 5
billion years.
 Huge Potential: It is currently estimated that geothermal power plants could provide between 0.0035 and 2
terawatts of power.
o Puga village is uncovered with a potential of more than 100 mw of geothermal energies.
 Sustainable/ Stable: It provides a reliable source of energy as compared to other renewable resources such as
wind and solar power because the resource is always available to be tapped into, unlike with wind or solar energy.
 No Fuel Required: It is a naturally occurring resource as there is no fuel required, such as with fossil fuels that are
a finite resource which needs mining or otherwise extracting from the earth.
CHALLENGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

 Location Restricted: The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is location specific.
 Earthquakes: It runs the risk of triggering earthquakes due to alterations in the Earth’s structure as a result of
digging.
 High Costs: Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from around $2-$7
million for a plant with a 1-megawatt capacity.

HYDRO POWER ENERGY

 Hydroelectricity is generated when the force of falling water from dams, rivers or waterfalls is used to turn
turbines, which then drives generators that produce electricity.
 The energy produced is directed to a substation, where transformers "step-up" the voltage before its transmission
to the electricity grid.
IMPORTANCE OF HYDRO-POWER ENERGY

 Hydropower is a renewable source of energy because it uses and not consumes the water for the generation of
electricity, and hydropower leaves this vital resource available for other uses.
 Low cost: It is a renewable source of energy with no consumables involved; there is a very little recurring cost and
hence no high long-term expenditure.
 Hydropower stations are the preferred solution for meeting peak loads in grids due to their unique capabilities
of quick starting and closing.
 The operational needs of hydro & thermal stations are complimentary and the balanced mix helps in optimal
utilization of the capacity.
 Seasonal load curves of regional grids match with the pattern of hydropower generation.
 Hydropower facilities have a direct connection to local water systems, impacting the characteristics of naturally
flowing water, including its temperature, dissolved gas content, and flow rate.
 hydropower facilities can negatively impact both the availability of water and the water quality in these
environments.
 storing water in reservoirs for prolonged periods can produce thermal stratification of the water in the reservoir,
causing the water at the top to be significantly warmer than the water at the bottom.
o Releasing cooler water could lower the temperature of the river at the outlet, potentially moving the
river out of acceptable temperature ranges for some species.
CHALLENGES
 Capital intensive: Hydropower generation is a highly capital-intensive mode of electricity generation.
 Deforestation: Due to the fact that hydropower projects are primarily located in hilly areas, where forest cover is
comparatively better than plain areas, diversion of forest land is sometimes unavoidable.
 Land Acquisition and Safeguard Issues: Land availability and acquisition for hydropower projects are among the
core structural issues that impact almost all infrastructure sectors.
 Impact on biodiversity: The construction and operation of hydropower dams can significantly affect natural river
systems as well as fish and wildlife populations.
 The permanent complete or partial blockage of a river for energy conversion is adversely affected by variations
in flow.
 Inter-state disputes are another aspect, which hinders integrated river basin development for hydropower
projects.
 Lack of Enabling Infrastructure: A number of hydropower projects are located in remote sites in states, which do
not have adequate demand for electricity. This creates the requirement for developing enabling infrastructure for
power evacuation.
WAY FORWARD
 India has vast potential for hydro-power development. A major part of the unexploited potential exists in the
Himalayan and North Eastern region
 The central government needs to set up a separate body in partnership with the state governments for active
monitoring of the progress of Hydro projects.
 Government should resolve the impediments by directly overseeing issues such as land acquisition, rehabilitation
& resettlement of affected people, expediting environment and forest clearances, interstate disputes and law &
order issues that arise due to these projects.
 The private developers will participate themselves only if they find compatible risk-adjusted returns in the hydro
sector.
 The hydro sector inherently poses few tasks primarily on account of risk associated with an implementation that
can be mitigated with timely involvement of government agencies to be made responsible for.
BIOFUELS
 Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels primarily produced from biomass, and can be used to replace or can be used
in addition to diesel, petrol or other fossil fuels for transport, stationary, portable and other applications. Crops
used to make biofuels are generally either high in sugar, starch or oils.
MAJOR TYPES OF BIOFUELS

 Bioethanol: It is derived from corn and sugarcane using a fermentation process. A litre of ethanol contains
approximately two-thirds of the energy provided by a litre of petrol.
o When mixed with petrol, it improves the combustion performance and lowers the emissions of carbon
monoxide and sulphur oxide.
 Biodiesel: It is derived from vegetable oils like soybean oil or palm oil, vegetable waste oils, and animal fats by a
biochemical process called “Transesterification.” It produces very less or no number of harmful gases as compared
to diesel. It can be used as an alternative to conventional diesel fuel.
 Biogas: A major proportion of biogas is methane and carbon dioxide, though it also has small proportions of
hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and siloxanes. It is commonly used for heating, electricity and for
automobiles.
 Biobutanol: It is produced in the same way as bioethanol i.e., through the fermentation of starch. The energy
content in butanol is the highest among the other gasoline alternatives. It can be added to diesel to reduce
emissions.
 Biohydrogen: Biohydrogen, like biogas, can be produced using a number of processes such as pyrolysis,
gasification or biological fermentation. It can be the perfect alternative to fossil fuel.
IMPORTANCE
 Availability: biofuels are produced from biomass and thus are renewable.
 Source material: Whereas oil is a limited resource that comes from specific materials, biofuels can be
manufactured from a wide range of materials including crop waste, manure, and other by-products.
 Environment Pollution: Biofuels do not release as much carbon as fossil fuels do but fertilizers that are used in
the growing biofuels lead to greenhouse emissions.
 Security: Biofuels can be produced locally, which decreases the nation's dependence on foreign energy, thereby
countries can protect the integrity of their energy resources and make them safe from outside influences.
 Economic stimulation: Because biofuels are produced locally, biofuel manufacturing plants can employ hundreds
or thousands of workers, creating new jobs in rural areas.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

 Efficiency: Fossil Fuels produce more energy than some of the biofuels. E.g., 1 gallon of ethanol produces less
energy as compared to 1 gallon of gasoline (a fossil fuel).
 High cost: Pumping fossil fuels from the ground is a difficult and expensive process leading to high costs.
Production of biofuels requires land; this impacts the cost of biofuels as well as that of food crops.
 Adverse effect on biodiversity: Also, though growing engineered biofuel crops can benefit farmers commercially,
the excess number of such crops can also lead to loss of biodiversity.
 Food shortages: There is concern that using valuable cropland to grow fuel crops could have an impact on the cost
of food and could possibly lead to food shortages.
 Water use: massive quantities of water are required for proper irrigation of biofuel crops as well as to manufacture
the fuel, which could strain local and regional water resources.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
 Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology:
o The department successfully developed 2G Ethanol and transferred the technology to Oil Marketing
Companies (OMCs).
o Developed Indigenous Cellulolytic Enzyme for the production of biofuels.
o Demonstrated micro algae-based sewage treatment technology.

o It has strengthened the international collaboration to accelerate innovation in Sustainable Biofuel through
multilateral programs like Mission Innovation and Biofuture Platform.
 Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana, 2019: The objective of the scheme is to create an ecosystem for setting up
commercial projects and to boost Research and Development in the 2G Ethanol sector.
 Ethanol blending: The 2018 Biofuel Policy has the objective of reaching 20% ethanol-blending and 5% biodiesel-
blending by the year 2030. The Government has reduced GST on ethanol for blending in fuel from 18% to 5%.
 GOBAR (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources) DHAN scheme, 2018: It focuses on managing and converting
cattle dung and solid waste in farms to useful compost, biogas and bio-CNG, thus keeping villages clean and
increasing the income of rural households.
 Repurpose Used Cooking Oil (RUCO) launched by Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) aims for
an ecosystem that will enable the collection and conversion of used cooking oil to biodiesel.
WAY FORWARD
 Promotion of the use of biofuels in transportation in countries like India will help in reducing the crude import
bill.
 Biofuels can help in rural and agricultural development in the form of new cash crops.
 Efforts for producing sustainable biofuels should be made by ensuring the use of wastelands and municipal
wastes that get generated in cities.
 A properly designed and implemented biofuel solution can provide both food and energy.
 A community-based biodiesel distribution programme that benefits local economies, from the farmers growing
the feedstock to local businesses producing and distributing the fuel to the end consumer, can be tried.
NATIONAL BIOFUEL POLICY 2018

 The National Policy on Biofuels-2018 approved by the Government envisages an indicative target of 20% blending
of ethanol in petrol and 5% blending of biodiesel in diesel by 2030.
 As per the policy, GOI aims at increasing the utilization of biofuels in the energy and transportation sectors by
promoting the production of biofuels from domestic feedstock in the coming decade.
 Larger goals such as the adoption of green fuels, national energy security, fighting CC, generating employment,
etc. would be facilitated through this policy.
FEATURES
 Categorization: The Policy categorises biofuels as “Basic Biofuels” namely –
1. First Generation (1G) bioethanol & biodiesel;
2. Advanced Biofuels - Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-in fuels;
3. Third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc. to enable extension of appropriate financial and fiscal incentives
under each category.
 Scope of raw materials: The Policy expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production by allowing use of:
o Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum,
o Starch containing materials like Corn, Cassava,
o Damaged food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes, unfit for human consumption for ethanol
production.
 Protection to farmers: The Policy allows use of surplus food grains for production of ethanol for blending with
petrol with the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee, which will help farmers in getting
appropriate price.
 Viability Gap Funding: With a thrust on Advanced Biofuels, the Policy indicates a viability gap funding scheme for
2G ethanol Bio refineries of Rs.5000 crore in 6 years in addition to additional tax incentives.
 Boost to biodiesel production: The Policy encourages setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel
production from non-edible oilseeds, Used Cooking Oil, short gestation crops.
METHANOL ECONOMY
 In News: Recently, India's first Indigenously Designed High Ash Coal Gasification Based Methanol Production Plant
was inaugurated at BHEL R&D Centre, Hyderabad.

 Methanol is a low carbon, hydrogen carrier fuel produced from high ash coal, agricultural residue, CO2 from
thermal power plants and natural gas. It is the best pathway for meeting India’s commitment to COP 21.
 NITI Aayog's 'Methanol Economy' programme is aimed at reducing India's oil import bill, greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, and converting coal reserves and municipal solid waste into methanol.
DATA AND FIGURES:

 Blending of 15% methanol in gasoline can result in at least 15% reduction in the import of gasoline/crude oil. In
addition, this would bring down GHG emissions by 20% in terms of particulate matter, NOx, and SOx, thereby
improving the urban air quality.
 Methanol Economy will also create close to 5 million jobs through methanol production/application and
distribution services.
 Additionally, Rs 6000 crore can be saved annually by blending 20% DME (Di-methyl Ether, a derivative of
methanol) in LPG. This will help the consumer in saving between Rs 50-100 per cylinder.
BENEFITS OF METHANOL ECONOMY:

 Energy Security: Although slightly lower in energy content than petrol and diesel, methanol can replace both
these fuels in transport sector, energy sector and retail cooking.
 Reducing import dependency: Methanol & DME are substantially cheaper than Petrol and Diesel and India
can look to reduce its fuel bill 30% by 2030.
o Blending of 15% methanol in gasoline can result in at least 15% reduction in the import of
gasoline/crude oil.
o Methanol blending program with Gasoline will further reduce India’s fuel bill by at least 5000 Crores
annually in next 3 years.
 Cheaper and efficient Fuel: India by adopting Methanol can have its own indigenous fuel at the cost of
approximately 19 Rs. a litre at least 30% cheaper than any available fuel.
 Boost to Make in India: By both producing fuel indigenously and associated growth in automobile sector
adding engineering jobs and also investments in Methanol based industries.
 Methanol Economy will also create close to 5 million jobs through methanol production/application and
distribution services.
 Near Zero Pollution: Methanol burns efficiently in all internal combustion engines, produces no particulate
matter, no soot , almost nil SOx and NOx emissions.
 Blending of 15% methanol in petrol will reduce pollution by 33% & diesel replacement by methanol will
reduce pollution by more than 80%. It is the best pathway for meeting India’s commitment to COP 21.
CHALLENGES TO METHANOL ECONOMY:

 High ash content: Due to the high ash percentage of Indian coal, most internationally accessible technology will
not be adequate for our demands.
 Economic unviability: Since India doesn’t have much of the natural gas reserves, producing methanol from
imported natural gas lead to outflow of foreign exchange and sometimes uneconomical due to excessive prices of
natural gas.
 Various concerns have been raised about the use of methanol in transportation fuels over the years that include
corrosivity and materials compatibility, low energy content, Fire risks and toxicity.
 Low efficiency: As with Ethanol, methanol also gets less gas mileage, so it would require more frequent fuelling.
 Intense R & D: High costs of plunging in new technology required for methanol production is a daunting task.
INITIATIVES TAKEN IN INDIA:

 NITI Aayog’s road map for Methanol Economy:
o Substitute 10% of Crude imports by 2030, by Methanol alone.
o 20MT of methanol annually can be produced at Rs. 19 a litre by 2025 by using Indian High Ash coal, Stranded
gas, and Biomass.
 Methanol Economy Research Programme, by Department of Science and Technology, for production of Methanol
from various sources including Indian coal and CO2 from thermal plants, steel plants etc.

 Bureau of Indian Standards has notified 20% DME blending with LPG, and a notification for M-15, M-85, M-100
blends has been issued by the Ministry of Road, Transport and Highways.
 Test standards and plans for the M-15 blend are being evolved in consultation with the Indian Oil Corporation
Limited, Automotive Research Association of India and Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers.
 Railway is working towards blending methanol in the range of 5-20% through direct fuel injection in locomotives.
 In 2018, Assam Petrochemicals launched Asia’s first canister-based methanol cooking fuel programme.
ETHANOL BLENDING PROGRAM

 In News: Recently, the central government has advanced the target of 20% ethanol blending in petrol (also called
as E20), by five years to 2025, from 2030.
 The Government has also released an expert committee report on the ‘Roadmap for Ethanol Blending in India by
2025’.
 It proposes a gradual rollout of ethanol-blended fuel to achieve E10 fuel supply by April 2022 and phased rollout
of E20 from April 2023 to April 2025.
 It also recommends introducing vehicles that are compatible by rolling out of E20 material-compliant and E10
engine-tuned vehicles from April 2023 and production of E20-tuned engine vehicles from April 2025.
 Ethanol Blending: An ethanol blend is defined as a blended motor fuel containing ethyl alcohol that is at least 99%
pure, derived agricultural products, and blended exclusively with gasoline.
 Ethanol is one of the principal biofuels, which is naturally produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts or via
petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration.
 Ethanol produced from biomass such as sugar containing materials (like sugarcane, sugar beet etc.); starch
containing materials (such as corn, cassava, algae etc.); and cellulosic materials (such as bagasse, wood waste,
etc.).
DATA AND FIGURES:

 Ethanol distillation capacities to double by 2025 and achieve 20 % blending target.
 EBP expected to save foreign exchange of more than Rs 30,000 Cr on account of crude oil import bill, reduce
dependence on imported fossil fuel and help in achieving the goal of Atma Nirbhar Bharat in petroleum sector.
 About 5 crore sugarcane farmers & their families and 5 lakh workers associated with sugar mills & other ancillary
activities would be benefitted with this intervention.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ETHANOL BLENDING:

 Pollution reduction: By blending ethanol with petrol, fuel mixture is oxygenated so it burns more completely
and reduces polluting emissions. It also offers higher octane number in comparison to petrol.
 Fiscal Benefits: It will help lower India’s energy import dependency and thus, lowering the crude oil import
bill. India’s net import cost stands at $551 billion in 2020-21. It is estimated that the E20 program can save the
country $4 billion i.e., Rs 30,000 crore per annum.
 Impact on Emission: Use of ethanol-blended petrol decreases emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
 Energy Security: Increased use of ethanol can help reduce the oil import bill. India’s net import cost stands at
USD 551 billion in 2020-21. The E20 program can save the country USD 4 billion (Rs 30,000 crore) per annum.
 Carbon Neutral and decarbonising economy: Combustion of ethanol made from biomass (such as corn and
sugarcane) is considered atmospheric carbon neutral because as the biomass grows, it absorbs CO2, which
may offset the CO2 produced when the ethanol is burned.
 Incentives for Farmers: The oil companies procure ethanol from farmers that benefits the sugarcane farmers.
Also, government encouraging use of water-saving crops like maize to produce ethanol.
 Ethanol blend is Cost-effective: Ethanol fuel is the least expensive energy source since virtually every country
has the capability to produce it. Corn, sugar cane or grain grows in almost every country which makes the
production economical compared to fossil fuels.
 Employment generation: When the use of ethanol blend fuel increases, it means more plantations of
sugarcane, corn, and grains. It also means more ethanol fuel processing plants and that translates to job
opportunities.

 Ethanol as a Renewable Energy Source: Because it’s mainly as a consequence of the conversion of energy
from the sun into useful energy. The production of ethanol begins with the photosynthesis process, which
enables sugarcane to thrive and later be processed into ethanol fuel.
 International commitment: It helps India to fulfil its pledge to reduce its carbon footprint from the 2005 levels
by 33-35% by 2030, as part of its commitments to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change adopted under the Paris Agreement.
CHALLENGES:
 Production Facilities: Currently, domestic production of bioethanol is not sufficient to meet the demand for
bio-ethanol for blending with petrol at Indian OMCs.
 Price uncertainty: The prices of both ethanol and sugarcane are fixed by the government leading to concerns
among investors regarding the price of bioethanol.
 Availability of Ethanol: Ethanol is not equally available all over the country. This leads to an increase in
transportation and logistics costs. Moreover, handling and storage of ethanol are also risky as it is a highly
flammable liquid.
 Difficult to vaporize: Pure ethanol is hard to vaporize. This makes starting a car in cold conditions almost
difficult, which is why a number of vehicle owners make a point to retain a little petrol, for instance, E85 cars
that use 15% petroleum and 85% ethanol.
 Challenge for vehicle manufacturers: Vehicle manufacturers must work with vendors to develop automobile
parts compatible with ethanol. They should work on engine optimization for higher ethanol blends.
 Environmental clearances: Currently, ethanol production plants/distilleries fall under the “Red category” and
require environmental clearance under the Air and Water Acts for new and expansion projects. This often
takes a long time leading to delays.
 Inter-state movement of ethanol: The central government amended the Industries Development and
Regulations Act to ensure smooth implementation and transportation of Ethanol across the country. But only
14 states have implemented the amended provisions. As a result, states that produce ethanol more than the
requirement for blending cannot transport the Ethanol to other states.
 Infrastructural challenges: Marketing places require an underground tank, pipes/hoses and dispensing units
for ethanol-blended petroleum supply at retail outlets. This will create space constraint at various present
retail outlets.
 Water footprint: While India has become one of the top producers of ethanol but it lags top producers, the
USA and Brazil, by a huge margin and remains inefficient in terms of water usage. High water footprint may
lead to water crises in India.
 Lack of alternatives: Producing ethanol from crop residue can be a good alternative but the annual capacity
of biorefinery is still not enough to meet the 5% petrol-ethanol blending requirement. Other biofuels such as
Jatropha have often proven to be commercially unviable.
 Requires a large piece of land: For ethanol to meet the growing demand, it must be produced on a large scale.
This, essentially, means that these very crops will have to be grown on a large scale, which requires vast acres of
land.
 Inefficient distillation process: The process of distilling fermented corn or grain takes long time and involves a lot
of heat expenditure, which is mostly fossil fuel, and fossil fuels emit a lot of greenhouse gas, which is detrimental
to the environment.
SUGGESTION TO ACHIEVE 20% ETHANOL BLENDING IN INDIA:

 Suggestions for Vehicle manufacturers: Once India achieves E20 the government will push towards E-85 fuel (85%
ethanol by volume), E100 (pure ethanol) and ED95 (95% ethanol and 5% additives (co-solvent, corrosion inhibitors
and ignition improvers)) for diesel vehicles. So, the vehicle manufacturers have to produce equipment future-
ready.
 Declare floor price: To ensure predictability and to encourage investment by entrepreneurs, the government has
to declare a floor price of ethanol for five years.
 Uniform availability of ethanol blends: All the states have to implement the amended Industries Development
and Regulations Act for facilitating the Inter-state movement of ethanol.

 Augmenting Ethanol producing capacity: According to NITI Aayog, to achieve 20% ethanol blending, India has to
augment both the sugarcane-based and grain-based ethanol production capacities by 78% and 187% respectively.
 Faster environmental clearances: Currently, ethanol production plants/distilleries fall under the “Red category”.
The government can remove them from the red category. This will facilitate more ethanol production
plants/distilleries
 Pricing of Ethanol blended petrol: For better acceptability of higher ethanol blends in the country, the retail price
of blended petrol should be lower than normal petrol. The government can consider providing tax breaks on
ethanol.
HYDROGEN BASED ENERGY

 Hydrogen is a clean fuel. It is an energy carrier that can be used for a broad range of applications. It could serve
as a possible substitute to liquid and fossil fuels.
DATA/FACTS
 India consumes about 6 million metric tonnes of grey hydrogen per annum, which is about 8.5 per cent of the
global hydrogen demand.
 In October 2020, Delhi became the first Indian city to operate Hydrogen-enriched CNG (H-CNG) buses in a six-
month pilot project.
IMPORTANCE
 Readily available: It is a basic earth element and is very abundant. However, it is time consuming to separate
hydrogen gas from its companion substances.
 Clean energy: It doesn’t produce harmful emissions. Basically, it reacts with oxygen without burning and the
energy it releases can be used to generate electricity used to drive an electric motor.
 Environmentally friendly: It is a non-toxic substance which is rare for a fuel source. As hydrogen is friendly towards
the environment, it can be used in ways that other fuels can’t even possibly match.
 Fuel in rockets: It is both powerful and efficient. It is enough to provide power for powerful machines such as
spaceships.
 Fuel efficient: Compared to diesel or gas, it is much more fuel efficient as it can produce more energy per pound
of fuel. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells have two or three times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies.
 Renewable: It can be produced again and again, unlike other non-renewable sources of energy.
ASIA-PACIFIC SCENARIO
 In the Asia-Pacific sub-continent, Japan and South Korea are on the front foot in terms of hydrogen policy making.
 In 2017, Japan formulated the Basic Hydrogen Strategy which sets out the country’s action plan till 2030, including
the establishment of an international supply chain.
 South Korea is operating hydrogen projects and Hydrogen Fuel Cell production units under the auspices of its
Hydrogen Economy Development and Safe Management of Hydrogen Act, 2020.
INDIAN CONTEXT
 India has a huge edge in green hydrogen production owing to its favorable geographic conditions and presence
of abundant natural elements.
 The government has given impetus in scaling up the gas pipeline infrastructure across the length and breadth of
the country, and has introduced reforms for the power grid, including the introduction of smart grids.
 Capacity addition to renewable power generation, storage and transmission, producing green hydrogen in India
can become cost effective which will not only guarantee energy security, but also ensure self-sufficiency gradually.

 Expensive: Although it is widely available, it is time-consuming to separate hydrogen gas from its companion
substances.
 Difficult to store: Hydrogen is very difficult to store. Its transportation even in a small amount is very expensive.
 Highly flammable: Since it is a very powerful source of fuel, hydrogen can be very flammable. Hydrogen gas burns
in air at very wide concentrations – between 4 and 75 percent.
 Not Easy to Replace Existing Infrastructure: There is not much infrastructure that can support hydrogen as fuel.
Also, cars need to be refitted in order to accommodate hydrogen as fuel.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
 National Hydrogen Energy Road Map (NHERM): To accelerate development of the hydrogen energy sector in
India, a NHERM was prepared and adopted by the National Hydrogen Energy Board in January, 2006 for
implementation.
 National Hydrogen Energy Mission: Focus on generation of hydrogen from green power resources. Aims to link
India’s growing renewable capacity with the hydrogen economy.
 Union Budget 2021-22: A comprehensive National Hydrogen Energy Mission 2021-22 to be launched.
WAY FORWARD
 With a calibrated approach, India can uniquely position itself to take advantage with increasing investment in
R&D, capacity building, compatible legislation, and the opportunity for creation of demand among its vast
population.
 Proactive industry collaboration with the government is key to creating a hydrogen economy in India.
 By prioritising national hydrogen demonstration projects, innovations to further reduce the cost of hydrogen will
become prominent locally.
 A robust policy framework akin to the one that guided the country’s solar revolution could lead to an increase in
production and demand of this green fuel.
 Multi agency mission: The Government of India should consider setting up a multi-agency mission to bring
multiple ministries, private industry and academia together in a partnership to scale up the deployment of
hydrogen across sectors and industries.
 Tax benefits that solar and wind receive should be extended to all players in the green hydrogen ecosystem.
 Incentive: Generating hydrogen from biomass should also be incentivised as it also has the potential to increase
farmer incomes.
ENERGY NEEDS IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE C RISIS

 On the occasion of the National Technology Day, Padma Vibhushan Dr. Anil Kakodkar conveyed a message to the
people of India about ‘Dealing with energy needs in the Context of Climate Crisis’.
 HDI and Energy Consumption: Dr. Kakodkar highlighted the correlation between Human Development Index (HDI)
and Per Capita Energy Consumption all over the world. HDI emphasizes that people and their capabilities should
be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth alone.
 Energy and Climate Security: Developing countries like India, face the challenge of choosing between energy
security and climate security.
 Emission Targets: Various studies have been conducted on how to control carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which
is a serious threat to the environment.
 Decarbonisation: Zero emission targets can be easily met by the use of nuclear energy. It can also reduce the cost
of deep decarbonisation.
 Actions Required: Different levels of consumption strategy need to be observed by different countries based on
their HDI so that they can actively contribute towards low/zero emissions.
INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE (ISA)

 The International Solar Alliance is an alliance of more than 120 countries, most of them being sunshine countries,
which come either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
 The Paris Declaration establishes ISA as an alliance dedicated to the promotion of solar energy among its member
country.
 The primary objective is to collectively work for efficient exploitation of solar energy to reduce dependence on
fossil-based fuels.
 It will also “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all”- SDG 7.
OBJECTIVE
 To collectively address key common challenges to scale up solar energy applications in line with their needs
 To mobilize investments of more than USD 1000 billion by 2030.
 To take coordinated action for promoting solar finance, solar technologies, innovation, R&D, capacity building
 Reduce the cost of finance to increase investments in solar energy in member countries by promoting innovative
financial mechanisms and mobilizing finance from Institutions
 Facilitate collaborative research and development (R&D) activities in solar energy technologies among member
countries
SIGNIFICANCE
 Clean Energy: It will give the desired push towards clean energy when the world is reeling under the impact of
climate change due to pollution from energy generating plants like coal etc.
 Global Leadership: The ISA gives India an opportunity to take global leadership in the fight against climate change.
 The Alliance has a 24×7 Solar Cyber Centre. This will give open access to all nations for advice and information on
many projects and financial innovation.
 Energy security: India’s energy demands are largely fulfilled by non-renewable sources of energy and due to the
scarcity of these fossil resources. Abundance of solar energy can fulfill India’s clean energy demands and security.
 Ambitious targets under UNFCCC: India’s INDCs declare that by 2030, we’ll reduce the emission intensity of our
GDP by 33-35% below the 2005 level.
 Solution to global energy poverty: It will facilitate solving global energy poverty as according to the International
Energy Association (IEA), there are more than 600 million people without access to electricity in Sub-Saharan
Africa.

 Dependent on import: India’s solar energy development is largely built over imported products.
 Legal challenge: India’s domestic content requirement clause is facing legal challenge at WTO.
 Balancing challenge: India is facing a challenge to balance prioritising domestic goals and WTO commitments.
 Dumping: India is dependent on Chinese imports for solar equipment, such as solar cells, panels, etc. The dumping
of products is leading to profit erosion of local manufacturers.
 Lack of land availability in India for solar plants is less due to high population density.
 Unequal competition: China’s strong manufacturing base is giving stiff challenges to domestic manufacturers.
 High solar waste: India’s solar waste is estimated to be around 1.8 million by 2050, which needs to be tackled.
 Lack of technical knowledge: Many of the member countries of ISA have poor technical capabilities, therefore
they do not know how best to leverage the platform.
 High capital cost: The cost of solar installations remains high in many of the ISA countries. High tariffs are
detrimental to cost effective solar development.
WAY FORWARD
 There should be greater clarity and better communication so as to convey the purpose of the alliance.
 Strong financial measures are required to finance the solar projects. Innovative steps like green bonds,
institutional loans and clean energy funds can play a crucial role.
 ISA should focus on its core goals like - aggregating demand, technical collaborations, and financial assistance for
achieving its target of TW of solar energy by 2030.
 ISA should create awareness among the masses with regard to the use and benefits of solar energy. It further
needs to ensure that solar benefits are clear and tangible to users.
 ISA should demonstrate business models that are viable for users, suppliers and financiers. Further, the alliance
should support member countries in implementing policies to expedite these business models.
 Promotion of research and development in the renewable energy sector, especially in storage technology.
 India needs a Solar Waste Management and Manufacturing Standards Policy.
ONE SUN-ONE WORLD-ONE GRID (OSOWOG)

 In News: Recently, OSOWOG initiative is launched at Glasgow COP 26 by India and UK.

 The MNRE has issued a request for proposal (RfP) for developing a long-term vision, implementation plan, road
map, and institutional framework for its OSOWOG program.
 The plan focuses on a framework for facilitating global cooperation, building a global ecosystem of interconnected
renewable energy resources (mainly solar energy) that can be seamlessly shared.
 The vision behind the OSOWOG is ‘The Sun Never Sets’ and is a constant at some geographical location, globally,
at any given point of time.
 The OSOWOG plan may also leverage the International Solar Alliance (ISA), co-founded by India that has 67
countries as members.
SIGNIFICANCE
 The proposed integration would lead to reduced project costs, higher efficiencies and increased asset utilization
for all the participating entities.
 This plan will require only incremental investment because it will not require a parallel grid infrastructure due to
working with existing grids.
 It will help all the participating entities in attracting investments in renewable energy sources as well as utilizing
skills, technology and finances.
 Resulting economic benefits would positively impact poverty alleviation and support in mitigating water,
sanitation, food and other socio-economic challenges.
 It will allow national renewable energy management centres in India to grow as regional and global management
centres.
 This move, during the time of the Covid-19 pandemic, gives India the opportunity to be seen as taking a lead in
evolving global strategies.
CHALLENGES
 Threat of cyber-attack: ICT based interconnected grid management and distribution could be prone to cyber-
attack. This might also deter countries from participating as electricity grids form a part of critical national
infrastructure.
 Unpredictable supply: due to intermittent generation, and daily and seasonal variability of renewable energy.
 Technological challenges: associated with interdependent and long-distance power transmission projects such as
energy loss, incompatible transmission networks, increased risk of blackout spillover etc.
 Regional political implications: Strategic denial of service in times of conflict can be used as a tool to extract
political concessions.
 Regulatory hurdles: It can be difficult to coordinate among multiple jurisdictions, regional planning, and
agreements on how to share investment costs.
WAY FORWARD
 Providing cyber security support for energy utilities and operations to participating nations, establish standards
to protect the grid, and develop contingency plans to protect against cyber-attacks.
 Developing governing institutions and regional market frameworks for coordination through political
negotiations.
 Encouraging fair trade, domestic reforms, transparency, and effective management of interconnected systems by
setting standards for digitized cross-border pricing and trading exchanges.
CLIMATE CHANGE
 Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United 2021
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by
India in this conference? (Answer in 250 words)
 Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN 2021
Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November, 2021. When was this idea first floated in the
International Solar Alliance (ISA)? (Answer in 150 words)
 ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and 2017
coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?
INTRODUCTION
 Earth’s climate is unstable and rather unpredictable as compared to other planets. Over the years, it has changed
many times in response to natural causes. Climate change is the alteration of climate due to direct or indirect
anthropogenic activity over comparable time periods. Climate change is usually measured in major shifts in
temperature, rainfall, snow, and wind patterns lasting decades or more
DATA/FACTS
 According to a NDMA report, India is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, with around 68% of
the country being prone to drought, 60% to earthquakes.
 According to a study by Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW), over 75% districts in India, home to
more than half of India's population, are hotspots of extreme climate events such as cyclones, floods, droughts,
heat and cold waves.
 According to the State of Global Climate Report, 2020 by WMO:
o Emission of major greenhouse gases increased in 2019 and 2020.
o Concentrations of the major Greenhouse Gases in the air continued to increase in 2019 and 2020.
o Globally, averaged mole fractions of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) could reach or exceed 414 ppm in 2021.
o Over 80% of the ocean area experienced at least one marine heatwave in 2020.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
NATURAL CAUSES:
 Continental drift: Plate displacement and drift changed the position of water bodies of the landmass and the flow
of ocean currents and winds that impacted the climate.
 Volcanoes: When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and
ash into the atmosphere.
 Ocean currents: As the oceans absorb more heat from the atmosphere, sea surface temperature increases and
the ocean circulation patterns that transport warm and cold water around the globe change.
 Meteorites impact: Nowadays, most of what is on the Earth stays on the Earth; very little material is added by
meteorites and cosmic dust.
ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES:
 Greenhouse gas: The Earth is endowed with a natural greenhouse effect where certain gases like CO2, CH4, water
vapour, etc. in the atmosphere permit the sunlight to enter but absorb the heat radiation.
o As a result of increased human activities due to industrial revolution, more and more of these greenhouse
gases are released into the atmosphere.
 Aerosols: Aerosols have an outsized effect on the planet’s climate. Some of them, like black and brown carbon,
warm the Earth’s atmosphere, while others, like sulphate droplets, cool it.
o They cause scattering and absorbing the solar and infrared radiation. The amount of very fine material
generally referred to as “PM2.5”.
 Changes in land cover: On a global scale, patterns of vegetation and climate are closely correlated. Vegetation
absorbs CO2 and this can buffer some of the effects of global warming.
o On the other hand, desertification amplifies global warming through the release of CO2 because of the
decrease in vegetation cover.
CONSEQUENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

 Economic:
o It is estimated that if action is not taken to address the carbon emissions, climate change could cost about 5
to 20% of the annual global GDP.

139
o Hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons devastate millions of people, leaving them in absolute poverty after
ruthlessly sweeping away their communities.
o Droughts shrink harvests, further complicating the arduous task of feeding the world population, which is
expected to reach 10 billion by 2050 (World Population Prospects 2019, United Nations Organisation).
o Infrastructure will become more vulnerable to flooding, landslides and frequent tropical cyclones.
o According to the World Bank, if we don't do something immediately, climate change could push 100 million
more people into poverty by 2030.
 Social:
o Impact on daily lives: Affect the daily lives of people everywhere in terms of employment and livelihoods,
health, housing, water, food security and nutrition, and the
realization of gender equality and other human rights.
o Impacts are expected to hit those living in poverty the hardest,
partly due to their more prevalent dependency on the very
natural resources affected by climate change and also because
they have less capacity to protect themselves, adapt or
recuperate losses.
o Children and the elderly are more susceptible to the health
concerns associated with climate change such as heat-related
ailments from higher temperatures, malnourishment due to
increased strain on food supplies.
o According to WHO, between 2030 and 2050, climate change is
expected to cause approximately 250000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea
and heat stress.
 Environmental:
o Threatened biological diversity: The source of enormous environmental, economic and cultural value will be
threatened by rapid climate change.
o Water stress and water insecurity: Changed run-off patterns and glacial melt will add to ecological stress,
compromising flows of water for irrigation and human settlements in the process. An additional 1.8 billion
people could be living in a water scarce environment by 2080.
o Composition and geographic distribution of ecosystems will change as individual species respond to new
conditions created by climate change.
o Large quantities of carbon may be emitted into the atmosphere during transitions from one forest type to
another if mortality releases carbon faster than regeneration and growth absorbs it.
o Shifts in temperatures and precipitation may reshape the boundaries between grasslands, shrublands, forests
and other ecosystems.
o Floods and storm: More intense rainfall events may lead to greater flooding in some regions and in addition
to floods, this could contribute to more landslides, avalanches and soil erosion.
o Agricultural: Solar radiation, favourable temperature and precipitation are the essential drivers of crop
growth. Climate change will affect agricultural yield directly because of alterations in temperature and rainfall,
and indirectly through changes in soil quality, pests, and diseases.
o Drought: Lands affected by drought are more vulnerable to flooding once rain falls. Hot temperatures and dry
conditions also increase the likelihood of forest fires.
 Ocean ecosystem:
o Rising Sea level: One of the outcomes of climate change is the rising sea level. The global average sea level
has risen by 10 to 20 cm over the past 100 years.
o Recently, a study has projected that sea levels will rise around Lakshadweep Islands due to the impact of global
warming.
o The average global sea level has risen 8.9 inches between 1880 and 2015, faster than in the previous
2,700 years.
o Due to constant rising sea level, many small atolls (circular coral colonies) of the Indian archipelago are sinking.
o Parali, I Island of Lakshadweep has already sunk and Parali II has sunk almost 80% of its total area.
Thinkara (14.38%) and Parali III (11.42%) are eroding at a fast pace.

140
o Ocean acidification: The rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is driving up ocean surface
temperatures and causing ocean acidification.
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE

 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): IPCC to provide for a mechanism to study the effects of global
warming at a governmental level. IPCC assesses the science related to climate change.
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): The ultimate objective of the Convention
is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human
induced) interference with the climate system”.
 Kyoto Protocol: This protocol holds the developed countries accountable for the current high levels of GHG
emissions into the atmosphere due to their role in the industrial revolution.
o Kyoto Mechanism includes Emission Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint
Implementation.
 Paris Agreement: It is considered to be the world’s first comprehensive climate agreement. It aims to keep the
global temperature well below 2°C and preferably limit it to 1.5° Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
 REDD+: It creates financial value for the carbon stored in forests to offer incentives for the developing nations to
reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths.
WAY FORWARD
 Budgetary Allocation: A vital step should be explicitly including policies for climate mitigation in the government
budget, along with energy, roads, health and education.
 Mitigation and adaptation: India has a strategy to combat climate change under the NAPCC formed with the
integration of similar missions at the state level. However, climate change would require an international collective
action for maximum impact.
o India Cooling Action Plan aims to provide sustainable cooling while keeping in mind, at the same time,
the need to protect the ozone layer. It provides a 20-year perspective, with projections for cooling needs
in 2037-38.
o National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): The Action plan covers eight major missions on Solar,
Enhanced Energy Efficiency, Sustainable Habitat, Water, Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, Green India,
Sustainable Agriculture and Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change
 Follow the Bottom-up Approach: Resilience would be more effective if it is built on a bottom-up approach, by
understanding the needs of the community at the local level, rather than providing directions from the leadership.
 Climate Adaptation: Even if major economies speed up climate mitigation, such catastrophes will become more
frequent due to the accumulated carbon emissions in the atmosphere.
o FAME Scheme for E-mobility: aim to boost sales of eco-friendly vehicles in the country. It is a part of the
National Mission for Electric Mobility.
o Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), 2017: seeks to promote low carbon growth by integrating
renewable energy sources in the design of the buildings.
 Setting up Early Warning Systems: A relatively low-hanging fruit, but a very effective one, is to set up early warning
systems that alert the downstream populations about an impending disaster.
CONCLUSION
 Sustainable growth depends on timely climate action and for that to happen, policymaking needs to connect the
dots between carbon emissions, atmospheric warming, melting glaciers, extreme floods and storms. Disasters
cannot be stopped but well-preparedness and strong climate change mitigation policies can definitely help
prevent a huge amount of loss.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS : CLIMATE CHANGE

COP26
In News: COP26 was the 26th UN Climate change conference held in Glasgow, the United Kingdom in 2021.

141
 The United Kingdom hosted the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow on
31 October – 12 November 2021.
 The Conference of Parties (COP) is a well-known annual event that sees nations come together to discuss
measures to reduce anthropomorphic global warming and steps to tackle Climate Change.
COP26 will work towards four goals
New Global and Country Goals: At the Glasgow Summit, governments were asked to consider enhancing their 2030
goals by the COP27, which will be held in Egypt in 2022.
 To secure Global Net-Zero by Mid-Century and keep 1.5 degrees within reach: Countries are being urged to
submit ambitious 2030 carbon reduction objectives, including a goal of net-zero emissions by the middle of
the century.
 Adapt to Protect Communities and Natural Habitats: To avert the loss of homes, livelihoods, and even lives,
countries will work together to "guard and restore ecosystems and construct defences, warning systems, and
resilient infrastructure and agriculture."
 Work Together to Deliver: Leaders will collaborate to develop a set of comprehensive guidelines that will aid
in the implementation of the Paris Agreement.
 Mobilise Finance: Developed countries must follow through on their pledge to raise at least $100 billion in
climate money each year.
INITIATIVES LAUNCHED DURING COP26

GLOBAL RESILIENCE INDEX INITIATIVE (GRII): lauched by the 10 countries .
Its goals are:
 Provide open worldwide reference risk data based on measures derived from insurance risk modelling
methods;
 Provide common standards and facilities that may be used for a variety of purposes, such as business climate
risk disclosure, national adaptation planning and reporting, and the preparation of pre-arranged humanitarian
financing.
GLASGOW FINANCIAL ALLIANCE FOR NET ZERO (GFANZ):
 Launched by: With UNFCCC Climate Action Champions and the COP26 Presidency, UN Special Envoy for
Climate Action and Finance.
 GFANZ was first announced in 2021 as a platform for prominent financial institutions to work together to
expedite the transition to a net-zero global economy by decarbonizing the economy in accordance with the
Paris Agreement.
 The goal of 'net Zero' is to achieve net-zero emissions by the year 2050.
o The goal is in accordance with the United Nations' Race to Zero initiative, which encourages non-
state entities including as businesses, cities, financial institutions, and educational institutions to take
aggressive and urgent action to reduce global emissions by half by 2030.
 Members: Net zero banking alliance, net zero asset managers initiative, net zero asset owners’ alliance, net
zero insurance alliance, Net Zero Financial Service Providers Alliance, and others are among the GFANZ
members.
INFRASTRUCTURE FOR RESILIENT ISLAND STATES (IRIS)

India, together with Australia, the United Kingdom, Fiji, Jamaica, and Jamaica, launched the initiative.
 It was co-created by the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) with input from Member
Countries and Organizations, as well as representatives from Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
 It is a specialised project that will give technical assistance on the complex difficulties posed by infrastructure
systems,
o improve disaster and climate resilience of infrastructure assets in SIDS, and
o share the most up-to-date information and lessons learned in specific infrastructure sectors.
 IRIS aims to provide three planned outcomes as part of the SAMOA Pathway (SIDS Accelerated Modalities
of Action).
o Improve SIDS infrastructure's resistance to climate change and catastrophe risk.

142
o Enhance knowledge and collaboration in order to integrate resilience into SIDS infrastructure.
o Through durable SIDS infrastructure, promote gender equality and disability inclusion.
INDIA’S CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION PLAN: PANCHAMRITA

 In news: PM recently laid out India’s climate change action plan (Panchamrita) at the ongoing 26th United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change’s Conference of Parties (COP26) in Glasgow.
 SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
 ‘Panchamrita’ is a traditional method of mixing five natural foods — milk, ghee, curd, honey and jaggery. These
are used in Hindu and Jain worship rituals. It is also used as a technique in Ayurveda.
 India has also given the slogan of One LIFE, One World, at Glasgow.
PRESENT CHALLENGES RELATED TO INDIA’S CLIMATE ACTION:

 Excessive Coal dependency: Coal continues to be a driving force behind electrification in India and plays an
important role in the energy security of the country.
 Balancing growth and environment: For a country like India, committing to net zero transition could potentially
have implications on growth, on the economy and on energy availability for industrialisation and urbanisation.
 Problems with the discom sector: India’s power distribution system is broken. The core issue is that state
governments run a complex cross-subsidy regime in the backdrop of fiscal constraints that results in overdues.
 Lack of ambition: Scientists have advised countries to go net zero latest by 2050 and move on to negative
emissions to mitigate the worst effects of the climate crisis.
 Rising emissions from agricultural sector: India's significant food and fertilizer subsidies contribute to climate
change leading to high GHG emissions, especially in paddy cultivation.
 Need of investment: India expects developed countries to provide climate finance of $1 trillion.
 Issues in implementation of the climate missions: like institutional, systemic and process barriers, including
financial constraints, inter-ministerial coordination, lack of technical expertise and project clearance delays.
 Existing laws are inadequate to deal with climate change: and do not contain provisions to specifically to reduce
future climate impacts and tackle environmental/climate violations.
 Fragmentation of climate action: India lacks a comprehensive climate action plan to monitor and deal with climate
adaptation and mitigation and other environmental and socio-economic issues in an integrated manner.
NEW FIVE CLIMATE TARGETS PLEDGED BY INDIA AT GLASGOW (COP26):

1. India will increase its non-fossil energy capacity to 500GW (India had earlier extended its target to 450GW out of
which 100GW is already installed) by 2030.
2. India will meet 50% of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
3. India will reduce the total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now onwards till 2030.
4. By 2030, India will reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by 45%.
5. By the year 2070, India will achieve the target of Net Zero.
INDIA’S CLIMATE TARGETS: PARIS (COP 21) VS GLASGOW (COP 26):

Sector Paris (COP21) Glasgow (COP26)
Emission intensity of GDP Reduction by 33%–35% by 2030 below Reduction by 45% by 2030 below 2005
2005 levels levels
Share of renewable Increasing the share of renewable energy Increasing the share of renewable
energy in India’s total to 40% by 2030 energy to 50% by 2030
energy generation
To create an additional (cumulative) carbon No new announcement.
Carbon sink sink of 2.5–3 GtCO2e through additional
forest and tree cover by 2030
WAY FORWARD:
 Ensuring adequate support: from developed to developing countries in the form of finance, technology and in
capacity building.
143
 Net negative emissions from developed nations: In order to vacate the carbon space in 2050 for developing
countries to grow, the developed countries can aim for negative emissions.
 Reducing emissions from transport sector & industry: India will have to take up enhanced measures to reduce
emissions from the transport sector, the energy-intensive industrial sector, especially cement, iron and steel, non-
metallic minerals and chemicals.
 A robust public transport: It would also need to strengthen its public transport in the cities and improve thermal
efficiency of the housing.
 Private sector investment: Excluding hydro projects, India’s installed renewable capacity is about 100 GW. The
private sector today owns about 48% of the capacity.
 Reforming the power sector: Higher expectations for future capacity in the renewable energy sector will need
greater efforts at reforming the broader power sector in co-operation with State governments.
o Further, an all-party consensus is needed to ensure a competitive tariff level.
 Investment in RE sector: A five-fold addition in renewable capacity needs to be accompanied by greater R&D
investments by all stakeholders. IP needs to be held by Indian entities as the dominant player China can’t be relied
upon.
 No dependence on West: India should not depend on the West for clean tech. It needs to set up a fund for
incubating ideas in this field.
 Nuclear energy: India must not ignore nuclear energy, where India has done much work. Just focusing on
renewables may push up costs of electricity.
 Better coordination between the State Electricity Boards (SEBs): would be needed so that utilities with surplus
power can make up for the deficits of others.
 National Commission on Climate Change (NCCC): as a constitutional body, should be formed to deal with climate
change as a strategic risk and an overarching development priority, and improve inter-ministerial and Centre-state
coordination.
CLIMATE FINANCE
 In News: During COP26, India wanted a trillion dollars in climate money from industrialised countries over the
next decade in order to adapt to and reduce the difficulties posed by global warming.
 Climate finance refers to local, national or transnational financing drawn from public, private and alternative
sources of financing that seeks to support mitigation and adaptation actions to address climate change.
 The UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement call for financial assistance from Parties with more
financial resources to those that are less endowed and more vulnerable.
INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE FUNDS

 The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has served as an operating entity of the financial mechanism since the
Convention’s entry into force in 1994.
 At Copenhagen COP 15, in 2009, under Copenhagen Accord, developed countries committed to provide
developing countries with “scaled up, new and additional, predictable and adequate funding” with a target of
mobilizing $100 billion per year by 2020.
 COP 16 (2010): Parties established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and in 2011 (COP 17) also designated it as an
operating entity of the financial mechanism.
 Additionally, Parties have established special funds: Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), the Least Developed
Countries Fund (LDCF), both managed by the GEF; and the Adaptation Fund (AF) under the Kyoto Protocol in 2001.
IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FINANCE
 Threats due to climate change: The threat posed by climate change to the development gains made over recent
decades demands an urgent, comprehensive and global response.
 To limit the rise of the world's average temperature: Climate finance is one of the most important requirements
in keeping the global temperature below 1.5 degree Celsius.
 Faster Changes in the environment: The world is already experiencing the faster the climate changes, and the
longer adaptation efforts are put off, the more difficult and expensive it could be.
 For Mitigation: Climate finance is needed for mitigation, because large-scale investments are required to
significantly reduce emissions.
144

 Lack of Clarity: There has been a continuing lack of clarity on how this climate finance should be defined and
accounted for, as serious concerns have been raised over self-reporting by the developed country parties.
 Need of robust accounting framework: Underlining the need for a robust accounting framework for transparent
reporting of climate finance, the modalities for accounting of financial resources cannot be at the discretion of a
particular country.
 Definition of climate finance varies in reports: The definitions of climate change finance used in various reports
were not consistent with the UNFCCC provisions and the methodologies used were also questionable.
 Threat to contributions by major polluters: US pulled out of the Paris Agreement and its refusal to continue US
contributions to climate funds.
 Bias towards mitigation: Most climate funds have flown into mitigation, rather than adaptation.
 Selective interest: Climate finance has mostly concentrated on renewable energy, green buildings and urban
transport, while other sectors like agriculture, degradation of land, water, etc. have seen a muted interest.
WAY FORWARD
 Climate finance has to be predictable, assured and transparent to be part of the planning process and to make a
difference.
 India must put in place a process to assess and monitor the total quantum of climate finance required with
identified sources.
 Climate finance must fall into the purview of accountability institutions like the Comptroller and Auditor General,
or judicial bodies such as the National Green Tribunal, with clear guidelines on its scrutiny.
 Given the myriad programmes, schemes, institutions and actors involved in climate finance, there is a need to
evolve a system to centralize climate change portfolios, both financially and policy wise in a national climate
change programme.
 Create a group or designate an individual within the executive branch that can oversee all of the climate change
mechanisms supported by the government.
 Climate change capacity building should not only be focused on the government, but also on civil society
organizations; the Ministries of Finance should work to build relationships with national civil society organizations.
CLIMATE CHANGE 2021 REPORT: IPCC

 In News: Recently, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released the first part of its Sixth
Assessment Report (AR6) titled “Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis”.
 It is prepared by the scientists of Working Group-I. The two remaining parts would be released in 2022.
 It noted that global net-zero by 2050 was the minimum required to keep the temperature rise to 1.5 degree
Celsius.
 It sets the stage for the Conference of Parties (CoP) 26 conference in November 2021.
KEY OBSERVATION OF THE REPORT:
Average Surface Temperature:
 The average surface temperature of the Earth will cross 1.5 °Cover pre-industrial levels in the next 20 years (By
2040) and 2°C by the middle of the century without sharp reduction of emissions.
 In 2018, the IPCC’s Special Report Global Warming of 1.5°C had estimated that two-fifths of the global population
lived in regions with warming above 1.5°C.
 The last decade was hotter than any period of time in the past 1,25,000 years. Global surface temperature was
1.09°C higher in the decade between 2011-2020 than between 1850-1900.
 This is the first time that the IPCC has said that the 1.5°C warming was inevitable even in the best-case scenario.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Concentrations:
 They are the highest in at least two million years. Humans have emitted 2,400 billion tonnes of CO2 since the late
1800s.
 Most of this can be attributed to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels.
 The effect of human activities has warmed the climate at a rate unprecedented in 2,000 years.

145
 The world has already depleted 86% of its available carbon budget.
Indian Sub-continent Specific Findings:

 Heatwaves: Heatwaves and humid heat stress will be more intense and frequent during the 21st century over
South Asia.
 Monsoon: Changes in monsoon precipitation are also expected, with both annual and summer monsoon
precipitation projected to increase. The South West Monsoon has declined over the past few decades because of
the increase of aerosols, but once this reduces, we will experience heavy monsoon rainfall.
 Sea Temperature: The Indian Ocean, which includes the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, has warmed faster than
the global average. The sea surface temperature over Indian ocean is likely to increase by 1 to 2 °C when there is
1.5°C to 2°C global warming. In the Indian Ocean, the sea temperature is heating at a higher rate than other areas,
and therefore may influence other regions.
 Net-Zero Emissions: It means that all man-made greenhouse gas emissions must be removed from the
atmosphere through reduction measures, thus reducing the Earth’s net climate balance, after removal via natural
and artificial sink, to zero. This way human kind would be carbon neutral and global temperature would stabilise.
 Current Situation:
o Several countries, more than 100, have already announced their intentions to achieve net-zero emissions by
2050. These include major emitters like the United States, China and the European Union.
o India, the third largest emitter in the world, has been holding out, arguing that it was already doing much
more than it was required to do, performing better, in relative terms, than other countries.
o Any further burden would jeopardise its continuing efforts to pull its millions out of poverty.
o IPCC has informed that a global net-zero by 2050 was the minimum required to keep the temperature rise
to 1.5°C. Without India, this would not be possible.
o Even China, the world’s biggest emitter, has a net-zero goal for 2060.
Impact of Global Warming:

 Sea- Level Rise:
o Sea-level rise has tripled compared with 1901-1971. The Arctic Sea ice is the lowest it has been in 1,000 years.
o Coastal areas will see continued sea-level rise throughout the 21st century, resulting in coastal erosion and
more frequent and severe flooding in low-lying areas.
o About 50% of the sea level rise is due to thermal expansion (when water heats up, it expands, thus warmer
oceans simply occupy more space).
 Precipitation & Drought: Every additional 0.5 °C of warming will increase hot extremes, extreme precipitation and
drought. Additional warming will also weaken the Earth’s carbon sinks present in plants, soils, and the ocean.
 Heat Extremes: Heat extremes have increased while cold extremes have decreased, and these trends will continue
over the coming decades over Asia.
 Receding Snowline & Melting Glaciers:
o Global Warming will have a serious impact on mountain ranges across the world, including the Himalayas.
o The freezing level of mountains are likely to change and snowlines will retreat over the coming decades.
o Retreating snowlines and melting glaciers is a cause for alarm as this can cause a change in the water cycle,
the precipitation patterns, increased floods as well as an increased scarcity of water in the future in the states
across the Himalayas.
o The level of temperature rise in the mountains and glacial melt is unprecedented in 2,000 years. The retreat
of glaciers is now attributed to anthropogenic factors and human influence.
CONCLUSION:
 Since the middle of the twentieth century, India has witnessed a rise in average temperature; a decrease in
monsoon precipitation; a rise in extreme temperature and rainfall events, droughts, etc. The merits and trade-offs
of different policy measures need to be assessed so as to extend well beyond climate change mitigation and
adaptation.
2. LOSS OF ICE COVER IN THE ARCTIC SEA AND LARGEST DECLINE IN ARCTIC SEA ICE

146
 In News: Recently, the National Centre of Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) has observed the largest decline in
the Arctic Sea ice in the last 41 years.
 Arctic Sea ice is a sensitive indicator of climate change and has strong retaliatory effects on other components of
the climate system.
CURRENT SITUATION:
 Arctic sea ice melt season has extended by 3 days per decade since 1979 due to earlier melt onset, and 7 days
per decade due to later freeze-up.
 Arctic sea ice is also generally younger. Ice “at least five years old” declined from 30% to 2% between 1979 and
2018.
 Arctic amplification: Arctic surface air temperatures over the past two decades have increased at more than
double the global average. This rapid phenomenon is known as “Arctic amplification”.
 Decreasing albedo: In part, it stems from the rapid loss of sea ice cover in the region resulting in decreasing albedo.
 The Greenland ice sheet is currently losing mass at around twice the rate of its Antarctic counterpart.
 Melting in Greenland has increased up to five times greater than the level seen in preindustrial times becoming
the largest terrestrial contributor to global sea level rise between 2005 and 2016.
 Many global climate models predict that the Arctic will be ice-free for at least part of the year before the end of
the 21st century. Some models predict the ice-free Arctic by mid-century.
 Opening up sea route: The Northern Sea Route (NSR) which would connect the North Atlantic to the North Pacific
through a short polar arc is slowly opening due to the melting of ice.
CAUSES OF MELTING:
 Burning of fossil fuels: The burning of fossil fuels has resulted in the buildup of greenhouse gases in the
environment thus influencing the warming trend because they trap heat in the atmosphere.
 Oil and gas drilling: The oil and gas extraction process also emits Methane, which is more damaging to the
environment than carbon dioxide, locking in heat more efficiently and escalating global warming.
 Deforestation: Trees play a very important function in balancing the ecosystem and the overall cooling of the
planet; they are called the planet’s “natural fans”.
 Ice breaking ships: During the months of summer, icebreaking ships head to the north into the Arctic Ocean,
breaking through the ice at sea, the ships end up leaving trails of open waters which leads to the decrease of
albedo.
IMPORTANCE OF ARCTIC SEA ICE:

 Arctic sea ice keeps the polar regions cool and helps moderate the global climate.
 Reflecting back the sunlight: Sea ice has a bright surface; 80% of the sunlight that strikes it is reflected back into
space. As sea ice melts in the summer, it exposes the dark ocean surface. Instead of reflecting 80% of the sunlight,
the ocean absorbs 90% of the sunlight.
 A small temperature increase at the poles leads to still greater warming over time, making the poles the most
sensitive regions to climate change on Earth.
 Storage of Carbon: The cryosphere locks the greatest amount of CO2 in the world. The permafrost of the polar
region has trapped tonnes of carbon inside its soil.
 Leads to global warming: The loss of sea ice also has the potential to accelerate global warming trends and to
change climate patterns.
OPPORTUNITIES IN THE MELTING OF THE ARCTIC SEA ICE:

 The Northern Sea Route (NSR) which connects the North Atlantic to the North Pacific through a short polar arc
was once not open for navigation.
 Movement of commercial cargo: The melting ice has now made it a reality and a trickle of commercial cargo
vessels have been going through every summer since the last decade.
 Commercial and Economic opportunities: The opening of the Arctic presents huge commercial and economic
opportunities, particularly in shipping, energy, fisheries, and mineral resources.

147
 Storage of unexplored resources: Oil and natural gas deposits, estimated to be 22 percent of the world’s
unexplored resources, mostly in the Arctic Ocean, will be open to access along with mineral deposits.
IMPACT ON INDIA:
 Vulnerability of long coastline: India’s extensive coastline makes us vulnerable to the impact of Arctic warming
on ocean currents.
 Monitoring of the Third Pole: Research in Arctic melting will help us understand climatic changes in the Third Pole
— the Himalayas.
 Strategic needs: The strategic implications of an active China in the Arctic & its growing economic & strategic
relationship with Russia are self-evident.
 India has observer status in the Arctic Council, which is the predominant inter-governmental forum for
cooperation on the environmental & development aspects of the Arctic.
CHALLENGES:
 Greenhouse gas emissions: Carbon is currently trapped as organic matter in the permafrost (frozen soil) that
underlies much of the Arctic. But the warming of the Arctic may lead to the melting of permafrost from the surface
layer and releasing methane and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
 Sea level rise: Sea level has been rising about 1-2 millimetres each year as the Earth has become warmer. Some
of the sea-level rise is due to melting glaciers and ice sheets which add water to the oceans that were once trapped
on land.
 Alteration in regional weather: In recent times, high temperatures have been recorded in the Siberian region,
causing a prolonged heatwave, which have been attributed to absence of sea ice among other factors.
 Loss of habitat: Declining Sea ice will lead to a loss of habitat for seals and polar bears; it also would increase
encounters between polar bears and humans.
 Coastal erosion: As sea ice retreats from coastlines, wind-driven waves combined with thawing permafrost will
likely lead to more rapid coastal erosion.
WAY FORWARD:
 Checking global warming: The only way to deal with Arctic amplification is by halting global warming as a whole.
 Proper implementation of the Paris Agreement in limiting global warming. Cutting fossil fuel emissions,
conservation of forests and afforestation and carbon sequestration are some of the ways to bring down the global
temperature levels.
 While new economic opportunities arise, they also induce severe environmental impacts and risks. So the model
of exploration should be based on cost-benefit analysis and on the lines of SDG goals.
 By increasing investments and knowledge flows towards renewable options that are abundant and un-perishing,
the focus from the carbon economy can be shifted to a sustainable one.
 No global power will be able to act alone to face them, Arctic states will be called to coordinate among themselves
and with an increasing number of non-Arctic states and non-state actors.
 There is an urgent requirement of a regulating body that can set some rules and regulations to keep the process
less harmful to the environment and the people associated with it.
CONCLUSION:
 The arctic environment is largely unspoiled but human actions including global warming are having a rapid impact.
Only through approaching the tasks collaboratively will it be possible to find lasting solutions, so international
cooperation becomes essential in having a sustainable arctic environment in the future.
3. MARINE HEAT WAVES

 In News: Recently, scientists have observed unusually high sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the Pacific Ocean
around the western coast of the United States which are considered to be marine heat waves (MHWs).

148
 A marine heat wave is usually defined as a coherent area of extreme warm sea surface temperature that persists
for days to months. Marine heat waves happen when sea temperatures are warmer than normal for an extended
period.
DATA/FACTS:
 Marine heat waves have become twice more frequent in the past four decades and are lasting longer.
 Few scientific reports suggests that human activities are responsible for 84 to 90 percent of the marine heat waves
that occurred in the last one decade
 By 2081, the frequency of marine heat waves could jump by 20 to 50 times.
REASON BEHIND MARINE HEAT WAVES:

 The most common cause of marine heat waves are ocean currents which can build up areas of warm water and
air-sea heat flux, or warming through the ocean surface from the atmosphere.
 Normally, sunlight passes through the atmosphere and heats the surface of the ocean. If there are weak winds
this warm water doesn’t mix with the cooler waters below.
 Winds can enhance or suppress the warming in a marine heatwave, and climate models like El Niño can change
the likelihood of events occurring in certain regions.
 MHWs can be caused due to large-scale drivers of the Earth’s climate like the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
 A new report from the United Nations says surface temperatures for the world’s oceans are rising at an alarming
pace, causing marine “heatwaves” and accelerating sea levels that threaten fishing economies.
IMPACT OF MARINE HEAT WAVES:

 Change in ecosystem structure: Marine heat waves affect ecosystem structure, by supporting certain species and
suppressing others.
 Effect on biodiversity: Temperature-sensitive species such as corals are especially vulnerable to MHWs. In 2016,
marine heatwaves across northern Australia led to severe bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef.
 Economic losses: Marine heatwaves can cause economic losses through impacts on fisheries and aquaculture.
 There are severe impacts on marine ecosystems from marine heat waves including from the base of the food
chain plankton, which everything in the ocean relies on, to higher trophic levels.
 Link b/w marine heat waves and harmful algal blooms: There was also some evidence of marine mammals that
were eating contaminated fish and other things were suffering from the poisoning.
WAY FORWARD:
 Marine heatwaves clearly have the potential to devastate marine ecosystems and cause economic losses in
fisheries, aquaculture, and ecotourism industries.
 However, their effects are often hidden from view under the waves until it is too late.
 By raising general awareness of these phenomena, and by improving our scientific understanding of their physical
properties and ecological impacts, we can better predict future conditions and protect vulnerable marine habitats
and resources.
4. CLIMATE CHANGE AND FOREST FIRE INTER-LINK

 In News: Recently, in an updated review of scientific articles that try to establish a link between climate change
and fire risk published since January 2020, scientists note that human-induced climate change promotes the
conditions on which wildfires depend.
 Forest Fires are a natural phenomenon. Controlled natural fires are beneficial for the growth of the forest. Along
With other factors like deforestation, shifting cultivation, forest fire is a major cause of injury and loss to forests.
 Wildfires can be incited by human actions, such as land clearing, extreme drought or in rare cases by lightning.
 The impact of the fire is diverse on the forest ecosystem. Besides directly damaging the forest trees, the fire also
adversely affects forest regeneration, microclimate, soil erosion, and wildlife etc.
DATA/FACTS:

149
 According to the European Union's Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service (CAMS), Uttarakhand's forest
fires emitted nearly 0.2 mega tonnes of carbon in the past one month, a record since 2003.
 According to the India State Forest Report 2019, 21.67% of India’s geographical area is forest. Of that, Forests in
Assam, Mizoram and Tripura have been identified as ‘extremely fire-prone.
 According to a study, increased temperatures and resultant aridity have increased the number and spread of
forest fires in the USA in the last 30 years.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FOREST FIRES:

Natural factors:
 Lightning: A lightning strike can produce a spark. Sometimes the lightning can strike power cables, trees, or rocks
and any other thing and this can trigger a fire.
 Volcanic eruption: Hot magma in the earth’s crust is usually expelled out as lava during a volcanic eruption. The
hot lava then flows into nearby fields or lands to start wildfires.
 Fire Weather: Climate change increases the frequency and severity of fire weather around the world. Increased
fire weather from climate change amplifies fire risk where fuels remain available.
 Lack of soil moisture: The dryness in the soil triggers fire in forests. For example, the recent Uttarakhand wildfires
are due to this.
Anthropogenic Factors:
 Smoking: Smoking is the leading cause of forest fires globally. Throwing away the cigarette butts without
completely extinguishing them can lead to wildfires.
 Campfires: During camping or outdoor activities people normally leave lit fires or combusting materials
unattended. That will ignite wildfires.
 Burning Debris: Wastes and trash are on several occasions burned to ashes as a way of reducing the accumulation
of rubbish. For example, the recent Simlipal Forest fire is due to this only.
 Slash and Burn Cultivation: This is one of the major reasons for the fire in India’s North-eastern region.
 Poor land and forest management: It also contributes to the wildfires, however, it does not alone account for the
recent increases in the extent and severity of the wildfires globally.
IMPACT OF FOREST FIRES:

 Loss of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Forest fires destroy the
habitats and the intricate relationships of diverse flora and fauna
leading to loss of ecosystems and biodiversity.
 Forest Degradation: Forest fires especially the ones that happen in
dry tropical forests are a major cause of forest degradation.
 Impact on livelihood: According to the 2011 census, 1.70 lakh
villages in India have proximity to forests. The livelihood of those
people is dependent on fuelwood, bamboo, fodder, and small
timber.
 Air Pollution: Forest fires reduce carbon sequestration and in
addition, the huge clouds of smoke instigated by wildfires lead to
massive air pollution.
 Soil Degradation: Forest soils are loaded with nutrients. These fires kill beneficial soil microorganisms that are
responsible for breaking down the soil and promoting soil microbial activities.
 Destruction of Watersheds: Trees and vegetation cover acts as watershed protectors since approximately all the
water comes from forest-derived water tables.
 Triggers Global Warming cycle: When plant life is exterminated by fires, the quality of the air we breathe declines
and greenhouse gasses increase in the atmosphere leading to climate change and global warming.
WAY FORWARD:

150
 Climate change is the reality, so are the increased severe forest fires. Management of forest fires needs to be
tackled at various levels.
 Capacity development of forest departments’ officials at different levels (national, regional, local) to reduce the
vulnerability of Indian forest fire.
 Creating forest fire control manuals for field staff. Thus, suggesting steps to early detection, reporting and
controlling the fires.
 Policy at the national level: A cohesive policy or action plan should be formulated to set forth the guiding
principles and framework for wildfire Management. The policy should also incorporate the dimension of climate
change.
 Using indigenous knowledge and techniques of local and tribal people in comprehensive wildfire management.
 Improving the Staffing and capacity of firefighters in the country. For example, construction of watchtowers and
crew stations, hiring seasonal fire watchers to spot fires, etc.
 Adoption of Modern Technology: Modern firefighting techniques such as the radio-acoustic sound system for
early fire detection and Doppler radar should be adopted.
OZONE DEPLETION
 Ozone in the troposphere is “bad” because it dirties the air and helps to form smog, which is not good to breathe.
Ozone in the stratosphere is “good” because it protects life on Earth by absorbing some of the sun’s harmful
Ultraviolet (UV) rays.
 It implies that there is a significant decrease in the concentration of ozone in a particular region of the
atmosphere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’. E.g., Ozone Depletion is the atmosphere over the Antarctic which
has only about 50 percent of the ozone that originally occurred there.
 Depletion of the ozone layer has an adverse effect on our environment, the most visible one being global
warming. The actual realization of ozone-depletion came only in 1985.
OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCE (ODS)

 Ozone depleting substances are man-made gases that destroy ozone once the gases reach the ozone layer.
 Ozone depleting substances include: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), Hydro
bromofluoro carbons (HBFCs), Halons (were used in fire extinguishers), Methyl bromide (was used as fumigant.
Fumigation is a method of pest control by suffocating pests with poison), Carbon tetrachloride (formerly widely
used in fire extinguishers, refrigerant and as a cleaning agent), Methyl chloroform (solvent for organic compounds;
used for cleaning metal parts and circuit boards).
DATA
 Scientists believe that the closing of the hole is because of the polar vortex. As per the Scientific Assessment of
Ozone Depletion data of 2018: The ozone layer in parts of the stratosphere has recovered at a rate of 1-3% per
decade since 2000.
 At these projected rates, the Northern Hemisphere and mid-latitude ozone is predicted to recover by around 2030,
followed by the Southern Hemisphere around 2050, and polar regions by 2060.
IMPACTS OF OZONE DEPLETION

 Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation levels at the Earth's surface, which is damaging to human
health. Negative effects include increases in certain types of skin cancers, eye cataracts and immune deficiency
disorders.
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS
 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: established global monitoring and reporting on ozone
depletion. It does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs, the main chemical agents causing
ozone depletion.
 Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention (the protocol) was agreed in 1987. It
facilitates global cooperation in reversing the rapid decline in atmospheric concentrations of ozone.

151
 Kigali amendment to Montreal Protocol 2016: The parties are expected to reduce the manufacture and use of
HFCs by roughly 80-85% from their respective baselines, till 2045.
INDIA’S EFFORTS
 The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rule, 2000 was amended in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005
and 2019 to facilitate implementation of ODS phase-out at enterprises in various sectors.
 Use of halons is prohibited after 1st January 2001 except for essential use. Other ODSs such as carbon
tetrachloride and methyl chloroform and CFC for metered dose inhalers can be used upto 1st January 2010.
 MoEFCC issued a notification to prohibit the issuance of import license for HCFC-141b from January 1, 2020,
under Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2019 issued under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 Ozone Cell: The MoEFCC has set up an Ozone Cell as a National Ozone Unit (NOU) to render necessary services for
effective and timely implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its ODS phase-out program in India.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIAN AGRICULTURE

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE
 Agriculture has changed dramatically, productivity has increased by using new technologies, mechanization,
increased use of fertilizers and pesticides and expansion of irrigation facilities.
o Total food losses and waste cause 8 percent of greenhouse gas emissions.
 These changes allowed farmers with reduced labour demands to produce the majority of the food and fibre.
 Although these changes have had the positive effect of these practices but have also caused some serious
environmental problems such as erosion of top soil, depletion and pollution of groundwater contamination, etc.
o Agriculture, forestry and other land use cause almost one quarter of human greenhouse gas emissions.
Tropical deforestation and forest degradation account for 11 percent.
 The impacts of climate change are reducing the capacity of natural resources (biodiversity, soil and water) to
sustain the food demand of the world’s increasing population.
 Food security and climate change are therefore interlinked challenges that need to be addressed simultaneously.
VULNERABILITY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

 The effect of change in frequency and magnitude of natural disasters on the agriculture sector is devastating by
placing many lives and livelihoods of various communities at risk.
 Specifically, this sector is already threatened by land degradation, less water availability and biodiversity losses
becoming even more vulnerable to climate change.
 Vulnerability assessment of Indian Agriculture to climate change is undertaken by Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR).
VULNERABILITY INDICATORS:
 Annual Rainfall: The annual rainfall is less than 500 mm in 28 districts largely located in Rajasthan, Haryana and
Punjab. The rainfall ranged between 500 - 700 mm in 59 districts.
 Area under degraded and waste land: Degraded lands are low in productivity as the physical, chemical,
physiographic and biological conditions of soils are not favourable to health crop or vegetation growth.
 Available water holding capacity (AWC) of the soil: It is less than 60 mm in 164 districts, many of which are located
in Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
 Groundwater availability: Groundwater is the most dominant source of irrigation in the country and is one of the
most yield stabilizing factors.
o Low groundwater availability is a potent constraint to stable agricultural production. Availability of
groundwater is less than 20 ha m/ km2 in as many as 390 districts of the country.
 Net Irrigated Area: Irrigation is the single most important yield enhancing and stabilizing factor in agriculture. Less
than 20 percent of the net sown area is irrigated in 145 districts.

152
o Many of these districts are located in the states of Maharashtra, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
etc.
 Fertilizer Use: GHG emissions from synthetic fertilisers such as urea consist of nitrous oxide gas from synthetic
nitrogen additions to managed soils due to volatilisation.
 Rice cultivation: GHG emissions from rice cultivation consist of methane gas from the anaerobic decomposition
of organic matter in paddy fields due to standing water in the rice fields.
 Natural hazard proneness: The rising incidence of drought, flooding, and cyclone are threat to India’s agriculture.
o For example, districts on the coast suffer from both flood and cyclone and some districts in Gujarat suffer
from both drought and cyclone.
WAY FORWARD
 Investment in agricultural infrastructure: Rural spending plan focussed on investment in agriculture infrastructure
particularly in irrigation and rainwater harvesting and a national network of soil testing laboratories is needed.
 Early warning systems: Each village should be provided timely rainfall forecasting along with weather-based
forewarning regarding crop pests and epidemic in various seasons.
 Crop planning: Changing planting day could have significant impact; crop planning should be conducted as per
climatic zone of different regions.
 Zero tillage and laser-based levelling can also help conserve water and land resources.
 Insurance coverage should be extended to all crops with the lowest interest rate.
 A debt moratorium policy on drought-distressed hotspots and areas facing climate change calamities should be
announced, waiving interest on loans till farming incomes are restored.
 Focus on R&D: Research for drought resistant crops should be done. Afforestation should be promoted to help
modify regional climates and prevent soil erosion.
CONCLUSION
 Addressing climate change is central to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. In particular,
SDG-13 calls for urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Taking action on SDG 13 (particularly
through the agricultural sectors) will be critical to achieve SDG-2 on eradicating hunger, achieving food security,
improved nutrition and sustainable agriculture.
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA)

 CSA is an approach to help the people who manage agricultural systems respond effectively to climate change.
 The availability of the natural resources and their quality are also being affected by unsustainable management
practices and changing climatic and weather conditions.
 To respond to this situation, the agriculture sectors must improve their sustainability performance and adapt to
the impacts of climate change in ways that do not compromise global efforts to ensure food security for all.
THREE PILLARS OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA):

1. Increased productivity: Produce more and better food to improve nutrition security and boost incomes, especially
of 75% of the world’s poor who live in rural areas and mainly rely on agriculture for their livelihoods.
2. Enhanced resilience: Reduce vulnerability to drought, pests, diseases and other climate-related risks and shocks;
and improve capacity to adapt and grow in the face of longer-term stresses like shortened seasons and erratic
weather patterns.
3. Reduced emissions: Pursue lower emissions for each calorie or kilo of food produced, avoid deforestation from
agriculture and identify ways to absorb carbon out of the atmosphere.
IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA)

 Addresses climate change: CSA systematically integrates climate change into the planning and development of
sustainable agricultural systems.
 Integrates multiple goals and manages trade-offs: It is not always possible to achieve all three pillars of CSA.

153
 Maintains ecosystem services: CSA adopts a landscape approach that builds upon the principles of sustainable
agriculture but goes beyond the narrow sectoral approaches to integrated planning and management.
 Multiple benefits: It has multiple benefits ranging from the development of technologies and practices to the
elaboration of climate change models and scenarios, insurance schemes and the strengthening of institutional and
political enabling environments.
 Engages women and marginalised groups: To achieve food security goals and enhance resilience, CSA approaches
must involve the women and other vulnerable groups which could help build their adaptive capacity to cope with
events like droughts and floods.
 Addresses food security, maldistribution and malnutrition: Despite the attention paid to agricultural
development and food security over the past decades, there are still millions of undernourished and malnourished
people in the world.
o CSA helps to improve food security for the poor and marginalised groups while also reducing food waste
globally.
 Addresses the relationship between agriculture and poverty: Agriculture continues to be the main source of food,
employment and income for many people living in developing countries.
o Agricultural growth is often the most effective and equitable strategy for both reducing poverty and
increasing food security.
 Addresses the relationship between climate change and agriculture: Due to climate change the global average
temperatures are rising and, in the future, temperatures are projected to be not only hotter but more volatile too.
o It will have profound impacts on agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Climate smart agriculture helps to
mitigate this problem.
CONCLUSION
 Any adaptation to ongoing climate change will require climate justice, which involves policy reforms that can help
make India resilient to climate change. This can be induced by expansion of joint research and development
partnerships (like the U.S.-China Clean Energy Research Center), pairing India’s emerging smart cities with green
cities in the West.
ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY AGRICULTURE: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

 The concept of sustainable agriculture gained prominence since the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987.
 The term "sustainable agriculture" is defined as an integrated system of plant and animal production practices
having a site-specific application.
THREE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

 Environmental sustainability: Through e.g., protecting, recycling, replacing and maintaining the natural resources
base such as land (soil), water and wildlife.
 Economic sustainability: Through e.g., improving soil management and crop rotation which raise yields
 Social sustainability: Through upholding social justice and cultural cohesion.
IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

 Environmental Protection: Sustainable Agriculture emphasizes methods and processes that improve soil
productivity while minimizing harmful effects on the climate, soil, water, air, biodiversity and human health.
 Saving Energy: It emphasizes to minimize the use of inputs from non-renewable sources and petroleum-based
products and replace them with those from renewable resources.
 Food security: It seeks to ensure that the basic nutritional requirements of current and future generations are met
in both quantity and quality terms.
 Economic profitability: It not only ensures sustainable increase in agricultural production but also reduces the
agricultural sector’s vulnerability to adverse natural conditions socio-economic factors and other risks.
 Social equity: Besides, focusing on local people and their needs, knowledge, skills, socio-cultural values and
institutional structures.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE:

154
 It involves the systematic planting of different crops in a particular order over several
Crop Rotation years in the same growing space.
 It helps in maintaining nutrients in the soil, reducing soil erosion, and preventing plant
diseases and pests.
 It involves the growth of trees and shrubs amongst crops or grazing land.
Agroforestry  Agroforestry systems can combine both agriculture and forestry practices for long-
lasting, productive, and diverse land use.
Biointensive  It emphasizes the prevention of pest problems with crop rotation; the reintroduction of
Integrated Pest natural, disease-fighting microbes into plants/soil, and release of beneficial organisms
Management that prey on the pests. Chemical pesticides are not used.
 Cover crops are planted during lean season times when soils might otherwise be left
Planting cover crops bare.
 These crops protect and build soil health by preventing erosion, replenishing soil
nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need for herbicides.
 It is the design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the
Permaculture diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems.
Zero Budget Natural  The phrase ‘Zero Budget’ means without using any credit, and without spending any
farming money on purchased inputs. ‘Natural farming’ means farming with Nature and without
(ZBNF) chemicals (FAO).
Organic  It is a type of farming which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs.
Farming  To the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal
manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of
nutrient mobilization and plant protection.
 It considers farms as a living system.
Biodynamic  The system puts great emphasis on the integration of animals to create a closed nutrient
agriculture cycle, effect of crop planting dates in relation to the calendar, and awareness of spiritual
forces in nature.
LEISA (Low External  It uses low synthetic fertilizers or pesticides.
Input Sustainable  Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM, and
Agriculture) utilization of on-farm resources and management.
Conservation  Conservation agriculture is a farming method that largely forgoes tillage and involves
Agriculture permanent organic mulch cover and extended crop rotation.

 Organic farming and food security: Switching to organic farming typically leads to a sharp drop in yields compared
with intensive farming with a rising world population; there is a growing debate over our ability to sustain the
population.
 Feasibility of conservation agriculture for soil management: The absence of ploughing as in case of conservation
agriculture requires changes to weed management, use of herbicides and also special machinery for sowing.
 Small land holdings: Environmentally harmful farming methods are not only the characteristic of industrial or
intensive large agricultural businesses; smallholders can also damage the soil and the environment due to lack of
knowledge and access to modern sustainable techniques.
 Use of chemical pesticides: To completely do away with chemical pesticides may not be a feasible idea given the
growing incidences of pest attacks and consequent loss of crop.
 Use of HYV seeds: High yielding hybrid seeds have been known to pose threat to not only human and
environmental health but are also economically unsustainable for farmers.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:
 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana: It incentivises States to draw up plans for their agriculture sector more
comprehensively taking agro-climatic conditions, natural resource issues and technology into account.
 Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana: It is a comprehensive insurance scheme that covers the damage caused by
natural calamities.

155
 Dairy Processing and Infrastructure Development Fund: To reduce the dependence of farmers on agriculture and
provide other allied options.
 Soil Health Card Scheme: To issue soil health cards every 3 years, to all farmers of the country, so as to provide a
basis to address nutrient deficiencies in fertilization practices.
CONCLUSION:
 The Indian government should strive to achieve the goal of sustainable agriculture at war footing through policy
changes and support to various stakeholders in light of the mounting climatic challenges and food security issues.
ORGANIC FARMING
 Organic Agriculture is a system of farm design and management to create an ecosystem of agriculture production
without the use of synthetic external inputs such as chemicals, fertilisers, pesticides and synthetic hormones or
genetically modified organisms.
 FAO suggested that Organic agriculture enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles
and soil biological activity.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC FARMING:

 Relies primarily on local, renewable resources.
 Makes efficient use of solar energy and the production potential of biological systems and maintains the fertility
of the soil. Maximises recycling of plant nutrients and organic matter. Does not use organisms or substances
foreign to nature (e.g., GMOs, chemical fertilisers or pesticides)
 Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural predators, diversity, organic manuring,
resistant varieties.
IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC FARMING

 Alternative sustainable agriculture: The ill effects of the conventional farming system are felt in India in terms of
the unsustainability of agricultural production, environmental degradation, health and sanitation problems, etc.
 Increased Crop Productivity: The fertilizer and pesticide consumption has increased manifold but this trend has
not been reflected in the crop productivity to that extent.
o Organic farming has the potential of increased productivity in the long term due to better soil conditions
and ecosystems.
 Improvement in soil quality: It improves the soil physical properties such as granulation, good tilth, good aeration,
easy root penetration, improves water-holding capacity and reduces erosion.
o It also improves the soil’s chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrients, reduces
nutrient loss into water bodies and environment and promotes favourable chemical reactions.
 Healthy food: Apart from several other indirect benefits of organic farming the consumers get healthy foods with
better taste and nutritive values, the farmers are indirectly benefited from healthy soils and farm production
environment.
 Employment Opportunities: Organic farming requires more labour input than the conventional farming system.
 Promotion of Biodiversity: Crop rotation to build soil fertility and raising animals naturally helps promote
biodiversity, which promotes greater health across all living species.
o As organic farms provide safe havens to wildlife, local ecosystems also improve.
 Eco-tourism: Eco-tourism is increasingly becoming popular and organic farms have turned into such favourite
spots in many countries like Italy.
o Organic farming adds to the beauty of the fields and provides protection to the ecosystem, flora, fauna
with increased biodiversity and the resulting benefits to all human and living beings.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH ORGANIC FARMING:

 High-cost input: The cost of cultivation increases as it takes more time and energy to produce than its chemical
intensive counterpart.
 Expensive final products: Due to relatively small volumes, the costs of organic food products are relatively high.

156
 Lack of Awareness: The most important constraint in the progress of organic farming is the lack of awareness
among farmers about the organic farming and its potential benefits.
 Low Yields: In many cases the farmers experience some loss in yields on discarding synthetic inputs on conversion
of their farming method from conventional to organic.
 Inadequate Supporting Infrastructure: In spite of the adoption of the National Programme for Organic Production,
the state governments are yet to formulate policies and a credible mechanism to implement them.
 Labour intensive and time consuming: It is inherently more labour intensive than chemical/mechanical agriculture
so that, naturally, a single farmer can produce more crops using industrial methods than he or she could by solely
organic methods.
WAY FORWARD:
 Supply-demand mismatch can be eased fundamentally by making organic production mainstream with location-
specific hybrid production strategies.
o One District-One Product (ODOP): The programme aims to encourage more visibility and sale of
indigenous and specialized products/crafts.
 Investments in achieving operations excellence by companies will facilitate lowering the cost of organic food
products.
 In order to sustain consumer trust, maintaining an accurate audit stream, and preventing cross contamination
with conventional goods would be crucial.
o Participatory Guarantee System: It is a process of certifying organic products, which ensures that their
production takes place in accordance with laid-down quality standards
 Consumers should consume responsibly and stakeholders should prevent wastage along the supply chain.
 The Government must rope in agricultural scientists and international research institutions to develop organic
herbicides.
o National Program for Organic Production (NPOP): NPOP grants organic farming certification through a
process of third-party certification for export purposes.
 People across all income groups should have access to organic food.
 Establishing community-supported agricultural farms or with “grow your own food” programmes.
 Looking for alternatives: Zero Budget Natural Farming is a method of chemical-free agriculture drawing from
traditional Indian practices.
 Adopting traditional methods: Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) Under this, Organic farming is promoted
through adoption of organic villages by cluster approach and Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) certification.
BUDGET 2022-23 AND ORGANIC FARMING

The Government will promote chemical-free natural farming across the country. As a first step, the focus will be on
farmlands in 5-km-wide corridors along the river Ganga.
 Further, agricultural universities will be encouraged to revise their syllabi to include natural, zero-budget,
and organic farming, modern-day agriculture, value addition, and management.
CONCLUSION:
 Organic agriculture is the best insurance policy that India can have with better performance on productivity,
environmental impact, economic viability and social well-being. India needs an integrated system that gives equal
importance to all sustainability dimensions across the value chain and thus helps establish a healthy and well-fed
society.
BIO FERTILIZERS & GR EEN MANURE

 Biofertilizers and green manures are important pillars of organic farming that support higher yield and maintain
soil health.
 Biofertilizers are a very cost-effective solution for providing nutrients to crops in a sustainable manner, unlike
chemical fertilizers, which are costly and need repeated application.

157
 Similarly, green manuring utilizes lean periods between two main crops and improves soil fertility by providing
fixed nitrogen and improving organic matter of the soil.
BIOFERTILIZERS:
 Biofertilizers are products of beneficial microorganisms which increase agricultural production by way of nutrient
supply, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Biofertilizers can fix atmospheric nitrogen for plant use and can mobilize unavailable phosphorous pools which
can be used by plants.
 These biofertilizers are inexpensive, simple to use and have no problem of environmental pollution.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOFERTILIZERS:
 Biofertilizers restore normal fertility to the soil and make it biologically alive. They boost the amount of organic
matter and improve soil texture without negatively impacting environment.
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFERTILIZERS:
 Their effects are slower than chemical fertilizer.
 Biofertilizers are sensitive to temperature and humidity changes, hence difficult to store.
 They’ve much lower nutrient density than chemical fertilizers. Farmers would need to use large quantities to get
the same yield.
 Some of them need special types of machines for spraying on the farm.
GREEN MANURE:
 Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant
tissues grown in-situ or cut and brought in for incorporation for the purpose of improving physical structures as
well as the fertility of the soil
 Green manure is a type of cover crop, grown to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil.
o Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period of time, and then ploughed under and
incorporated into the soil while it is green or shortly after flowering.
o In-situ green manuring: green manure crops are grown in the desired field and buried in the same field
for green manuring.
o Green leaf manuring: In green leaf manuring, leaves and tender green twigs are grown in separate fields,
bunds or wastelands and incorporated in the soil of some other field.
ADVANTAGES OF GREEN MANURE:

 Green manuring builds up soil structure and improves tilth · Promotes formation of crumbs in heavy soils
leading to aeration and drainage, they improve soil nutrients and protect soil erosion. Green manures provide
forage for pollinating insects.
DISADVANTAGES OF GREEN MANURE:

 These Leguminous plants require a good amount of irrigation, hence unsuitable for arid farmers.
 The “time” factor: Farmers cannot plant the primary marketable crop during the green manuring phase.
 If not properly decomposed, the green manure crop may hamper the germination and growth of subsequent crops
by immobilization of plant nutrients.
 An increase of diseases, insects and nematodes is possible if the green manure crop is not properly decomposed
before sowing the next crop.
CONCLUSION:
 Though both biofertilizers and green manuring are old and established technologies many farmers are not aware
of the benefits of these technologies. Extension workers should train more farmers about the proper use of
biofertilizers for maximum benefits.
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (INM)

158
 INM is the process to maintain the soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the
desired crop productivity.
 The aim of INM is to integrate the use of natural and man-made soil nutrients to increase crop productivity and
preserve soil productivity for future generations.
IMPORTANCE OF THE INM SYSTEM:

 Soil health: INM helps in improvement of the soil physical properties such as granulation, porosity, water holding
and drainage capacity, aeration etc. It also leads to improvement in the organic matter content in the soil making
soil healthy.
 Better yield: Balanced nutrition to the crops and better nutritional uptake lead to better plant growth and yield.
 Environmental benefits: INM minimizes the deterioration of soil, water and ecosystem by promoting carbon
sequestration, reducing nutrient losses to ground and surface water bodies and to the atmosphere.
 Fruitful utilization of farm wastes: INM promotes utilisation of farm wastes as a manure and a source of nutrients
to crops.
 Cost reduction: Some organic sources are cheaply available hence they help in reducing the production cost.
 Judicious use: Overuse of chemical fertilisers is a big issue in Indian agriculture. INM encouragement of the
judicious use of chemical fertilizers.

 Lack of knowledge: Farmers often have inadequate knowledge on use of fertilizers in balanced proportion.
 Funding: Farmers lack access to credit especially in rural areas. They have insufficient funds to buy manure,
fertilizer that are important for INM.
 Land degradation: Degradation of lands due to intensive cropping and over-exploitation by the enormous
pressure of the ever-increasing population is a big constraint to INM.
 Monsoon vagaries: Risk of water deficit during drought prone periods is considered the most important deterrent
to fertilizer use. During monsoon, water erosion is a serious threat to soil fertility and productivity.
 Limitation of small holdings: Land is fragmented in India and most of the farmers hold small holdings. This
prevents the application of INM at commercial level.
 Limitation of biofertilizer: There are several constraints to effectively utilize and popularize the use of biofertilizer
e.g., use of the biofertilizer is crop and location specific, low shelf life of the microorganisms, need for careful
handling etc.
CONCLUSION:
 INM is a sustainable way of agriculture. It not only increases crop productivity but also helps in soil, water and
biological restoration. Developing awareness among the farmers about the deteriorating soil health, unsustainable
production and environmental pollution due to non-use of organics is important to promote INM in India.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS : AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIES

 In News: Recent incidents of burning paddy stubble in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh have raised
concerns about Agriculture’s contribution to pollution and role played by the regime of agricultural subsidies in it.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIES IN INDIA:

 Input Subsidies: These are subsidies granted through distribution of inputs at prices that are less than the standard
market price for these inputs. Several varieties of subsidies in this category are –
o Fertilizer Subsidy: Urea and Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers are made available to farmers at
subsidized prices through fertilizer manufacturers/importers.
o Irrigation Subsidy: Subsidies to the farmers which the government bears on account of providing proper
irrigation facilities through provision of subsidized private irrigation equipment such as pump sets or public
goods (such as canals, dams etc.).

159
o Power Subsidy: The government charges low rates for the electricity supplied to the farmers, which is
primarily used by the farmers for irrigation purposes.
o Seed Subsidies: High yielding seeds can be provided by the government at low prices.
o Credit Subsidy: It includes interest subvention schemes for farmer loans and other costs such as write-offs
and bad loans.
 Price Subsidy: It includes mechanisms such as Minimum support prices (MSPs) at which the government procures
food-grains from farmers at a higher price than its market price.
 Infrastructural Subsidy: Government allowing use of public goods such as roads, storage facilities, power,
information about the market, transportation to the ports, etc. at lower prices to farmers.
 Export Subsidies: Subsides provided to encourage exports of specific agricultural products.

 Impacts of fertilizer use and production: Subsidization of chemical fertilizers, specifically urea based and P&K
fertilizers, have led to a boom in the fertilizer industry which again led to groundwater and surface water pollution.
 Overuse of fertilizer: The unscientific use of chemical fertilizers may lead to problems such as stagnating or even
declining soil productivity, widespread deficiency of secondary and micronutrients, and soil alkalinity and salinity,
and even to atmospheric pollution.
 Depletion of groundwater: India subsidizes the cost of energy and equipment required to pump water for
agriculture, through various schemes.
 Wastage of resources: Excess stocks of food grains procured by Food Corporation of India (FCI) when disposed of
can lead to high methane emissions and wastage of precious resources like water that went into their production.
 Power subsidy: The power subsidies have not only led to an alarming overuse of groundwater, but also it has
severely damaged the health of power distribution companies.
WAY FORWARD:
 Rationalization of fertilizer subsidies: Instead of massive subsidisation of urea to the tune of almost 75 percent
of its cost, it would be better to give farmers input subsidy in cash on per hectare basis.
 Regulation of groundwater extraction: which can be done by placing upper limits on extraction, promoting water
harvesting techniques and ensuring last mile connection of farmlands to water sources.
 Promoting crop diversification: Government must promote crop diversification and other practices such as multi
cropping can help reduce impacts of intensive agricultural practices and encourage cultivation of climate suitable
and less water intensive crops.
 Investment in technologies to mitigate pollution: Fertilizer sector in India needs appropriate investments in
technologies for pollution control, such as Nitrous oxide control in stack, ammonia emissions curtailment, and
advanced water treatment.
 Sustainable policies: Policy frameworks for subsidies related to agricultural activity need to take into account local
environmental conditions and socioeconomic contexts and focus on sustainable use of resources.
2. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

 IPM is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of
common-sense practices.
 IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the
environment.
 This information, in combination with available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the
most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment.
WORKING APPROACH OF IPM:

 Set action thresholds: Before taking any pest control action, IPM first sets an action threshold, a point at which
pest populations or environmental conditions indicate that pest control action must be taken.
 Monitor and identify pests: Not all insects, weeds, and other living organisms require control. Many organisms
are innocuous, and some are even beneficial.

160
o IPM programs work to monitor for pests and identify them accurately, so that appropriate control
decisions can be made in conjunction with action thresholds.
 Prevention: As a first line of pest control, IPM programs work to manage the crop, lawn, or indoor space to prevent
pests from becoming a threat.
 Control: Once monitoring, identification, and action thresholds indicate that pest control is required, and
preventive methods are no longer effective or available, IPM programs then evaluate the proper control method
both for effectiveness and risk.
CONCLUSION:
 IPM has emerged as one of the best practices to control pest populations in farming which curb the use of
pesticides and give importance to natural enemies of pests, which reduces environmental contamination of both
land and hydrological engines. It needs more streamlined approach and incentives to promote the practice and
aware people about its advantages.
ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

 How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020 differ from the existing EIA 2020
Notification, 2006?
 "In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for development." Discuss 2017
INTRODUCTION
 EIA can be defined as the study to predict the effect of a proposed activity/project on the environment. A decision-
making tool, EIA compares various alternatives for a project and seeks to identify the one which represents the
best combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits.
 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): It defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used
to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making.
OBJECTIVES OF EIA
 Disclose environmental effects: To disclose significant environmental effects of proposed projects to decision-
makers and the public.
 Ways to reduce environmental effects: To identify ways to avoid or reduce environmental damage.
 Prevention: To prevent adverse environmental impacts by requiring implementation of feasible alternatives or
mitigation measures.
 Reasons for approval of the project: To disclose the reason for approvals for the projects with significant
environmental impacts to the public.
 Integrated cooperation: To foster interagency coordination to have a best impact assessment.
 Public participation: To enhance public participation in the decision-making process.
IMPORTANCE OF EIA
 Cost-effective method: Provides a cost-effective method to eliminate or minimize the adverse impact of
developmental projects.
 Analyse the effect of developmental activities: Enables the decision-makers to analyse the effect of
developmental activities on the environment well before the developmental project is implemented.
 Mitigation strategies: Encourages the adaptation of mitigation strategies in the developmental plan.

161
 Make a developmental plan environmentally sound: Make sure that the developmental plan is environmentally
sound and within the limits of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration of the ecosystem.
8 GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF EIA

 Participation: The process provides appropriate opportunities to inform and involve the interested and affected
public, and their inputs and concerns should be addressed explicitly in the documentation and decision making.
Appropriate/timely access for interested parties is important.
 Transparency: The process has clear, easily understood requirements for EIA content, ensures public access to the
information, identifies the factors that are taken into account in decision making and acknowledges limitations
and difficulties.
 Efficient: The process imposes the minimum cost burdens in terms of time and finance on proponents and
participants consistent with meeting accepted requirements and objectives of EIA.
 Accountability: The decision-maker should inform decision-making and result in inappropriate levels of
environmental protection and community well-being.
 Credibility: The process should be carried out with professionalism, vigor, fairness, objectivity, impartiality, and
balance and be subject to independent checks and verification.
 Cost-effective: The process should achieve the objectives of EIA within the limits of available information, time,
resources, and methodology.
 Integrated: The process should address the interrelationships of social, economic and biophysical aspects.
 Practicality: The process should result in information and outputs which assist with problem-solving and are
acceptable to and able to be implemented by proponents.
PROCESS OF EIA
 Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project requires an EIA and if it does, then
the level of assessment is required.
 Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impacts that should be further investigated. This stage also defines
the boundary and time limit of the study.
 Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts the likely environmental and social impact of the
proposed project and evaluates the significance.
 Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse environmental
consequences of development activities.
 Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in the form of a report to the decision-making body and other
interested parties.
 Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides the information
necessary for decision-making.
 Public Hearing: After the completion of EIA report the law requires that the public must be informed and
consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA report.
o The State Pollution Control Boards will conduct the public hearing before the proposals are sent to
MOEF for obtaining environmental clearance.
 Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.
 Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It checks to ensure that the impacts
of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation measures are in the manner
as described in the EIA report.
EIA NOTIFICATION, 2006

OBJECTIVES:
 Formulation of regulatory mechanism: to formulate a transparent, decentralized, and efficient regulatory
mechanism to integrate environmental concerns into the developmental process with a view to facilitating
sustainable development.

162
 Incorporation of environmental safeguards: To ensure incorporation of necessary environmental safeguards at

the planning stage in the project cycle, so as to ensure minimal impact on different components of the
environment.
 Everyone’s involvement: To ensure the involvement of stakeholders in the public consultation process through
public hearings and to ascertain the views of the public on the proposed project or activity.
SALIENT FEATURES:
 Categorization of projects: The EIA Notification, 2006 has categorized the projects into two categories namely;
Category ‘A’ and Category ‘B’ based on their impact potential.
 Categories appraisal authority: Category ‘A’ projects will be appraised at the Central level while Category ‘B’
projects at the State level.
 Committees: State level Environment Impact Assessment Authorities and Committees (SEIAAs and SEACs) have
been constituted for the purpose of appraisal of Category ‘B’ projects.
 International practice incorporation: It is expected to improve the quality of EIA thereby improving the quality of
decision making and minimizing the delays.
 Public consultation process: The public consultation process has been made more structured. It has two
components i.e., comments through correspondence and by a public hearing at the site. Provision to videography
the proceedings of the public hearing has been made.
 NOCs: No-Objection Certificates from other regulatory agencies such as SPCB etc. are not a prerequisite for
considering an application for environmental clearance.
ISSUES WITH EIA 2006 IN INDIA

 Reports on projects’ potential (damaging) impact on the environment are frequently shoddy and consultant
agencies that prepare those reports for a fee are rarely held accountable.
 Lack of administrative capacity to ensure compliance often renders long lists of clearance conditions
meaningless.
 Periodic amendments exempting one category of industries or the other from scrutiny.
 On the other hand, developers complain that the EIA regime dampened the spirit of liberalisation, leading to
red tape and rent seeking.
 Screening: Even though some of the industrial set ups do not require EIA as per the statutory norms, they might
involve certain technological processes which could be harmful to the environment, as a result of which such
enlisted industries could have potential impacts on the environment and on public health.
 Public Hearing Process: A number of projects with significant environmental and social impacts have been
excluded from the mandatory public hearing process.
 Impact Prediction and Assessment of Alternatives: The detail method used for the prediction and evaluation of
the project is not mentioned in the report. Limited explanations are given both to quantitative estimation of
magnitude of impact and to the assumptions and judgments used in the evaluation of impacts.
 Scoping: There is a lack of exhaustive ecological and socio-economic indicators for impact assessment. Public
comments are not taken into account at the early stage, which often leads to conflict at the later stage of project
clearance.
 Formation of EIA Team: It is being found that the team formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the expertise
in various fields such as Anthropologists and Social Scientists (to study the social impact of the project) or even
wild life experts.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO MAKE EIA MORE EFFECTIVE

 Environmental Risk Assessment: New approaches such as Environmental Risk Assessment which enable more
flexible and dynamic assessments of direct and indirect impacts must be explored.
 Composition of Expert Committees: The present executive committees should be replaced by experts’ people
from various stakeholder groups, who are reputed in environmental and other relevant fields.
 Capacity Building: NGO s, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use the EIA
notification towards better decision making on projects that can impact their local environments and live hoods.

163
 Sector wide EIA s needed: There is a need to conduct policy-level and sector-wide EIAs in the form of strategic
impact assessments.
 Independent EIA Authority: Civil society groups have suggested the need for an independent Environmental
Impact Assessment authority headed by a judicial officer and comprising of representatives from communities.
 Quality of EIA Reports: The checklist needs to include impacts on agricultural biodiversity, biodiversity related
traditional knowledge and live hoods.
 Public Hearings: The public hearing should be held for all projects which are likely to have environmental and
social impacts.
DRAFT EIA 2020

The MoEFCC has published the draft EIA Notification 2020, with the intention of replacing the existing EIA Notification,
2006 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Key Proposals of the 2020 Draft includes:
 Reduced Time for Public Hearings: One of the major steps of the EIA Mechanism is public participation. The 2020
draft proposes to reduce the notice period for public hearings from 30 days to 20 days.
 Exemption of Projects: Furthermore, by classifying a number of projects into A, B1 and B2, a host of projects are
exempted from public scrutiny. Exempted Projects: The projects under this exempted category include:
o Offshore and onshore oil, gas and shale exploration.
o Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW.
o Small and medium cement plants.
o Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive areas, etc.
 Post-clearance compliance: It implies that once a project gets approved by the concerned authority, the
proponent projects are required to adhere to certain rules laid down in the EIA report in order to ensure that no
further environmental damages take place.
 Annual Submission of Reports: The new draft EIA proposes the submission of compliance reports annually
whereas as per the 2006 notification, the compliance report was to be submitted every six months.
 Report Prepared Solely by Project Proponents: Meanwhile, submission of the compliance report will be solely
prepared by the project proponents itself, which, without oversight and review, may lead to inaccurate
information submitted on the project.
 No Public Reporting for Non-Compliance: The EIA Notification 2020 excludes reporting of violations and non-
compliance by the public.
o Instead, the government will take cognizance of reports only from the violator-promoter, government
authority, Appraisal Committee or Regulatory Authority.
 Post-facto Clearance: Another major proposal in the draft 2020 is granting ‘post-facto clearance’ where a project
that has been operating without environmental clearance, can be regularised or allowed to apply for clearance.
 Penalty for Firms: Firms found violating the terms of their establishment will have to pay a penalty.
ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH THE DRAFT EIA 2020

 Opens the floodgates of violations: The environmental lawyers have argued that the Post-Facto Clearance of the
Projects is likely to encourage industries to commence operations without bothering clearance and eventually get
regularized by paying the penalty amount and thus opening the floodgates of violations.
 Strengthens the government but weakens the public: The draft offers no remedy for the political and
bureaucratic stronghold on the EIA process and instead, it proposes to bolster the government’s discretionary
power while limiting public engagement in safeguarding the environment.
 Easy clearance for ‘Strategic’ projects: While projects concerning national defence and security are naturally
considered strategic, the government gets to decide on the “strategic” tag for other projects. This opens a window
for clearance for any project deemed strategic without having to explain why.
 Reduced time means reduced awareness: The reduced notice period for a public hearing from 30 days to 20 days
will only make it difficult to study the draft EIA report and would particularly pose a problem in those areas where
information is not easily accessible or areas in which people are not that well aware of the process itself.
 Non-conformity to international frameworks and conventions: After pledging allegiance to the international
environmental instruments like Paris Climate Accord, etc. and now on the contrary proposing to weaken its EIA
regime at the domestic level, India is in a position of cognitive dissonance.
164
THE GLOBAL STANDARDS IN CREATING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

 European Union Directives: Includes climate change and biodiversity concerns. EU has also modified its processes
in accordance with the Aarhus Convention, 1998, which stipulates that:
o Environmental rights and human rights are linked;
o The present generation owes an obligation to future generations;
o Sustainable development can be achieved only through the involvement of all stakeholders;
 World Bank: World Bank EIA procedures call for screening of proposed projects to determine the type and extent
of assessment required.
WAY FORWARD
 More access to the public: The ministry, instead of reducing the time for public consultation, should focus on
ensuring access to information as well as awareness about the public hearing and its impact upon the whole EIA
process.
 Reduce the time period in granting clearances: In order to improve ease of doing business, the government should
bring down the average delay of 238 days in granting environmental clearance, which emanates from bureaucratic
delays and complex laws.
 Policy nature: Grow now, sustain later should not be the policy, as the notion is dangerously tilted against the
concept of sustainable development.
 Composition of expert committees: The executive committees should have expert people from various
stakeholder groups, who have needed expertise in environmental and other relevant fields.
 Capacity building: NGOs, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use the EIA
notification towards better decision making on projects.
CONCLUSION
 There is an urgent need to strengthen the implementation of EIA and an independent EIA authority is required for
fair and objective decisions. There is also a need for a centralised data bank for storing information and
transparency must be maintained in the dissemination of all information related to projects from notification to
clearance to local communities and the general public.
STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (SEA)

 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is the EIA of policies, plans and programmes, keeping in mind that the
process of evaluating environmental impacts at a strategic level, is not necessarily the same as that at a project
level.
 SEAs can recommend changes within the proposed plans or programmes, improvements in coordination
between relevant agencies, new cross-sectoral interventions and suggestions for EIAs of future projects and
improve their quality
 SEA does not replace or reduce the need for project-level EIA, but it can help to streamline and focus the
incorporation of environmental concerns (including biodiversity) into the decision-making process.
EIA has often fallen short of meeting following aims:

 It takes place relatively late at the downstream end of the decision-making process, after major alternatives and
directions have been chosen.
 NGOs and communities continue to struggle with fraudulent EIA reports.
 There is a lack of experts with proper knowledge of EIA processes.
COMPARISION: EIA Vs SEA

EIA SEA
 Takes place at end of decision- making cycle  Takes place at earlier stages of decision-making cycle

165
 Identifies specific impacts on the environment  Also identifies environmental implications, issues of
sustainable development
 Considers limited number of feasible alternatives  Considers broad range of potential alternatives
 Limited review of cumulative effects  Early warning of cumulative effects
 Emphasis on mitigating and minimizing impacts  Emphasis on meeting environmental objectives,
maintaining natural systems
 Narrow perspective, high level of detail  Broad perspective, lower level of detail to provide a
vision and overall framework
 Well-defined process, clear beginning and end  Multi-stage process, overlapping components,
policy level is continuing, iterative
 Focuses on standard agenda, treats symptoms of  Focuses on sustainability agenda, gets at sources of
environmental deterioration environmental deterioration
CONCLUSION:
 These are both complementary to each other and work in tandem for environment protection, biodiversity
conservation and responsible development.
SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (SIA)

 A SIA is a process of research, planning and the management of social change or consequences (positive and
negative, intended and unintended) arising from policies, plans,
developments and projects (UNEP, 2007).
 The social impacts of a project are the direct and indirect impacts that
affect people and their communities during all stages of the project
lifecycle.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SIA:
 People’s ways of life: that is, how they live, work, play and interact
with one another on day-to-day basis.
 Cultures: That Is Their Shared Beliefs, Customs, Values and Language
or Dialect.
 Community: Its Cohesion, Stability, Character, Services and Facilities.
 Political Systems: The Extent to Which People Are Able To Participate In Decisions That Affect Their Lives, The
Level Of Democratization That Is Taking Place, And The Resources Provided For This Purpose.
 Health And Well-Being: Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
FIGURE: STAGES IN SIA

INDIA AND SIA:
 In India, SIAs were mandated in 2013 by The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act.
 According to the 2013 land acquisition law, any major project is required to conduct an SIA within six months of
the project’s start date.
 By mandating SIA, Government aims to decrease social unrest over uncompensated land acquisition and to
speed up the execution of development projects, and to ensure that locals receive proper resettlement packages
and those developers constructively engage with local communities.
 We have many examples of projects where government conducted SIA. One of the examples is the recent Social
Impact Assessment Study for Nuclear Power Projects in Andhra Pradesh.

166
 However, while SIAs may benefit some landowners affected by land acquisition, some have blamed SIAs for
slowing down development projects by drawing out the land redistribution process.
 Many development projects remain stalled, often due to bureaucracy and complications involving land
acquisition.
CONCLUSION:
 SIAs can be resource and time-intensive, which leads some business owners to view them as bureaucratic red
tape. However, considering the ethnic diversity and Agriculture as dominant occupation, SIAs remain an important
part of the investment process in India that cannot be overlooked.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
 Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how 2019
 What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are 2018
continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating
in our habitable environment?
INTRODUCTION
 Development is defined as ‘an evolutionary process in which the human capacity increases in terms of initiating
new structures, coping with problems, adapting to continuous change, and striding purposefully and creatively to
attain new goals.
 Sustainable Development is a core concept within global development policy and agenda. It provides a mechanism
through which society can interact with the environment while not risking damaging the resource for the future.
NEED OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 Three core elements of sustainable development are economic growth, social inclusion and environmental
protection. It is crucial to harmonize them.
o Sustainable economic growth, achieving sustainable livelihood, living in harmony with nature and
appropriate technology are important for sustainable development.
 Environmental Sustainability: It prevents nature from being used as an inexhaustible source of resources and
ensures its protection and rational use.
 Social Sustainability: It can foster gender equality, development of people, communities and cultures to help
achieve a reasonable and fairly
distributed quality of life, healthcare
and education across the Globe.
 Economic Sustainability: Focuses on
equal economic growth that generates
wealth for all, without harming the
environment. Investment and equal
distribution of economic resources.
Eradicating poverty in all its forms and
dimensions.

167
BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: 17 SDG OF UN

 Poverty management: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
 Hunger management: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture.
 Healthy life management: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all stages.
 Inclusive growth: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities
for all.
 Gender equality management: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
 Water management: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
 Energy management: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.
 Economy management: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all.
 Industrialisation management: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation
and foster innovation.
 Inequality Management: Reduce inequalities within and among countries.
 Human settlements management: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
 Consumption and production management: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
 Climate change action management: Take urgent actions to combat climate change and its impact.
 Marine management: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources.
 Forest management: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably managed
forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
 Promoting peaceful and inclusive societies and its management: For sustainable development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
 Global partnership management: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership
for sustainable development.
CHALLENGES IN ACHIEVING SDG

 Scheme implementation: The key challenge lies in the evaluation, monitoring, and implementation of the
schemes.
o Coordination between Central Government and State Governments is necessary, tailoring central plans
to state-level conditions and strengths.
 Lack of proper data: India lacks credible data in the relevant fields. This could be a major obstacle in policymaking.
 Gloomy social practices: Practices such as a preference for male children, gender inequality in education, open
defecation is deep-rooted in society and have cultural implications.
 GDP Spending: India spends less than 1.5% on health and around 4% on education. This is far below the required
levels.
 Lack of funds: According to the available statistics, India has only approximately 5% of the required funding to
implement SDGs.
 Falling growth rate and a rising fiscal deficit has somewhat restricted the Government’s spending power, while
unemployment and low consumption rates are further problems.
 Defining Indicators: Past record indicates that we have been not very successful in setting relevant indicators to
measure outcomes.
o For example: Quality education has not successfully been defined.
o India’s myopic definition of “safe” drinking water (with hand pumps and tube wells considered as safe as
piped water supply) means that official data suggests 86% of Indians have access to safe drinking water.
 Rising trends of nationalism and protectionism in the world: Hence channelling of funds from developed
countries to developing countries is an issue.
 Monitoring and Ownership: NITI Aayog will play a significant role in tracking progress. However, members at the
Aayog have expressed reservations on being able to take on this mammoth task.

168
WAYS TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 Human capacity and demography: Sustainable development is a societal rather than an environmental challenge.
o Substantial advances in human capacity are needed through improvements in education and
healthcare – resulting, among others, in higher income and better environmental decisions.
 Consumption and production: Responsible consumption and production cut across several of the other
transitions, allowing us to do more with fewer resources – we need to adopt a circular economy approach and
reduce demand.
 Decarbonization and energy: It is possible to decarbonise the energy system around 2050 while providing clean
and affordable energy for all – including through energy efficiency, more renewables and electrification.
 Food, biosphere and water: Achieving access to nutritional food and clean water for all, while protecting the
biosphere and the oceans, requires more efficient and sustainable food systems – for example by increasing
agricultural productivity and reducing meat consumption.
 Smart cities: Transforming our settlement patterns will benefit the world population and the environment– such
as through ‘smart’ infrastructure, decent housing and high connectivity.
 Efficient energy utilization:
 Digital revolution: Science, technology, and innovation need to support sustainable development.
o Much depends on the way the world will put the Information Technology revolution to use –
continuing present trends or inverting them by asserting societal control over them.
WAY FORWARD
 Making the process of sustainable development feasible and operational: It is important to establish a common
focus that can integrate the outlook and efforts of various participants in development.
 Production and consumption patterns of developed nations: Limiting the use of fossil fuels and plastics, and
encouraging public and private investments that align with the SDGs.
 Environmental commons usage: As the atmosphere, rainforests and oceans, must be safeguarded as crucial
sources of ecosystem services and natural resources.
o All stakeholders must work together to conserve, restore and sustainably use natural resources.
 Social and economic transformation: The much deeper, faster and more ambitious response is needed to unleash
the social and economic transformation needed to achieve our 2030 goals.
 Providing Basic needs: Access to safe water, sufficient living space, adequate health care, and education are
fundamental priorities for urban populations.
 Resource efficiency: A city’s efficiency in such areas as the use of water and energy and the effective recycling of
waste directly correlates to the quality of life of its citizens.
 Environmental cleanliness: Limiting exposure to harmful pollutants is fundamental to a city’s liveability.
 Built environment: Equitable access to green space, public transportation, and dense, efficient buildings make
communities more liveable and efficient.
 Commitment to future sustainability: An increase in the number of employees and the level of financial resources
devoted to sustainability suggests how vigorously city governments are committed to implementing national and
local policies and standards.
SDG AND INDIA’S COMMITMENT

 Clean Fuel
o India introduces BS-VI petrol and diesel.
o Delhi will be the first city to leapfrog from BS-IV to BS-VI.
o 13 major cities like Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru, etc. will make the shift from 1st Jan 2019.
o The rest of the country will make the change from April 2020 next year.
 International Solar Alliance (ISA)
o ISA is a group of 121 solar rich countries which are situated either on or between the tropics.
o Aims to deploy over 1000 GW of solar energy and mobilize more than $1000 billion into solar power by 2030.

169
 Climate Change
o To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level.
o To achieve about 40 per cent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy
resources by 2030, with the help of the transfer of technology and low-cost international finance, including
from Green Climate Fund.
o To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and
tree cover by 2030.
 No Plastics
o India has pledged to eliminate all single-use plastic in the country by 2022.
CONCLUSION
 SDGs provide the necessary direction to national policy for the sustainable development of India and would help
in the long term in achieving the goal of becoming a superpower in the world. India should strive hard to not only
initiate the policies but also implement them with proper monitoring and evaluation in a dynamic fashion to
achieve the universal development of all in the country.
GROSS ENVIRONMENT PRODUCT (GEP)

 In News: The Uttarakhand government recently announced it will initiate valuation of its natural resources in the
form of ‘Gross Environment Product’ (GEP), said to be along the lines of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
 There is a general agreement among the policy makers that the economic concepts of GDP, GNP or per capita
income do not reflect the correct state of economic development of a state or country as these concepts do not
reflect on the status of environment of the state/country impacted by economic growth.
NEED FOR GEP:

 Recognition to ecosystem services: Humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes that are
supplied by ecosystem, collectively termed as “Ecosystem Services”.
 Accounting for growth in GDP: "Ecosystem services" is a reflective of the complex connections between the
natural environment and human wellbeing.
 Environmental protection: There is a fundamental relationship between environmental protection and economic
growth. This can make policymakers aware to support environmental protection.
 GDP is inconclusive: The economic concepts of GDP, GNP or per capita income do not reflect the correct state of
economic development of a Country as these concepts do not reflect on the status of environment of the
State/country impacted by economic growth.
 Helps to save the effect of climate change: it would help in the conservation of the environment and also help
save us from the effects of climate change.
 Accounting for future generation: Degradation of ecosystem services, increased risks of non-linear changes and
the exacerbation of poverty for some groups of people. These problems, unless addressed, will substantially
diminish the benefits that future generations obtain from ecosystems.
ADVANTAGES OF GEP:
 Policy formulation: Forest area accounts for major part of land buts contribution to GDP is minimal. Thus, they
are manifestly under-utilized in the economic progress of the state.
 Bonus for better environment protection: GEP can be applied as a scientific basis for Eco- Compensation and
public financial transfers.
 Measure anthropological pressure on ecosystem: Many projects for the human welfare are not really in
consonance with the overall sustainability of the natural resources.
 Measures status of ecosystem services: GEP can be applied to measure the status of ecosystem services, which
is an important indicator of sustainable development.
 Quantitative indicator: GEP can be applied as a quantitative indicator for officials’ performance appraisal and
auditing.

170
PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN IMPLEMENTATION OF GEP APPROACH:

 Policy Failure: Lack of recognition of ecosystem services in economic decision making, development planning
and resource allocation. Value of ecosystem services is either ignored or poorly understood.
 Market Failure: Inadequate or missing market for many ecosystems service.
 Institutional Failure: Insufficient compensation for ecosystem services.
 Knowledge gaps: Challenges to provide economic value of ecosystem services, regulating and supporting
services.
 Lack of clarity: GEP is a new concept and less popular in world forum and has less clarity about its parameters
and methodology which may become hurdle in its implementation.
WAY FORWARD:
 Develop methodology: Since it’s a new concept there is a need to develop a methodology.
 Biophysical and spatio-temporal dynamics: Needs to be kept in mind while quantifying and valuing ecosystem
services.
 Ethical questions and social disparity: Should be kept in mind as priority area while valuing the Ecosystem
services.
 Develop framework: To understand the impact of climate change on ecosystem services.
 Develop non-market method: To strengthen and evaluate Ecosystem Services. Stress should be given on
intangible assets, skills and knowledge specially the cultural values.
 Measurement of factors: like, water, soil, forest, biodiversity, emissions, degradation, pollution, etc signifying
quality of environment should be included in the green accounting.
 Better to go for Ecosystem services: Instead to go for new concept, it is important that the state should be
steady in approach, focussing on Ecosystem Services, which has global acceptance and a strong knowledge
base.
GLOBAL STANDARDS /INITIATIVES:

 System of Environmental and Economic Accounts (SEEA): guidebook developed by the United Nations to provide
standards for incorporating natural capital and environmental quality into national accounting systems.
 The Happy Planet Index (HPI) created by the British New Economics Foundation (NEF) measures national welfare
in the context of environmental sustainability.
 Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness (GNH) has environmental preservation as one of the four policy objectives.
CONCLUSION:
 GEP will act as a balance between ecology and economy. If Uttarakhand would be able to formulate the
mechanisms for a concrete GEP, then pressure on other states to do the same will also increase. However, there
is a need for real-time data to better understand GEP. It is on the basis of this data that a future for the GEP could
be determined.
GREEN DAY AHEAD MARKET (GDAM) PORTAL

In news: The Green Day Ahead Market (GDAM) portal was launched by the Ministry of Power.
Need of the GDAM

Energy transition is happening across the world and India is also committed to energy transition from fossil fuel to
non-fossil fuel.
 Accordingly, the dynamics of the power market is changing.
 The buyer’s behavior is shifting from long term contracts to short term contracts and also towards the power
market.
o Thus, this new initiative will help in enabling this energy transition.
Significance of GDAM

171
 The launch of the green day-ahead market will deepen the green market and will provide competitive
price signals, besides offering an opportunity to the market participants to trade in green energy.
 The market-based competitive prices will provide another option to renewable generators to sell power
as well as accelerate the renewable capacity addition towards the Government’s vision of building India
as a sustainable and efficient energy economy.
 The distribution utilities would also be able to sell surplus renewable power generated in their area.
 The obligated entities (distribution licensee, open access consumers and captive power consumers) would
also be able to meet the RPO target by directly buying green power from the power exchange(s).
1. The non-obligated entities will be able to buy power on voluntary basis and help increasing the
share of green power.
 The introduction of GDAM is expected to create a domino effect that will lead to a gradual shift from
PPA based contract to market-based models.
1. It will build and deepen the markets to the next level, paving the way for India to meet its
ambitious target of 450 GW green capacity by 2030.
 The other benefits of participating in the GDAM would be reduction of curtailment of green power,
unlocking untapped renewable energy potential, ensuring instant payment to RE generators ie on the day
of delivery itself.
Working of GDAM
 The Green Day-ahead market will operate in an integrated way with the conventional day-ahead market.
 The Exchanges will offer the market participants to submit bids together for both conventional and
renewable energy through the separate bidding windows.
 The clearance will take place in a sequential manner - renewable energy bids will be cleared first in
accordance with the must run status of the renewables, followed by conventional segment.
Conclusion
Energy transition is happening across the world and India is also committed to energy transition from fossil fuel to
non-fossil fuel. Accordingly, the dynamics of the power market is changing. The buyer’s behavior is shifting from long
term contracts to short term contracts and also towards the power market. Thus, this new initiative will help in
enabling this energy transition.

172

Environment PRAHAAR 2022 - GS 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environment PRAHAAR 2022 - GS 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PRAHAAR

The final hit to UPSC Exam

EXCLUSiVE FOR MAiNS 2022

Join 60 Day Daily Mains Answer Writing program

Online & Offline Online & Offline

ENVIRONMENT & ECOSYSTEM ____________________________________________________________ 7

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

Sources of air pollution: ______________________________________________________________________ 59

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

Causes of plastic pollution ____________________________________________________________________ 88

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

METHANOL ECONOMY ______________________________________________________________________ 131

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

The global standardS in creating Environmental Impact Assessment _________________________________ 165

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

ENVIRONMENT & ECOSYSTEM

IMPORTANCE OF VARIOU S SERVICES PROVIDED BY ECOSYSTE M

THREATS TO ECOSYSTEM S AND BIODIVERSITY

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

NEED OF GREEN GDP:

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

INDIA AND BIODIVERSITY:

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIV ERSITY:

https://onlyias.com info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY – DATA, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSES AND THREAT TO WILDLIFE:

o Deforestation: Anthropogenic activities continually expanding, which leads to deforestation in wildlife

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 11 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES AND REASON OF CLIMATE CHANGE:

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 12 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

APPROACHES IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:

IMPORTANCE OF PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATION IN CONSERVATION OF ENVI RONMENT:

BENEFITS PUBLIC PARTICIPATION:

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 13 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN INDIA: CASE STUDIES

KUNMING DECLARATION ON BIODIVERSITY

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 14 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPA) IN ANTARCTICA

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 15 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 16 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

HWC EXTENT IN INDIA:

REASONS HUMAN–WILDLIFE CONFLICT:

HUMAN-ANIMAL COEXISTENCE: STRATEGIES TO MANAGE HWC

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 17 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

NTCA GUIDELINES AND ADVISORY FOR MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT:

WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) AMENDMENT BILL, 2021

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 18 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION

EXTENT OF DEGRADATION IN INDIA

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 19 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:

EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 20 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 21 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

ENVIRONMENT VS DEVEL OPMENT DEBATE

 Land degradation is defined as a negative trend in land condition, caused

FACTS AND FIGURES: BY FAO

LAND DEGRADATION AND INDIA

To join our courses visit:- dpp.onlyias.in 22 info@onlyias.com /+91-7007931912

CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION

EFFECTS OF LAND DEGRADATION

LAND DEGRADATION NEU TRALITY (LDN)

STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA TO ACHIEVE LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY: