DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN THE WORLD

Agriculture is the most fundamental form of human activity and includes not only
the cultivation of crops but also the rearing of domestic animals. Agricultural land
is thus the most basic of the world's vast and varied resources and from it the
human masses are fed, clothed and sheltered.

Agricultural practices or systems have evolved over time from primitive ones such
as shifting Cultivation to modern ones such as plantation farming.

This topic will therefore analyse the changes in greater detail, assess the factors
influencing the practices, and identify the contributions of agriculture to
development, its challenges and possible solutions.

World agricultural types

It is proposed that we group the worlds agricultural types according to the

characteristic features both of organization and crops which give each type it's
distinctiveness. The following are the chief agricultural types:-

1. Simple subsistence farming.

2. Small holding farming.

3. Large scale farming.

4. Extensive cereal farming.

5. Intensive commercial farming.

6. Irrigation farming.

7. Modernised agricultural systems

8. Specialised farming.
SIMPLE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

Large areas of land within the tropics in the developing countries are still devoted
to simple forms of cultivation and animal rearing.

Characteristics or features of simple subsistence farming

1. The farms are small, rarely having more than a few hectares of land under
cultivation at any given time.
2. The farms are often fragmented each consisting of several scattered plots.
3. Crop yields per unit area are low.
4. Family labour is mainly used on the farms.
5. Much of the work on the farms is done by hand, using simple tools such as
pangas, axes and digging sticks.
6. Much of what is produced is consumed by the farmer and his family and
there is generally very little or none at all surplus production for sale.

7. Few crops are grown which tend to be starchy e.g. cassava, millet, yams,
maize.

8. The crop yields are low therefore supplemented by hunting wild animals in
the forests, fishing in the nearby streams and gathering fruits in the surrounding
environment.

9. Farming largely depends on natural conditions in terms of rainfall, soils,

temperature etc.

The main forms of simple subsistence farming are:

1. Shifting cultivation.

2. Rotational bush fallowing.

3. Dry farming.

4. Nomadic pastoralism.
SHIFTING CULTIVATION

The most primitive form of cultivation practiced within the tropics is shifting
cultivation. It involves a farmer clearing wild vegetation from a plot of land using
simple tools, burning, and plants his crops in the clearing.

Mainly annual crops are grown such as yams, maize, beans, millet and cassava.

After a few harvests have been taken from the plot, crop yields begin to decline,
the cultivator abandons his existing plot and makes a new clearing elsewhere or in
another area.

It is practiced in tropical Africa, Central America and South East Asia. It is given
different names in different places e.g. chitemene in Zambia, Milpa in Central
America, Ladang in Malaysia, Chipanga in Zimbabwe and Masole in the
Democratic Republic of Congo.

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the entire central region of the country is a
basin consisting of a network of rivers and dense tropical rainforests. In some of
these regions, the indigenous people like the Azande still practice shifting
cultivation supplemented by hunting in the forests.

The Azande mostly occupy the basins of Uélé and Ubangi Rivers. The men clear
the forests to plant gardens for food and medicines. Crops planted are mainly
starchy foods such as sweet potatoes, cassava, yams, maize, millet etc.

Planting is mainly done by the women and children.

Since little attention is given to the crops before they sprout and ripen, there is
ample time for other activities such as hunting, fishing and fruit gathering in the
nearby forests and rivers.

Because rainforest soils are poor in nutrients, crop yields decline significantly after
a few years and the gardens are abandoned. The farmers shift to make new clearing
and crops planted.

Since they move within short periods of time, the Azande build simple temporary
houses with thatched roofs and walls of mud or wattle and daub.
Another group practicing shifting cultivation in DR Congo is the pygmies in the
Ituri forests in the Congo valley.

In Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Basin occupies the northeastern part while the
central region is occupied by highlands with several tributaries of Ugangi and
Congo rivers. Most of the region is covered by dense tropical rain forests were
shifting cultivation is practiced.

Madagascar is an island nation in the Indian Ocean. The eastern parts of the
country receive very heavy rainfall brought by the South East Trade winds, giving
rise to the growth of tropical rainforests. One of the major threats to this natural
vegetation is the slash-and-burn agriculture practiced there. From the above, we
can derive the following characteristics of shifting cultivation as discussed below.

Characteristics features of shifting cultivation

 Sites for the ladang are usually selected in the virgin forests by experienced
elders. Hill slopes are usually preferred because they are well drained.
 The forests are usually cleared by fire or burning and cutting of vegetation
using simple or elementary implements such as slashers, hoes, axes, digging
sticks and pangas that is why it is also referred to as slash and burn
agriculture.
 The cultivated plots are very small in size, about 1 -3 acres.
 The cultivated plots are scattered in their distribution and separated from one
another by dense forests or bushes.
 Cultivation is done using simple tools such as digging sticks, hand hoes,
pangas and axes.
 Much manual labour is needed in land clearance to produce crops for a few
people. (Mainly family labour.)
 Different types of crops are grown on the same piece of land i.e. inter-
cropping e.g starch foods like sweet potatoes, cassava, yams, maize, millet
and others.
 Little attention is given to the crops until they sprout and ripen.
 When crop yields decline, usually after three years, the patch is abandoned
and a fresh area is cleared. The cultivator may return to the original patch
after many years but usually he seldom (rarely) returns.
  In shifting cultivation production is for home consumption with no surplus
crop for sale.
 Crop yields are low as the farming system does not provide adequate food
for the entire family. The diet is also supplemented by hunting wild animals
in the forests, fishing in the nearby streams or gathering fruits in the nearby
vicinity.
 Faming depends on natural conditions such as rain fed and existing soil
conditions.
 Short periods of crop occupancy alternate with long periods of fallowing.

Advantages of shifting cultivation

1. The constant movements due to low population ensure fresh sites, which are
fertile.
2. The constant movements result into less risk of diseases.
3. Soil erosion is controlled since only small patches are exposed and these
support many crops so that little bare earth is seen. Any soil washed away is
trapped at the forest edge in the dense tangle of crop roots.
4. The form of cultivation gives room for other activities such as gathering
fruits from the forests, fishing in the nearby rivers and streams and hunting
in the nearby forests.
5. Clearing of the vegetation is often done by burning and the ash derived from
the burnt vegetation helps to improve the fertility of the soil.
6. Clearing of the vegetation is easy as is done by mainly burning.
7. Burning provides an effective way of dealing with the severe weed problems
and pests such as rats, moths and caterpillars which are a threat to many
tropical farmers.
8. Inter-cropping involving the planting of different bands of crops on the same
piece of land helps maintain soil fertility as different crops improve on the
soil. Farmers are therefore able obtain the maximum amount of food from
the land, which they have under cultivation. The different bands also
interrupt the spread of disease-causing organisms through a field, since
many insects and fungi feed on just one type of crop.
9. Inter-Cropping reduces chances of crop failure. The form of cultivation
provides a form of insurance policy for the farmer, as at least some of the
 crops are likely to yield a fair harvest even if others fail on account of
unfavorable weather conditions.
10.Shifting cultivation is cheap since simple tools and family labour are used to
produce a given amount of food.
11.The abandoned plots are left under fallow which helps to restore soil
fertility.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

 Although burning initially helps to increase the fertility of the soil by the
addition of ash, it also destroys vast quantities of organic matter and bacteria
hence affecting the soil forming process.
 In many parts of the tropical world, shifting cultivation has been responsible
for the destruction or degradation of vast areas of natural forests thus
promoting desertification and global warming for example in lvorycoast,
Madagascar and Liberia, shifting cultivators have cleared large thus also
promoting global warming and soil erosion in the cleared areas.
 A lot of time is wasted in the clearing of bush each time the shifting
cultivators shift to new sites.
 It does not encourage the development of a monetary economy as well as
agricultural modernization as farmers produce crops for their own
consumption.
 It hinders the development of infrastructure such as roads, health centers and
schools. This is because it is difficult to develop such facilities where people
are constantly shifting.
 It is usual for shifting cultivators to farm one plot for about three years.
Fallow periods of up to 20 years. However in many areas population is
increasing so that people a forced to return to an area after only a few years.
This leads to soil impoverishment and soil erosion.
 Shifting cultivation can only be practiced in areas with low population
densities where people can keep shifting from one place to another.
 It is vulnerable to unfavorable climatic conditions such as hailstorms, floods,
drought as well as other natural conditions such as pests and diseases.
 In shifting cultivation there is un-economic use of land as agricultural
modernization is not encouraged.
  Low crop yields are obtained which are usually insufficient to support the
tribe, family of large population.
 It can only be practiced in areas with low population densities as areas to
keep shifting to be required.
 The cultivators are often unwilling to adopt modern farming methods which
protect environment as well as leading to higher crop yields.
 The absence of individual ownership of land limits financial assistance to
boost production.
 The poor storage conditions lead to destruction of harvested crops by pests
such as rats as well as various species of weevils.

Why is shifting cultivation disappearing?

1. The rapid population growth has put pressure on land. There is therefore
little land available where farmers can keep shifting to.
2. The rapid population growth has led to increased demand for food. Better
forms of farming have been introduced such as market gardening which
leads to greater crop yields.
3. The introduction of perennial crops such as bananas, coffee, cocoa, rubber
and others which are grown throughout the year has compelled farmers to
have permanent farms and settlement
4. The introduction of monetary economy demands the production of surplus
crops for sale not only in the home market but also for export markets.
5. With many developed countries concentrating on manufacturing and service
sectors, there is an increased demand for some crops on the world market.
This means the need for increased crop yields to satisfy the export market.
6. The coming of white settlers who introduced better forms of crop cultivation
to replace shifting cultivation e.g. plantation agriculture.
7. Increased awareness of the people of the dangers and shortcomings of
shifting cultivation hence its abandonment.
8. Increased forest conservation policies which limit the clearing of forests and
woodlands for cultivation.
9. Shifting cultivation has many disadvantages that many people are now
abandoning it to other better forms of crop cultivation.
ROTATIONAL BUSH FALLOWING

This type of farming is closely related to shifting cultivation. However the main
distinction between the two is that in rotational bush fallowing, when crop yields
decline the land is left to rest (fallow) in order to regain its fertility and afterwards
re-cultivated.

Rotational bush fallowing has replaced shifting cultivation in many parts of the
tropical Africa. This is particularly the case in West Africa where the average
density of population is somewhat higher than in most other parts of tropical
Africa.

Like shifting cultivation, rotational bush fallowing is traced mainly within the
tropics e.g northern Nigeria, Ghana, Zambia, Senegal, Ethiopia, South and Central
America and South East Asia.

In S.E Asia rotational bush fallowing, is known as Sawah agriculture.

The Bemba of Zambia

The Bemba is a very large tribe located in the north central parts of Zambia,
Perhaps the most notable area occupied by the Bemba in the Zambian Copper Belt.
The region receives moderate rainfall ranging between 1,200-1,300 mm per
annum. The rainfall however is unevenly distributed and it occasionally fails.
Temperatures are hot most of the year due to the tropical location.

These climatic conditions give rise to the growth of savanna vegetation. The
population is sparse except in the mining towns such as Ndola, Kitwe, Mufulira,
Luanshya and Chingola.

The Bemba people were originally shifting cultivators but this practice is dying out
due to increased population and demand for food resources. Today most of them
practice a particular method of cultivation known as rotational bush fallowing
where patches of land, on average half a hectare in size, are cleared while others
are left under the natural vegetation. The clearing of the bushes and trees is done
by the men during the dry season. The tree branches are dried and later burnt.
The bed of ash which forms has high potash content and is free from weeds. It is
on the ash that the seeds are sown. Sowing takes place in the rainy season when the
ground has been softened by rains.

The crops sown include maize, which is the main crop and others such as millet,
sorghum, groundnuts, sweet potatoes as well as gourds, marrows and cucumbers.
Weeding and reaping is done laboriously by the women and children who then
store the grains in the granaries.

These fields provide families with a variety of foodstuffs since their planting
brings in a sequence of harvest.

The fields are cultivated for three, four or even more years, according to the
fertility of the soil. Once crop yields decline, the fields are left to fallow or rest to
regain its fertility before being re-cultivated.

Unlike in shifting cultivation were the homes are temporary, rotational bush
fallowing allows a more settled form of farming with attachment to permanent
fields and homes. The farmers no longer shift their houses and fields as they
recognize ownership of individual plots of land. They are therefore becoming
sedentary.

Miombo woodlands

Rotational bush fallowing is also pronounced in the Miombo woodlands in central

and southern Tanzania. Tsetse flies hinder the spread of settlement as so population
density is low. For this reason, clearings must be large enough to keep away the
bush-loving fly. A family clears a field by chopping or burning and sows various
crops e.g. rice, tobacco, maize, sunflower and cassava.

The government however is discouraging such haphazard ways or growing crops

and measures are being taken to change this form of farming to permanent field
cultivation.

From the above case study, are the following characteristics of rotational bush
fallowing.
Characteristic features of rotational bush fallowing:

1. A piece of land is used and when crop yields decline, it is left to fallow in
order for it to regain its fertility before being re-cultivated again.
2. Farming is based on permanent and semi-permanent settlements. There can
be a movement of compounds or houses within the same general area.
3. Elementary tools such as hand hoes, pangas and axes are used to clear and
till the land.
4. Both food crops and cash crops are grown e.g. tobacco, maize, cassava and
vegetables.
5. Food production is mostly for home consumption and the little surplus for
sale.
6. Farm labour is provided by the family.
7. Land is divided into numerous plots, each of which is cultivated, until it can
no longer support high crop yields and then later left to fallow to regain its
fertility.
8. The length of the fallow period varies considerably depending mainly upon
the density of population in the area concerned and the demand for land. In
sparsely populated regions the fallow period may be as long as 15 years
while in the densely populated areas it may be as short as three years.
9. Farming depends on natural conditions such as rainfall and soils.

DRY FARMING

This is a farming technique where crops are cultivated without irrigation, in areas
of low and unreliable rainfall. It is thus practiced in marginal agricultural lands of
North Africa, the Sahel region, North West India and Mediterranean Europe.

Characteristic features of dry farming

 There is use of mulching which involves the spreading of straw or grass of

the previous year's harvests or any other type of vegetation over the land so
as to reduce evaporation rates and conserve moisture.
  Fallowing is practiced where land that has been used for a long period of
time is left to rest or lie idle (fallow) so that natural forces can act to restore
soil fertility.
 Ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural
contour of the hill, the ridges and fallow break the flow of water downhill
and this reduces surface run off.
 Crops grown are mainly drought resistant types which can withstand the
harsh climatic conditions e.g. some wheat species grown in the drier western
Prairies and the Russian steppes.
 Annual crops are mainly grown.

Advantages of dry farming

 Mulching improves the soil fertility as the covering vegetation matter decays
and adds humus to the soil.
 Fallowing allows the soil to regain its fertility hence better crop yields.
 Moisture in the soil is conserved for crop growth hence better crop yields.
 Crops can be grown in areas with low and unreliable rainfall or areas with
prolonged drought.
 Dry farming can last for several years.

Disadvantages of dry farming

 Cultivation of areas with low and unreliable rainfall may accelerate soil
erosion.
 Cultivation of crops in areas of low and unreliable rainfall may accelerate
loss of soil moisture.
NOMADIC PASTRORALISM

This is a form of subsistence agriculture practiced in areas of low and unreliable

rainfall in which herders of cattle owners move with their livestock from place to
place in search of water and pasture.

True pastoralists therefore do not have permanent homes but keep moving from
place to place. They largely depend on their livestock for their livelihood. It is the
simplest form of animal rearing.

The following are examples of nomadic pastoralists:-

 The Fulani of West Africa.

 The Masaai of East Africa.
 The Turkana of northern Kenya.
 The Tuaregs of the Sahara.
 The Karamajongs of north eastern Uganda.
 Somalis of Somalia.
 Nubia of Ethiopia and Sudan.
 Hotentots of Southern Botswana

Others are found in South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Namibia.

However, of the above, the most notable pastoral societies are the Fulani of West
Africa.

Case study: The Fulani of West Africa

The Fulani number over seven million and are spread throughout the Sahel and
Savanna zones of West Africa from Senegal to Lake Chad. They are found in the
countries of Senegal, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania and Cameroon.

In the regions shown on the map below, rainfall is low and unreliable and lasts for
about four months of the year. The climate supports doum palms, baobabs, shea
butter trees and shrubs. During, rains, short grass grows.

The Fulani live most wholly on the produce of their herds and obtain roots, grains
and vegetables by barter trade from other people. They dominantly keep cattle but
goats, sheep are also reared as well.
 DISTRIBUTION OF THE FULANI

The Fulani are divided into three main groups:

 True Nomads; These occupy the drier parts of the Sahel region. They are
basically pastoralists and move from one place to another in search of water
and pasture. They practice no other form of economic activity.
 Transhumants; These practice transhumance and have semi-permanent
settlements. Their movements are seasonal restricted to the dry season vvhen
water and pasture are scarce. They engage in barter trade with the
cultivators, bartering animal products for foods like millet, sorghum and
cocoa yams.
 Sedentary group; these have adopted arable farming alongside animal
husbandry. They have permanent settlements and also keep large herds of
cattle.
Activities of the Fulani during the dry season

During the dry season, the grass withers, pools and streams dry up and the Fulani
move southwards keeping close to the water courses and where there is pasture.
However, they cannot move up to the coastal belt because of the presence of tsetse
flies and the climate is not favorable for cattle keeping due to too much rainfall and
humid conditions.

Also during the dry season, roots and berries are collected. Wells are dug for
watering the animals and the cattle are spread out in search for water.

Burning of grass as they move to another area is common to ensure an early

growth of grass at the beginning of the wet season.

Activities of the Fulani during the wet season

As the wet season approaches, the Fulani move northwards with their herds or seek
the tsetse fly free uplands of Bamenda, Futa Jalon, Jos Bauchi and the Cameroon.
During this de- ticking, felling of trees to make enclosures to protect the herds,
making butter as well as shifting camps for short distances is done. The Fulani
pastoralists therefore practice transhumance.

Characteristic feature of nomadic pastoralism

1. They occupy areas of low and unreliable rainfall, which also experience a
marked dry season.

2. The most valued animals are generally cattle. However sheep and goats are
also common, Camels are also kept in the driest areas.

3. Traditional breeds are kept which are usually of low quality and yield low
milk and poor quality meat.

4. The livestock depend on natural pastures, which comprise of course and

fibrous grasses.

5. The livestock are kept mainly for subsistence. They do not want to sell any
surplus animals.
 6. Large number of animals are kept as the possession of large flocks and
herds bring prestige.

7. The livestock is owned by individuals but the land belongs to the tribe or
community as a whole.

8. Communal grazing is carried out.

9. Very large amounts of grazing land are required to support a family.

10.Seasonal movements are necessary to ensure that there is sufficient water

and pasture for livestock. During the dry season, the pastoralists congregate
near to permanent rivers, water holes and wells, and during the rainy season
they scatter.

11.The animals provide the basic food in the form of milk and blood.

12.Overgrazing resulting from over stocking is a common feature.

13.Burning-off of grass during the dry season in anticipation of fresh pastures

on the set of Wet season is done.

Conditions favoring nomadic pastoralism in West Africa

- Areas occupied by pastoralists receive low and unreliable rainfall and a long
marked dry season thus limiting agricultural activities alternatively
promoting nomadic pastoralism.

- The low and unreliable results in scarcity of pasture for the livestock hence
the need to move long distances from place to place to look for it. The
constant search for grazing land involves sending men out on horseback to
search far and wide and then return to guide the cattle to the new grass.

- The low and unreliable results in scarcity of drinking water for the animals
hence the need to move to wetter areas where water is available during the
dry season e.g. the Fulani move southwards during the dry following the
retreating rains.
- The region experiences long periods of drought lasting for about nine
months which necessitates seasonal movement of the nomads and their
livestock in search of water and pasture.

- The harsh climate discourages settlement in areas occupied by the

pastoralists. The population is very sparse less than 10 persons per square
kilometer. There are therefore vast areas of empty land where the
pastoralists can keep shifting to and from time to time.

- The natural vegetation found in such areas is grassland and it favors

pastoralism in various ways such as it facilitates the movement of both the
livestock and the herdsmen, it is easy to detect enemies e.g. the wild
animals, it is easy to burn when old.

- The pastoralists look at nomadic herding as a traditional way of life. They

consider themselves as cattle keepers and are often unwilling to change from
their traditional way of life.

- The pastoralists largely depend on their livestock as a source of food in

forms of blood, milk and meat, clothing in form of skins and hides as well as
transport in case of the camels.

- Communal ownership of land means that land does not belong to particular
individuals. Individuals are free to use the land the way they like and this
encourages movement from one place to another.

- Pastoralists look at animals as a basis of payments of bride price, symbols of

wealth, prestige and power in society. They therefore keep large herds of
livestock regardless of quality.

- Lack of sufficient capital by the pastoralists and their respective countries to

develop the areas by setting up ranching schemes and other necessary
facilities such as irrigation schemes to develop the areas.

- The presence of large areas in northern West Africa which are free from the
deadly tsetse fly which would have caused nagana disease in livestock.
Movement is done away from the tsetse fly infected areas in the south
following the advance of the rains northwards.
 - Seasonal movement is also carried out due to the need to avoid mixing of
livestock with those already infected with diseases.

- The increasing living standards especially in the coastal cities of West Africa
such as Lagos, Dakar, Accra and Abidjan has enabled the people to improve
their diets and this has increased the demand for meat and dairy products
produced in the northern regions. There therefore ready market for the
surplus meat and dairy products from the Fulani pastoralists.

Problems facing the Fulani nomadic pastoralists

Physical environment problems

 Low and unreliable rainfall are amongst the most severe problems to
livestock rearing by nomadic pastoralists. The areas they occupy receive
rainfall of less than 500mm per annum a severe droughts are common.
Given such a situation the pastoralists suffer from severe water shortages
for their livestock. During unusually dry years the pastoralists lose a
considerable number of livestock.

 The natural pastures are usually of poor quality given the harsh climatic
conditions. Many of these pastures are dominated by coarse grasses, which
are only nutritious when young. During the dry season, the pastures become
parched and brown. Shortage of pasture leads to the growth of malnourished
livestock yielding poor quality meat and low milk.

 The animals are made to move long distances in search of pasture and water
which results in loss of weight and in other cases a number of them die. It is
estimated that each Fula pastoralist with his herd moves about 350 km a
year on foot.

 The livestock are affected by a large number of insect pests and diseases.
The most common animal disease is bovine trypanosomiasis or nagana
transmitted by tsetse flies. Others include rinder pest, east coast fever, foot
and mouth disease and African swine fever. These lead to loss of large
numbers of livestock each year.
  Native breeds of livestock are reared. Although they are better adapted to
the harsh environmental conditions, they are generally of poor quality and
take long to mature. They also yield poor quality meat and low milk.

 Wild animals prevalent in the Fulani occupied regions such as the hyenas
attack and kill the livestock.

 There is periodic invasion of locusts causing wide spread destruction of

vegetation which acts food for the livestock. Wide spread starvation and
loss of livestock results.

Man-made problems

 The pastoralists keep large herds of livestock for prestige and other reasons.
This practice often results in them keeping far more animals that the
available pastures can adequately support. The keeping of excessive
numbers of livestock or overstocking results in overgrazing, destruction of
grass cover and ultimately leads to soil erosion.

 The keeping of too many animals also results into congestion at the limited
water points. This ultimately results into the drying up of the water holes and
other water points which worsens the already existing water problem.

 Communal grazing practiced by pastoral communities leads to high risk of

diseases spreading arising from over-crowding., mixing of animals of
different health status and other poor hygiene practices, all of which result in
loss of livestock.

 The negative attitude towards the construction and maintenance of availed

facilities such as valley dams, bore holes and other water points worsen the
problem of water shortage.

 The practice of burning off dead grass during the dry season is widespread.
Burning leaves the soil bare exposing it to erosion. It also favours the growth
of fire resistant bushes and poorer grasses that are not nutritious to the
livestock. The quality of the livestock thus deteriorates.
  Many pastoral communities are conservative. They do not often want to'
change from their traditional way of livestock rearing. For example, they
look at the large herds as a status symbol, source of dowry, insurance against
unforeseen risks, and source of food among other reasons. This hinders any
improvements to be done.

 Wide spread poverty of individual pastoralists makes them unable, if

willing, to adopt modern methods of animal rearing such as use of improved
breeds, fencing, disease control and others.

Measures being taken to solve the problems facing nomadic pastoralists

Unless the system of land use is changed, there is no doubt that pastoral lands will
deteriorate until a point of no return is reached. The following are some of the
solutions to the problems discussed above

1. Underground water resources are being tapped by constructing bore holes to

supply water especially during the long dry season.

2. Valley dams have been constructed to harvest and store rain water for use
during the long dry season.

3. Cattle ranches involving paddocking and where the number of livestock is

regulated according to the carrying capacity of the land are being introduced
as a modern and better method of livestock rearing e.g. at Katsina in
northern Nigeria.

4. Improved cattle breeds are being introduced and cross-breeding particularly

with those which can withstand the harsh environment is encouraged.

5. The United Nations Environment Program is supporting various projects

such as the replanting of drought resistant grasses which can protect the
environment as well as acting as food for livestock.

6. Improved grasses which are drought resistant are being introduced to

supplement on the natural pastures.
7. Cotton seed wastes and groundnut leaves in Nigeria, Chad and Senegal and
are processed into high protein cattle food on the ranches thus improving the
quality of the livestock.

8. Various roads and railway lines have been constructed to transport live
animals to the southern markets of Abidjan, Lagos, Enugu, Monrovia and
Ibadan instead of being sent on foot to catch trypanosomiasis on the way.

9. Milk collecting centers with cooling and refrigerated facilities are being set
up in various localities to encourage commercialization of livestock rearing
e.g. on the Jos Plateau of Nigeria and also the Fulani sell their milk to small
separator plants which skim the milk before being sent to central dairy
plants.

10.Introduction of regular pest and disease control through spraying, dipping

and vaccination for example in northern Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Niger,
cattle are regularly vaccinated against rinderpest and anthrax.

11.Quarantines, which are restrictions on movement, are imposed to keep

contagious diseases and pests such as rinderpest from spreading, should
there be an outbreak.

12.With the introduction of free primary and secondary education, traditional

barriers are being broken. This is helping to change the traditional outlook of
the pastoralists especially keeping large herds of cattle as a symbol of wealth
and prestige. In addition, adult functional education programs are preaching
the gospel of proper range management in the Fulani area.

13.Introduction of education suited to the life and environment of the regions.

This should also be supported by services from extension workers.

14.Demonstration ranches are being set up to teach the nomadic pastoralists

better and modern methods of livestock rearing e g. in Kano, and Sokoto
regions of northern Nigeria.

15.Master plans ae being drawn for the development of pastoral areas involving
planners from government ministries, administrators of states and regions
and the pastoralists themselves.
How nomadic pastoralists have made the best use of their environment

It is often argued that given the conditions of low and unreliable rainfall, scarce
surface water, infertile soils, poor pastures, pests and diseases, wild animals and
remoteness the pastoralists suck as the Fulani have made the best use of their
environment. This is seen in the following ways.

- The low and unreliable rainfall and infertile soils limit arable farming and
this forces them to turn to animal farming as the best alternative land use.

- The low and unreliable rainfall results into the shortage of pasture for the
livestock. This forces the pastoralists to move from place to place in search
of it.

- Scarcity of surface water also results into the need to move to adjust to the
unavailability of it.

- Communal ownership of land allows free movement in search of water and

pasture.

- Communal grazing further accords collective protection against wild

animals and raids.

- Burning of grass is often done at the end of the dry season to ensure fresh
pastures on the onset of the wet season. Burning also kills disease vectors
such as ticks.

- Local breeds are reared which are used to harsh environmental conditions
which exist in such regions.

- Nomadic pastoralists are also able to treat their animals using local herbs
from their environment.

- Nomadic pastoralists keep large numbers of animals to ensure the survival of

some in case of natural disasters such as drought, which are common in their
lands.
How the nomadic pastoralists have led to the destruction of their
environment.

Much as the Nomadic pastoralists have made the best use of their environment,
they have also led to the destruction of the environment. This is seen in the
following:

 Too many animals are kept which often results into overgrazing. The land is
left bare and soil erosion occurs, hence reduction in the productivity of the
soil.

 Grass burning results into the growth of fire resistant grasses, which are of
low nutritive value to the livestock.

 Burning of grass at the end of the dry season results into serious soil erosion
on the onset of the wet season. When the rains begin, they find bare ground
and carry large quantities of the topsoil.

 The rearing of local breeds results into the production of low quality meat
and low milk yields.

 Communal grazing results into easy spread of diseases.

 Too many animals are kept which has resulted into congestion at the few
water points and the drying up of wells and boreholes hence water shortage
for the livestock.

 Nomadic nature of livestock rearing makes it difficult to establish better

methods of livestock rearing and obtain loans due to lack of security.

Importance of nomadic pastoralism

 They have been able to use land, which would otherwise be lying idle due to
receiving low and unreliable rainfall as well as infertile soils.

 Pastoral tribes depend almost entirely on their livestock for a livelihood and
make little effort if any to engage in any form of subsistence arable farming.
Therefore their cattle are the only source of food to them in terms of milk
 and milk products, blood and occasionally meat thus improving on the diet
of the local people.

 Provision of raw materials for manufacturing industries e.g. milk for the
creameries, hides and skins for shoe and bag making industries. There are
many leather tanning industries in northern Nigeria e.g. at Zaria, Kano and
Sokoto. In Chad modern meat packing plants have been established in
N’Djamena and Sarh.

 Selling of milk and meat earns the Fulani pastoralists income which has
helped to improve on their standard of living. In Nigeria for example, most
of the meat consumed in the south is derived from the Fulani in the north.

 Livestock rearing helps to diversify economies of countries such as Nigeria

which are dependent on one item petroleum or oil.

 Livestock rearing is a source of employment to the local population like the

herdsmen involved in moving from one place to another with their livestock.

 Pastoral nomads barter trade their dairy products or grain foods such as
sorghum and millet and other vital commercial items such as salt with arable
farmers. The animal products therefore items upon which they rely to attain
what they themselves cannot locally get from their environments.

 Some pastoralists the sedentary group engage in small-scale cultivation of

seasonal crops such as millet, sorghum etc. They rely on the bulls for
ploughing the fields after which such grains can be sown. Besides, bulls are
used pull carts in which they transport their little products they shift from
place to place.

 When burnt, animal bones and. dried cow dung can be used to provide light
and heat e.g when the nights are very cold as is typical of arid and semiarid
regions, the nomads usually set a alight dried cow dung or bones which
produce enough heat to warm and light manyattas.

 Pastoralists usually rely on their herds for skins and hides, which they use to
wrap around themselves as a basic form of clothing. In many instance
 pastoral nomads do not use these convectional cotton clothes, instead they
wear skins and hides or walk nearly nude or naked.

 The women of pastoral nomads use the cattle dung to smear and smoothen
the floors and walls of their Manyattas. At times, skin and hides are used as
improvised material for tent roots and walls.

 The pastoral nomads prefer to store their wealth in terms cattle i.e. when one
has very few herds of cattle, he is regarded a poor man and does not
command respect and authority from society. The one, whose herds are
large, has a high self-esteem and is considered powerful. They therefore
make no effort to sell off part of then herds and say bank their wealth or
store it in any other form. When need arises, they may barter the animals to
attain what they want. Hence cattle are their stores of wealth.

 Cattle are used among pastoralists just like many local societies in Africa as
a source of wealth such as bride price. Before marriage can be certified and
allowed, the young man must remit several herds of cattle to the family of
the girl.

 As the pastoralists move southwards, they gaze on harvested fields of local

farmers who do not mind because in so doing, the cattle help to fertilize the
land with their droppings hence increasing the agricultural productivity of
the land e.g. in the harvested sorghum fields in Chad and Nigeria.

 Livestock products much of which are derived from pastoral communities

are exported thus earning the respective countries foreign exchange for
international trade. Countries such as Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali.
 SMALL HOLDING FARMING

This represents a shift from subsistence farming to a cash crop economy. It

gradually become obvious that subsistence farming was unsatisfactory and greater
efforts had to be made to grow certain crops to bring in money resulting in a higher
standard of living to the grower.

The development of cash agriculture on small holdings has been one of the ways of
achieving the above objective. This is seen on cocoa farms in Ghana, Ivory Coast
and Nigeria, oil palms in Nigeria, coffee growing in Ethiopia and Cameroon, and
cotton Chad, Nigeria and Tanzania.

Characteristic features of small holding farms

1. The holdings are very small. Farms have been sub-divided through many
generations so that they have become extremely small and often less than 5
hectares.
2. Farming is done using simple implements such as simple ploughs, spades
and hoes.
3. Farms are individually owned.
4. Farms are often found in forested areas.
5. Perennial crops with a gestation period of about five years such as cocoa and
oil palms as well as annual crops like cotton are also grown.
6. Trees are left to provide shelter.
7. Mainly family labour is used and additional causal labour in busy times of
harvesting.
8. Seasonal harvesting is carried out.

Cocoa farming in Ghana

Ghana is the second largest producer of cocoa in the world, after Cote d'voire.
However, many of West African countries such as Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo,
Liberia and Cameroon also produce it.
Cocoa production in Ghana occurs in the forested areas of the country, namely the
Ashanti, Brong - Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Western and Volta Regions. Most cocoa
production is carried out by peasant farmers on plots of less than four hectares.

Cocoa is a cash crop grown for sell, not to eat. So the farmers also grow some food
crops, such yams, cassava, plantain and others to feed their families.

Factors that have favored cocoa growing in Ghana

Physical factors

 Favorable climatic conditions of heavy rainfall which is evenly distributed

throughout year favors the growth of cocoa a perennial crop.

 Occurrence of hot temperatures of over 20 C throughout the year favors the

quick growth and ripening of the crop. Latitudes between 20° North and 20°
South of the Equator offer hot and damp conditions for cocoa growth.

 Presence of deep fertile well drained soils for growing the crop from year to
year.

 Presence of extensive forests and trees which provide shelter from strong
winds of the rainy season and shade from strong sunlight so as to protect the
young cocoa trees.

 Presence of low altitude lying between 0-1000 meters above sea level which
provides warm conditions necessary for the growing of cocoa.

 Presence of extensive land used for the establishment of many large -scale
cocoa farms resulting in high output.

 Occurrence of high humidity of over 70% for rapid growth of the cocoa
trees.

Human factors

 Availability of an abundant cheap labor supply from the dense population to

work on the cocoa plantations such as during the harvesting period is the
 busiest and occurs twice a year between October and February and another
between May and August. It should also be remembered that every stage of
cocoa production is done by hand: planting, irrigating, harvesting,
fermenting and drying hence the need for abundant labor.

 Presence of a large market for cocoa grown both at home and abroad in
countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, The
Netherlands and Nigeria. Nestlé is one of the world's largest food companies
that purchases and processes large quantities of cocoa into chocolates.

 Availability of adequate capital to purchase farm inputs such as pesticides

and pay labor.

 Presence of well-developed transport system e.g. by railway from the

Kumasi region to the ports of Accra, Tema and Takoradi for export of cocoa
and by road to internal markets.

 Favorable government policy which encourages small cocoa farms by

buying their entire produce, carrying out research in better high yielding
cocoa varieties as well as establishing transport routes for marketing the
crop.

 Continuous scientific research which has led to the development of high

yielding drought and disease resistant cocoa varieties.

 Favorable policy of liberalization of cocoa sales which has attracted both

local and foreign companies in the purchase of cocoa e.g. Adwumapa, a
Ghanaian buying company, Olam and Armajaro which are both foreign-
owned companies from Singapore and the UK respectively. With such
competition farmers earn higher incomes from cocoa sales.

 Cocoa has many uses such as being a beverage (drink), used in the
manufacture of chocolates, cocoa butter and other cosmetics.

 Formation of co-operatives which enable farmer’s access inputs and well as

market out lets at fair prices. Most notable is the Kuapa Kokoo a hugely
successful farmers' based cooperative working on fair trade principle.
Benefits of cocoa growing to the economy of Ghana

 Generation of employment opportunities to many people as farmers

estimated at 720,000 in number, transporters, and cocoa processors in the
Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Western and Volta regions thus
providing them with a source of income.

 Provision of raw materials which has stimulated industrial growth especially

those associated with the processing of cocoa, manufacture of cocoa drink
and chocolates.

 Cocoa is the chief agricultural export of Ghana and therefore source of

foreign exchange through cocoa exports which is used for international trade
transactions as well as economic development.

 Cocoa trade has led to the creation of bilateral relations through trade with
countries through trade with countries that import cocoa such as the USA,
United Kingdom and The Netherlands.

 It has led to improvement of infrastructure especially roads and railway lines

in the cocoa growing regions such as Kumasi and to the coastal ports of
Accra, Takoradi and Sekondi for export of the crop.

 Source of government revenue through taxing farmers, processing industries

and cocoa transport companies which is used for infrastructure development
such as roads, health and educational facilities.

 It has encouraged the growth of towns with associated infrastructure such as

good roads, housing estates and commercial services and better living
standards such as Kumasi for cocoa processing and ports e.g. Tema and
Takoradi for cocoa export.

 Cocoa growing has helped in the diversification of the economy thereby

providing alternative source of income to the country in addition to mining,
fishing, tourism and manufacturing sectors.
 Cocoa growing has encouraged educational research which has produced
high yielding crop varieties and better methods of growing the crop.

Challenges facing cocoa farmers

- Pests and diseases e.g. the swollen shoot disease, black pod disease and the
capsid pest which cause great damage to the cocoa trees resulting in low
output and income.

- Price fluctuations on the world market affect the price of cocoa and this
means farmers have no long term financial security. When prices fall, they
are unable to purchase inputs such fertilizers and pesticides as well as
meeting their basic needs resulting in a low standard living. The low world
market prices also affect Ghana's economy as cocoa is the country most
valuable agricultural export and foreign exchange earner.

- Shortage of a skilled labour force especially during the busy periods such as
harvesting time due to rural urban migration for better paying jobs in the
urban centers.

- Poorly developed transport routes e.g. the roads become flooded in the rainy
season, which makes the marketing of cocoa difficult and expensive.

- Gradual soil exhaustion due to mono-cropping results in lower cocoa yields.

- Occasional prolonged dry season and sometimes floods which destroy the
crops resulting in low output and low incomes for the farmers.

- Hail storms, which destroy the cocoa trees hence reducing the income
received by farmers.

- High cost of production due to expensive inputs such as fertilizers and

insecticides.

- Stiff competition from other beverages such as tea and coffee which reduces
the market for Cocoa.
 - Limited land for expansion for cocoa growing due to the increasing
population and competition with other land uses.

- Bush fires occur frequently which destroy the cocoa trees thus affecting
farmer's incomes.

- High land rents since many farmers do not own their farms but rather rent
the land. They do all the work and receive about a third of the crop for
themselves. This results in low incomes received by the farmers.

- Ageing trees result in lower production and low incomes received by the
farmers.

- Poor quality cocoa beans fetch low income due to activities such as drying
beans on bare ground which results in their molding and wastage.

- The crop has a long gestation period. Cocoa takes at least five years from the
time the seeds are planted in the nursery beds to the time that their pods may
be harvested from the trees which have been transplanted into the permanent
positions.

- Farmers are often under paid by the local cocoa buyers using 'fixed' scales
set to show a lower reading than the actual weight of their cocoa beans.
Sometimes payments are made by cheques which bounce.

Measures being taken to increase cocoa production in Ghana

- Application of fertilizers is done to improve soil fertility as well as use of

soil conservation measures such as mulching.

- Spraying with pesticides is done to combat pests and diseases.

- There is use of hired labor during the busy periods 1like in times of
harvesting.

- Cocoa processing industries have been set up to increase the value of the
cocoa.
- There has been restoration of political stability in the country thus favoring
cocoa growing.

- Transport network especially roads and railway lines have been rehabilitated
and up-grading to market the crop.

- The amount of land for growing cocoa has been increased.

- Intensive research has resulted in breeding more disease and drought

resistant cocoa varieties which are more productive than the native breeds.

- Advice is given to cocoa farmers from the Agricultural Department to

increase production and this also includes the use of fertilizers and
insecticides.

- Provision of credit to small-scale farmers through financial institutions is

done.

- There is negotiation for higher prices by the Ghana Cocoa Marketing

Agreement.

- Liberalization of cocoa sales attracted many private companies. There are

now over 25 private companies buying the crop in all the areas of the
country where it is grown and this competition has resulted in higher
incomes for the cocoa farmers and traders.

- Over the years, farmers have been provided with seedlings to replace trees
lost in the drought and trees more than thirty years old so as to boost cocoa
production.

- The cocoa farmers decided to form a co-operative union, known as Kuapa

Kokoo of more than 45,000 cocoa farmers to develop fair trading practices
and represent the interests cocoa farmers. Many farmers now sale their
cocoa to Kuapa Kokoo to the government cocoa board at fair prices.
OIL PALM GROWING IN NIGERIA

Oil palm is a tree of tropical origin particularly in West Africa. It grows to heights
of eight meters and above. The plants acquires large bunches which can yield up to
800 oval-shaped fruits. Oil palm is the most important crop grown in Nigeria. The
main oil palm growing area is bounded the towns of Port Harcourt, Onitsha and
Oron. Smallholder farmers control palm cultivation in Nigeria. A large chunk of
oil palm exists in the wild or semi-wild state, when this is added to those that were
cultivated by smallholders, it shows that the small-holding control over 80% of the
Nigeria palm oil production. Smallholding farms cover a range of 1-5 hectares and
are sometimes characterized by mixed cropping obviously to maximize the usage
of the land. Several million smallholders are spread over an estimated area of 1.65
million hectares in the southern part of Nigeria.

Conditions that have favored oil palm growing in Nigeria

Physical factors

- Presence of heavy rainfall of over 1,500 mm per annum which is received

throughout the year permits the rapid growing of oil palm trees.

- The hot temperatures of over 21° C ensure coupled with heavy rainfall favor
the quick growth and maturing of the oil palm trees.

- Presence of well-drained fertile alluvial soils in the coastal regions and in the
Niger delta for continuous growth of the oil palm trees.

- Presence of extensive land for growing oil palm trees on a large scale
plantations.

- Presence of land of low altitude lying between 0-1000 meters above sea
level which provides warm conditions ideal for oil palm growing.

- High relative humidity of over 75% permits the growing of the oil palms
throughout the year.
Human factors

- Presence of cheap labor force employed in planting, harvesting and

processing of oil palms provided by the large Nigerian rural population in
areas such as Yorubaland.

- Presence of a large market for the palm oil both at home since Nigeria has a
large population of over 170 million people and overseas especially in
Europe, United States of America and Canada.

- Presence of well-developed transport routes especially by road and railway

for transportation of the crop to the local market and to the coastal ports of
Lagos, Port Harcourt and Calabar for export.

- Availability of sufficient capital to purchase machinery, improved seedlings,

pesticides, fertilizers, and to pay for causal labour.

- The discovery of the many uses of the oil palm trees such as oil in cooking,
making a drink; palm wine, making of slain and hair oil, dried shells and
fiber are used as fuel as well as used in the making of soap, margarine and
cosmetics has encouraged its growing.

- Intensive research has led to the development of fast growing and high
yielding oil palm trees.

- Favorable government policies such as the provision of technical assistance

in form of agronomists, agricultural assistants and others to help farmers
improve their methods of cultivation.

- Formation of farming co-operatives which enable farmers acquire loans to

purchase farm inputs and obtain materials easily at any time of the year.

- There are many uses of oil palms which has encouraged its growing. Apart
palm oil being an important item in the Nigerian diet (as part of the
traditional soup or sauce) and is used as an illuminant, cooking fat, and soap
ingredient.
Challenges facing oil palm farmers

 Diseases such as freckle and anthracnose which destroy the leaves of the
palm oil plants thus resulting in poor fruit yields and low income from the
crop.
 Growth of weeds which are deep rooted for example Siam which competes
for soil nutrients with the oil palm trees has also resulted into poor
production.
 Stiff competition with other sources of oil such as coconuts, sunflower,
cotton, soya beans, and olive has resulted into a decline in market for oil
palms.
 Low levels of technology that are used in oil palm growing such as one
climbing each palm tree using a long belt to support him as he jacks himself
up the tree, using pangas to cut the ripe bunches all result into low
productivity.
 Shortage of skilled labor force to work in the oil palm farms due to people
shifting to better paying jobs like in the petroleum industry.
 Soil exhaustion due to mono-cropping resulting in lower crop yields.
 Poor transport routes especially during the heavy rains which make the
marram roads impassable thus hindering the market of palm oil.
 Fluctuation of world market prices for the crop hence affecting the incomes
of the farmers.
 Political instability especially in the Niger delta due to oil spills caused by
the petroleum industry.
 Occasional drought which destroy the crop resulting in very low output.
 High costs of production due to use of fertilizers, herbicides and machinery.
 The cultivated palm tends to exhaust the fertility of the soil more rapidly
than the wild palm growing under natural conditions for in the bush or dense
palm groove the nonbearing palms and other trees provide considerable
plant nutrients which they draw from the subsoil and from which the palms
in bearing benefit.
Measures being taken to solve the challenges above

- Regular spraying with chemicals is carried out to combat diseases.

- Application of fertilisers is done especially on plantations while
intercropping is also carried out on subsistence farms to as well improve soil
fertility.
- Hiring of immigrant workers during the busy seasons of harvesting is also
done.
- Leguminous crops are planted so as to prevent the growth of the Siam weed.
- Political stability is being restored through improved discharge of oil wastes
by the oil companies.

- Diversification of crops to include cocoa and rubber to reduce effects of

price fluctuations.

- Intensive research has been carried out leading to the development of high
yielding oil palm varieties by the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research.

- Improvement in technology has been done through the introduction of oil

mills which process the oil more efficiently compared to the traditional
methods of palm oil processing.

Benefits of palm oil growing in Nigeria

 Palm oil sale by the farmers has provided them with revenue which has
helped to improve on their standard of living.

 Oil palms are a source of palm oil rich in proteins and widely used in
cooking food in Nigeria.

 Palm oil is exported to the United States, Canada and European countries
which earns the country foreign exchange for international trade and
development of infrastructure.

 Oil palm growing has stimulated the development of agro-based industries

through the provision of raw materials for the oil palm producing industries.
It is also used in the manufacture of margarine, soap and candles.
  Various employment opportunities have been generated e.g. in the
southwestern part of the country in oil palm growing, processing, marketing
and export of the oil palm products.

 Urban centers have developed such as Irele, Okiti Pupa, Eseodo, Odigbo and
lkale dealing in palm oil processing and marketing with associated
infrastructure such as good roads, housing estates and educational
institutions.

 It has helped in introducing a cash element to certain Nigerian farmers who

would otherwise be in a subsistence, out dated economy. This is because oil
palms are the only cash crop grown in some regions and the rest are food
crops such as maize, yams, and cassava.

 Oil palms helps in the diversification of the Nigerian economy thereby

reducing over reliance on the petroleum industry.

 Oil palm growing and processing is a source of revenue to some states like
Edo, Imo, Rivers, Anambra and Enugu in south eastern Nigeria used for the
development of infrastructure.

 It has stimulated the development of transport routes especially roads linking

the producing areas and the market centers.

 It allows other crops to be grown or inter-planted such as maize and cassava

thus helping to maintain soil fertility and food security.

Advantages of small scale farming

Small-scale farming is where small portions of land usually between 1-5 acres
are used for growing of crops and rearing of animals. The crops are grown and
animals are reared for subsistence purpose mainly and very little if any at all is
left for sale. Types of small-scale farming include: shifting Cultivation,
rotational bush fallowing and small-scale holdings. These are widespread in
Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Malawi, Liberia, Uganda,
Kenya, Ghana and other countries.

Their advantages include:

 ln small-scale farming, the farmer mainly uses family labour whose costs are
very small. The use of hired labour is on very small scale if at all used. In
Ghana for example women and children are greatly involved in the planting,
weeding and harvesting of crops such as maize, cassava, yams and
vegetables.

 Little capital is used on the farm. In countries such as Nigeria, Malawi and
the Democratic Republic of Congo, simple tools such as pangas, spades,
hoes, digging sticks and others are used.

 On small-scale farms, food crops are mainly grown such as peas, beans,
maze, cassava, vegetables, yams and others. These support large population.
Nigeria is the most populas state in Africa and about 80 percent of the
population lives in rural areas. These largely depend on food produced on
their small farms.

 The quantity of crops produced on small-scale farms in most cases surpasses

that produced by other forms of agriculture such as plantation farming.

 The crops grown have a ready local market. In the Democratic Republic of
Congo about 6 percent of the population is engaged in agriculture mainly for
home consumption while in Zambia it is estimated that about 80 per cent of
the total crop production is consumed locally.

 Crops grown are exported thus earning the respective countries foreign
exchange. In Nigeria cocoa is a major export and is mainly grown by
African farmers on small farms. Other export crops grown on small-scale
farms include groundnuts in Gambia, cotton in Sudan and coffee in Uganda,
cocoa in Ghana and oil palm in Guinea Bissau.

 Farmers grow many different types of crops on the same piece of land. As
different crops make different demands upon the soil, a higher density of
plants per unit area is possible thus enabling the farmer to obtain the
maximum amount of food from land which is under cultivation.

 Related to the above, the mixture of different plants provides a good cover
for the soil thus helping to protect it from erosion.
 On small scale farms, animal droppings and crop residues are used to replace
chemical fertilizers as manure. This reduces the effect of chemical fertilizers
on the environment such as pollution of the atmosphere, water bodies and
soils e.g. in areas occupied by the sedentary Fulanai.

 The prices of agricultural produce fluctuate widely on the world market.

This does not affect the small-scale farmers much as they grow many
different types of crops. Plantations on other hand specialize in the
production of a single crop and they are extremely vulnerable to fluctuations
in the world market prices.

 The risk is minimized in case of extreme weather or diseases which attack a

specific crop as one crop can compensate for another.

 The crops grown are mainly subsistence crops. The farmer therefore has
enough food for his family.

 Farmers are given several concessions and preferential treatment by their

governments such as no taxes.

 The farmers are very flexible. They can easily change from growing one
crop to another depending on market prices, climatic conditions and such.

 In small-scale farming, individual farms are clearly demarcated and

separated thus reducing the spread of diseases.

 Another advantage is the increase in food quality and taste. Locally grown
fresh food is consumed almost immediately after harvest, so it is sold fresher
and usually riper as it is picked at peak maturity and would be from a home
garden. Furthermore, the need for chemical preservatives is reduced or
eliminated.

 Local food production strengthens local economies by protecting small

farms, local jobs, and local shops, thereby increasing food security.
Disadvantages of small scale farming

Small scale farming leads to over use of land and soil exhaustion, clearing of the
natural vegetation to plant crops, use of simple farming methods which lead to low
output and low income is received by the farmers. However, one of the major
disadvantages of small scale farming is that it promotes land fragmentation. Land
fragmentation is the dividing up of land among members of the family until such a
time when the farm land becomes so small in size or simply turns into fragrnents.
One farmer may own more than three fields which are wide apart e.g. Osun and
Oyo States in Nigeria as well as Kikuyuland in Kenya.

Causes of land fragmentation

- Population pressure is one of the most outstanding causes of land

fragmentation. As the population grows larger and larger, land becomes
increasingly scarce. This results into the division of into smaller divisions so
that each member can at least have somewhere to grow some food and cash
crops for his survival.

- Another cause of land fragmentation is the system of land holding. In most

parts of Africa traditionally the farms are divided up amongst all the sons on
the father's death. Smaller fields will therefore be acquired by the sons. As
this process continues the plots become smaller and smaller hence land
fragmentation. The more members in the family the smaller the piece each
member gets.

- In some parts of West Africa, men marry more than one wife. If so they
usually give each wife one plot of land they own. If these wives have sons,
each son will be entitled to a part of the plot the mother cultivated. They will
then inherit these plots when their father dies. In a numb of generations this
leads to extreme sub-division of land.

- Many people in Africa have a low trend of income. A person may therefore
not be able to raise all the required sum of money to pay for a given piece of
land being sold by his neighbor. The person may either buy only part of the
land he can afford or by the time he fund-raises the neighbor will have sold
the land to somebody else. The only alternative may then be to secure
 another plot somewhere else in another village thus resulting into land
fragmentation.

- Some people acquire different pieces of land in different places because each
produces a different product. For example a farmer growing crops such as
rice and yams in poorly drained areas while cocoa and oil palms need well-
drained areas. Such people confirm that they are benefiting from their
scattered pieces of land and are not interested in land consolidation.

Problems arising from land fragmentation

- Because of the small size of the plots, the land tends to be overused which
results into loss of soil fertility as the land is given no time to rest to regain
its fertility. Once the soils deteriorate, soil erosion sets in.

- Loss in soil fertility ultimately results in decrease in crop yields.

- Attention is usually concentrated on the nearest plots while those far away
are neglected. Since the labour is concentrated on the nearest plot, the
somehow neglected plots give less yields than expected.

- A lot of land is wasted in form of boundaries between the plots. The

boundaries promote surface run-off of water which results in the formation
of gullies.

- The farmer wastes a lot of time moving between plots as they are far apart
which reduces the productivity of his labour.

- The plots are too small to allow both cash and food crop farming. The land
is therefore devoted to growing either subsistence crops with nothing for sale
or cash crops and suffer food shortages.

- Land fragmentation ultimately leads to landless people who are very

difficult to control. It results in the migration of the landless to towns in
search of alternative means of survival and wide spread unemployment.

- With shortage of land, land conflicts and disputes occur. Some conflicts
result in violent clashes and death of people.
 - The small plots resulting from land fragmentation do not encourage modern
farming techniques like mechanization and co-operative farming.

- Land fragmentation leads to soil erosion. The fragmented nature of the plots
makes it difficult to adopt effective soil conservation measures such as
terracing and contour ploughing.

Lastly, land shortage due to fragmentation has resulted into use of marginal lands
such as very steep slopes as well as reclaiming of wetlands to increase on the
available land for farming.

Wetland reclamation has an effect of reducing the amount of rainfall received, loss
of aquatic life as well as making water for domestic purposes scarcer.

Measures being taken to solve land fragmentation problems

 Land consolidation is one of the major ways of controlling land.

Fragmentation. It involves re- distribution of land in such a way that in place
of these scattered plots, each farmer receives a single piece of land which he
can even surround with a fence.

 There has been encouragement voluntary migration from the densely

populated regions to less densely populated regions.

 Settlement and resettlement schemes have been established in areas outside

those were land fragmentation occurs.

 There has been generation of employment opportunities which are not

directly based on agriculture so as to reduce the pressure on land e.g. in the
oil industry, tourism and other sectors.

 Family planning is being encouraged to reduce population growth which

ultimately results in sub- division of land and land fragmentation.

 Better farming methods are being encouraged such as use of intensive

methods of cultivation which involve use of small pieces of land to acquire
maximum output are being encouraged.
  Education is being promoted through the introduction of Universal Primary
Education, Universal Secondary Education. This will help to break
traditional practices such as cultural attachment to the parent's or ancestral
land which causes congestion and land fragmentation.

LARGE SCALE AGRICULTURE

Agricultural systems have been changing over the years from dominantly being
small, subsistence and non-scientific farms to large, commercial farms involving
the use of scientific methods of production. A part from improving the quality and
quantity of the agricultural produce, large scale commercial farms involve in
processing of the produce to the final consumer. The gradual change in agricultural
systems has been shown in the preceding sub-topics and now our attention is on
large scale commercial farms.

Types of large scale agriculture

1. Tropical plantation agriculture e.g. Rubber plantations in Liberia and sugar

cane plantations in Natal, South Africa.

2. Extensive cereal production e.g. in the Prairies of Canada and the Maize
Triangle in South Africa.

3. Livestock ranching e.g. in Argentina, New Zealand, Australia and South

Africa
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE

This is a form of extensive farming which involves the growing of a single crop on
a large scale using scientific methods to realize high output for commercial
purposes. Europeans introduced it in the tropics and it has developed in many parts
of Asia, Africa and tropical and sub-tropical America.

Some of the plantation crops are rubber, oil palm, tea, cocoa, and sugar canes. In
some areas, plantation agriculture is referred to as extensive monoculture.

Characteristics features of plantation agriculture

 Crops are grown on large estates covering thousands of hectares and run by
a large company. Natal's sugar plantation in South Africa covers over
362,000 hectares, Firestone rubber plantation in Liberia covers 34,000
hectares while Uniliver's oil palm plantations in Nigeria cover over 61,000
hectares.

 Plantations usually specialize in the production of a single crop e.g. sugar

canes in Natal and tea plantations in Kericho and Limuru in Kenya. This
practice is known as monoculture. In a few cases, however, two or more
different crops may be grown on the same plantation, but the other crops are
for the consumption of the workers.

 Large numbers of workers are employed as causal labourers, mechanics

drivers, agriculturalists, chemists, accountants and others. SCOUL in
Uganda employs over 6,000 workers. Where sufficient labour is not
available it has to be recruited from other areas.

 A great deal of capital is usually involved. This is because many plantations

have their own factories for preliminary processing, highy mechanized with
tractors and harvesters and some have their own light railway system for
transporting of the harvested crop from the fields.

 Plantation crops also need a long period of usually 3-7 years before any
harvest can be expected. This involves considerable maintenance costs.

 Many plantations are owned by outside interests e.g. the British established
large tea plantations in India and Sri Lanka, the French established cocoa
 plantations in Cameroon and Ivory Coast, the Dutch once monopolized
sugar cane plantations in Indonesia, while in East Africa most tea plantations
are owned by British companies and people of Asian descent.

 Plantations are scientifically managed and this involves the use of machines,
pesticides, herbicides, improved crop varieties and fertilizers for quality
output to meet world demand and standards.

 Output on plantations is high since large areas are cultivated.

 Crops grown on plantations are intended for sale both in domestic and
foreign markets.

 Plantation farming is mainly confined to tropical latitudes.

 Plantation farms are highly mechanized involving the use of tractors,

bulldozers, combine harvesters, seed discerns and others.

Factors which have favoured the development of plantation agriculture in the

tropics

Physical factors

1. Equatorial climate with heavy and reliable rainfall over 1500mm per annum
which is well distributed most of the year round and hot temperatures favour
the growth of perennial crops such as tea in the Kenyan highlands, rubber in
Liberia and others.

2. Presence of large tracts of land areas for the cultivation of the crops on large
scale.

3. Presence of relatively flat landscapes favouring easy cultivation and

mechanization of farms.

4. Presence of fertile wel1-drained soils for continued growing of the crops

over the years.

5. Presence of a reliable supply of water for irrigation purposes e.g. the Gezira
irrigation scheme acquires water from the Blue Nile, the Richard Toll
 scheme acquires water from river Senegal while the Natal sugar plantations
in South Africa acquires water from rivers Tugela and Umkusi.

Human factors

6. Presence of a large and cheap labour force some of which is migrant labour.

7. Availability of sufficient capital for expenses such as machinery, transport

facilities, housing, fertilizers and others.

8. Presence of a large market for crops grown both at home and abroad.

9. Favourable government policies of growing crops on a large scale to feed

the local industries and for export.

10.Presence of well-developed transport system especially by road and railway

to market the crops grown.

11.Political stability in many countries over the years has attracted foreign
investors.

12.High levels of technology as evidenced by use of tractors, combine

harvesters and processing the produce at the spot.

(Case studies of plantation agriculture)

Case studies can be drawn from any of the following:

 Rubber in Liberia and Malaysia.

 Tea growing in Kenya.

 Sugar cane growing in Natal-South Africa.

 Tobacco growing in Zimbabwe.

 Palm oil growing in Nigeria.

 Groundnut growing in Gambia.

 Cocoa in Brazil.

 Tea, rubber and cocoanut growing in Sri Lanka

RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN LIBERIA

In Liberia, the biggest rubber plantation company is that of Firestone Tire

Company of U.S.A. This company started two main plantations at Harbel and
Cavalla. The main plantations are at Harbel on the Farmington River 25 km from
the coast, while the second lies 40 km inland on the Cavalla River. The Harbel
plantation is over 34,000 hectares and is crossed by a network of roads.

Other plantations include those run by Liberian Agricultural Company, Salala

Rubber Corporation, B.F. Goodrich and The Liberian Company. Rubber growing
in Liberia has been favoured by high rainfall which exceeds 2500 mm a year which
is also well distributed, high temperatures of about 240- 270 C, high humidity and
well drained fertile soils.

SKETCH MAP SHOWING RUBBER GROWING AREAS IN LIBERIA

Conditions that have favoured rubber growing in Liberia

Physical factors

1. Presence of heavy rainfall of over 1,500 mm per annum which is received

throughout the year permits the rapid growing of perennial crops like rubber
trees.

2. The hot temperatures of 240 to 270C coupled with heavy rainfall favours the
quick growing and maturing of the rubber trees.

3. Presence of well-drained fertile alluvial soils in the coastal regions and in the
Niger Delta has favoured continuous growth of the luxuriant rubber trees.

4. Presence of extensive land for growing rubber trees thus enabling the
establishment of large plantations e.g. the Firestone Rubber Plantation
covers over 34,000 hectares of land with over 12 million rubber trees.

5. Presence of land of low altitude lying between 0-300 meters above sea level
ideal for rubber growing.

6. High relative humidity of over 75% for the growing of the crop throughout
the year.

7. Presence of trees or forests that protect the crops from strong winds.

Human factors

8. Presence of a high population density which provides abundant cheap labour

to work on the rubber plantations. The labour is also highly skilled such as
the rubber tappers.

9. Accessibility to the coast due to well-developed transport by road, railway

and water for transportation of the crop products to the markets and to the
ports of Buchanan, Monrovia, Greenville, River Cess and Harper for export.

10. Availability of sufficient capital to invest in large scale rubber growing

from foreign companies such as Firestone from the Unites States and others
such as Allan L Grant, Goodrich and Salala Rubber Corporation.
 11.Presence of a large market for rubber both at home and in countries such as
US, European Union, Japan and China.

12.The long tradition of rubber growing has led to the production of skilled
labour such as the skilled rubber tappers.

13.Favourable government policies such as the attraction of foreign investors

like the firestone Company from the USA, agricultural crop export
promotion policy and provision of infrastructure like roads to market the
crops grown.

14.Intensive research is carried out which has led to the development of high
yielding crop varieties.

8. Establishment of factories which process the latex or milky liquid rubber for the
home and export markets.

Benefits of rubber growing to the Liberian economy

- It has led to the development of the transport industry for example over 300
kilometers of plantation roads have been constructed and railway lines as
well as 100km out side roads and bridges.

- The rubber growing companies assist out-growers by supplying seeds,

availing technical advice and by buying their entire rubber production. There
are hundreds of small-scale farmers near the Harbel plantation and they all
sale their rubber to the Firestone Company.

- Income received from working on the rubber plantations has improved the
people's standard of living. Firestone Rubber Company for example provides
a number of benefits to the workers and their families such as free housing,
free medical care, and free education for their children, subsidized food and
paid vacation.

- The rubber growing companies carry out research not only on rubber but
also on other subsistence and cash crops suited to Liberia's soils and climate.
For example cash crops such as coffee, cocoa, bananas and palm oil have
 been found to do well in the prevailing climatic and soil conditions.
Research is also carried out on tropical diseases, which affect the crop.

- Social services have been developed. Harbel plantation is so big that there
are many villages dotted all over its area. In most of the areas, schools,
churches, hospitals, television centers and other social services are provided
by the company.

- Rubber growing has provided employment opportunities to many people in

research, administrative offices, transport sector, processing industries and
as tappers thus providing them with income and a source of living. Over
43,000 workers including 30,000 skilled tappers are employed.

- Rubber is the second highest earner of foreign exchange after iron ore. It is
exported to USA, Japan, China and other countries and the foreign exchange
earned is used in the promotion of international trade.

- Rubber is used as a raw material for agro-based industries. This has

stimulated the development industries such as rubber processing industries,
tire factory, shoe factory and others by providing raw material for these
industries. The industries also provide employment to many people.

- Source of government revenue for the development of infrastructure such as

power generation, health centers and others through taxes imposed on
workers in the rubber industry, plantation companies and through loyalties
and land rents to foreign companies. There are over six foreign companies in
Liberia involved in rubber growing.

- Workers have acquired skills in better methods of rubber growing, tapping

and in related fields which can be used on their smaller farms back home to
increase agricultural production.

- Rubber growing has helped to diversify the economy thereby reducing over
reliance on iron ore production.

- Promotion of bilateral co-operation between Liberia and other countries such

as USA, from which foreign investors come from and with China and Japan
which are importing counties.
 - Rubber growing and processing has stimulated urban growth with associated
infrastructure such as good roads, water and electricity supply and housing
estates e.g. in the towns of Herbel, Buchanan and Harper.

- The rubber plantations are a tourist attraction which earns the country
foreign exchange.

Challenges facing rubber growing in Liberia

1. The rubber plantations suffer from price fluctuations on the world market.
When prices fall their income is seriously affected and the companies are not
able to meet all the expenses at the plantations.

2. Continuous rubber growing has resulted in monoculture, soil exhaustion and

ultimately reduction in crop yields and income for the farmers.

3. The major plantations are owned by foreign companies, which repatriate

their profits to their mother countries. This prevents capital accumulation
necessary for the development of not only the rubber plantations but also
other sectors of the economy as well.

4. Rubber takes about six years to mature. During such a long gestation period
no income is received.

5. Continuous application of fertilizers and chemicals to enrich the soils and

control pests and diseases leads to the pollution of the environment such as
the nearby rivers of St. John and Loffa.

6. Introduction of synthetic rubber made from oil or petroleum has led to

competition and reduction in market for the natural rubber. Competition is
also from other rubber producing countries such as DR Congo, Cameroon,
Malaysia and Sumatra.

7. The growth of urban centers in rubber growing areas is associated with

problems such as unemployment, congestion and high crime rates e.g. in
Herbel and Cavalla centers.
SUGAR CANE PLANTATIONS IN NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA

The Kwazulu region in Natal Province of South Africa is one of the major sugar
cane producing regions on the African continent. The other regions are the coastal
belt stretching from Lake Lucia downwards to Margate as shown on the map and
the Pietermantzburg area. The sugar canes are grown on plantations.

Factors favouring sugar cane growing in Natal

Physical factors

1. Hot temperatures of 210 centigrade and above. The southward flowing warm
Mozambique current and the onshore winds, which blow over them, have an
effect of raising temperatures along the eastern African coast, an ideal
condition for sugar cane growing.

2. The sunny conditions increase the sugar content in the canes.

3. Occurrence of heavy rainfall of 1,500 mm and above brought by the warm

Mozambique current encourages the growing of perennial crops like sugar
canes.

4. Presence of sufficient water for irrigation in areas where rainfall is low from
the numerous rivers such as Tugela, Umfolosi, Umgeni, Umzimkulu and
Umkusi to supplement the natural rainfall.

5. Presence of fertile alluvial well-drained soils especially in the coastal delta

which favour sugar cane growing over the years.

6. Presence of large tracts of land areas for establishment of large sugar cane
plantations. Most of Natal's sugar is grown in coastal areas between Margate
and Lake St. Lucia a distance of over 400 kilometers and inland for about 25
kilometers.

7. The relief of the landscape is gently sloping hence favouring easy cultivation
and large-scale mechanization. The gentle relief also favours easy irrigation.

8. Availability of extensive land for cultivation. Natal's sugar is grown on the

coastal plain between Margate and Láke St.Lucia a distance of about 400
kilometers long and 25 kilometers wide.
 9. The low altitude provides hot conditions necessary for sugar cane growing.

10.Frost-free conditions all the year round.

Human factors

11.Availability of large sums of capital to inject in plantation agriculture. The

South African Sugar Association administers the sugar cane industry in
Natal, which is one of the largest cooperatives in the world with large
financial resources. The capital is evidenced by the numerous primary
processing industries, tractors, trains, housing estates, large labour force
employed, construction of light railways to collect sugar canes from the
fields and extensive use of fertilisers.

12.Presence of a large market for sugar canes in South Arica and abroad in
countries such as Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zambia, United States
of America, Japan, United Kingdom and Canada.

13.Presence of well-developed transport network especially by road, Railway

and Sea. This facilitates the distribution of sugar in the market areas. Durban
has a bulk Sugar terminal where most of the sugar for export is stored.

14.Use of high-level technology evidenced by use of tractors, trailers and small

trains to collect canes from the fields, setting up irrigation schemes and the
use of fertilizers.

15.Presence of large labour force, both skilled and unskilled. The cheap
unskilled labour is provided by the blacks not only from South Africa but
also from the neighboring countries of Swaziland, Lesotho, Mozambique
and Malawi.

16.Research is continuously carried out in ways of developing sugar cane

growing. The South African Sugar Association has a research institute at
Mount Edgecombe, has led to the development of new high yielding
varieties of cane, and better pest and disease control measures as well as soil
improvement and fertilizer techniques. All developments are passed on to
the farmers especially the members of the association.
17.Presence of many sugar processing industries e.g. the Hullets and Tongaat
factories near Durban.

18.Formation of co-operatives for collective growing and efficient marketing of

sugar e.g. the South African Sugar Association (SASA) that manages sugar
cane growing.

19.Presence of high level of technology which has enabled the construction of

sugar mills and use of machinery such as tractors.

20.Favourable government policies such as establishment of irrigation schemes,

roads and railway lines as well as encouraging the establishment of large
scale sugar plantations.

21.The region was occupied by early settlers who open up the areas for sugar
cane growing.
SUGAR CANE GROWING AREAS IN NATAL SOUTH AFRICA
Benefits of sugar plantations growing in South Africa

- Generation of employment opportunities to many South Africans on the

plantations, sugar processing industries and refineries. Companies dealing in
sugar cane growing and processing include Ilovo Sugar Ltd, Tongaat Hulett
Ltd, UCL Company Limited and others.

- The plantations provide raw materials for the sugar processing industries as
well as producing sweets which further promote the generation of
employment opportunities.

- Incomes received from the sale of sugar and it's by products has raised the
people's standard of living. They can afford better housing, medical and
educational facilities among others.

- The plantations provide ready market for agricultural inputs such as

fertilizers and farm machinery hence promoting industrial development.

- Various towns with associated infrastructure such as good roads, housing

estates, recreational facilities and others have developed in the sugar
growing regions.

- Sugar exports to US, Japan, Canada and the United Kingdom earns the
country foreign exchange which has been used in the promotion of
international trade.

- Source of revenue to government through taxing sugar processing industries

as well as incomes of the workers. The South African sugar industry
generates about R6 billion annual direct income. The revenue is used in the
development of infrastructure like roads, educational and health facilities.

- Provision of sugar as a beverage to the South African population in the

provinces Gauteng, Limpopo Province, Mpumalanga, North-West Province,
Free State, Eastern cape, Northern Cape, Western Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal
thus saving the country costly sugar imports.

- Farmers have acquired skills in scientific methods of crop cultivation which

they later use on their farms to boost production other crops.
 - It has promoted bilateral relations with other countries such as Japan, Saudi
Arabia and China through export of sugar and purchase of farm inputs.

- Sugar cane growing has encouraged the development of infrastructure such

as roads and railways for marketing the crop and educational and health
facilities for workers on, the plantations.

Challenges faced by sugar cane farmers

 In some regions, rainfall is low and sometimes unreliable. Drought occurs

which results in poor crop production.

 Wild fire out breaks lead to large quantities of cane being destroyed.

 Soil exhaustion due to monoculture results in reduced crop yields.

 Pests and diseases e.g. ratoon which is a stunting diseases resulting in low
output.

 Stiff competition from other sugar producers such as Malawi, DR Congo,

Egypt, Sudan and Cuba among others results of reduced demand for South
African sugar as well as suffering losses.

 Fluctuation in world market prices of sugar which affects the incomes

farmers receive and failure to meet expenses at the farms.

 Over production which results into limited market and fall in market prices.

 Inadequate skilled labour supply during the busy period of harvesting slows
down sugar cane harvesting and processing.

 Soil erosion leading to loss of soil fertility.

 Presence of extensive weeds which compete for soil nutrients with the sugar
canes hence reducing crop output.

 High costs production such as those involving irrigation which results in

high cost of sugar which in turn reduces the demand for the sugar produced.
Merits or advantages of plantation agriculture

 The methods of cultivation employed on plantations are generally more

scientific and efficient than those of peasant farmers. Much greater use is
made on plantations of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides with the result
that crop yields per unit area are appreciably higher than on peasant farms.

 The plantations have a considerable advantage in the production of crops

such as oil palm, tea and sugar-cane which require a great deal of processing
before they are ready to be sold.

 Because of the large-scale nature of their operations, plantations are able to

use modern factory methods in processing their crops. By using modern
machinery, they are able to achieve higher extraction rates in case of crops
such as oil palm and sugar cane than can the peasant farmers using
traditional methods.

 Efficient methods of processing also yield a uniform and better quality

product, which is likely to command a higher price on the world market.

 Regular supplies of produce are guaranteed by the plantation system. This

justifies the erection of processing factories on the spot rather than exporting
the bulky raw materials over long distances.

 Because of the size of the enterprise, the plantations are to take advantage of
the specialized labour. This results in efficiency and greater production.

 Plantation workers train on the job and again specialized skills such as repair
and maintenance of farm machinery.

 Since plantations are large enterprises they offer employment opportunities

to many people e.g. laborers, scientists, managers, drivers and others.

 They are a source of revenue for the governments of the host countries
through taxation of the workers’ wages, export duties on produce and
company land rents.
  Plantation authorities usually establish social infrastructures such as schools,
health centers, recreational facilities which do not only benefit the workers
on the plantations but also people in the surrounding areas.

 Plantation authorities increase their output partly by buying produce from

local farmers. They therefore encourage farmers near the plantations to grow
the same crops as is being grown on the plantations. These are called out
growers. These out growers benefit from advice, inputs as well as ready
markets provided by the plantation authorities.

 Plantations normally carry out research involving the breeding of improved

varieties and into use of special fertilizers. This results into the development
of high yielding varieties hence higher output.

 Plantations organizations ensure no wastages; wastes are used as fuel or

fertilizers e.g. crushed stems of sugar canes are used as of source fuel.

 Many plantation crops are exported thus earning the respective countries
foreign exchange necessary for the importation of machinery and other
necessary goods.

 Plantation agriculture encourages the development of secondary industries

through the provision of raw materials e.g. rubber for tires, gumboots and
rain coat, factories while sugar canes for factories producing sugar and
sweets.

Demerits of plantation agriculture

1. Concentration on the production of a single crop makes the plantations

extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in the world market prices. The peasant
farmer on the other hand usually grows a number of different crops on his
holding and a reduction in the price of a single crop is not likely to affect
him so severely.

2. The growing of a single crop year after year leads to soil exhaustion and
deterioration if fertilizers are not applied.
 3. The fact that on plantations a single crop is grown over a large area increases
the risk of the spread of diseases. Diseases are not likely to spread so quickly
on peasant farms where very often mixtures of different crops are grown.

4. Most plantations especially in developing countries are owned by foreign

companies and most of the profits from such plantations are repatriated to
their mother countries.

5. Plantation agriculture has been one of the major causes of population

movements particularly the young, able-bodied men to seek employment on
the established farms. Cultivation of mainly food crops is thus left to women
and the older folk who are less efficient hence low food production.

6. Plantation farming requires a large capital. The main expenses include

machines, facilities, fertilizers and salaries for management staff and labour.
Many developing countries cannot afford such huge sums of money.

7. Some types of crops are more suited to the small farms e.g. tobacco grown
and cured by traditional methods in Zambia and southern Tanzania.

8. Many plantation crops take several years to mature e.g. rubber takes 6 years,
cocoa 5 years and oil palm 3 years. During the long gestation periods these
crops yield no incomes.

LIVESTOCK RANCHING

A well come feature in the field of livestock rearing has been the development of
ranches. Ranches refer to farms where cattle, sheep, goats and other livestock are
raised on large tracts of open land.

Many ranching schemes deal in the raising of cattle for the production of beef. The
most important ranches are found in Europe, U.S.A, Australia, New Zealand and
Argentina. In Africa some model ranches can be found in Zambia, Zimbabwe,
Kenya and Tanzania.
Characteristic features of livestock ranching

- Different types of animals are kept depending on the region e.g. in the
temperate grassland of Europe, the U.S.A, Australia and New Zealand
mainly cattle and sheep are reared.

- Natural pastures are used to feed the livestock. In addition, pastures are
improved with re-sawn nutritious alfalfa, Lucerne, clover and others which
are excellent for animal grazing.

- Animals are kept on permanent farms are called estancials in Argentina and
ranches in U.S.A and other parts of the world. There is no migration of
animals.

- The ranches are paddocked, usually by wire fences or wooden barriers to

facilitate rotational grazing. Movement of the livestock is confined to the
ranch.

- The carrying capacity of land is strictly followed. There is no overgrazing

- The ranches are scientifically managed selective breeding is done to produce

high quality beef, mutton, wool and other products.

- Regular disease control is done through spraying, dipping, de-worming etc.

- A large capital is required for this type of farming. Main expenses include
machines, feeding towers, veterinary services, selective breeding,
management staff and labour.

- The land is owned either individually, by co-operatives or the state.

- The primary intention of rearing livestock is selling either the animals

themselves or their products.

- Record keeping is an important feature.

- The farms are large covering hundreds of hectares.

LIVESTOCK RANCHING IN ARGENTINA

The ranches in Argentina are a good example of extensive farming where animals
are reared or a very large scale. Before the introduction of ranches, the cattle were
grazed on small Scale and on coarse grasses. They would yield poor quality meat.
However, with the invasion of European colonialists during the nineteenth century,
many changes were made. Today beef farming is a very important activity and is
carried out on Pampas.
Pampas is an Indian name for open space, which is applied to the temperate
grassland. Very large ranches have been set up for beef production. Some ranches
(estancias) are as large as 200 km2. Major ones are found around Blanca Manca,
Bahia Blanca, Cordoba, Santa Fe, and Rosario. Various cattle breeds are reared
such as Angus, Aberdeen, Hereford, Polled Hereford, Charolais, Shorthorr, Santa
Gertrudis, Brahman, Brangus, and Red Angus.

Factors which have favored livestock ranching in Argentina

Physical factors

1. Presence of vast land areas for the setting up of ranches. Many ranches cover
large land areas of over 10,000 hectares. Cowboys manage the ranches.

2. The presence of moderate rainfall of up to 1000mm per mm, which is well

distributed throughout the year favours the growth of good pastures as well
as ensuring regular water supply for the cattle.

3. Presence of well drained fertile soils carried down the Andes Mountains by
rivers and rain. These soils give rise to the growth of good natural pastures
for the livestock to feed on.

4. The natural vegetation consists of temperate grasslands, which offer natural

pasture for the cattle and make movement of the livestock easy.

5. The landscape is relatively flat and this allows easy movement of the cattle
and the mechanization of the farms.

6. Favourable temperatures of 24C and above in summer while the lowest

winter temperature is about 100c. These favour the growth of the cattle and
pasture.

7. Presence of an abundant water supply for animals to drink from rivers such
as Pararna, Salado and Rio Negro.

Human factors

8. Introduction of better European, cattle breeds e.g. Aberdeen Angus and

Herefords which fatten and mature quickly and hence more productive to
rear.
9. Introduction of nutritious fodder and grains to supplement the cattle feeds.
For example alfalfa and maize are grown to feed the cattle. The alfalfa is of
high nutritive value for cattle and grows better and quicker than the natural
grasses.

10.Presence of large markets for beef both at home in large cities such as
Buenos Aires and Cordoba in Argentina and abroad in countries such as
U.S.A. those in Europe and Asia.

11.Presence of well- developed transport routes especially by road, railway and

water. Most of the cattle are transported by railways from the ranches to the
factories while beef exports are transported mainly by water using ships with
refrigerators through the ports of Buenos Aires, La Planta and Bahia Blanca.

12.Construction of bore holes to provide water for the livestock. Windmills are
also used to pump water from underground to meet the additional water
requirements of the ranches.

13.Availability of large sums of capital to invest in the formation of extensive

farms. The capital is used in buying better cattle breeds, and building of
meat parking factories, farm houses windmills, barns, transport facilities and
paying labour.

14.Favourable government policy of granting leases to foreign investors and

support to ranchers through research and extension services.

15.Formation of efficient co-operative societies, which deal in processing and

marketing of cattle and cattle products. They bargain for better beef prices.

16.High level of technology is used evidenced by well-developed storage

facilities with refrigeration, farming is mechanized and windmills used in the
pumping of water to the reservoirs.

17.Presence of a large cheap labour force to work on the ranches.

18.Invention of animal drugs which have almost eliminated pests and diseases.
There is therefore a low incidence of pests and diseases.
 19.Intensive research has enabled the development of high yielding cattle
breeds suitable for the environmental conditions as well as nutritious feeds.

20.The relative political stability which has facilitated the growth and
development of ranches.

Benefits of livestock ranching in Argentina

 The diet of the natives has been greatly improved through the consumption
of more meat which is rich in proteins. The per capital consumption of beef
in Argentina is about 100 kg per year which is almost twice as much as for
any other country in the world.

 Beef and other beef products such as meat, hides, fat, bones for fertilizers
and glues made from horns and hooves are exported to various countries
such as Germany, U.S.A., Britain, and Canada and Arab states. This earns
the country valuable foreign exchange for international trade.

 Ranching has stimulated the development of manufacturing industries

because of the guaranteed raw materials. These include meat-canning
factories, leather making industries, fertilizer making industries and glue
industries in Santa Fe and Buenos Aires.

 There has been generation of employment opportunities in many fields such

as cowboys who look after the cattle on the ranches, in research,
transportation and marketing of cattle and cattle products, and industries
dealing in cattle and cattle product thus providing the people with income.

 Improved standards of living for the natives in the country as a result of

increased incomes from sales of cattle and cattle products.

 Generation of revenue through taxes imposed on ranching schemes, beef

processing industries, workers incomes, export duties and loyalties from
foreign investors which is used to develop infrastructure such as roads,
educational and health institutions.
 Ranching has led to the development of infrastructure particularly railway
lines and roads. Railway lines were easy to construct across the flat plains
and serve the agricultural areas of the Pampas, over which lines run from
Buenos Aires, Rosario, La Plata and Bahia Blanca.

 Development of ports especially those dealing in the export of beef and

other products from ranching e.g. Buenos Aires, La Plata and Bahia Blanca.

 Farmers have been able to learn better methods of animal rearing with the
assistance given by extension workers.

 Research is carried out which has led to the development of better pastures
and cattle breeds.

 The land is used more productively and output has increased.

 The sale of meat, hides and live animals has promoted bilateral relations
between Argentina and the importing countries such as USA, Chile, china,
Canada and Uruguay.

 Ranching helps to diversify the economy of Brazil by providing an

alternative source of income other than from the sectors petroleum,
automobiles and grain production.

 The ranches provide ready market for industrial goods such as pesticides,
fertilizers, fencing materials and others used on the ranches.

 Ranching has attracted foreign investors to the country with capital and
skills thus contributing to the economic development of the country.

 The practice has promoted educational research and the breeding of disease
resistant and fast maturing animal breeds which are very profitable to rare.

 Animal droppings act as farm fertilizers which has enabled the growth of
supplementary feeds for the livestock.
RANCHING IN B0TSWANA

In Botswana the cattle keepers have developed a little further than the Fulani. The
Batswana are not pure pastoralists like many of the Fulani, but depend for their
food supply on the cultivation of crops such as sorghum, millet and maize.
However they keep large herds of cattle as their main source of income. The low
rainfall, frequent droughts, poor cattle breeds, pests and diseases among other
problems greatly hindered the development of the livestock industry. As a first step
to improving the cattle industry, large demonstration ranches were established. The
main was to demonstrate modern beef management using government owned
demonstration herds and to let interested farmers participate with their own local
cattle breeds so that they can apply the same techniques as on the government
herds on their farms.

Today, there are many ranching schemes which have developed as shown on the
map below.
MAJOR RANCHING SCHEMES IN BOTSWANA
Factors which have favoured the development of livestock farming in
Botswana

Physical factors;

1. Presence of un- favourable climatic conditions characterized by low and

unreliable rainfall ranging between 400mm and below with hot temperatures
of over 20o c which conditions limit other economic activities like crop
growing but encourage ranching activities.

2. Presence of poor thin soils which limit other agricultural activities making
livestock rearing the most viable economic activity.

3. The landscape is relatively flat which allows easy movement of the animals
in search of water and pasture as well as the construction of paddocks.

4. Grasses form the main type of vegetation providing natural pasture for the
livestock.

5. Local breeds of cattle, goats and sheep are reared which are suitable and
adapted to the harsh environmental conditions existing there.

6. Presence of large tracts of land areas with low population for livestock
rearing.

7. The dry semiarid climate has resulted in a low incidence of pests and
diseases affecting the livestock.

Human factors

8. Favourable government policy of improving beef production and

management in the country by teaching farmers modern methods of
livestock rearing so as to encourage them to shift from the traditional and
wasteful methods of livestock rearing.

9. Presence of a large market for the beef and other cattle products both at
home and abroad.

10.Availability of sufficient capital to set up ranches from both the government

of Botswana, the European Union and wealthy Batswana.
 11.Presence of a fairly developed transport routes especially by roads and
railway in the eastern part of the country bordering South Africa to transport
beef and other products to the markets.

12.Absence of other viable economic activities in the country. Botswana until

recent discovery and exploitation of diamonds was entirely dependent on
cattle and cattle products for export earnings.

13.The Batswana like the Fulani are traditionally cattle keepers. The local
people therefore have a long experience in cattle keeping as a cultural way
of life.

14.There has been development of storage facilities for the beef and beef
products which has boosted production.

Benefits of setting up ranches in Botswana

- Many farmers have learnt better methods of livestock rearing as the farmers
are taught the value of paddocking, how to judge the carrying capacity of the
land, pest and disease control, stock selection and record keeping.

- As a result of the above, the farmers' cattle have been able to increase in
both weight and value. The farmers therefore have experienced increased
incomes, which have helped to increase their standard of living.

- The ranches act as a source of food; meat, which is rich in proteins and thus
helped to improve the diet of many Batswana.

- Cattle and cattle products are exported to countries such as Zambia, South
Africa, Angola, United Kingdom and other European nations. This earns the
country valuable foreign exchange.

- Ranching has encouraged the development of industries dealing in meat and

cattle products e.g abattoirs at Lobatse and tanneries at Serowe.

- Development of infrastructure particularly roads and railway lines e.g. the

railway lines from Gaberones to Zimbabwe via Mahalapye and Francistown
and from Lobatse to South Africa.
- Source of revenue to the government through taxes imposed on cattle
processing industries, workers incomes and on exports from the industry.
This revenue, is used to improve infrastructure such as roads, railways,
health centers and educational institutions.

- The quality of beef and other animal products has improved.

- Promotion of international understanding between Botswana and the beef

importing countries, which has helped in the attraction of aid for
development.

- Research is carried out and has led to the development of better methods of
cattle rearing suitable breeds and more nutritious pastures for the livestock.

- Generation of employment opportunities on the ranches and processing

industries established thus providing people with income.

- Development of urban centers such as Gaborone and Lobatse dealing in the

processing and export of animal products, with associated infrastructure
such as good roads, health centers and housing units.

- Ranching has helped to convert wasteland into productive land.

- The ranches are a tourist attraction which earns the country foreign exchange
international trade.
EXTENSIVE CEREAL FARMING

This involves the growing of cereals such as wheat, oats, rice, maize or corn,
barley and rye on a large scale for commercial purposes. Owing to the extreme age
and low fertility of the soi1s, yields per hectare are very low, but the flat terrain
and very large farm sizes mean yields per unit of labour are high. The farms are
usually large in comparison with the numbers working and money Spent on it.
Land values are low in relation to labour and capital. There is heavy reliance on
machinery or ploughing. Planting, spraying and harvesting the crop. A large
proportion of expenditure goes toward machinery. Chemicals and other equipment.
Most work is handled by just a few workers using machines such as combine
harvesters. The crop yield in extensive agriculture largely depends primarily on the
natural fertility of the soil, the terrain, the climate, and availability of water.
Although the yields per hectare are low, farms are so large that farmers are able to
make large profits.

Case studies of extensive cereal growing

- Wheat on the Prairies of North America

- Maize triangle of South Africa

EXTENSIVE WHEAT FARMING IN CANADA

The prairies form the most important wheat-producing region in the world. It
encompasses an area of about 1.96 million square kilometers. Wheat is grown in
the three provinces of Canada namely: Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. The
type of farming practiced can be referred to as extensive farming.

There are two types of wheat grown depending on the season when the wheat is
planted.

The spring wheat is planted in spring for summer harvest. In spring snow has
melted due to the warm dry wind called chinook and melt-waters make the soils
damp for cultivation at the same time the dangers of frost don't exist. The spring
wheat is mostly grown in the southern regions of Alberta, Manitoba, and
Saskatchewan.
Winter wheat is planted in November at the fall for spring harvest.

Factors which have favoured extensive farming in Canada

Physical factors

1. Presence of vast land, which was also cheap. Farm sizes are therefore
thousands of hectares. The average farm size is 400-1000 hectares. This was
favoured by the presence of a low population hence the presence or large
land areas, which were not occupied.

2. The relatively flat landscape which favours large scale mechanization. The
land rises gently from the east towards the west. The land rises from about
500 m above sea level in Manitoba to over 1500 m in Alberta.

3. Presence of fertile black chernozem soils in the provinces Manitoba,

Saskatchewan and Alberta for the cultivation of the wheat.

4. Favourable climatic conditions for wheat growing. The warm to hot summer
temperatures are ideal for the rapid growing and ripening of the grain.

5. Rainfall is adequate in the growing season. Total rainfall is about 500 mm.
6. There is a growing season of 100-120 days which are free from frost. Frost
damages the plants and causes low yields.
7. The long summer daylight is ideal for ripening of the grain.
8. Chinook winds make the winter snow melt to add moisture to the soils in
summer.
9. The original vegetation was grassland which was easy to clear and suitable
for growing of wheat.

Human factors

10.Presence of well-developed transport routes by road, rail and waterways for

marketing the crop to USA, Brazil, Mexico, Europe, and Asia. The prairie
region has an efficient system of transportation based on extensive east-west
road and railroad routes. Trains run by the Canadian Pacific and Canadian
National railways enable the transportation of large quantities of wheat to
 the ports of Vancouver, Prince Rupert and Port Arthur for export. The
Lawrence Seaway enables large quantities of wheat to be exported to Europe
cheaply.
11.Availability of large sums of capital, which enable extensive mechanization
and purchase of other inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides on the farms.
12.Presence of a large market for wheat in the densely populated states such as
New York and Michigan in USA, UK and The Netherlands in Europe, China
and Japan in Asia as well as Africa.
13.Scientific research is carried out which has led to the development of fast
maturing and cold resistant wheat varieties. The development of improved
wheat-crop varieties with higher yields, stronger pest resistance, and greater
response to fertilizers has improved productivity throughout the prairies.
14.High level of technology, which has led to mechanization of most of the
operations such as use of tractors to plough the land, seeders usually pulled
by tractors are used to sow the seeds and add fertilizers to the soil, while
combine harvesters thresh the wheat from the straws and delivers it into
trucks.
15.Well-established storage facilities called elevators hence large quantities of
grain can be stored. The trucks transport the wheat from the farms to the
silos. These are tall cylindrical towers used for storing wheat before being
consumed. Here, the wheat is received, cleared, graded, weighed and stored
ready for sale. The export ports with terminal elevators include Churchill,
Prince Rupert, Vancouver and Montreal.
16.Presence of skilled labour experienced in wheat growing.
17.Favorable government policies such as tax incentives to wheat farmers.
18.The farmers have a long experience in the growing of wheat resulting in
high crop outputs.
Contribution of wheat growing on the Prairies

1. Large quantities of wheat are exported to countries such as the United States,
Mexico, South Korea, Iran, Brazil, Japan, and China which earns the country
foreign exchange for the international trade.

2. Many employment opportunities have been generated for people working on

the wheat farms the in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta thus providing the
people with a source of livelihood and also improving on their standards of
living.

3. The wheat grown has provided food not only to Canada but also to many other
people in the world. In fact wheat is the most important food consumed in the
world.

4. It has promoted the growth of agro-based industries. Wheat is used as an input

in various industries which has promoted industrial development especially
wheat milling industries.

5. Bilateral co-operation has been stimulated between Canada and the wheat
importing countries of China, USA and Japan among others.

6. Wheat growing and processing is a source of government revenue for the

development of infrastructure such as transport and health facilities through
taxing wheat processing industries as well as the worker's incomes in the sector.

7. Wheat growing and processing has contributed to the growth of urban centers
such as Regina, Edmonton and Winnipeg with associated infrastructure such as
roads, housing estates, financial institutions and entertainment centers.

8. Provision of ready market for industrial goods such as fertilizers, pesticides and
farm machinery produced in the cities of Regina, Edmonton and Winnipeg.

9. Contributed to the development of transport routes e.g. western railway lines

connecting to Prince Rupert, Seattle and Vancouver as well as the eastern
railway routes through the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence Seaway to
Montreal, Quebec and New York.
10.The extensive wheat farms are a tourist attraction which earns the provinces of
Saskatchewan, Alberta and Manitoba foreign exchange for international trade.

11.Research is carried out which has led to the development of high yielding wheat
varieties resulting in high crop outputs.

12.Farmers have acquired modern skills in growing the crop, disease control, use
and maintenance of farm machinery as well as record keeping.

13.Wheat growing has contributed to the diversification of the Canadian economy

as it has stimulated the growth of industries, transport routes, tourism and
research.

WHEAT GROWING REGIONS IN CANADA

INTENSIVE COMMERCIAL FARMING
This involves growing of crops on small plots of land which are managed
scientifically resulting very high output. Therefore, in spite of the smallness of
the plots, high output is realized due to use of high yielding crop varieties,
fertilizers and manures, irrigation where necessary, as well as pest and disease
control. Less land is required than in extensive farming to produce similar
profits.

This enables farmers to locate near markets where land rents are high. Various
farming systems fall under the intensive commercial farming discussed below.

Market gardening; this is a form of agriculture involving the cultivation of

vegetables, flowers and fruits solely for sale in the urban market. The market
gardens are located just outside the city suburb areas. Market gardening is
well developed in the densely populated industrial and urbanized countries of
Britain, Denmark, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, U.S.A and Canada
where the daily demand for fresh fruits and vegetables occurs. London city for
example is supplied by the Thames while Paris city by the Paris basins.

In Africa, market gardening is practiced near the large cities of Cairo,

Alexandria, Lagos, Nairobi, Johannesburg, Cape Town and Addis Ababa
among others.

Characteristic features of market gardening

 Farms or plots cultivated are small.

 Land is intensively farmed.

 Irrigation is often practiced where natural rainfall is insufficient.

 Crops may be grown in fields or under glass.

 Farms are scientifically managed using selected seeds, insecticides,

fertilizers, green houses and artificial heating.

 Soil fertility is maintained by liberal application of manure or

fertilizers.
 Much attention is given to the crop and most of the work is done by
hand labour. They are therefore labour intensive.

 Large capital is involved in the purchase of machinery, fertilizers,

pesticides and others.

 Farms are located usually within the vicinity of urban centers where
there is ready market for the produce.

 Farms are also located where there are well-developed transport

facilities such as good roads and air transport to reach a wider market.

 Skilled labour is employed to ensure that the crops grown are well
attended to.

 A large labour force is employed as human judgment is crucial.

 Output per unit area in very high.

 They produce a variety of fruits, vegetables and flowers for sale.

Market gardening in California, U.S.A

This is one of the areas where market gardening is practiced. The major
centers include; Fresno, Sacramento and San Francisco in the Central
Valley. The northern part of the valley is called the Sacramento Valley,
and the southern part is called the San Joaquin Valley. However the region
experience low and unreliable rainfall especially in the south which hinders
agriculture. The serious problem of aridity had to be addressed. Irrigation
schemes had to be set up by transferring water from the north to the south.
This enabled the growing of various crops which include fruits such as
lemons, grapes, oranges, apples, peaches, and plums, and vegetables such
as tomatoes, carrots, onions and cabbage.

Major areas include Bakersfield, Sonoma Valley, Napa, San Joaquin

Valley, and in the Sacramento Valley. Vegetables are grown primarily in
the Central, Imperial and Salinas valleys.
Conditions which have favoured market gardening in California

These are both physical and human factors as discussed below;

Physical factors

 Presence of a large land area for the cultivation of crops. The Central
Valley is a vast structural depression that extends from northwest to
southeast for 640 km with an average width of 80km.

 The landscape is flat and in some cases gently sloping which allows
irrigation to be carried out cheaply by gravitational flow of water as
well as enabling large scale mechanization.

 Presence of fertile alluvial soils deposited from the Coast Ranges

and Sierra Nevada into the valley which has enabled farming to take
place over the years.

 The region experiences a Mediterranean climate of hot and very

sunny summers which are conducive for crop ripening and mild
warm wet winters for rapid crop growth.

 Presence of a reliable supply of water from rivers such as San

Joaquin (with tributaries such as Pit, Feather and American rivers),
Sacramental and others descending from the mountains which
provide water for irrigation and hydro-electric power generation.

Human factors

 Presence of a highly skilled labour force to set up the irrigation

facilities as well as skilled farmers such as agronomists, agro-
chemists and plant breeders leading to high crop yields.

 Presence of well-developed transport by road, railway and air, which

enable produce to reach the market while still fresh. Ports of Los
Angeles, Long Beach and the ports in the San Francisco Bay area
promote water transport.

 There is use of advanced technology in irrigation which allows

harvesting of water from the surrounding mountain ranges and
 underground water resources through construction of huge the dams,
canals and aqueducts. In addition, there is automation of the farming
industry e.g, wide use of specialized tractors for breaking the
ground, planting, weeding, fertilizing and harvesting of the crops.
There is also use of refrigerators and refrigerated tracks enabling the
products to remain fresh for long before being sold. River.

 Availability of sufficient capital for investment in machinery,

fertilizers, hire of skilled labour, construction of dams and canals
e.t.c. Major dams constructed include; Shasta, Hoover, Imperial
White and Friant dams while the canals include Imperial, Delta
Mendota and All America canals.

 Large market for the products in the urban and industrialized centers
not only in Eastern U.S.A but also in Europe. California alone had a
population of over 40 million in 2010.

 Favourable government policy of construction of dams to provide

water for irrigation, research in high yielding crop varieties and
other incentives.

 Proximity to large towns such as Sacramental, San Diego and San

Francisco which provide a ready market for the crops grown.

 Presence of vast processing industries to take up produce from the

farmers.

Contribution of market gardening to the people of California

 Source of food in terms of fruits and vegetables for the people

leading to better nutrition and health. Market gardening farms
produce vegetables such as lettuce, tomatoes, cauliflower,
carrots, Iima beans as well as fruits such as grapes, lemons,
strawberries, plums, peaches, avocados and melons.

 Source of raw materials for agro-based industries for example

dealing in wineries in Sonoma Valley and Napa as well as
 canning of jams, fruits and vegetables in San Joaquin and in the
Sacramento Valley.

 Fruit and vegetable sales provide income to the farmers in areas

such as Bakersfield, Sonoma Valley, Napa, and San Joaquin
Valley which has led to improvement in their standard of living
(employment opportunities).

 Has provided market for industrial products such as machinery,

fertilizers and chemicals.

 The agricultural sector has contributed to the diversification of

the economy by providing alternative sources of income thereby
reducing over reliance on tourism, film industry and fishing.

 It acts as a source of foreign exchange through exportation of the

produce to countries such as Canada and Mexico which is used in
the development of infrastructures such as road construction
schools, railway line.

 Source of revenue to the government through taxation of

agricultural enterprises and worker’s incomes leading to the
development of infrastructure such as roads, schools and
hospitals.

 It has encouraged the development of infrastructure such as

roads, railways, and water canals which facilitate the movement
of people, goods and services e.g. ship and barge canals have
been built in the Central Valley cities of Stockton und
Sacramento. These inland seaports mainly serve California’s
farm industries, handling the shipment of produce.

 Promotion of bilateral relationships between California and other

countries in Europe, Asia, Middle East and Africa which are
importing produce from the state which further promotes trade,
investment and tourism.
  Market gardening has contributed to the growth of urban centers
such as San Francisco, Long Beach and Los Angeles with
associated good infrastructure through the provision of food to
the growing urban population as well establishment of industries
dealing in the processing and marketing of produce.

 Research has been developed resulting in the development of

high yielding crop varieties resulting in high crop yields.

 The farms act as tourist attractions thus earning the state foreign
exchange used in the development of infrastructure.

Short comings of market gardening

- Has led the growth and development of urban centers such as Los Angeles
and San Francesco with associated problems like unemployment, congestion
and high crime rates.

- Constant use of fertilizers to maintain soil fertility and chemicals to control

pests and diseases has resulted into pollution in the surrounding water
resources thus endangering the quality of water, soil and air.

- Chemicals used to kill unwanted animals and plants on farms may be

collected by running water runoff and carried in the streams which is
dangerous to the environment.

- Health problems from eating the fruits and vegetables grown under high use
of fertilisers and chemicals.

- Salination of soils because irrigation processes thus reducing on the

productivity for agricultural purposes. This has also greatly lowered the
water table thus paving way for salt water from the oceans hence affecting
domestic water supplies.

- High price fluctuations on the world market has affected the costs of
production by farmers resulting into losses.
 - It has encouraged the use of marginal lands near urban centers which
promotes environmental degradation and ecological problems.

Horticulture
This refers to the intensive growing of flowers, fruits and vegetables for sale on
small plots of land resulting in very high yields per unit area.

Both market gardening and horticulture have the same characteristics.

Horticulture is well developed in the countries of the Netherlands and Belgium.

Horticulture in the Netherlands

As earlier stated this activity is very pronounced in the Netherlands. The principle
areas of this activity include, the Hook of Holland, South of The Hague, South of
Rotterdam, South of Amsterdam (west land), along the Meuse and Betuwe.

Crops grown include flowers such as roses, carnations, and lilac, vegetables such
as such as tomatoes, lettuce, leeks, celery, cucumber, carrots cauliflower and
endives while the fruits include grapes, peaches, plums apples and pears.

Factors favoring horticulture in Netherlands

Physical factors,

1. Favorable climatic conditions characterized with cool summers, and mild

winters which favour the growth and ripening of crops.

2. Precipitation is above 750 mm per annum and is well distributed thought the
year which is adequate for the growth of flowers, fruits and vegetables.

3. Presence of well drained fertile soils such as the alluvial clay, silt and peat
for the growth of crops.
 4. Presence of reliable water resources for irrigation purposes from rivers such
as Meuse, Waal and Nederrijn.

5. The landscape is predominantly flat thus making cultivation and

mechanization easy.

6. The Netherlands is strategically located in Europe near other rich European

nations such as Belgium, Germany and France which offer a large market
for the crops grown.

Human factors,

7. High levels of technology is employed for example glass houses where both
moisture and temperatures are controlled thus high yield productivity. About
half of the total land area in under glass-houses in Europe is in Netherlands.

8. Large demand for horticultural products not only in Netherlands but also in
the other European countries such as Britain, Germany, France, Switzerland,
Belgium and Luxembourg. The Europeans have a high standard of living
which allows them to purchase expensive food stuffs and flowers for
example are used for decoration in houses, offices and hospitals, and for
celebrating important occasions.

9. Well-developed transport routes by road, railway and air, which enable the
produce to reach the market while still fresh. For example large quantities of
flowers cut in the morning are exported via Schiphol Airport and sold the
same day in the large European towns. There are also many good waterways
like the Rhine and several canals.

10.Availability of adequate capital to purchase machinery, fertilizers,

refrigerators and improved crop varieties as well as setting up green houses.

11.Formation of co-operatives from which farmers benefit from the ownership

and control of production facilities as well as accessing loans, collective
marketing of their produce.

12.Presence of a skilled labour force to work in the horticultural Industry.

 13.Favorable government policies, which include research, teaching and advice
to the famers. Through research, high yielding crop varieties are obtained.

14.Constant application of fertilisers and manures which enrich the soils.

Factory farming
In addition to market gardening and horticulture, a modern development in the
industrial regions of Western Europe and North America is factory farming.
Livestock and poultry are raised entirely under cover. They are confined to stalls of
pens, fed on balanced manufactured food stuffs and carefully supervised so that
they are protected from diseases so as to realise high out puts.

Factory farming requires an enormous Capital outlay to provide buildings,

automatic devices for measuring and distributing feedstuffs and large expenditure
on drugs to keep the animals healthy in artificial conditions and on heating and
lighting. On the other hand it requires less land, less labour and gives good returns
as there is assured market.

It enables farmers to produce Standardized animal products which meet the

demands of a large proportion of shoppers.

IRRIGATION FARMING
This is an agricultural practice involving the artificial provisions of water for plant
growth either permanently or temporary. lt is carried out under the following
situations where natural precipitation is insufficient to meet plants moisture
requirements where precipitation is abundant its seasonality is improper to support
proper cultivation of crops and where flooding is common.

So irrigation is adopted to put the would be flooded areas to agricultural use.

Types of irrigation

1. Lifting devices,
Water may be simply lifted from a well, river or canal by a bucket to the fields.
Such devices as the shadoof, the Archimedean screw and various hinds of water
wheel or treadmill have been in use for thousands of years. In modern times diesel,
steam or electrically operated pumps can be used.

They are especially useful where water is obtained from a deep well rather than
from canals.

2. Basin irrigation,

This method has been practiced by Egypt for many centuries but is of less
importance today. When the Nile rises in summer, part of the floor water is
allowed to flood basin- like fields on either side of the river. Squires control the
water. Basin irrigation using canal-water rather than river water is also used to
grow Padi in the U.S.A.

3. Tanks,
Tanks are small reservoirs used for storing water, which falls in the
rainy season. They are common in India and Sri Lanka. The water
stored is rarely sufficient for use all the year round but does lengthen
the growing season.

4. Canal irrigation
Canals, which lead irrigation water from rivers or storage lakes, are
the most important feature of irrigated lands. Inundation canals lead
off water from a river in time of flood. These are simple but do not
provide water all the year round.

Perennial canals are fed by water stored behind a large dam or

barrage and can thus be supplied all the year round. Storage barrage
feeds canals not only below the led dam but also above because, by
raising the level of the river behind the dam, water can be led into
higher-level canals.
5. Overhead irrigation
This is a modern system and is now practiced in many parts of the
world. Sprays and sprinklers are set up in the fields and supplied
with water by hoses from public water supplies. The initial cost of
the equipment is high and water must be continually pumped. The
method is however a common one in the U.S.A, Britain and Europe.

Case studies of irrigation projects

1. Irrigation farming in Sudan

Nowhere in Africa have the advantages of irrigation projects been

better shown than along the Nile River. Among the major irrigation
projects in the Sudan is the Gezira. The Gezira irrigation scheme,
together with its western Managil extension, lies in the huge wedge
of land between the Blue and White Nile.

Rainfall in the region varies from 460mm a year at Sennar to

160mm at Khartoum. This region was once the home of people who
cultivated poor cereals during the rainy season and if the rains failed
they suffered extreme famine. Before the introduction of irrigation
farming the Gezira area had a number of constraints which include;
seasonal flooding resulting from changes in the volume of the water
of Blue and White Nile during the rainy season, limited agricultural
land due to low and unreliable rainfall, constant food shortages and
famine due to crop failures, cultivation of crops was purely for
subsistence.

Traditional staple crops such as millet were grown and semi-pastoral

people used the scanty rainfall of the area to rear livestock.

The Gezira scheme was first proposed in 1904. Work began on the
construction of the Sennar dam in 1913 and was completed in 1925.
The dam serves partly as a strong dam holding back water for use
after level of the main canal.
The construction of irrigation canals was done easily on the flat
plains. From the main canal water is passed into branch canals and
later to individual fields. Cotton is the main crop grown in the
Gezira and its Managil extension.

Other crops grown include; ground nuts, maize, dura, lubia (a bean
for both food and cattle fodder), millet and sorghum.

SKETCH MAP SHOWING MAJOR IRRIGATION

PROJECTS IN SUDAN

Other important irrigation schemes include the Kenana Sugar

Scheme, which derives its water from the White Nile. Another
 scheme, Rahad is found along River Rahad. It produces cotton,
groundnuts as cash crops and dura, maize and vegetables as food
crops.

The Gash Delta scheme is situated near the town of Kasala to the
east of Khartoum and the Gash River waters it. The Khash el Girba
Scheme derives its water from the Atbara River. Wheat, groundnuts,
cotton and sugar canes are the main crops grown.

The Tokar Delta scheme is situated on the Red Sea coast to the south
of Suaki and cotton is the main crop grown.

In addition to the above, there are a considerable number of both

government and privately owned irrigation schemes especially along
the Blue and White Niles.

Factors which have favoured the setting up of large irrigation

schemes in Sudan

Physical factors

 Most of Sudan is arid land with rainfall being less than 500mm per
annum. The cultivation crops is therefore very difficult with this
little amount of rainfall. It is only through irrigation that meaningful
cultivation can take place.

 Sudan is blessed with rivers with a reliable water supply, which act
as a source of water for irrigation purposes. The Blue and White
Nile are the most important. Other rivers include; Gash, Baraka,
Atbara, Rahad and others.

 Many areas have fertile alluvial soils deposited in times of river

flooding. For example the area between the Blue and White Nile has
fertile soils deposited in time of flooding suitable for the growth of
various crops.

 A further advantage is that the clay content of the soils is quite high
and so when the canals are filled with water they become impervious
and need no water proof lining.
 Presence of extensive land to set up large irrigation schemes. Semi-
pastoral people for example sparsely inhabited the Gezira region
together with its Managil extension.

 Most of Sudan has a monotonous relatively flat landscape. Canal

construction on such landscapes is fairly easy. Irrigation is done
using gravity flow with only a minimum of pumping being
necessary during the low water season. The landscape at the Gezira
scheme for example is gently sloping northwards, which allows
irrigation by natural gravity. This reduced the costs of irrigation.

 The climate, given the irrigation, was ideal for cotton, which was
intended to be the main cash crop grown.

 Most of Sudan is arid. Because of the area's aridity, there was no

expensive clearing of bush or forests. Also the climate results into a
low incidence of pests and diseases such as the ball weevils.

 Most of the land is above the water table and therefore water logging
never occurs.

Human factors

 The population of Sudan increases from year to year. There was

therefore a desire to increase food production to cater for the
increasing population.

 Large-scale irrigation farming has been possible due to the long

experience gained by Sudanese people e.g. from the use of shadoofs,
flash floods to use of canal irrigation.

 There was need to diversify the agricultural sector from growing a

few cereals to a wide range to include cotton, sugar canes,
vegetables and dairy farming. There was need to produce local raw
materials to feed the local industries e.g. cotton for the textile
industries and sugar canes for the sugar industries.
  Presence of ready market for the crops produced both locally and
abroad e.g. cotton is exported to United Kingdom, Japan, Italy,
Germany and India.

 Availability of sufficient capital to set large irrigation schemes from

the Sudanese government and friendly countries especially from the
Arab World and Britain. The capital enabled construction of dams
such as Sennar and Roseires, construction of canals, purchase of
farm machinery and others.

 There was need to generate employment opportunities for the local

people.

 Presence of cheap labour provided by the Sudanese nationals to

work on the irrigation schemes

Benefits of irrigation farming in Sudan

- The area under cultivation was increased. The total area now irrigated and
farmed by the Crezira scheme and its Managil extension amount to about
850,000 hectares. Other areas under cultivation include; the Rahad with
120,000 hectares, Kenana with 30,000 hectares and Damazin with 200,000
hectares.

- Production of food crops has increased and in turn the nutritional levels of the
people. The food - crops grown include dura, sorghum, millet, wheat,
groundnuts, vegetables and lubia. These crops are used to feed the growing
population and this saves valuable foreign exchange, which would otherwise
have been used to import foodstuffs.

- There has been the introduction of cash crops. Cotton is the main cash crop
grown. The development of the Gezira as a major cotton growing area was
made possible by irrigation Other major cash crops grown include sugar canes
at Kenana and cotton and groundnuits at Rahad.

- Increased foreign exchange earnings for transaction of international trade. The

Gezira is the main cotton growing area in Sudan. Cotton accounts for nearly 50
 percent of Sudan's foreign exchange earnings. Cotton is exported via Port
Sudan to Germany, Italy, Japan, China and India.

- The farmer's incomes have been increased which has improved their standard of
living. The Gezira tenants are some of richest of Africa's peasant farmers. The
increased income has helped to improve the standard of living of the farmers.
The profits earned are used to purchase radios, sewing machines, bicycles, and
cars as well as obtaining better education and medical facilities.

- Farmers have leant better methods of crop cultivation e.g. use of improved seed
varieties, application of fertilizers, machinery use and soil conservation
methods. The rotational system of year-by-year of cotton-fallow millet, or
sorghum-fallow-beans-fallow-cotton-fallow and this helps to maintain soil
fertility.

- The irrigation schemes have stimulated the growth of agro-based industries.

The guaranteed cotton production has stimulated the development of ginneries
at Hassa Heisa, Manangan and Barakat in the Gezira scheme and textile
industries at Khartoum, Hassa Heisa Wad Medani and in many other localities.
Other industries developed include the fertilizer, sugar, dairy and those
producing farm machinery. These industries provide employment and income
to the people. The number of tenant farmers on the irrigated schemes has
increased e.g. the Gezira scheme with its Managil extension has over 85,000
people. This has made it easily for government to provide social services such
as water, schools, health centers, roads and training farms, sporting and leisure
centers other faculties. Roads and light railways have been developed to
transport produce to the main collecting centers. The cotton produced is also
exported via Port Sudan by rail from Khartoum.

- The Gezira scheme has been used as a model to develop other irrigation
schemes in Sudan. These include the Rahad project, the Damazin irrigation
scheme and the Kenana Sugar plantation. In these new schemes, the
government avoided the faults observed over the years in the Gezira - Managil
areas.

- The schemes have generated employment opportunities to many people either

directly or indirectly. These include field advisors and inspectors, causal
 labourers, drivers, mechanics, managers and others. Each year for example over
one million landless labourers and their families are employed for about four
months to help with cotton and other harvests.

- Flooding especially by the Nile River has been controlled by the construction of
the Sennar dam. This has reduced incidents of loss of lives and property as well
as easy spread of diseases associated with flooding.

- Apart from cultivating crops, forests have been planted mainly the eucalyptus
trees to provide building materials and fuel, and dairy farms have been
established based on lubia.

- The irrigation schemes act as tourist attractions hence earning Sudan valuable
foreign exchange.

- Over dependence on natural climatic conditions, which are uncertain, has been
greatly reduced. Rain failure no longer means no cultivation since water is
available for irrigation.

- Urban centers with associated infrastructure such as housing units, good roads
and others have developed in the regions based on handing and processing
produce. They include Kosti, Hassa Heisa, Wad Medani, Barakat, Marangan
and others.

- The schemes have increased government revenue for the development of

infrastructure like roads, schools and health centers through taxing the tenants
on the schemes and the agro-ban industries established to process the crops
grown.

- Irrigation farming has promoted international co-operation between Sudan and

other countries such as those importing the crops grown like China, Saudi
Arabia and Japan as well as the involved in the construction of dams like
Senner ad Jebel Aulia.

- Irrigation farming has contributed in transforming wastelands and marginal

lands in productive land.
- The irrigation schemes have contributed to the diversification of the Sudan
economy through the promotion of arable farming, livestock rearing, agro-
based industries, forestry, energy production and tourism.

- Permanent settlement have been encouraged as opposed to the former semi-

nomadic pastor way of life. The permanent settlements have encouraged the
development of infrastructure such as housing units, roads, schools and
entertainment centers.

Short comings of irrigation farming in Sudan

 The development of irrigation has led to the easy spread of

diseases such as bilharzia. The snail, which carries bilharzia, is
not able to survive in the fast flowing Blue Nile but the irrigation
canals provide an ideal habitat for it e.g. on the Gezira scheme.

 The schemes are engaged in the production of agricultural

products e.g. cotton, wheat, sugar canes and other products
whose prices fluctuate on the world market. This affects the
income of both the farmers and government.

 Siltation of the irrigation canals and man-made lakes as irrigation

water deposits its suspension material in them is yet another
problem. Regular costly dredging is thus needed.

 Cotton is the main crop grown on the Gezira scheme and sugar
canes on the Kenana scheme. This monoculture results in soil
exhaustion and reduced land productivity and crop yields.

 Pollution of water especially of the Blue and White Niles, as well

as the soils from the fertilizers and other chemicals used.

 Increased soil salinity due to high rates of evaporation. This

reduces the productivity of land for agricultural purposes.

 Waterweeds are a serious problem. With Sudan's hot climate, the

weeds rapidly grows. The rhizome like weed called Seid, which
 competes with crops for the soil's nutrients and also chokes the
irrigation canals.

 The schemes such as Gezira are too large for the farmers to work
efficiently which results in reduced production. The irrigation
schemes being large are also expensive to manage in terms of
supplying farmers with inputs, irrigation water and other needs.

 Displacement of people from the irrigated land necessitated the

formation of resettlement schemes.

2. Irrigation farming in Egypt

Egypt is a country located in the Sahara desert where rain seldom
falls. The only way of cultivating crops to support the population is
by irrigating the land.

The Aswan High Dam in southern Egypt was constructed to hold

back water in Lake Nasser for irrigation.

Cotton, cereal grains, vegetables and fruits.

 SKETCH MAP OF EGYPT SHOWING IRRIGATED LAND

Factors which have led to irrigation farming in Egypt

 More than three quarters of Egypt is arid receiving less than 250 mm of rainfall
per annum. Arable farming is therefore only possible under irrigation hence the
development of irrigation scheme.

 Egypt is over populated in relation to the available agricultural land. Ways and
means had to be devised in order to create more land for producing food crops.
This was done through setting up irrigation schemes.
 Egypt is crossed with one of the largest permanent rivers in Africa the Nile. The
waters of Nile are held back by the Aswan High dam, creating a huge lake
extending southwards distance of 502 kilometers. This lake called Nasser,
stores and provides a reliable supply of large quantities of water for irrigation.

 Apart from the Nile River, Egypt has large oases regions in the western part of
the country such as Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla and lagoons especially in the Nile
delta, which also provide reliable supply of water for irrigation.

 The Nile River runs through a valley flood plain with sharply defined edges,
which flood every year. This flooding has resulted in the deposition of fertile
alluvium soils, which makes it possible for continuous heavy cropping of the
land under irrigation.

 Availability of sufficient capital to set up the irrigation projects e.g. the

construction of canals and dams. The Aswan dam on the Nile was constructed
with technical and financial assisting of the then Soviet Union.

 The nature of the landscape is such that it is gently sloping and this facilitated
irrigation by natural gravity. This makes irrigation costs to be lower.

 Presence of large tracts of land with a low population hence availing large land
areas for irrigation.

 Irrigation was developed so as the country can be more or less self-sufficient in

food production.

 The population growth was at an alarming rate and in there was need to
increase food production.

 Presence of ready market for the crops grown because of the large population of
over 80 million people.

 The need to provide raw materials for the agro-based industries e.g. cotton for
the text industries.

 The Nile valley is below the level of the surrounding land and this makes it
possible to be much more land under cultivation no matter what method is used.
 There was need to provide employment to the local and ever increasing
population.

Benefits of irrigation farming in Egypt

- Over one million hectares of land which was originally wasteland has been
reclaimed and now farmed.

- As a result of the above, Egypt has been able to grow large

quantities of both food and cash crops such as rice, wheat, maize,
cotton, vegetables and fruits such as mangoes, oranges and lemons.
Food is provided to the population and this saves the government
valuable foreign exchange, which would have been used for food
imports.

- Some cash crops are exported and this earns the country foreign
exchange for international trade. Cotton is the most important crop
exported to countries such as United Kingdom, Italy, Germany and
the U.S.A.

- The crops provide raw materials for agro-based industries. The

textile industry is very large and wide spread in centers such as
Helwan, Giza, El Mahalla el Kubra and Kafr el Dauwar. Other
industries deal in maize milling, rice and wheat processing and
canning of fruits. These industries provide employment
opportunities to the people.

- Irrigation farming has provided ready market for industrial goods

especially those producing fertilizers such as Aswan fertilizer
factory, chemicals in the Nile Delta, cement at Maasara and those
producing agricultural machinery at Cairo, Alexandria and Port
Said.

- Employment opportunities have been generated for many Egyptians

in farming as labour intensive techniques are used, digging of
irrigation and drainage channels, transportation of and processing of
produce thus providing them with a source of livelihood. Incomes
earned from farming have raised the peoples standard of living
 evidenced by better feeding, clothing, shelter, health facilities and
others.

- The farmers have acquired modern skills of farming due to the

training from agricultural officers and supervisors.

- Irrigation farming has led to the development of infrastructure such

as the first Aswan dam, roads, health centers and social centers for
farmers on the irrigation farms.

- The irrigation schemes act as a tourist attraction and this earns the
Egyptian government foreign exchange for international trade.

- Many Egyptians now live a more settled life compared to the past.
The permanent settlements have encouraged the development of
infrastructure such as housing units, roads, schools and
entertainment centers.

- The schemes have enabled the provision of a reliable supply of

water from Lake Nasser for both domestic and industrial purposes.

- Research centers have been set up to develop high yielding crop

varieties and better methods of cultivation.

- The schemes are a source of government revenue through taxing of

the farmer's incomes, agro-based industries and other related
activities. This income is used in the development of infrastructure
such as roads, railways, education and heath institutions.

- The irrigation schemes have contributed to the diversification of the

Egyptian economy through the promotion of arable farming, agro-
based industries, energy production and tourism.

- Irrigation has encouraged the growth of urban centers such as

Helwan, Giza, El Mahall. Kubra and Kafr el Dauwar dealing in the
processing and marketing of agricultural product.
 - The export of crops grown under irrigation has promoted bilateral
co-operation between Egypt and the importing countries e.g. fruits
and vegetables exported to Italy, Germany and France.

Like in the Sudan, irrigation farming is associated with some problems. These
problems are similar and need not to be repeated here.

Irrigation farming in Senegal

River Senegal forms a boundary between Mauritania and Senegal. These countries
are in West Africa bordering the Atlantic coast. Annual rainfall is about 400 mm
but often less. However most of the northern parts are in a desert. Because of this
there was need to set up irrigation schemes in order to produce crops.

The most notable irrigation schemes include the Richard Toll Scheme, and the
Delta scheme among others.

Crops grown include sweet potatoes, cucurbits, maize, tomatoes sorghum, millet,
rice, sugar canes and beans.

Objectives of setting up the scheme

1. Opening up more land for both settlement and farming.

2. To provide water for irrigation all the year round.

3. To modernize the economy from pastoral nomadism to settled agriculture.

4. To diversify the agricultural sector by not only growing groundnuts but also
other crops such as sugar canes, beans rice, sweet potatoes and millet.

5. Control of floods from the Senegal River.

6. To encourage the economic development of Senegal.

Factors that have favoured the setting up of irrigation schemes along River
Senegal

Physical factors

- Senegal is located in an arid region experiencing low and unreliable

rainfall, which is less than 400 mm per annum. The dry season is
long lasting for about seven months. There was therefore need to set
up irrigation schemes to produce crops.

- Presence of a steady supply of water for irrigation from river

Senegal with its many tributaries such as Dove, Taoue and others.

- Presence of fertile alluvium and silt soils brought down during

annual flooding of Senegal River for growing a wide range of crops
year after year.
 - Presence of extensive land to set up large irrigation schemes. For
example there are over five thousand hectares of flat land inside the
confluence of the Senegal and Taoue rivers while the Delta scheme
has over 11,000 hectares of flat land.

- The land is relatively flat makes irrigation easy and cheap by gravity
action.

- The land is relatively flat which enabled large scale mechanization

on the irrigated farms.

Human factors

- Irrigation schemes were also set up to achieve self-sufficiency in

food production. This would reduce food imports and save
government's valuable foreign exchange.

- The low population in the area availed extensive areas for the
establishment of irrigation schemes.

- Availability of large sums of capital from the government of Senegal

for building dams, canals, diesel engines pumping systems and
others.

- Presence of cheap labour provided by the nationals to work on the

irrigation schemes.

- Presence of a large market for the crops grown both at home and
abroad.

- Favourable government policies such as provision of irrigation

facilities such as dams, canals, as well as land.

- The desire to diversify the growing of crops. Senegal was largely

dependent on ground nuts. With the development of irrigation, many
other crops could be grown.

- The need for crop production throughout the year so as to increase

output.
 - The need to provide employment opportunities to the local people.

The benefits and short comings of setting up irrigation projects along the
Senegal River are Similar to other irrigation projects already discussed.

TENNESSEE VALLEY SCHEME

The Tennessee Valley Project is situated on the Tennessee valley in the United
States of America.

This region is situated in the Tennessee River Valley in the United States of
America. The region comprises of the Tennessee and parts of Alabama, Virginia,
Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina and Mississippi, and has a population of more
than 7 million people.

LOCATION OF TENNESSEE VALLEY SCHEME

The Tennessee valley was originally heavily forested and used to receive high
rainfall above 1000mm per annum which came as sudden heavy pours. The early
settlers who came to this region were agriculturalists and therefore quickly cleared
down the forests area and claimed the swamps for extensive agriculture.

As population grew in number, slopes on the Appalachian Mountains were also

cleared.

By mid 1930s great areas had been devastated and the situation was disastrous.
Thousands of farmers and their families were starving due to low productivity of
the land, unemployment, poverty and remoteness. Something imaginative had to
be done and done quickly. In 1933, a body known as the Tennessee Valley
Scheme was set up to solve the problems.

Factors which necessitated the establishment of the Tennessee Valley

Authority

1. The area had become over populated and the available resources could not
cater for the population.

2. Poor farming methods which led to the removal of the forest cover resulting
into soil erosion and the formation of extensive gullies. There was therefore
need to control deforestation and soil erosion.

3. The extensive soil erosion resulted in loss of soil fertility and ultimately low
crop yields.

4. The low crop yields resulted in high levels of food shortage and famine.

5. Low soil productivity had resulted in low crop yields and wide spread poverty.

6. Silting of the Tennessee River resulted in periodic flooding during rainy

seasons.

7. The areas where remote and poorly served with transport systems. This had
been made worse by silting of the Tennessee River thereby reducing its
effectiveness as a means of transport.

8. Wide spread unemployment. A body was therefore created to contain the

above problems, which was known as Tennessee Valley Authority.
Aims of the Tennessee valley authority (T.V.A)

 To control flooding, this had hitherto aggravated loss of arable land due to
submergence.

 To prevent further soil erosion and therefore save the soil from extensive
damage, and similarly minimize siltation of the Tennessee River and its
tributaries.

 To bring into arable use much of the land affected by soil erosion and restore
agricultural production of such areas.

 To restore and improve on the river Tennessee potential for navigation through
dredging.

 To generate hydro-electric power to meet the domestic and industrial

energy requirements of the Tennessee and Alabama.

 To find ways and means of containing water borne diseases which

had led to a huge loss of lives.

 To contain the unemployment problems and consequently the

poverty situation in the Tennessee by restoring full scale production.

Steps taken to remedy the said problems

- Use of brush woods: There were placed in gullies to trap the loose soil particles
which the running rain water could carry along. By so doing, potholes and
gullies were quickly filled and adverse soil erosion checked.

- Planting of cover crops: Crops that could grow even on thin soils and cover
them were planted throughout the Tennessee valley.

- Leguminous crops were planted throughout the Tennessee valley because they
were discovered to add fertility to the soil because of the nitrogen fixing
bacteria contained in their root nodules.

- Mixed cropping: Crops such as sugar beet which offered little protection to the
soil again erosion were inter planted with other plant species that had a strong
root system and could protect the soil against erosion.
- Mountain slopes were all re-afforested to minimize soil erosion. Temperate
woods were specifically planted on all mountain slopes.

- Construction of dams and locks: To regulate the flow of rivers, a number of

dams and locks were built not only to control the river flooding but also
facilitate up stream movement of ships and other water vessels.

- Contour ploughing: Steep slopes of the lower Appalachians were cultivated

using contour ploughing in order to minimise incidents of soil erosion
associated with down slopes cultivation.

- Terracing: A series of manmade flat steps were constructed on the lower

slopes of the Appalachian Mountains which enabled cultivation to be done
with minimal soil erosion because a bond grass held the loose soil particles
together.

- Water management index: To control the flow of R. Tennessee and its

tributaries and to be able to predict possible occurrence of floods, towers were
built along the course of the river to enable constant monitoring of the water to
be done. A water management index was set to determine the level and quality
of riverine water.

- Use of soil additives: Soil additives such as fertilizers were applied

into the soils to help them regain their 'fertility and productivity.

- There was cultivation of many different crops at the same time but
whose gestation periods were different such that constantly the soils
had crop cover to protect them against agents of soil erosion.

Successes of the scheme

1. A lot of hydro-electric power is locally generated to meet industrial and

domestic power requirements. More than 80% of the rural countryside and all
urban centers are now served with power from the scheme.

2. Navigability of river Tennessee has been improved through dredging of

initially silted river valleys.
3. Giant irrigation schemes in the area sprung up growing numerous crops such
as sugar beet, citrus fruits, horticultural crops and flowers.

4. The river Tennessee together with its dams and locks are tremendous tourist
sites and this has led to the growth of tourist industry.

5. The T.V.A has controlled the phenomenon of flooding because the numerous
dams and locks regulate the flow of the river and its tributary streams.

6. The re-afforestation programs have led to the development of vast planted

forests, which are a basis of the local furniture marts industry.

7. The material standards of living of the locals were uplifted because Tennessee
State became accessible, productive and therefore served with socio-economic
amenities which improved their standards of living.

8. A string of industrial complexes have sprung up such as those processing

agricultural raw materials or iron and steel industries producing farm
implements and machinery.

9. Modern techniques of managing the land were adopted to substitute the

traditional ways of cultivating. There is for instance use of soil additives like
fertilizers or there is contour ploughing, terracing etc which have improved and
maintained the productivity and fertility of the soils.

Irrigation farming in California in U.S.A

California offers a good example where large irrigation schemes have been set
up. The main crop grown on irrigation is cotton in the New Cotton Belt. Other
important crops include fruits such as lemons, grapes, oranges, tomatoes, carrots,
onions and cabbage and cereals such as rice. These are mainly grown in the
central valley of California.
Irrigated landscape in California

Factors that have favoured irrigation farming in California

Physical factors

- The region experiences low and unreliable rainfall and cultivation of crops is
only possible under irrigation.

- Presence of a reliable water supply for irrigation from rivers such as

Sacramental and Joaquim.
- The gentle sloping landscape which made irrigation easy by gravity flow and
less costly.

- The dry climate is an advantage to the rapid growth, maturity and harvesting of
the crops.

- The dry climate discourages the growth of pests and diseases which attack the
crops grown.

- The gently sloping landscape allows extensive mechanization of the farms.

- Presence of well drained fertile alluvial soils deposited from the highlands into
the valley where cotton is grown. The soils are light hence easy to cultivate.

- Vast land area, which has enabled the setting up of very large farms.

Human factors

- High levels of technology used in the construction of dams, canals and

aqueducts.

- Availability of large sums of capital to set up irrigation projects and

associated infrastructure such as dams, canals and aqueducts.

- Presence of large market for the crops grown not only in California
but also in other states of U.S.A.

- High level of skills in irrigation farming which resulted in high

output.

- Presence of vast processing industries to take up produce from the

farmers.

- The desire for California to increase food production due to the ever-
increasing population in U.S.A.

- Well-developed transport routes by roads, canals and railways for

marketing the crops grown.
Irrigation farming China in China

Irrigation farming is mainly carried out on communes. Important areas include

Hwong Ho Basin, the Yangtse Kiang Basin and the area around Kai-Hsien-Kung.
Rice and wheat are the main crops grown.

The factors favoring irrigation farming include; the presence of lowlands and
water for irrigation, fertile soils, land amalgamation and improved technology.
The contribution of irrigation farming and its short comings are similar to those
facing many other irrigation schemes like the Gezira in Sudan and therefore
not discussed here.

CHANGES IN FARMING ORGANISATION

CO-OPERATIVE FARMING

This is a system of farming where the farmers with small and

medium sized farms, and with similar interests, pull their resources
together to realize increased production and greater benefits through
collective marketing of produce, purchasing of production and farm
supplies, and provision of credit.

Co-operative farming is mainly practiced in developed countries

although the principles of cooperatives are being employed all over
the world.

Characteristic features of co-operative farming

- There is collective ownership of resources.

- Labour is provided by the co-operators.
- Co-operatives are officially registered and governed by laws and regulations.
- There is quality control of the products.
- Farms are either scattered or consolidated into one piece of land.
- Technical advice and services are provided by the extension staff or workers.
- Marketing is done collectively.
- The cooperatives elect officers from among their members and these people,
being farmers themselves understand the difficulties of the farmers. There is
therefore efficient management.
- Research is undertaken to improve quality and quantity output and
consequently the member.
- Credit facilities are easily available to the members from the collected funds.
- Profits and losses are shared among the farmers.
- Transport, marketing and other costs are reduced as they are shared among the
members.
- Most co-operatives provide processing facilities for the produce or crops
grown.
- Land ownership may be collective, individual or public.

Advantages of co-operative farming

1. Co-operatives can buy seeds, fertilizers, feedstuffs, tools and equipment in bulk
and can therefore buy at cheaper rates than an individual farmer who only
requires relatively small quantities of any item. This saves the farmers money
by reducing their production costs.
2. Co-operatives set certain standards for their agricultural products. This
guarantees high quality products.
3. By pooling resources such as capital and labour together, productivity is
increased.
4. By collection, grading and storing the produce of a number of farmers, co-
operatives are able to sell in bulk and can dispose off their products at the most
obtain more favourable times of trade than individuals.
5. Co-operatives set up processing industries for the agricultural products
produced e.g. creameries, ginneries, fertilizers, factories and others. They
therefore stimulate indutrialisation and urbanization.
6. Co-operatives engage in agricultural research and farmers are entitled to advice
from experts, marketing officers or veterinary surgeons on problems in their
farms. They are thus able to acquire new skills that improve efficiency and the
quality of the products. This also saves governments expenditure on training
 farmers.
7 Co-operatives can provide loans to farmers on easy terms when they need to
purchase land, equipment, improved livestock breeds and other items. This
is because there is more capital Mobilization and accumulation which leads
to the growth and development of other sectors as well e.g. industry.
8 Cooperatives engaged in the production of foodstuffs, encourage self-
sufficiency in. food production and this saves the country's valuable foreign
exchange, which would otherwise have been spent on food imports.
9 Cooperatives lead to increased foreign exchange earnings through increased
exports.
10 Through co-operatives, farmer's incomes are increased. The farmers also
receive income in the form of dividends or bonuses from the co-operatives
societies.
11 The increased income derived from co-operatives farming result into
improved standards of living in the world mainly because of the well-
developed co-operative movement.
12 Co-operative farming leads to the generation of employment opportunities in
marketing, processing, research and other sectors.
13 Co-operative farming leads to the development of social services such as
health centers, schools, roads and railways etc.
14 In co-operative farming there is full mobilization of resources such as capital
and labour, which are necessary for economic growth and development.

Disadvantages of co-operative farming

- In many developing countries, farmers lack confidence in their elected or

salaried executives. This is because many co-operatives are dominated by
nepotism, embezzlement, and corruption, which hinder the smooth
management of the societies.

- Some co-operative farmers are unable to compete effectively with the more
dynamic businessmen engaged in the marketing and processing of produce.
They can therefore easily be out competed.

- Co-operatives engaged in the production of agricultural products whose

prices are unstable. This results in the fluctuation of the farmer's incomes
and may hinder proper planning.
 - Production sometimes depends on natural factors. In case of drought,
delayed rainfall, pests and diseases, output is seriously affected. Output is
therefore not guaranteed.

- Political instabilities as is the case in many developing countries, easily

affect the smooth running of the co-operatives.

- In developing countries, processing plants set up by co-operatives often

breakdown. A delay in acquiring the necessary spare parts hinders the
smooth running of the co-operatives as well as mass production.

- Co-operatives may hinder personal initiatives. The group may discourage

hard working and enterprising members.

- Because of the high costs in the construction and maintenance of transport

system, few roads tend to be constructed.

- In many developing countries, there are few co-operatives and this results in
the generation of few job opportunities.

Therefore how far co-operative farmers can succeed depends on a number of

factors including the efficiency of the farmers or their paid executives, their ability
to compete with long established traders and the actual co-operation of the farmers
themselves.

In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is
a co-operative member and many countries have sent their experts to study the
Danish Co-operative Movement.

Co-operative farming in Denmark

Denmark is a traditionally agricultural country and may be described as "a land of

co-operatives”. There are about 10,000 co-operative societies in the country. The
Danish co-operatives began in 1866 and today more than half of the nation's
populations are members of co-operatives.
The principle agricultural activities are dairy and pig farming. Fodder crops are
grown to provide animal food stuffs e.g. potatoes for pigs, root crops especially
sugar beet, which provides sugar, cattle cake and mixed grain.

Cooperative associations dominate the production of dairy and pork products.

Much of the nation’s agricultural produce is sold through marketing cooperatives.
Most cooperatives are organized in national associations, which are members of
the Danish Agricultural Council, the central agency for the cooperatives in
dealings with the government and industry and in foreign trade.

Contributions of co-operative farming to the Danish economy

- Production of food products such as milk, beef, bacon, butter and cheese for
the urban population in the cities of Copenhagen, Sjaelland, Arhus, Odense
and Fyn.

- High quality products are produced such as butter and bacon. This is due to
the strict rules and regulations and constant inspections by the co-operatives.

- The increased quantity and improved quality of Danish produce has led to
increased incomes for the farmers which has improved the farmer's standard
of living. The Danish farmers enjoy one of the highest standards of living in
the world as they earn a comfortable living on their farms.

- Co-operative faming in Denmark has stimulated industrial growth e.g.

churning and slaughtering had to be industrialized which led to the setting
up of creameries and abattoirs. Today there are over 1000 dairy related
industries and over 100 factories for bacon and other products e.g. meat-
canning and butter making. Other industries produce agricultural machinery
such as tractors, refrigerators and milking machines.

- The many factories for processing agriculture products such as creameries,

bacon and ham curing plants, egg collecting and grading centers and
slaughter houses set-up and run by co-operatives have generated
employment opportunities in the country.

- Many products from the co-operatives such as butter, cheese, bacon, canned
meat and eggs are exported to many countries such as USA, Japan, Canada
 and the European Union countries thus earning the country foreign
exchange. For example 40 percent of the eggs exported are handled and
graded by the Danish Co-operative Egg Export.

- Promotion of international relationships between Denmark and the

importing countries such as USA, Canada and Germany.

- Co-operatives are sources of government revenue through taxing of

industries such as the creameries and bacon factories as well as farmer’s
incomes.

- Co-operatives engage in scientific and technical research such as breeding of

improved livestock breeds and appropriate farm machinery, and farmers are
entitled to advice from the experts and skilled co-operative members. Co-
operatives thus enable farmers acquire new skills necessary for efficient and
increased production.

- By collecting, grading and storing the produce of a number of farmers, the

co-operatives are able to sell in bulk and dispose off their products at the
most favourable time and earn higher profits.

- Co-operatives buy seeds, fertilizers, feedstuffs, tools and farm equipment, as

well as other inputs in bulk and therefore at reduced rates which lowers their
cost of production.

- By marketing their produce, co-operative eliminate the exploitative middle-

business personnel thus reducing exploitation of the farmers as they can
bargain for better rates.

- Co-operative banks formed offer loans to farmers at favourable rates which

has enabled them acquire mechanized and also purchase suitable farm
inputs.

- Co-operative farming has changed Danish farming from a rather

unsuccessful traditional wheat growing economy to a scientifically run and
highly mechanized agricultural system. The Danish famers make the fullest
use of the limited land at their disposal and since scientifically - run, obtain,
 maximum returns. Co-operative farming has therefore been vital in the full
exploitation and utilization of the available land.

- At the end of every year, farmers like other members of the co-operatives
receive income in the form of dividends made by the processing and canning
industries as well as other establishments owned by the co-operative
societies. Some profits made may be ploughed back to expand the co-
operatives.

Other forms of co-operative farming

These include:

1. Communes.

2. Collective farming.

3. Kibbuts.

4. Ujamaa

Communes in China

Before the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, farming was
mostly intensive subsistence. The farms were extremely small and fragmented.
Most of the land belonged to a few rich often absentee landlords whom the farmers
(tenants) had to pay for use of the land. Cultivation was mainly manual or using
oxen and output was low.

After taking power in 1949, the Communist government confiscated the land from
the large land owners and divided it into large units worked on by the peasant
farmers in groups called communes.

They are characterized by; being owned by the government, cover large areas of
land, out-put targets are given as well as types of crops to be grown, workers are
paid according to work done and qualifications, scientific methods are employed
and the government does marketing of produce.

The communes were organized at three levels. At the top was the Central Planning
Committee (the government) which directed all aspects of life and work on the
communes e.g. determining the type of crops grown, establishment of small-scale
processing industries and organizing housing and services such as schools and
health centers. The communes received production targets from the government
and ensured that these targets were met. Government dictated where the products
would be sold and at what price. The second level consisted of an elected people's
council which ensured production targets set by the Central Planning Committee
are met. The third level consisted of the farmers organized in various groups called
brigades of about 3,000 people and finally teams consisting of 100 to 250 people.
Each group could hold land, tools, and other production materials under communal
ownership.

On the communes, arable farming, livestock rearing and fishing were practiced.
Crops grown on the communes, included rice, soya beans, wheat, maize, sorghum
and oats as well as fruits such as oranges, apples, tangerine and pears.

The livestock reared included poultry, pigs, sheep and goats. Fishing was also
practiced.

The major aim of the communes was to improve the quality and quantity of the
agricultural produce.

Communes are therefore strictly organized collective farms. They can be seen in
Manchuria region, Huang Ho Basin, Yangtze Kiang Basin, the Great Plains
Huangho valley and south China.

Factors which favoured the establishment of communes in China

Physical factors;
 1. Presence of large tracts of land for cultivation in areas such as North East
and Manchuria plains. China has more than 10 percent of the world's arable
land.

2. The presence of relatively flat landscape such as in the Central Plains, the
North China Plains (the largest flat lowland area in China) and Yangtze
valley which encourages the use of capital intensive techniques such as
mechanization as well as making irrigation easy.

3. Presence of sufficient water for irrigation purposes from rivers such as

Huang He (Yellow River) in the north, the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) River in
Central China, and the Zhu Jiang (Pearl). River in the south. In summer,
melt snow is carried downstream from the mountains to lakes such as
Dougting Hu and Poyang Hu. These act as natural reservoirs for water.

4. Presence of well drained fertile soils especially the alluvial soils brought
down by rivers in times of flooding e.g. in the Zhu Jiang broad plains. The
Yangtze Valley has a series of basins with fertile alluvial soils. In addition,
fertile soils known as loess derived from accumulation of windblown silt
cover large areas of the Huabei, Pingyuan or North China Plain. The Junggar
Pendi region in Northwest China contains fertile steppe soils and supports
irrigated agriculture.

5. Favourable climatic conditions with hot summer temperatures and heavy

monsoon rains prevail in most parts of Central, South and Southwest China.
The region has a sub-tropical climate with a long growing season and short
winters suitable for the growth of a variety of crops such as wheat, rice, and
other crops.

Human factors

6. The change in the land tenure system which involved the confiscation of
land by the government from the few rich landlords and re-allocating it the
large groups of farmers.

7. The Chinese policy of socialism in which resources are shared in groups e.g.
each commune consists of 100 – 250 people who hold land, tools and other
production materials collectively.
8. Availability of a large and cheap labour force to work on the communes.
China has a labour force of over 500 million people, the largest in the world.

9. Improved transport links especially by road and railway lines. In addition,

the Yangtze region is crisscrossed by various natural and artificial
waterways which are used to link communes with markets and sources of
inputs.

10.Favourable government policy of injecting money in the establishment of

the communes in terms of construction of reservoirs for flood control,
housing, health, educational and other facilities.

11.Political stability of the country which enabled the projects to take-off

without any hindrance of war.

12.Presence of a very large home market for the crops grown and livestock
reared since China has a very big population of over 1.4 billion people.

13.High level research carried out enabled the development and use of high
yielding crop varieties such as of rice and wheat leading to increased output.

14.Development of appropriate technology involving the establishment of

irrigation projects and controlling floods by construction of dykes and dams.

15.Growing of tolerant crops such as cotton in salty environments of the delta

regions.

16.Availability of sufficient capital to construct dams, canals, housing units,

health centers, schools and transport routes on the communes.

17.The team spirit of the Chinese people of working together in harmony,

cohesion and commonality greatly enhanced the establishment of the
communes.

18.The ability to reclaim land from flood plains and wetlands and utilize it for
farming.
Contribution of communes in China

- Improved quality and quantity of agricultural produce. Through this system,

the Chinese have been able to increase agricultural output to feed the lager
population with the crops grown such as rice and wheat.

- The system enabled increase in cultivable land through reclamation of flood

plains such as Szechwan along River Yangtze Kiang in Central China. Two
crops of rice are grown now.

- Any surplus produce from the communes was exported and this earns the
country foreign exchange for international trade e.g. wheat to countries such
as Japan and Korea and tea to Europe and Asia.

- Industrial development was encouraged to process the produce before

marketing. The industries deal in tea and rice processing, textiles, vegetable
oils and food manufacture. This ensured better prices for the produce and
hence higher profits. In addition communes provided ready market for
industrial goods such as machinery, fertilizers, drugs and chemicals used on
the communes.

- The higher prices and profits earned by the farmers helped them to improve
their standard of living as they had a higher disposable income. They could
afford better housing, medical services and other living conditions.

- On commune farms, co-operation and teamwork among farmers was

encouraged. The various types of work carried out which include digging
trenches, planting seedlings, transplanting, weeding, harvesting and looking
after livestock.

- The creation of communes led to the generation of employment

opportunities to the Chinese population especially those who were not
employed. The jobs created were not only on the farms but also in the
industries processing and marketing the produce.

- Communes provided social services to the people such as medical care,

educational services, recreational centers and accommodation facilities.
Other infrastructure developed includes roads, railways, canals and dams.
 - Communes contributed to the growth of urban centers such as Shangai and
Nanjing, as each commune has its own headquarters.

- By bringing various plots of land into large farms (land consolidation),

communes were able to achieve advantages such as use of modern farming
techniques, conservation of the soil and economic use of land.

- Marketing of produce was done in bulk by the communes thus eliminating

the exploitation of individual farmers by the middlemen.

- A lot of emphasis was put on food production e.g. wheat and rice. This
ensured food security for the ever-increasing population of the country.

- Under the commune system, it was possible to conduct large-scale research

and experimentation with scientific farming, to plant crops in areas with the
most favorable soil and other natural conditions, and to develop irrigation
and drainage on an efficient scale. Farmers therefore learnt better methods of
crop cultivation apart from using better crop varieties.

- Being large units, communes provide storage and transportation facilities to

the farmers.

- A committee controlled each commune with a chairman and elected

officials. The people who made up the commune groups are known as
brigades. This chain of authority made it possible for government decisions
to reach lower levels easily.

- Communes have contributed to the diversification of the Chinese economy

by producing crops and livestock products, to add other income generating
sectors such as mining and manufacturing.

Shortcomings of communes

- The compulsory grouping of people into large units limits individual

initiative where famers could not make their own decisions on what to grow,
where and what price to sale the produce. The farmers were not bothered
 with initiatives such as reducing production costs and increasing
productivity.

- Decisions such as what to grow, when to grow, how to grow and where to
grow have been undertaken by Central Planning Committee with so many
people to consult. Necessary reforms therefore tend to be delayed or
hindered.

- Emphasis was put on meeting production targets set by the Central Planning
Committee and as a result, quality and innovation became less important
than they had been in the past.

- State policies often force methods, which have fitted one region. These
policies however would not be suitable for other regions resulting in reduced
output.

- Since more or less same crops are grown over a long period of time the soils
lost their fertility resulting in reduced crop yields.

- Increased output resulted in over production. This led to fluctuation in prices

of the produce and hence the income received. In addition, although there
was a huge increase in grain production in some years, much of it went to
waste because of inadequate transportation and storage facilities.

- The practice of deforestation, land reclamation and the practice of planting

grain even in conditions unsuited to its cultivation did a great deal of
environmental damage. Silting of rivers occurred resulting from run-off
from ill-considered and poorly executed irrigation projects, and the
destruction of trees, grasses, and swamps contributed to catastrophic floods
and soil erosion.

- The system of farming discourages advanced forms of farming since labour

intensive techniques were emphasized.

- Output is sometimes affected by drought during summer months, frost in

winter and sea incursions along coasts.

- The government assigned people to jobs and there was little possibility of
job transfer. The state also controlled wages and prices and owned all
 transportation and housing. Household and personal consumption was
controlled by the government through a system that rationed food, cotton
cloth, and other daily necessities. Consequently, enterprises, families, and
individuals had very limited choice in their economic behavior.

In the early 1980s, in an effort to increase agricultural production, the

government restructured the agricultural sector. The system of communes and
production brigades was largely dismantled, and the household became the
principal unit of agricultural production. Under the so-called household
contracting and responsibility system, each household, after contracting with
local authorities to produce its quota of specified crops, was free to sell any
additional output on the free market.

A major limitation of this system is its difficulty in achieving economies of

scale.

Collective farming
This type of farming is common in communist countries such as in the Russian
republics of Moldovia, Chuvashia, Chechnya, Udmurtia, Bashkortostan, Tatarstan,
Mari El, Nenetsia, Yamalia and Khantia -Mansia.

The collective farming involves the voluntary or compulsory grouping of land into
large units with an aim of increasing and modernizing agricultural production.
These co-operative farms are in a reality state co-operatives run by a managing
committee and headed by a farm manager who is responsible to the government.

Before collective farming was introduced, land was unequally distributed with
landlords having very large pieces of land while the peasant almost had none at all.
Governments seized all farming lands without compensation and redistributed it
benefiting the peasant farmers.

In order to benefit from economies of large-scale production and the use of

machinery, smaller collective farms were gradually consolidated into large units.
Crops cultivation, dairying, livestock ranching, poultry farming and even forestry
are undertaken by collective farming. The collective farms have thus been formed
from pooled resources of peasants including land, livestock and labour.

Farmers are forced to work and may be punished for refusing to work. On
collective farms, farmers are allowed to cultivate their own small garden plots and
keep a few animals to supply the needs of their families.

Main features of collective farming

1. Farms are amalgamated into larger farm units either voluntarily or

compulsorily.

2. Farms are managed communally or by selected committees.

3. Crops grown are specified.

4. The farms are highly mechanized.

5. The marketing of the produce is controlled by the state.

6. Farmers are allowed some limited area for their own crops and livestock.

7. The proceeds from the sale of farm produce are shared among the members.

Advantages of collective farming

 The consolidation of land into large units has benefited the economy as there
has been creation of viable units of land for mechanization and
modernization.

 The consolidation of farms resulted into large-scale production and therefore

increased output.

 Under this system, thousands of hectares of virgin land came under plough
for the first time. Irrigation and drainage schemes have extended farming
into previously unused areas.

 Collective farming has stimulated the growth of industries and urban centers.
Industrial crops such as cotton have led to the setting up of textile industries.
 Farming has also stimulated the development of industries manufacturing
farm machinery agro-chemicals and other equipment.

 The opening up of new lands has greatly encouraged the development

infrastructure such as roads, railways and canals.

 Collective farming has led to the diffusion of new farming techniques

especially to the peasant farmers and this has improved production of both
foods and cash crops.

 There has been easy provision of social services such as hospitals, transport
facilities, water, electricity and others to the communities.

 Farmers receive income in return for the work they do, depending on their
skill, performance, the nature of their work and the hours they work. Their
incomes have increased and so is their standard of living.

 The increase in the agricultural products exported has led to increased

foreign exchange earnings.

 Employment opportunities have been generated for farm managers, tractors

drivers, farmers, agricultural officers and others.

 Collective farming has contributed to the diversification of the countries’

economies.

 Government revenue has increased, as farmers have to pay taxes on their

farm products, hire - charges on machinery and tractors from the state, and
for purchases of seeds, fertilizers and other inputs.

Before the introduction of collective farming, peasants were poor, illiterate and
often did not make the best use of their land. The Russian and other communist
countries hoped that collectivization would increase output of both food crops and
cash crops. However, there have been re-current food shortages and imports have
been necessary. The targets set have not been achieved.

This system of agriculture lags far behind the other countries of Europe and North
America. For example the former Soviet Union countries are little larger in size
than North America and both have nearly the same amount of cropland. But while
Canada and U.S.A consistently produce large agricultural surpluses, the former
USSR countries are not self-sufficient in food requirements.

Why has the socialist system of collective farming not yielded as much food as
should?

The following are some of the major reasons:-

 The farming system did not take into account the peasant's aspirations. The
deprivation of farm ownership reduced the incentive to work. They had little
pride or earnestness to work.

 The system removed competition, which also reduced the peasant's

incentives to work.

 Collective farms are often inefficiently managed by inexperienced cadets

and communist party leaders which resulted in low production and great
losses. The states took the bulk of the harvest at fixed prices far below the
prevailing market prices.

 The wages paid to the farmers are low. Even today, after great
improvements have been made, the collective farmers' standard of living is
far below that of urban and industrial workers.

 The collective farms were formed hurriedly and usually against the wishes
of the peasants. In the early stages when land was confiscated with no
compensation the government met active opposition. The landlords and the
richer peasants put up the greatest resistance. Many were killed or
imprisoned.

These were the most progressive farmers and their loss slowed the rate of
improvement in farming methods on the new farms. Many peasants also killed
their livestock rather than surrender them to the collectives and this naturally
affected output.
  There was great progress in the opening up of new land as a result of
drainage and irrigation projects but physical and human problems were not
fully understood.

 The policy makers and planners to whose plans the farms were supposed to
conform knew too little about farming. Low yields, adverse effects on soils
as a result of clearance of vegetation or irrigation were not considered and
crops fell far below targeted figures were the results.

 Farmers were forced to work on the farms and those who refused to work
were punished. This acted as a disincentive for them to work.

 Production largely depended on nature hence output could not be guaranteed

in case of natural disasters.

KIBBUTZ
This is a form of co-operative farming practiced in Israel. It is slightly different
from that of Russia and other communist countries. Farmers live on the Kibbutz,
work on the land together but receive no formal payment.

All property is collectively owned and work is organized on a collective basis.

Members contribute by working according to their capacity and in return receive
food, clothing, housing, medical services, and other domestic services according to
their needs.

Dining rooms, kitchens, and stores are central, and schools and children's
dormitories are communal. Each village is governed by an elected assembly and by
a vote of the membership. A kibbutz may support itself through agricultural,
entrepreneurial, or industrial means.

The greatest difference with collective farming in say Russia is that farmers join
voluntarily. It is also not the only type of agricultural organization in the country.
Because people are not forced to work those who do are happy to participate and
problems do not arise in the same way as on the collective farms.
UJAMAA SYSTEM IN TANZANIA
This is a form of co-operative farming, which has been practiced in Tanzania for
several years. Here the aim of the government was to revolutionize agriculture and
make the country self-sufficient in foodstuffs by resettling peasants into village
communities called Ujamaa "family hood" villages.

By 1975 the government had succeeded in resetting 3.5 million Tanzanians in

7,500 villages. The aims of the Ujamaa scheme are to increase agricultural
production, organize the efforts of the people more efficiently and make the
provision of public services easier.

In so doing, poverty would be eradicated and Tanzanians would experience a

higher standard of living.

Benefits of the Ujamaa system

- There has been mobilization of labour for projects such as re-afforestation,

dairying, the digging of small-scale irrigation projects, the construction of
new wells and improvement in local roads.

- There has been improvement in the production of both food and cash crops.
For example in Mwenge village in the Lindi region, crops grown include
maize, cassava, soya beans, rice, beans, cotton and tobacco.

- The area under cultivation has increased. The mobilization of labour has led
to the opening up of areas, which would otherwise be still lying idle.

- There is self-sufficiency in food production in some villages e.g. in the

Mwenge settlement.

- The large settlements have made it easier for government to provide social
services such as medical services, primary education and water supply.

- There has been an increase in the government's foreign exchange earnings

through the exportation of crops such as tobacco, cotton, sunflower and
others.
 - Better techniques of production have been acquired by the farmers through
extension services provided by agricultural officers sent by government.

- The system has stimulated the growth of mini-towns in the established

villages.

- The Ujamaa farms supply raw materials to industries thus promoting

industrialization e.g. tobacco for the cigarette making industries. The farms
also stimulate industrial growth by providing market for industrial items
such as fertilizers, insecticides and other inputs.

- There has been generation of employment opportunities.

Shortcomings of Ujamaa system

 The government lacks enough resources to provide facilities such as water

supply, farm machinery, medical services and primary education.

 The system is engaged in the production of agricultural products whose

prices fluctuate on the world market and hence no steady income is received.

 There is official control of what to plant as everything on the schemes is

planned by government agencies. Emphasis in some cases is put on the
production of cash crops such as cotton, tobacco and others while food crops
are neglected until the country has become a food importer. Grain imports
have thus been increasing.

 Output guaranteed because of over reliance on natural weather conditions.

Drought and too much sunshine greatly affect output.

 The manner in which the programs were implemented left a lot to be

desired. Famers were forcefully settled in village communities and became
more or less workers. No wonder some farmers resorted to withdraw of
labour-power as a form of protest. Others who felt they were not being paid
enough for their toil run away from the settlements.

 In some cases farmers' incomes did not improve. The government agencies
supplied the seeds, fertilizers and insecticides while the settlers supply
 labour. At the end of it all, the officials decide what proportion of the turn
over should be paid back to the farmer. The bigger proportion needless to
say, goes to those who supplied the various inputs and administration
services and the farmer ends up the loser. The farmer has no control of the
price of labour he supplies.

 Some of the sites chosen for settlement were unsuitable and output could not
be increased.

 Some villages were managed by inefficient government officials. This

mismanagement ultimately resulted in the collapse of some of them or
declining output.

 Farmers resent the policy of their domination and exploitation.

AGRICULTURAL MODERNISATION
THE GREEN REVOLUTION

Green Revolution is a type of agricultural development program devised to

improve agriculture through the use of modern, western-type of farming techniques
in developing countries. It is a system of farming adopted in many developing
countries in the mid-1960's especially in the Monsoon Asian countries such as
China, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Singapore and Malaysia.

In many of these countries, the rate of population growth exceeded the rate of
increase in agricultural production. In a perfect case of Malthusian economics,
population was growing at a much fast rate than food production. This called for
drastic action to increase yield. The action came in the form of the Green
Revolution which encouraged the use of high-yielding crop varieties, fertilizers,
machinery and irrigation.

The Green Revolution therefore aimed at increasing and diversifying agricultural

production with a view of being self-reliant in food production. Many other
countries such as USA, Canada, Nigeria, Japan and Australia had already adopted
this type of faming system.

Case study of agricultural conditions in India before introduction of the

Green Revolution

1. India faces harsh climatic conditions such as very heavy rains brought about
by the monsoon winds resulting in flooding and destruction of farm lands
e.g. in the Gangetic Plains.

2. Presence of aridity because of the failed monsoon season has resulted in

failure of better crop yields thus using green revolution.

3. In areas such as Deccan plateau, the dry season lasts between six to nine
months thus limiting arable farming .the one season per year practices was
based on the fact that there is only natural monsoon per year.

4. Strong winds known as typhoons occasionally lead to the wide spread

destruction of crops grown.

5. Some parts of India such as the northern peninsula are covered by thin
infertile soils which hinder crop cultivation and growth of pasture for the
livestock.

6. Presence of the Himalaya Mountains in the north and eastern regions of

India as well as some parts of the Indian peninsular which are rugged with
steep slopes and thin soils due to erosion thus limiting agricultural activities.

7. There are several rivers flowing from the highlands to the plains which lead
to flooding during the heavy rains in the mountains e.g the Indus and Ganges
Rivers flowing from the Himalaya Mountains.

8. Several pests and diseases affected the crops as well as wild birds eating up
planted grains.

9. The crop varieties as well as animal breeds used were poor taking long to
mature and easily affected by pests and diseases thus resulting in low crop
and livestock yields.
10.The dense population in some of the regions such as the Ganges basin which
is India's most agricultural productive region had resulted in limited land for
expansion of agricultural activities.

11.Limited capital was available to purchase farm machinery and improved

animal breeds and crop varieties as well as to carry out research to improve
the agricultural sector.

12.High production costs due to high cost of inputs as well as high land rents
resulted into low output.

13.The country further faced many future challenges in producing enough food
to feed its rapidly growing population. Production of food grain barely kept
pace with the rate of population increase. Only food imports helped offset
yearly fluctuations in output.

The Green Revolution and its benefits in India

 There was an introduction of better high yielding crop varieties or hybrids as

well as high yielding cross breeds for animals. During the 10 years of the
Green Revolution in India, more than 70 percent of the wheat crop area, 35
per cent of the rice crop area and 20 percent of the millet and corn crop area
used the high yielding varieties of seeds. This resulted in increased
production of crop and animal products. The high yielding varieties were
mainly wheat and rice, and others such as millet and maize. Varieties such as
'super rice' and Pakistani rice’ increased output by over 40%.

 There was introduction of quick maturing crop and animal breeds which
enabled increased production within a short period of time. For example, the
introduction of fast maturing rice varieties allowed an extra rice crop to be
grown in a year hence increased crop production.
 Weather resistant crop varieties were introduced e.g. drought resistant crop
varieties such as wheat and maize which could survive in periods of low
rainfall, while dwarf plants survive in areas of strong winds and heavy
rainfall.

 The development of disease resistant varieties of cereals minimizes losses of

crops yields in case of diseases.

 Increased use of insecticides and weed killers. The insecticides reduce the
plant pests while the weed killers kill the weeds which would have competed
with the crops for both moisture and soil nutrients.

 The application of fertilizers in areas with low soil fertility resulted in

increased productivity output per unit area.

 High production costs due to high labour costs were minimized as a result of
introduction of machinery in ploughing, harvesting and processing of crops.

 There was introduction of herbicides to control weeds and pesticides for

killing dangerous pests helped in reducing labour costs for weeding, as well
as crop loss due to the effects of pests.

 The introduction of irrigation farming and use of fertilizers brought about

increased acreage of land under agriculture which previously could not be
cultivated due to unreliable rainfall or being arid as well as having infertile
soils.

 Crop areas under high-yield varieties needed more water, more fertilizer,
more pesticides, fungicides, use of machinery and certain other chemicals.
The crops grown such as wheat, rice and cotton also needed processing. This
spurred or encouraged the growth of the local manufacturing and processing
sector. Such industrial growth created new jobs and contributed to the
country's GDP e.g. in Punjab and Haryana states.

 Farmers were provided with credit facilities in order to afford inputs such as
fertilizers, improved seed varieties and animal breeds as well as carrying out
other improvements on their farms.
 Many new land reform policies were introduced such as expropriation or
taking away of large estates and plantations from the owners and distributing
the land to individual farmers, landless communal groups, consolidation of
small, fragmented farms and increasing security of ownership of land by the
farmers. With greater confidence of ownership, farmers were able to invest
in agriculture without any fear of removed from the land which resulted into
increased output.

 Before the, introduction of the Green Revolution, many farmers were short
of food, lacked a balanced diet and had an extremely low standard of living.
The Green Revolution enabled agricultural production has been diversified.
India and China today produce a number of crops, including rice, wheat,
maize, peanuts, potatoes and sweet potatoes, vegetables and melons. This
has improved the diet of the people and their standard of living.

 Development of transport routes particularly roads and railway lines was

done for easy marketing the produce from the farms as well as acquisition of
farm inputs.

 The Green Revolution resulted in a record increase in grain output in India.

The country became one of the world’s biggest agricultural producer. No
other country in the world, which attempted the Green Revolution, recorded
such level of success. India thus became an exporter of food grains around
that time which earned her foreign exchange for international trade. India,
Pakistan, and Indonesia export large quantities of rice.

 The increase in irrigation created need for new dams to harness monsoon
water. The water stored was used to create hydroelectric power. This in turn
boosted industrial growth, created jobs and improved the quality of life of
the people in villages.

 The Green Revolution created plenty of jobs not only for agricultural
workers but also industrial workers by the creation of lateral facilities such
as factories and hydro-electric power stations as explained above. This
helped to raise the people's standard of living.
  Farmers acquired skills in modern methods of cultivation and livestock
rearing such as application of fertilizers, chemical, artificial insemination,
and farm management through training.

 Some developed countries especially Canada, which were facing a shortage

in agricultural labour were so impressed by the results of India's Green
Revolution that they asked the Indian government to supply them with
farmers experienced in the methods of the Green Revolution. Many farmers
from Punjab and Haryana states in northern India were thus sent to Canada
where they settled (That's why Canada today has many Punjabi-
speaking citizens of Indian origin). These people remitted part of their
incomes to their relatives in India. This not only helped the relatives but also
added to India's foreign exchange earnings.

 Politically, India transformed itself from a starving nation to an exporter of

food. This earned admiration for Indian the comity of nations or respect
among nations, especially in the third World.

Green Revolution has been a success in major rice producing countries of China,
India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Japan and Thailand. It has also been a success in
wheat producing countries of U.SA, China, Canada, Australia and Turkey. Other
crops grown using this method are maize especially in U.S.A, barley in Russia and
oats in Canada.

Challenges facing green revolution farming world wide

- Over production results into a fall in world market prices. The fall in prices
for the crops in question means that returns from double-cropping or from
using new plant varieties have not raised farm incomes in proportion with
production e.g. wheat production in Canada.

- Over-use of fertilizers and chemicals lead to the pollution of the

environment particularly the soils and water resources. The major rivers and
their tributaries such as Ganges, Indus, Narmada, and Krishna are greatly
reduced the quality of drinking water and quantity of aquatic life.
- Modern farming techniques depend on extensive use of fossil fuels. Fuels
are needed to operate machines for ploughing, planting, and harvesting, to
make fertilizers and pesticides and to build irrigation systems. After harvest,
energy from fossil fuels is used to transport and process food. These fuels
damage the environment, contributing to air, soil, and water pollution, ozone
depletion, global warming and desertification.

- The use of heavy machinery on farms results in soil compaction. The

machinery compresses the soil particles, increasing the density of the soil
and reducing porosity. Crusts form on compacted soils, preventing water
movement into the soil and increasing runoff and erosion.

- The practice of continuous of irrigation in areas with insufficient rainfall has

resulted in salination. This is the accumulation of salt in the upper layers of
the soil which prevents plant growth and reduces land productivity. This is
because nearly all irrigation water, whatever its source, contains some salt.

- Increased mechanization methods of production greatly reduce the demand

of manual labor and this leads to wide spread of unemployment especially
where there is high population.

- While the poorest farmers are unable to take advantage of new technology,
new crop varieties, fertilisers and mechanization, the better off farmers with
more cash are able to use these things and become wealthier. This means the
rich get richer and the poor poorer.

- Although hybrid crops tend to be larger, fast growing and healthier than the
local ones, some are not tasty or palatable as the native crop which has made
some sections of the society to resent them e.g some types of millet, maize
and rice.

- The increasing costs of irrigation, farm in puts such as fertilizers and

chemicals worldwide are a great challenge to increased use of green
revolution methods of production.

- The land reforms involving the re-distribution of land resulted in landlords

losing their land.
 - Small-scale famers often have to borrow money to purchase improved seed
varieties, fertilizers and machinery so as to improve their farms which
sometimes leaves them with debt problems.

- Many high yielding crop varieties are not suitable for growing in water
logged areas e.g millet, maize and wheat.

- The rapid increase in crop production especially the gains such as rice
brought challenges in the storage of the crop. Areas with poorly developed
storage facilities suffered post-harvest losses.

- Succes5 of the Green Revolution has been limited to areas of assured

irrigation, such as north western India and the deltaic regions. Output has not
significantly improved in dry and semiarid areas, where poverty and
malnourishment remain prevalent. The Green Revolution howsoever
impressive, has thus not succeeded in making India totally and permanently
self-sufficient in food.

- India has failed to extend the concept of high-yield value seeds to all crops
or all regions. In terms of crops, it remains largely confined to food grains
only, not to all kinds of agricultural produce.

DAIRY FARMING
Involves rearing of cattle for the production of milk and milk products such as
cheese, butter, fat and others. Dairy cattle are those breeds that have been
developed primarily to produce milk. It is a highly intensive form of livestock
farming and its best developed in the developed countries of United Kingdom,
Denmark, the Netherlands, U.S.A, Russia, France, Germany, New Zealand and
Switzerland.
In Africa dairy farming is wide spread in the Zambian and Congo copper belts in
North America for example, major breeds include Holstein, Friesian, Ayrshire,
Brown Swiss, Guernsey and Jersey.

Characteristic features of dairy farming

 The objective of dairy farming is to raise cattle to produce milk.

 The animals are raised on a commercial basis.

 Selected cattle breeds which yield a lot of milk are reared e.g. Ayrshire,
Guernsey, Jersey and the Friesian breeds.

 Rich and nutritious grasses are sawn in addition to the natural pastures to
feed the animals.

 Many farms own their processing plants or creameries.

 The farms are scientifically managed and any pests and diseases are
controlled.

 Open grazing is carried out all the year round in the more favorable areas.

 Capital intensive techniques of production are used.

 Returns are very high.

Dairy farming in Denmark

Denmark is one of the Nordic or Scandinavian countries and is widely accepted as
a model of success in dairy farming in the world. Dairy farming is the main
agricultural occupation in the country. High yielding milk breeds such as Friesians,
Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney and others are reared.

Danish milk yields per cow are amongst the highest in the world. Dairy farming is
combined with pig rearing. This is mainly so because after the cream has been
removed from the cow's milk and made into dairy products, the remaining skim
milk is fed to pigs.
Factors that have favoured the development of dairy farming in Denmark

Physical factors,

- The temperate climate with moderate to heavy rainfall and the ground,
which is moisture retentive as well as the cool temperatures are conducive
for rearing exotic breeds such as the Friesian cows. The climate also ensures
availability of pasture and water for the livestock.

- The relief of Denmark is generally flat making it easy for the movement and
grazing of livestock. In addition, the flat landscape has favoured extensive
mechanization of the dairy farms, construction of paddocks, and transport
route for marketing of dairy products.

- Presence of fairly fertile soils which support the growth of pasture and other
fodder crops to feed the livestock.

- The temperate climate results in a low incidence of pests and diseases which
would affect the livestock.

- Presence of a steady supply of drinking water for the cattle from the
available lakes and rivers.

- The natural vegetation consists of grasslands which provide pasture for the
livestock.

Human factors

- Presence of abundant supplementary fodder crops such as corn, hay, alfalfa

and the manufacture of cattle feed to supplement on the natural pastures for
the livestock.

- Availability of adequate capital to invest in the purchase of inputs such as

combine harvesters, ploughs, fertilizers, balers, tractors, improved cattle
breeds, automatic milking machines, processing plants and other facilities.

- There is a large urban market where daily demand for fresh milk is assured.
Where local markets absorb all the milk, creameries are available to convert
 the milk into dairy products such as butter, cheese and cream. Danish dairy
products find a ready market in other parts of Europe such as the
neighboring countries Norway, Sweden, Germany and Poland.

- Denmark has an efficient transport network by road, railway, canals and air
for collecting and delivering the milk to the households in cities such as
Copenhagen or to the creameries before it becomes sour as well as export to
foreign markets.

- The high technology for dairy farming is in places e.g. automatic milkers,
processing techniques and others. Liquid milk for example is treated through
pasteurizing, sterilizing, homogenizing and ultra-heat treatment.

- Research is continuously carried out which has led to the development of

high quality breed animals which yield large quantities of milk per cow e.g.
the black and white Friesian cows.

- The sound Danish education system including the provision of adult

education classes for the dissemination of the latest agricultural techniques.
This has built a body of skilled farmers.

- The development of an efficient co-operative movement which deals with

advising of farmers, collective purchase, processing and sale of produce
which ensures high quality products and good prices. Co-operative
movement is one of the greatest factors that has led to the development of
dairy farming in Denmark. For this reason special attention is given to it
below.

- The development of storage facilities with refrigeration for the preservation

of dairy products until the time of sale.

- Supportive government policies which have promoted political stability,

attraction of foreign investors in the industry as well as joining organizations
such as the European union to widen the market for the products.
The role of co-operatives in the development of dairy farming in Denmark

Co-operative farming has made substantial contribution to the success of dairy

farming in Denmark in the following ways:

 Co-operatives undertake bulk purchasing of farm inputs such as drugs and

chemicals, sprays and pumps, animal feeds etc and thus benefit from
discounts of trade. In turn co-operatives offer these inputs to farmers at
lower costs or at subsidized prices.

 Co-operative farming was accompanied by change of land tenure system and

individual farmers either voluntary pooled land together or bought off
additional units of land from the neighborhood. Thus, because of the
introduction of co-operative movement a lot of land has been availed upon
which extensive dairy farms are located.

 Co-operatives in Denmark undertake the transportation and distribution of

milk and other dairy products from individual ranches to collection centers
either for further processing or awaiting marketing. Hence the individual
farmers have not to worry because milk and other dairy products he
produces are collected right from his farm.

 Co-operative movements, being many, put dairy farmers under close

supervision. As such this has enabled the extension staff such as veterinary
doctors and assistants to advice the members of the co-operatives how best
to improve their dairy farms, undertake routine farm operations carry out
artificial insemination etc all account for the success of dairy farming.

 Besides, co-operative movement has created conditions, which allow the

numerous individual dairy farmers to share experience on how best to
develop their farms. They are also given opportunity to discuss collective
problems affecting dairy farming and suggest possible solutions.

 Co-operatives play a leading role in influencing policy issues and marketing

policies of products. They advise government on issues to do with marketing
procedures and demand protectionism from government against external
aggression from similar companies based abroad.
  Co-operative societies have undertaken the establishment of dairy
processing plants such as milk coolants, sterilization and pasteurization
machines, those that skimmed and dry milk from there.

 Cooperatives regularly organize workshops, seminars and study tours to

equip their members with modern ideas and skills necessary to enhance
successful dairy production. These provide with modem ideas and up to date
information concerning dairy production.

 Cooperatives have substantial assets like primary processing plants, which

they mortgage to financial institutions to secure loans, they thus extend such
loans to their members at very low interest rates. The farmers can use such
loans to develop, improve and modernize their dairy production.

 In Denmark co-operative societies run sperm banks from which farmers in

the industry come to buy semen. Sperm banks are centers where sperms
from bulls with desired qualities are collected and kept. At the same time,
they are centers were embryos from cows of high milk yields, characteristics
are kept. They are thus centers were genetic improvement does take place.

 Cooperatives foster research in ways and means of improving dairy

production, Research and hybridization entails developing animal varieties
that are fast growing and early maturing, disease resistant, high milk
yielding, high longevity (length of time an animal stays yielding milk) and
as well as of high fecundity (length of time an animal stays in production).

Dairy farming in the Netherlands

Animal rearing occupies a very important place in agriculture in the Netherlands,

at present 68% of the gross value of agricultural production is from animal rearing,
Dairy cattle of mainly high quality yielding a lot of milk e.g. the black and white
Friesian breed and the red and white Meuse Rhine-Yssel breed. Products include
butter, cheese, powdered milk, condensed milk and skim- milk powder. The main
breeding districts are the Provinces of Friesland, north Holland, South Holland and
Drenthe.
Factors that have favoured dairy farming in The Netherlands

Physical factors,

- The Netherlands is predominantly a flat country which has favoured

extensive mechanization of the dairy farms, construction of paddocks and
transport routes as well as movement of animals.

- Temperate climate with cool summers and mild winters are favourable for
dairy cattle. Furthermore, the climate is conducive for outdoor grazing
throughout the year.

- Presence of peat and clay soils which favour the growth of pasture used as
livestock feeds.

Human factors,

- Presence of abundant supplementary fodder crops such as corn, hay and

alfalfa which act as feeds for the livestock.

- Presence of a reliable supply of fresh water from Lake Yssel for the
livestock.

- There is use of high quality breed animals which yield large quantities of
milk per cow e.g the black and white Friesian cows.

- Presence of a large market for the dairy products not only in Netherlands but
also in the Surrounding European rich nations and Asia. Presence on many
agro based industries which provide a very high demand for animal products
for the production of items such as powder milk, butter and cheese.

- There is growing of fodder crops such as alfalfa and the manufacture of

cattle feeds to supplement on the natural pastures for the livestock.

- High level of technology which favoured the draining of the area from the
sea to form polders which are used for growing high quality pasture. There
is also use of electric milking machines, refrigeration and modern
transportation of milk.
 - The formation of cooperative associations has promoted standardization and
grading of dairy products, marketing as well as providing protection for the
industry.

- Presence of well-developed transport and communication lines by roads,

rivers, canals and air for marketing of the dairy products.

- Presence of a highly skilled labour force used in the rearing and processing
of dairy products.

- Availability of sufficient capital for investment in dairy farming e.g.

purchase of high quality dairy breeds, feed conveyors and electric milking
machines.

- Research is continuously carried out which has led to the production of

improved dairy cattle breeds and discovery of new industrial use of milk by-
products.

- Supportive government policies such as reclamation of land from the sea

which is suitable for animal rearing hence more land to livestock rearing.

- Development of processing industries to handle dairy products.

- Creation of more land for animal rearing through land reclamation.

Dairy farming in Kenya

One of the most important dairy farming countries in Africa is Kenya. There are
two types of dairy farming in Kenya, namely commercial dairy farming, which is,
practiced on both small and large scale farms.

Major dairy farms in this category are found in the Kenya Highlands consisting of
the Kikuyu country, Aberdare ranges, Nakuru and Kericho areas.
The second category consists of domestic dairy farms, which are widely scattered
in areas such as Bungoma, Kakamega, Kiisi and other localities.

Conditions which have favoured dairy farming in Kenya

Physical factors

 Reliable rainfall ranging from 1000-1500mm per annum which is well

distributed throught the year has encouraged growth of pastures as well as
constant and reliable supply of water for the animals.

 The cool temperatures especially in the Kenya Highlands, which are ideal
for the survival of exotic breeds.

 The well drained fertile soils some of which are of volcanic origin in
addition to the adequate rainfall have favourod the growth of nutritious
grasses, which act as pasture for the livestock.

 The favourable climatic conditions, which enable out door grazing all the
year round.

 High humid conditions ideal for the growth of exotic livestock.

Human factors

 Introduction of exotic breeds such as the Pedigree British cattle, Friesian,

Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Ayrshire and the Sahiwal cow, In addition
artificial insemination is widely practiced and this involves the collection of
semen from good breeding male species, which is then placed in the
reproductive tract of the female animal at the most effective time during its
reproduction cycle. This has enabled the farmers to breed from excellent
bulls.
 Availability of adequate capital for the purchase of fencing materials,
improved breeds, drugs, fertilizers, machinery and other inputs.

 Presence of skilled labour provided by the white settlers, the white farmers
established dairy farming way back in the highlands in the colonial era. In
addition there is cheap labour provided by the Kenyans.

 Introduction of strains of grass, which are more nutritive to the animals, On

most of the farms in the Kenya Highlands, pasturelands have been ploughed
and resown with special strains of drought resistant and more nourishing
grasses.

 Establishment of demonstration farms and projects so that the famers can see
and copy the improved methods of livestock rearing, they also breed high
quality bulls to be released to the farmers. One of such projects is the Emali
Livestock Multiplicity project.

 The experienced veterinary officers are providing extension services to the

farmers.

 Formation of co-operatives, which deal in the processing and marketing of

milk and milk products. The Dairy Board of Kenya and Kenya Co-operative
Creameries (KCC) do the marketing, For example after collecting milk from
the farmers, KCC transports it to the various processing creameries in the
various towns of Nairobi, Eldoret, Kitale, Nakuru and others. it is processed
into various products, Co-operative societies also extend credit facilities to
the dairy farmers.

 High level of technology evidenced by the use of electric milking machines,

refrigerated trucks and the processes of pasteurizing, sterilizing,
homogenizing and ultra-heat treatment.

 Research is carried out to develop high yielding animal and pasture varieties,
pest and disease control and such related fields.

 Availability of a large market especially in the urban centers of Nairobi,

Mombasa, Thika, Kisumu, Eldorate and others, Kenyan milk and other milk
 products such as butter, ghee and cheese also have a ready market in the
neighboring countries of Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania.

 Milk being a perishable product, has to reach the consumers while still fresh.
The fairly developed transport routes enable the milk to reach the market
and processing centers while fresh.

The benefits of dairy farming to the economy of Kenya are numerous. These
include provision milk and milk products to the population, source of income for
the farmers, creation of employment, source of foreign exchange, development of
industries and many more.

However some problems are still faced such as competition from imported dairy
products, expensive inputs, shortage of drought, and impassable roads during the
rainy season and poor management of dairy co-operatives.

The above problems are being addressed and dairy farming is likely to play a much
important role in the future economy of Kenya.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE LOW LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTION IN THE TROPICS

Physical factors

1. Climate, hinders agricultural production in several ways;

a) Low rainfall, its uneven distribution and unreliability are perhaps the major
climatic limitations to agriculture in the developing world. This is
particularly the case in areas such as northern Kenya, Somalia, Botswana,
central Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Sudan, which are classified as arid and
semi-and regions.

b) Low rainfall and its unreliability also lead to shortage and poor pastures
hence affecting livestock rearing.

c) The rainfall is also noted for its unreliability in terms of date of on set and
amounts in a given season. Later planting and crop failures after planting are
therefore major problems.
d) In addition unexpected periods of drought have destroyed crops and
livestock a like e.g. periodical drought in countries such Uganda, Kenya,
Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Zambia. On the other hand high rainfall leads
to flooding and destruction of farmlands.

e) In other areas such as southern Nigeria, the rainfall is high but temperatures
are low thus hindering crop growth. Temperature extremes found at high
altitudes and in arid and semi-arid areas are limiting factor in agricultural in
that most crops and livestock species are unable to tolerate extremely low
temperatures and also very high temperatures.

2. Relief, this refers to the nature of the landscape. Very high mountain peaks
limit agricultural production because of the extremely low temperatures and
thin soils e.g. on the upper slopes of mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya. Hilly
area such as Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia and South Western Uganda limit
agricultural production in that they accelerate soil erosion which reduces the
soil fertility, encourage landslides which destroy valuable agricultural land,
hinder the development of transport routes and limit mechanization farms. In
contrast, lowlands are often occupied by swamps, subjected to flooding and
have poor soils, which make them unsuitable for agriculture.

3. Soils, agriculture requires fertile and easily worked soils for the growth of
both crops and pasture. Only a few crops such as sisal can tolerate infertile
soils. Large areas of the tropics have infertile soils. For example almost two
thirds of Kenya is covered by shallow, stony soils unsuitable for crop
cultivation. Countries with infertile soils include Zambia, Botswana Sudan
and Somalia.

4. Pests and diseases, various pests and diseases limit agricultural production
in the tropics. These include tsetse flies causing sleeping sickness in humans
and nagana in livestock e.g. in the savanna regions of West Africa and
Central Tanzania. Locusts which cause wide spread destruction of
vegetation and Crops in Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania. Other pests and diseases
include lace bug affecting coffee plants, Cassava mosaic affecting cassava
plants, swollen shot disease affecting cocoa plants and the animal pest such
as rinder pest and the foot and mouth disease.
 5. Vegetation, Areas with thick tropical rain forests such as the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Gabon, Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone find it difficult
to clear them. The vegetation is also a habitant of many wild animals which
destroy crops in the nearby vicinity e.g. monkeys.

Social and economic factors

6. Capital, Many developing countries and their peoples lack adequate capital
to inject in the modernization of Agriculure. Capital is needed to purchase
farm machinery, fertilizers, and agro-chemicals, better seed Varieties and
improved breeds of livestock and to open up irrigation schemes.

7. Limited market, marketing arrangements for most agricultural products in

the developing world are not yet well developed. Low prices and delays in
payment to the farmers have greatly reduced the incentive to produce more.
The home market for agricultural products is small as there are no well-
developed agro-based industries to take up the produce, The foreign
markets, are also limited because of substitutes e,g. the demand for rubber
from Liberia is now limited because of the development of synthetic rubber
from the petro-chemical industries. Once the farmers are not satisfied with
the marketing outlets they easily give up production.

8. Storage Facilities, Increased agricultural production in the developing

world is also limited by lack of adequate storage facilities during bumper
harvests there is a lot of wastage due to inadequate storage facilities. In
addition there are considerable losses of crops harvested such as maize,
beans and others during storage by rats, weevils and other insect pests.

9. Transport, Market in-accessibility due to inadequate transport network has

greatly affected the increase in agricultural production. In areas where
transport facilities are poor it is difficult for farmers to engage in commercial
production and more so of perishable commodities such as milk, fruits and
vegetables. Most of the feeder roads are dry weather roads and become
almost impassable during the wet season.
10.Technology, in the developing world there is lack of relevant technology
required to increase output per unit area. Farming is done using elementary
tools such as hoes, pangas, axes and digging sticks.

11.Limited research, Research is needed to develop high-yielding crop

varieties and improved livestock breeds. In many developing countries,
research has been limited due to lack of adequate funds and the technical
personnel to carry out the research.

12.Unfavourable government policies, Government policies in some cases

hinder the modernisation of agricultural sector for example in countries such
as Nigeria and Zambia, government has emphasized the development of oil
and copper mining respectively. The income earned from these sectors tends
to be ploughed back in the development of the same sectors. This means the
agricultural sector is abandoned hence little progress.

13.Population pressure, There is a rapid population growth in tropical Africa,

which has a negative effect on agricultural production. Some countries such
as Rwanda and Burundi are already overpopulated resulting into over use of
land, soil exhaustion, land fragmentation and limited land for expansion of
agricultural activities.

14.Traditional customs and practice, these relate to values and practices

attached to farming activities, crop preference and labour organization. For
example for a long time pastoral groups such as the Karamojong in North
East Uganda, the Fulani of West Africa and Turkana of N.W Kenya, attach
great significance to livestock numbers regardless of their quality. They are
also unwilling to change their traditional way of life. In other areas e.g.
northern Zambia, traditional methods of crops cultivation such as shifting
cultivation have hindered the adoption of modern farming practices. While
in other areas farming is regarded as Women's job, in most cases these
women have low or no education and find it difficult to adopt better farming
techniques even with the assistance of extension water.

15.International relations, International events beyond the control of

individual government pose serious limitations on agricultural production.
International prices for major export crops such as coffee, cotton and tea are
 subject to sudden fluctuations. The quantities of particular crops that can be
exported also face restrictions and as a result limitation is placed on the
amounts of say coffee, the country can produce. This means some farmers
have to diminish their production. Further influences of bodies such as the
International monetary fund (IMF) and World Bank cannot be ignored.
These bodies usually advance loans with strings attached, which have to be
repaid at high interest rates.

16.Land tenure system, There are various forms of land tenure in Africa.
These include communal ownership, inheritance System, lease system,
customary system and the mailo land system. In many parts of the
developing world, the way in which land is distributed or owned has tended
to affect agricultural production. In Kigezi and Kikuyu areas land is highly
fragmented. This is due to the inheritance system where land is divided
among the sons when the head of the family dies. Fragmentation of land has
many drawn backs such as time wasted in traveling between various plots,
large proportions of land are devoted, field boundaries and the small size of
the plots makes it difficult to use modern farm machinery. Some
communities such as the Fulani of West Africa, the Turkana of northern
Kenya and the Karamajong of north eastern Uganda, land belong to the
community. Individuals use the land carelessly knowing they can easily
move and acquire land elsewhere since the land belongs to the community.
The system does not give security and makes the acquisition of loans to
improve production very difficult.

17.Political factors, many developing countries experience little political

stability. In Africa countries such as Uganda, Somalia, Ethiopia, Liberia,
Rwanda, Burundi, Angola and Mozambique have gone through bitter
political instabilities. This has resulted in the abandonment of farms as
people are constantly fleeing wars. The wars also lead to destruction of farm
machinery and prevent long term planning necessary to develop the
agricultural sectors. In countries where independence came as a result of
bitter conflicts such as Algeria, Angola and Mozambique the Europeans left
in a hurry abandoning their farms. These were later taken over by worker co-
operatives or by state organizations, which could not easily manage them
hence their collapse.
 18.Shortage of labour.

19.Low levels of education

MEASURES BEING TAKEN TO MODERNISE AGRICULTURE IN

TROPICAL AFRICA

1. Research, this involves the breeding of improved crop and animal varieties.
The scientific breeder is concerned with the production of new varieties of
crops, which give higher yields per unit area than the existing varieties do.
The breeder is also interested in producing varieties of crops, which are
more resistant to various diseases, or varieties, which are more drought
resistant. Progress has already been made in the introduction of improved
varieties of maize, coffee and tomatoes in East Africa, oil palm in D.R.C.
cotton in Sudan and Egypt and coffee in Ethiopia. In the animal husbandry,
cross breeding of the indigenous cattle with exotic ones is being done,
introduction of exotic breeds and artificial insemination have improved the
quality of livestock in especially Kenya, South Africa and Botswana.

2. Control of pests and diseases, as already noted, pests and diseases cause
considerable damage to crops and livestock. Various;

a) Spraying with chemicals e.g the leaf spot disease affecting bananas is being
controlled by spraying with Bordeaux, dipping the cattle in chemicals is
controlling east coast fever affecting livestock while aerial spraying is used
to control locusts once swarms have been located.

b) Breeding improved crop and animal varieties, which are more resistant to
diseases.

c) Biological control involving the use of natural enemies of the pest

concerned.

d) Increased research in pest and disease control e.g. the Desert Locust Control
Organization and the International Laboratory Research on animal diseases.
3. Use of fertilizers and manures, Crop yields have been known to increase
with the application of fertilizers. In the tropics the greatest use of fertilizers
has been on plantation farms, market gardening and horticulture. However
there is need to ascertain the response made to fertilizers by the various
crops under different physical conditions before being applied on a large
scale.

4. Changes in land tenure, the way land is owned and distributed needs
reform. This involves re-distribution of land in such a way that in place of
the numerous scattered plots (land fragmentation) each farmer receives a
single piece of land, which is equivalent to the several small plots he or she
originally had. This is being encouraged in the densely populated regions of
Kigezi in south western Uganda and in the Kikuyu county of Kenya.

5. Agricultural credit, Shortage of capital to purchase farm inputs such as

fertilizers, improved seed varieties, better livestock breeds, agro-chemicals
and farm machinery is a major hindrance to agricultural modernization. In
many tropical countries this is being overcome by the creation of
cooperative Credit societies, agricultural finance corporations, commercial
banks and support from individual governments.

6. Transport, the major mode of transport in the tropics such as roads,

railways, water and air are rapidly being improved. This is to enable farm
produce easily reach the market and services of extension workers reach the
farmers. Ghana and Nigeria are good examples.

7. Education, Farmer education is being improved through services of

extension workers, short in service courses, programs on televisions and
articles in newspapers. Through these farmers are being taught modern
methods of crop growing and livestock rearing.

8. Irrigation, Low rainfall and its unreliability greatly hinder agricultural

production. In order to reduce over dependence on natural climatic
conditions, irrigation schemes have been established in many arears the most
notable being the Gezira in Sudan, Kilombelo valley in Tanzania, Ahero in
Kenya, Richard Toll scheme in Senegal and many others in Egypt, Ethiopia,
Somalia Niger and Mauritania.
 9. Political climate, the stability of governments is a pre-condition in the
development of the agricultural industry. There is a campaign for regional
security and stability in order to promote agricultural development.

10.Marketing, There are improvements being done in the marketing of farm

produce. In countries such as Kenya, Sudan, Ghana and Nigeria, co-
operatives play a very important role in the marketing of produce. They
purchase the farmers produce, process it and sell it in both the local and
foreign markets. Other measures include the improvement of the transport
network especially the feeder roads in the rural areas, establishment of
processing plants to increase the value of the produce and frequent review of
prices of major agricultural products to provide cash incentives to farmers.

11.Storage facilities, the erection of storage facilities especially for the grain
crops in form of silos in many tropical countries has helped in the alleviation
of storage problems.

Likely examination questions

1. a) Describe the main features of Co-operative farming.

b) Assess the contribution of Co-operative farming to the economy of either

a developing of developed country.

2. In many parts of the tropical world agricultural output per unit area is relatively
low:-

(a) Suggest reasons for this low productivity.

b) Discuss the possible the possible means by which productivity could be

improved.

3. Examine the factors limiting increased agricultural production in the developing

countries.

4. Account for the development of the livestock industry in either Denmark or

Argentina.

5. Assess the extent to which irrigation has benefited either Sudan or California.
6. Examine the role of either the communes in China or specialization in U.S.A in
the modernization of agriculture.

7. With reference to specific examples from either a developed or a developing

country, examine the advantages and disadvantages of monoculture.

8. Examine the factors which have influenced the development of plantation

agriculture in either Liberia or the Natal Province of the Republic of South Africa.

9 a) Explain the following agricultural concepts.

- Factory farming

- The Green Revolution.

b) With reference to either the developed or developing countries examine the

economic significance of the Green Revolution.

10. With reference to specific examples, analyze

(a) The problems of land fragmentation in developing countries.

(b) The advantage of consolidated farms in the developed countries.

11. Account for the persistence of nomadic pastoralism in Africa.

12 “Given water, even the desert soils can produce food and sustain life" (from "A
Geography of Africa" by WJ Minns p.85)

(a) With reference to any one irrigation scheme in either Africa or North
America, justify this statement.

b) Evaluate the contribution of the scheme to the country in it's situated.

13. With reference to a specific country, assess the merits and demerits of
plantation agriculture in the tropical rain forests region of Africa.

14. With reference to specific examples, distinguish between the intensive Market
Gardening in the developed world, and the Intensive subsistence farming practiced
in the developing countries.
15. Discuss the role of Co-operatives in the development of dairy farming in any
one country in Western Europe.

16. The nomadic herdsmen of tropical Africa are faced with numerous problems.

a) Discuss the validity of the statement.

b) With specific examples suggest how these problems can be overcome.

17. Explain the problems facing the livestock industry in Nigeria or the
Netherlands.

18. Account for the low level of agricultural productivity in tropical Africa.

19. Either, with reference to specific examples, examine the factors limiting
increased agricultural production in the developing world.

Or

To what extent would collectivization offer solutions to the problems of

agricultural production?

20. To what extent are the problems facing the pastoral peoples of tropical regions
of their own making?

21. Account for the development of large scale irrigation farming in either Egypt
or Senegal.

22. Examine the view that the Fulani people of the Sahel region have made the best
use of their environment.

23. Examine the contribution of communes in the development of china.

24. With reference to any one named country, assess the contribution of small scale
farming.