Agricultural systems I

Objectives of the subject:

 To give you general and specific information about external and internal conditions
affecting plant growth.
 To describe processes and planting technologies of individual groups of plants.
 To gain knowledge related to the use of plants and plant products in different areas of
our economy.

Importance of plants, farming systems

There are several purposes of plant growth

Primary use of plants:

 Production of food
o energy (proteins, sugars, lipids etc.)
o nutrients ( Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, etc.)
o vitamins ( A, B, C, D, etc.)
 Production of building materials
o wood (roofs, walls, facings)
o straw (walls)
 Production of fabrics
o cloth (cotton, flax)
o decoration (flax, cotton)
o biodegradable materials (starch)
 Renewable energy resources
o biofuels
o biogas
 Pharmaceuticals
o extracts from medicinal plants
o oils
o coating materials (starch, sugars, proteins)
Environmental importance of plants:
 Landscape protection
o water erosion
o wind erosion
 Water reservoirs protection
o desertification
 Carbon dioxide sequestration
o accumulation of CO2 in plants
 Aesthetical influence
o gardens, parks
 o meadows, forests, alleys
o colored countryside and its changes

Plant production aiming on mentioned purposes of plant growth is provided in different

agricultural systems sometimes called as farming system which is defined:
 Integrated production systems involving the horizontal and vertical integration of
crops, livestock, trees and aquaculture.
 A population of individual farm systems that have broadly similar resource bases,
enterprise patterns, household livelihoods and constrains and for which similar
development strategies and interventions would be appropriate.

The classification of farming system is based on the:

 Available natural resource

 Climate (temperature, water, altitude)
 Landscape (soil type, soil depth, slope)
 Relation to arable, grazing and forest areas
 Farm size and farm activities
 Type of main production (field crops, animals /husbandry, wild/, aquaculture, trees)
 On farm primary and secondary technologies

History of agriculture

 First attempt to provide regular agriculture was made due to a lack of food (plant
origin) in the neighborhoods of people settlements.
 8 000 years bc. people between Nil and Indus rivers started to sow seeds and harvested
plants like wheat, barley, lentils, flax, pea.
 4 000 years bc. in Irak grew barley, wheat, sorghum, oat, sesame, fruits and grapes
under irigation.
 Development in America and in China was independent.
 400 years bc. there was a great development of agriculture at Balkan region. Plants
like cotton, almonds, peaches, citrons were grown there.
 At the beginning of our era Romans spread their experience around Europe.
 16th century – Development of agriculture in Europe due to import of plants from
America, above all maize, potatoes, tobacco.

History of cropping systems in temperate regions

 Two-field system
o Field was divided into half. One half was planted and second one was left
fallow until the next season to recover its fertility. After cropping first half of
fields was left for livestock to graze on stubbles and enriched soil with their
droppings.
 Three-field system (from 8th century)
 o Fields were split into thirds. One third was planted in the autumn (winter
cereals), second one was planted in spring (summer cereals, legumes) and third
one was left fallow sometimes with plants as green manure.
 Norfolk four-course system (from the end of 17 century)
o Fallow field was omitted and system emphasized fodder crops. First crop was
wheat or other winter cereal followed by turnips and third crop was barley with
clover and ryegrass undersown. Fodders were grazed or cut for animal feeding
in the fourth year.
o Higher fodder production allowed to breed higher number of animals
producing large amount of manure.

Land use in tropical regions

 Forest gardens (from 10th century)

o In humid tropics tall trees can protect other plants like vegetable and some
small fruits from noon sun. There are also suitable for high wood production
and high variety of species. Animals and ponds with fishes are important part
of system.
 Shifting cultivation
o Season to season progression of different crops differing in nutrient
requirements, susceptibility to weeds and pests.
 Transhumant pastoralism
o Livestock is kept in regions with large seasonal differences in precipitation and
in temperature and moved within a year period
 Integrated agriculture-aquaculture
o Mainly build up in transformed wetlands. Dig soil is used for
development of dikes and also for planting of different plants like mulberry in
China.

Major farming systems

 There are significant differences in agro-ecological conditions among the farming

systems in the region. The agro-ecologies conditions vary from one of the world's
most fertile regions in Southeast Europe, to poor, water-scarce regions of Central Asia.
 Irrigated Farming System
o This system occurs in the southern central and eastern areas of the
region and covers an estimated 28 million ha, of which 10 million ha are
cultivated and 8.6 million ha are irrigated. Medium to large irrigated farms, up
to 500 ha in size. High value crops such as fruits and vegetables. In the warmer
areas irrigation is largely used for cotton cultivation, with some rice being
grown. Overuse of water has caused extensive environmental degradation,
desertification and salinisation.
 Mixed Farming System
o This system is widespread in those Central European countries and has a total
estimated area of 85 million ha, principally within the moist subhumid agro-
ecological zone. Conditions for agricultural production vary considerably.
Most of the crops in the area is dedicated to wheat, maize, oil crops and
 barley, combined with smaller areas of fruit and vegetables. Livestock
production is dominated by dairy and beef cattle, plus pigs.
 Forest Based Livestock Farming System
o This system is located in the northwest of the region in a moist
subhumid agro-ecological zone and extends over an estimated 72 million ha. A
large farm, with holding sizes from 500 to 2000 ha Production is focused on
fodder, hay, cereals, industrial crops and potatoes. In the prevailing
macroeconomic situation, these farms generate little or no cash income.

 Horticulture Mixed Farming System

o This system covers 79 million ha of which 24 million ha are cultivated,
and is typical of the Southern Balkans, Northern Turkey and the Caucasus.
There is characterized by a Mediterranean climate. The average farm size is
small and has a diversified production pattern, including wheat, maize, oil
crops, fruit and vegetables, combined with cattle, sheep and goats. Cultivation
of fruit, nuts and vegetables, partly irrigated or produced in greenhouses or
other protective structures, contributes significantly to the value of crop
production and household income.
 Large-scale Cereal-Vegetable Farming System
o This system covering an estimated 100 million ha, principally in the
moist subhumid agro-ecological zone. Approximately 38 million ha are
cultivated. Large farms ranging from 500 to 4000 ha. These farms are
associated with large rural communities of 500 to 800 persons, many of whom
are employed there. Farm employees also work on their household plots. The
main crops are wheat, barley, maize, sunflower, sugar beets and vegetables.
There are nearly 25 million cattle within the system.
 Small-scale Cereal-Livestock Farming System
o This system is located in the semiarid and dry subhumid and
mountainous zones of Turkey with a growing period of less than 180 days,
covering an area of 35 million ha. The main cereals are wheat and barley.
Unreliable precipitation means that yields, and hence production of these rain
fed crops, vary considerably from year to year. Barley is almost exclusively
used for animal feed or for export. Sheep and goats are the main livestock and
play an important role in the system but some cattle are also raised.
 Extensive Cereal-Livestock Farming System
o This system is found throughout the semiarid agro-ecological zone the
major outputs are wheat, hay and other fodder crops, combined with cattle and
sheep. In the drier parts, with an annual rainfall of only 200 to 300 mm, the
land is fallowed every two years. The system occupies a total of 425 million
ha, of which about 107 million ha are cultivated.
 Pastoral Farming System
o This is a system which is typical of much of Southeastern Central Asia.
It covers an estimated 82 million ha most of the pastures are in high
mountainous areas or adjacent dry zones. Principal livestock species are sheep
with some cattle. Summer grazing is on distant, often heavily overgrazed,
mountain pastures, while in winter stall-feeding predominates.
 Sparse (Cold) Farming System
 o This system is found in Russia, 1260 million ha of land occupied by a
small agricultural population. Natural conditions allow only limited cultivation
of rye and oats, as well as of potatoes and some vegetables, possibly
supplemented by pig raising. Farming is constrained by the short growing
season, very low temperatures and poor soils. Various indigenous groups
practice reindeer pastoralism. This system has very limited potential for
agricultural development.

 Sparse (Arid) Farming System

o The system covers 143 million ha The driest parts are only used by
nomads.. Extensive cereal cultivation, complemented by sheep raising, is
practiced too. There is limited potential for development except where
irrigation can be used, but existing water resources are already over-exploited.
 Urban Based Farming System
o This system occurs within and surrounding cities in the region. It is
clear that its importance has grown recently, as a result of rising
unemployment and poverty. The land used for farming is mostly private
residential land. Urban farming produces mainly vegetables, in particular leafy
vegetables, but small livestock are also an important component.

Main contemporary agricultural systems

Intensive agriculture
 Main objective of the system is maximum primary production. The system is
characterized by high amount of inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, energy) planting of high
productive crops (new varieties, in many cases resistant or genetically modified),
irrigation, large areas, large mechanization, close relation with industry.
 In many cases combined with animal husbandry of high intensity.
 High risk of environmental damages, risk of residues in production.
Low input agriculture
 Main objective of the system is to minimize expenditures for primary production.
There is combination of several operations into one.
 Low care about environment, low care about quality of products.
 Commonly independent from animal husbandry.
Organic farming
 An effort to produce healthy food under regulated procedure. There is abandoned to
apply synthesized fertilizers and pesticides, except specially chosen ones in limited
amounts. Higher effort is focused on a development of soil fertility and mechanical
weed control. There is high importance of regular crop rotation. Registered marks and
regular control guarantee a quality of products.
Sustainable agriculture (Integrated agriculture)
 Main objective of the system is a reduction of unnecessary inputs keeping relatively
high primary production.
 High effort is focused on a minimization of environmental risks and high quality of
primary and secondary products. Diagnostic and other tools are widely used and
recommended.

Simplification of agricultural system

Agricultural system related to the crop production can be simplified into several mutual
interactions among individual subjects with relation to the environment.

environment

plant additives
(Fertilizers,
pesticides)
soil

environment

Several factors play the important role in agricultural systems, their role differ in farmer
strategy.
Factors:
 Natural soil fertility
 Weather
 Soil tillage
 Application of fertilizers
 Plant variety
 Plant protection

Soils, source of life for plants, soil fertility management

Soil is multifunctional layer of solid material composed of mineral and organic parts as well
of live organisms. Soil is able to absorb sun radiation, water and solutes on its outer and
inhere surface or into pores. Soil plays the important role as ground material to keep plants
staying, is a main source of water and nutrients for plants.

Soil development

Soils developed by chemical alteration or decomposition of mineral particles.

 During soil development several processes have to apper.
 Slow transition phase of unstable minerals into more stable ones plus losses of soluble
materials.
 New material is not a soil there is only weathered rock.
  Material is considered as a soil when plants get foothold and remain on it together
with associated animals.
 Life organisms generate a biological cycle of growth and decay.
 Organic residues decompose much faster than mineral particles.

Soil is developed due to weathering processes

Weathering – continuous and complex combination of destruction and synthesis. Two types
of weathering running simultaneously:
 Physical weathering – a use of forces for rock disintegration
o overburden pressure,
o expansion forces due to temperature changes
o animal or plant activities
o water pressure
 Chemical weathering – the effect of water and agencies soluble in the water on
chemical composition
o atmospheric precipitation
o hydrospheric solution composition
o amount of precipitates
o concentration of precipitates
o composition of precipitates
o presence of plants and animals

Soil formation
Soil formation starts when plants gain a foothold in weathered debris.
 Plants can take up
o soluble mineral salts from soil within root zone,
o transfer them into leaves,
o returned them to the surface in leaf drip or in, fallen leaves,
o in decayed roots and plant debris.
 Dead vegetation is a good source of energy for wide range of micro-organism.

Soil is formed by several layers in the profile called horizons, which are visually different
from adjanced horizons.
Main features for horizons developments:
 The addition of soil materials
 The removal of soil materials
 The transfer of soil materials within soil system
 The transformation of soil material

Individual soil horizons are well described according their properties

Well drained soils with relatively little disturbance can show three or four clearly
recognizable horizons.
Surface horizons:
 O – dark top horizon with the presence of high content of organic matter,
 A – a lost of clay or oxides, horizon is called elluvial,
 B – soil materials are transformed or exhibit alluvial concentration of clay or
seskvioxides,
 C – low affect of biological activity, similar to parent materials.

General description of soils

For description of soil properties, soil quality and the location where a soil is located there is
necessary to find easy description of it.

• Soil can be described according to

soil type
soil texture
• General soil description
land valuation

Agricultural soil can also be described by: soil characteristics,

amount of of bioavailable forms of nutrients in soil,
amount of soil organic matter.

Land valuation

Valuated soil-ecological units (BPEJ in Czech)

Five digits are used for site and soil general description
first digit – climatic region (0-9)
second and third – main soil unit (01-78)
fourth – slope + exposition of land (0-9)
fifth – soil depth and soil skelet (0-9)

Climatic region (0-9) – first digit

• 0 – very warm –dry
• 2 - warm, weakly dry
• 4 – weakly warm, dry
• 6 – weakly warm - warm, moist
• 8 – mild cold, moist
1 - warm, dry
3 – warm, weakly moist
5 – weakly warm, weakly moist
7 – weakly warm, moist
9 – cold, moist

Main soil unit (01-78) - second and third digit

• 01 – Chernozems, on loose , medium heavy with suitable water regime
• 12- Luvisols or Cambisols, saturated, partially also Gleyic soils, heavy subsoils,
sufficient wate regime
• 23 – Cambisols and Fluvisols, weakly gleyic developed on sands above clays,
fluctuated water regime
 • 35 – Acid Cambisols, Spodic Cambisols, or their gleyic forms, in weakly cold region,
developed on volcanic bedrocks, medium heavy, with medium skelet, sufficient
moisture regime, sometimes overmoist
• 54 – Gleyic soils nd Cambisols, developed on clays, heavy and very heavy soils,
without skelet, with bad physical parameters, usually overmoist

Slope and exposition of land (0-9) - fourth digit

• Number is combination of slope and exposition

• Slope 0 - 0-1o - flat 1 – 1-3o - flat

2 – 3-7o – mild slope 3 – 7-12o – medium slope
4 – 12-17o – higher slope 5 – 17-25o – sharp slope
6 - above 25o

• Exposition 0 – flat 1 – south

2 – east and west 3 - north

Soil depth and soil skelet (0-9) – fitht digit

• Number is combination of skelet and depth

• Skelet 0 – skelet content up to 10 % 1- up to 25 %

2 - up to 50 % 3 - above 50 %

• Soil depth 0 – deep soil up to 60 cm 1 – medium deep 30 – 60 cm

2 – shallow up to 30 cm

Soil phases

Majority of soils contain visible solid particles and pores accommodating soil air and water.
All three mayor phases can occur in the soil.
 Gaseous phase (soil air)
 Liquid phase (soil solution)
 Solid phase

Gaseous soil phase

CO2 0.1 – 1.0 %

Origin of CO2: decay of microorganisms
respiration of microorganisms
decomposition of microorganisms
O2 10 – 20 %
Origin of O2: respiration of soil microorganisms
oxidation of organic and inorganic compounds
N2
H2O

Also N2 and H2O are present in soil air. Content of N 2 is similar as in the atmosphere; water
vapor depends on soil moisture.
Liquid soil phases have several main functions:
 soil water is main source of water form plants
 water is an universal solution for inorganic and organic compounds
 caused transport of compounds into root cells
 mediated vertical a horizontal transport of ions through the soil profile
Composition and concentration of soil water increases after depends on:
 application of additives
 fluctuation of soil moisture
 mineralization of organic compounds
Composition and concentration of soil water decreases after depends on:
 nutrient uptake by plants
 amount of precipitation and irrigation
 location
Concentration of ions in soil solution strongly depends on soil origin, plant cover and
agricultural practices.

Average concentration of main nutrient in soil solution:

Ca2+ = 20 – 200 mg.l-1

Mg2+ = 10 – 20 mg.l-1
K+ = 5 – 50 mg.l-1
NO3- - N = 20 – 200 mg.l-1
SO42- - S = 10 – 100 mg.l-1
H2PO4- - P = 0.03 – 0.3 mg.l-1

Solid soil phase

There are two main components of solid soil phase, their ratio is affected by soil origin and
man activity.
 Mineral portion 90 – 99 %
 Organic portion 1 – 10 %

Inorganic components:
 Clay (< 2 µm)
 Silt (2 µm to 50 µm)
 Sand (50 µm to 2 mm)
 Gravel (2 mm to 2 cm)

Mineral portion consist of:

 inert silica compounds
 minerals and rocks
o primary aluminosilicates
 o secondary aluminosilicates – play the most important role in binding of
nutrients

Soil organic mater:

 Source of nutrients (N, S, P)
 Source of CO2 + energy
 Stable base of soil parameters
 Stimulation and inhibition effects

There is split into:

1) Nonhumic compounds 10 – 15 %
2) Humus compounds 85 – 90 %
3) Live soil matter 0.1 – 0.2 %

Content of organic matter in different soil groups

Soil group Organic matter content (%)

Mineral soils <2%
Mineral soils enriched by organic matter 2 – 15 %
Peat soils 15 – 30 %
Peats > 30 %

Soil fertility covers wide range of factors describing duality of processes in soil and in many
cause also soil productivity.
 The ability of soil to create optimum conditions for plants development and growth
and to realize their yield potential.

Factors of soil fertility

 Physical factors:
o Soil structure and texture
o Soil porosity
o Soil temperature
o Risk of soil erosion
 Water regime in soil:
o Water movement
o Water retention in soil
o Water content in soil
 Agrochemical factors:
o Sorption capacity of soil
o Soil pH
o Content and availability of macro and micro nutrients
 Organic matter:
o Organic residues
 o Humic substances
o Soil organisms
There is a long-term process to improve soil fertility. Among introduces factors only
agrochemical ones can be changed in several years period, the rest needs longer period
required also high investment.

Sorption of elements in soil

Among introduced sorption principles exchangeable, chemical and biological play the most
important role.
Exchangeable – stable or variable charge of soil phase smaller than 20 µm (mainly negative)
is able to bind ions on the surface or into the interlayer of clay minerals.
Binding of ions on the soil surface or into solid particles, or the precipitation. There are
several principles to bind ions in the soil:

 Mechanical (gels, hydro gels)

 Physical
 Exchangeable (physically-chemical)
 Chemical (precipitation)
 Biological (immobilization)

Cation sorption by clay minerals

planar edge interlayer

Chemical sorption – the precipitation of low charged ion under different soil pH.

Me+ (O) < Me2+ < Me3+

Neutral pH
Ca(H2PO4)2 + Ca2+ → 2CaHPO4 + 2H+
2CaHPO4 + Ca2+ → Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H+
Most important: 2PO4-, HPO42-, SO42-, Ca2+
Biological sorption – binding of nutrients into the cells of soil microorganisms or into plant
tissues. Nutrients are bounds in the proportion required by organisms.
Most important: N > P > S and also others.

Among soil properties soil pH plays usually the most important role. Soil
pH affects:

 adsorption and desorption of cations of plant nutrients

 solubility of compounds of macro and micronutrients
 composition and activity of microorganisms in soil
 solubility of adverse react compounds
 soil structure, aeration, evaporation, water stability

Conditions for plant growth, biomass production, plant

composition

Factors of plant growth

There are three main factors required for plant growth:

 Water - solubilization and transport of nutrients
 Energy - synthesis of large molecules with the aid of sun energy
 Nutrients - supporter of specific compounds development, catalyst, regulators of
enzyme activity

Water

- the most important factor in the evolution on the Earth. Only presence of water can allow
plants to survive.
o There is called as an universal solvent due to hydrogen bonds and its polarity
o Electron distribution in oxygen-hydrogen bounds makes polar (asymmetrical)
molecules – mechanical properties
o Water has a high specific heat, a high heat of fusion and a high heat of
vaporization all caused due to hydrogen bounds – chemical properties
o Water has tendency to ionize and to release protons (H+) or hydroxyls (OH-)
into external solution and play important role in buffering capacity

Energy

- life on the Earth as well as climatic conditions are strongly depended on solar radiation.
  Sun radiation is an electromagnetic radiation consists of all kinds radiation from γ
radiation up to the longest waves.
 Maximum energy is radiated at 475 nm.
 Energy absorbed by chlorophyll is transformed into chemical one and use for
photosynthesis.
 Energy absorbed by abiotic particles is transferred into thermal energy important for
plant growth.

Nutrients

– specific elements required for plant growth and completion of development cycle

 Nutrients are required in gaseous or liquid forms

 They are taken by roots (main pathway for majority of nutrients) or by leaves (main
pathway for carbon uptake)
 Nutrient uptake is affected by several external and internal factors

For an element to be considered an essential plant nutrient three following criteria must be
met.
 These are:
o Element deficiency does not allow to plant to complete its life cycle
o Symptom of deficiency is specific for individual element
o The element is directly involved in nutrition of individual plant as part of an
essential metabolite or required for the action of an of enzyme system

Nutrients ale commonly divided into main groups in plant and their mean
content in biomass is displayed:

Basic components (%) Macronutrients (%) Micronutrients (ppm) Tolerable elements

(%)
C – 45 % N – 1.5 % B – 2 00 Si – 1 %
H–6% P – 0.2 % Fe – 100 Cl – 0.15 %
O – 45 % K – 1.0 % Mn – 50 Al – 0.1 %
Accumulation period
Ca – 0.5 % Zn – 20 Na – 0.01 %
Relative Mg – 0.2 % Cu – 6
S – 0,1 % Mo 0.1
nutrient
Dilution
contentcontent of nutrients fluctuates in plant biomass
The relative
period
and is distributed according their
importance into seeds, leaves, stems and root. In the figure you can see two main periods of
nutrient behavior.
ear development

maturation
shooting

flowering
seedlings

tillering
Total uptake of nutrients per area of land depends on the concentration of elements and
biomass yield expressed in dry matter. Schematic figure shows high increase of N a K uptake
during fast biomass growth and steady increase for P, Ca and Mg. Drop on N and K at the end
of vegetation is characterized by their lower need at maturation period.

Mass units Dry matter

P, Ca, Mg

Growing period

Accumulation of individual parts of plants is presented in table below. Nitrogen and

phosphorus are accumulated in seeds of grains, potassium in green biomass. Nitrogen is also
important in leaves of beet and potatoes.
Removal of nutrients by agricultural crops and vegetables (kg.ha-1)

Plant Yield (t.ha-1) N P K Ca Mg

Wheat total 5 125 26 100 21 12
grain 95 20 25 - 6
Sugar beet total 40 176 28 188 10 34
roots 64 12 84 8 12
Potatoes total 30 150 26 198 108 27
tubers 75 14 105 63 7
White cabbage 70 248 42 166 196 21
Lettuce 10 23 5 35 14 2

Nutrient uptake

Plant can take nutrients by root and by leaves as well. Root uptake usually dominates except
carbon one which is usually taken as carbon dioxide

Nutrient uptake is mainly affected by the availability of nutrients at solid soil phase, caused
by their sorption. If the nutrient is released into liquid phase then is transported via diffusion
or mass flow on the root surface and subsequently taken by plants through root tips or root
membranes.

Nutrient uptake can also be affected by plants:

Soil root density, root length and root distribution in top soil as well in the subsoil play
an important role.
Soil rhizosphere which is thin layer of soil (up to 6 mm) surrounding active roots is
mediated by plants and is responsible for the improvement of nutrient uptake caused by
exudation of organic acids, sugars, amino acids and specific ions from the roots. Root
exudation and root uptake develop rhizosphere environment showing higher activity of
microbial population, and different pH compare to bulk soil.
Root activity can also be extended by several species of fungi living in associations
with roots of higher plants. The association between roots and fungi is called mycorrhiza.
Fungi strongly depended on higher plants and plant can benefit from the fungus.

Uptake of basic nutrients

Three main nutrients C, H and O create about 95% of dry biomass. Carbon is mainly taken as
CO2 hydrogen and oxygen as water.
Entering the plants C is assimilated in the chloroplasts with the help of sun radiation. There
are two steps of the process. In the first one, light energy is catch transformed and stored as
chemical energy accumulated in the ATP (adenosintriphosphate) or NADPH
(nicotineadenosindinucleotidphosphate).
In the second step the energy is released and used for the assimilation of CO 2 on the
ribulosobisphosphate (C3 – Calvin cycle) or on the phosphoenolpyruvate (C4 cycle)
C3 reaction is described on the picture bellow
Calvin cycle C3 assimilation of CO2

Activity of photosynthesis is affected by several factors sun radiation, concentration of CO 2

and temperature play usually the most important role. Figure 12 bellow show the higher
importance of sun energy compare to carbon dioxide concentration on the carbon
assimilation.

Figure 12 Effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on CO2 fixation in sugar-beet leaves

Nutrient estimation
Nutrient estimation is traditionally based on main soil parameters and nutrient status
which are important for optimum plant supply

Main soil parameters:

• soil pH, carbonate content
• available P, K, Mg
• other additional analyses

Balance of organic matter (OM) – the most important parameter for keeping of soil
fertility
Inputs – organic fertilizers (manure, compost, straw, green manure
- plant ressidues
- crop composition
Outputs – decomposition of organic matter due to soil tillage, plant management

Mean production and quality of organic fertilizers

Parameter manure urine slurry

  livestock horse poultry livestock livestock poultry

Production 8,5 9,0 10,5 5,7 20,9 35,1

[t.DJ-1.year-1]
Dry matter [%] 23,1 25,0 32,0 2,4 7,8 11,8
Organic carbon 17,0 20,0 25,0 2,0 6,0 8,3
OC [%]
Nitrogen total [%] 0,50 0,65 2,80 0,28 0,32 0,96
Phosphorus total. [%] 0,14 0,13 1,25 st. 0,07 0,29
Potassium total [%] 0,59 0,52 1,23 0,44 0,40 0,31
Calcium total [%] 0,32 0,21     0,13 0,94
Magnesium total [%] 0,09 0,11     0,04 0,06

Straw – content of organic matter and nutrients (%)

Straw OC N P K Ca Mg C/N

Wheat 82 0,45 0,07 0,64 0,21 0,07 90

Barley 82 0,50 0,18 0,94 0,28 0,05 80

Oil rape 80 0,53 0,11 0,85 0,81 0,16 80

Beans 80 1,29 0,16 1,07 0,91 0,16 25

Green manure – mean content of organic matter and nutrients (%)

Green manure % Yield

  OL N P K Ca Mg t.ha-1
Clover 18 0,56 0,08 0,26 0,31 0,08 10 – 15
Ryegrass 27 0,57 0,10 0,59 0,11 0,02 12 – 19
Oil seed rape 12 0,46 0,05 0,29 0,16 0,02 12 – 16
Pea 16 0,56 0,06 0,36 0,25 0,06 13 – 21

Major and minor nutrients

Toxic elements and compounds in soil and plants

Major nutrients – macronutrients (%, g.kg-1)

N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S

 They are taken up by plants as ions (cations or anions) from soil solution, N and S also
as gases from the atmosphere
 Nutrients are parts of the most important compounds in plants, playing crucial role in
plant development (proteins, nucleic acid, vitamins, phospholipids)
 If the content of nutrients in available forms is higher than usually they can cause
some damages in the environment

Minor nutrients – micronutrients trace elements (ppm, mg.kg-1)

Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Mo, B

  They are taken up by plants as ions, chelates, or nonpolar compounds from soil
solution
 Micronutrients are parts of enzymes or catalysts activated synthesis in plants
 They can cause environmental toxicity for different organisms at elevated levels in
soil

Nutrient cycles

For the estimation of balances between inputs and outputs of nutrients including potentially
losses into the environment nutrient cycles should be developed and evaluated.

Nitrogen cycle in the environment

Atmosphere

Man + animals

Fixation N 2 Organic fertilizers Fertilizers

Precipitation
Plants + deposition

Soil
ammonisation nitrification denitrification
Org. N N H 4+ N O3- N Ox N 2
mineralization
imobilization

The nitrogen example shows the extremely high differences in specific emissions of NO x
among main regions of Czech Republic and subsequent imissions of two nitrogen forms show
well mixation of gases in the atmosphere causing similar application of N around the whole
country.

Specific emissions of NOx-N (kg N/ha) from fixed sources in individual Czech regions
 180
1995 1998 2000 2003 2005
150
-1
kg N-NOx.ha .rok

120
-1

90

60

30

Specific emissions of NH3-N (kg N/ha) in Czech Republic

Year Emisions of N-NH3

1990 16,3
1995 8,9
2000 7,7
2005 7,1

Annual wet N deposition by net precipitation (kg N.ha-1)

40
N-NH4+ N-NO3-
35
Vysočina Ústecký Jihočeský Východočeský Praha
30

25
a.ro k-1
k g N .h -1

20

15

10

0
1 99 0

2 00 0
2 00 5

1 99 5
2 00 0
2 00 5

1 99 5
2 00 0

1 99 0
1 99 5

1 99 0

2 00 5
19 95

19 90

19 90

20 05

20 00
20 05

19 95
20 00

Balance of main nutrients consists of three main components

Inputs
  All kinds of nutrients in individual forms entering soil or plant directly
 Mobilization processes in soil releasing available forms of nutrients

Outputs

 Nutrients are removed from the field as harvestable parts of crops

 Immobilization of available nutrient forms into stable compounds kept in soil

Losses

 Transport of mobile nutrients through the soil profile out of root zone
 Transport of solid soil particles consisting nutrients from soil surface

Main components of nutrient cycle in crop production

Inputs
 Immissions
o wet
o dry
 Fertilizers
o mineral
o organic
 Waste
o sewage sludge
o Sediments
 Plant residues
 Soil nutrient transformation

Outputs
 Harvested crop
 Immobilization of nutrients in soil

Losses
 Into water
o leaching
o erosion
 Into atmosphere
o gas volatilization
o gas production

Soil, plant and food contamination

 Three main groups of contaminants damaging soil fertility, soil quality, crop production
and entering into food chain through plants and soil.
 According to contaminants origin, behavior and properties we can split it among:
 o Potentially toxic elements
o Persistent organic pollutants
o Pathogens

Potentially toxic elements (heavy metals, trace elements)

 Metals and metalloids of wide spectra of elements causing damages in the environment at
elevated levels.
o Important for plants
 Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Mo
o Important for animals
 Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Mo,Se, Zn, Cr (V, As)
o Toxic
 Ba, Be, Cd, Hg, Pb, Tl, Sb

Sources of potentially toxic elements

 Rock weathering
 Phosphate and possibly other fertilizers
 Pesticides
 Waste water
 Sewage sludge and organic fertilizers
 Ashes and sediments
 Atmospheric depositions

Main difficulties caused by potentially toxic elements:

 Wide spread in many areas of national economy

 Used as important compounds in plant and animal production
 Long term stability
 Specific behaviour of each individual element
 No available simple technique for metal decontamination

Persistent organic pollutants

 Differ in the composition of individual pollutants (from simple molecules to polymers)

 Differ in stability and degradation of compounds (from several days to several years)
 Differ in toxicity of individual compounds
 Usually limited solubility in water but good solubility in fat

Main groups of organic pollutants

 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) 207 congeners
 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and difurans (PCDD/F
 Organochlorine pesticides (DDT, DDE)
 Monocyclic aromatics (naphthalene, toluene)

Pathogenic organisms

 Organisms are mainly present in untreated materials of organic origin (sewage sludge,
slurry, manure)
 There are several toxins grown directly at plant products (mycotoxins)
 They are usually thermodegradable
 Salmonela, Clostridium, Leptospira belong among the most spread and dangerous bacteria
Environmental Factors Affecting Crop Production
(Josef Holec – holec@af.czu.cz)

All crops differ in their biological characteristics and their environmental requirements, while
the physical character of the earth’s surface varies greatly from place to place. A great many
variables influence plant growth, including day-length, the amount of solar energy received,
the amount of precipitation available for transpiration, temperature during growing season and
others. Many of these variables, all critical for successful plant growth, can be modified by
farmer. But all these modifications of the natural environment are costly. There are, however,
some parts of the earth’s surface where a particular crop will grow best without these
modifications, and a knowledge of such places helps to explain the distribution of crops.

Light

Solar radiation
Solar radiation is radiant energy (particularly electromagnetic energy) emitted from the
surface of the sun, which is powered by nuclear fusion. The electromagnetic radiation emitted
by the sun shows a wide range of wavelengths. Fortunately, the highly injurious ionizing
radiation does not penetrate the earth's atmosphere. About half of the radiation which reaches
the earth surface is in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The other
half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.

Solar radiation is unevenly distributed throughout the world because of such variables as solar
altitude, which is associated with latitude and season, and atmospheric conditions, which are
determined by cloud coverage and degree of pollution.
Seasonality – except of the equator, daylight hours are longest during the summer and shortest
in the winter, reaching their extremes at the corresponding solstice. Both intensity and
duration of light are affected by seasonality.

Ecological significance of light on Earth

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) – despite the fact that UV radiation can not be seen, it can be very
active in certain chemical reactions in organisms. UV radiation can be harmful to plant tissues
but UV also tends to promote the formation of plant pigments (anthocyanins) and can be
involved in the inactivation of hormonal systems important in stem elongation (in
greenhouses where UV is filtered by glass, plants show longer and weak stems compared to
plants outside the greenhouse).
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) – the light energy in visible spectrum is of greatest
importance in agroecosystems. Depending of local climatic conditions, it forms 40-60% of the
total energy of solar radiation reaching the earth surface. PAR is the light with wavelengths
between 400 and 760 nm. Green plants will not grow without the combination of most of the
wavelengths of light in the visible spectrum. Not all the light in this spectrum is of equal value
in photosynthesis. The photoreceptors in chlorophyll are most absorptive of violent-blue and
orange-red light; green and yellow light is not as useful. Since chlorophyll can not absorb
green light very well, most of it is reflected back, making plants appear green.

Infrared radiation (IR) – infrared light energy with a wavelength from 800-3000 nm (near
infrared) has an important role in influencing the hormones involved in germination, a plant
responses to changes in daylight, and other plant processes. In the range beyond 3000 nm, IR
becomes heat, and different ecological impacts are evident.

Response to light
Germination – the seeds of many plants require light to germinate; when buried beneath the
soil they do poorly (lettuce, some weed species). A single, brief exposure to light, such as
during cultivation when a weed seed is brought to the surface but immediately buried again as
the soil is turned, can be enough to induce germination. The seeds of other plants, such as
those of many of the cucurbits, have the opposite recruitment – the seed must be buried fully
in order to germinate because light actually inhibits germination. In all these cases, a light
sensitive hormone controls the response.
Establishment – early seedling establishment can be very much affected by light levels,
especially when seed germination or seedling establishment takes place under the canopy of
already established plants. Some seedlings are less shade-tolerant than others, and have more
difficulty establishing when there is a lack of sufficient light to maintain further plant
development.
Plant growth – when a plant is surrounded by others, the amount of light reaching its leaves
can become limiting and competition for light begins to occur. Competition for light is
especially likely in same species plant populations or in plant communities made up of very
similar species with similar light needs. Stem and leaf growth can be severally limited if
competition reaches the point where a plant is completely shaded by neighbors.
Photoperiodism – the life processes of many plants are influenced by relative lengths of day
and night. Plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants and day neutral plants.
Long day plants require a relatively long day for the formation of inflorescence, but they
increase in vegetative growth when the days are short. Among the long day plants are the
main crops of the temperate region. Short day plants are stimulated to vegetative growth when
the days are long, and produce flowers and seeds when the days are relatively short. Rice, soy
bean, cotton, hemp, Jerusalem artichoke and some ornamentals are short day plants. Other
crop plants and certain varieties of some previously mentioned crops tend to be rather
indifferent in their responses to photoperiodic influence – tomato, cucumber, sunflower or
beans are in the day-neutral group.

Temperature

Each organism has certain limits of tolerance for high and low temperatures, determined by its
particular adaptations for temperature extremes. Each organism also has an optimum
temperature range, which can vary depending on stage of development. These three points
(minimum, maximum, and optimum) are called cardinal points. Thus the temperature range
and degree of temperature fluctuations in an area can set limits on the crop species and
cultivars that a farmer can grow.

Latitudinal variation – the amount of solar energy actually absorbed by the surface over a
particular period of time is affected greatly by latitude. At or near the equator, incoming
radiation strikes the earth’s surface at a vertical angle. At increasing distances from the
equator, as this angle becomes shallower, the same amount of solar radiation is spread over a
larger area of the earth’s surface. This latitudinal variation in solar gain is one of the major
causes of latitudinal variations in temperature.
Altitudinal variation – at any latitude, as altitude increases, temperature decreases. On the
average, for each 100 m of elevation gain, ambient temperature drops approximately 0.5°C.
At the same time, the increasing thickness of the atmosphere at higher altitudes results in
greater loss of heat from both the soil surface and the air just above it. This phenomenon
contributes significantly to lower nighttime temperatures at elevations much above sea level.
Seasonal variation – seasonal differences in temperature over the surface of the earth are the
result of changes in the orientation of the earth in relation to the sun as it revolves around the
sun on its tilted axis. The degree of seasonal variation in average temperatures increases with
increasing distance from the equator.
Topographic variation – slope orientation and topography introduce variation in temperature
as well, especially at the local level. Slopes that face toward the sun experience more solar
gain, especially in the winter months. An equator-facing slope is significantly warmer than
pole-facing slope – all other factors being equal – and offers unique microclimates for crop
management.
Effect of temperature extremes
Heat – heat stress causes a decline in metabolic activity, which comes from inactivation of
enzymes and other proteins. Heat is also raising the rate of respiration, which can eventually
overtake the rate of photosynthesis, halting plant grow and ultimately killing plant issue.
Increased transpiration results to evaporative water loss and changes in internal water status.
Cold – when temperatures drop below the minimum required for growth, a plant can become
dormant, even though metabolic activity can slowly continue. Chlorosis may occur followed
eventually by death of the issue. Death at low temperatures is due to protein precipitation, the
drawing of water out of protoplasm when intercellular water freezes, and formation of
damaging ice crystals inside the protoplasm itself. Resistance to extremes of cold depends
greatly on the degree and duration of the low temperature or how quickly the cold temperature
comes about. Many plants are adapted to extreme colds by mechanisms that allow them to
avoid cold. Deciduous perennial shrubs and trees that lose their leaves and go dormant during
the cold period or annuals that complete their life cycle and produce seeds are good examples.

Vernalization
The term vernalization is used for internal processes induced by cold temperature, needed to
complete life cycle. Some plants need to undergo a period of cold, before certain
developmental processes can take place. That is why some winter crops cannot flower and
produce seeds when sowed in spring or summer (winter oilseed rape, winter wheat).

Water

Water is one of the most important (and often limiting) factors in agricultural production.
Water makes up to 70 % of the live mass of the plants and is directly involved in critical
metabolic processes such as respiration, photosynthesis, and nutrient transport. Conservation
and supply of water is often an important part of agricultural production.

Agricultural problems associated with water

Drought – a drought occurs when precipitation rates ate too low, temperatures are too high or
both. During drought, germination declines dramatically and crops that are able to established
cannot be productive enough without adequate moisture.
Flooding – flooding occurs when too much rain falls on an area, or when runoff from other
areas collects at one site. When a large volume of rain falls over a short period of time, it
cannot be absorbed by soil, so it will run off the surface and cause flooding. Soil pores fill
with water, displacing air – because roots of plants need oxygen to respirate and need to be
able to give off CO2, too much water in the soil inhibits respiration and can kill the plants.

Rainfed agriculture
Drought is an occasional hazard in al types of rainfed agriculture. Yield variation is less in
humid areas than in dry ones. However, the capital costs of standby irrigation equipment and
water supply are seldom justified except for high-value horticultural crops. Success in rainfed
farming depends upon the selection of appropriate crops and their cultivars. The general
principle is that crops will be most successful when their developmental cycle avoids or
tolerates periods of water shortage and makes the best use of the pattern of water supply in the
formation of yield.
Irrigated agriculture
Throughout the world, irrigation (water for agriculture, or growing crops) is probably the
most important use of water. Almost 60 percent of all the world's freshwater withdrawals go
towards irrigation uses. Large-scale farming could not provide food for the world's large
populations without the irrigation of crop fields by water gotten from rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
and wells. Without irrigation, crops could never be grown in the deserts of California or
Israel.

Efficient use of water in crop production in water-short environments

 Providing additional water (fallowing, irrigation)
 Improving the capacity of soil to accept- minimize runoff (surface management,
stubble, tillage, terraces)
 Increasing root penetration and or density to increase access to soil water
 Control weeds to maximize crop evapotranspiration
 Reduce evaporation relative to evapotranspiration – (mulching, surface management,
rapid leaf cover)
 Ensuring that no factor other than water limits growth (nutrients, pests)
 Selecting (breeding) crops that have high transpiration efficiency

Climate
Climate is the weather averaged over a long period of time. It is the statistical description
in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time. These
quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind.
The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO).
Agricultural production areas
Typology of environmental farming conditions (climate, soils, hydrology) in the Czech
Republic:
Agricultural production types - from 50th of 20th century till 1996 (maize production type,
beet p. t., potatoes p. t., mountain p. t.)
Agricultural production areas - since 1996
 Maize production area – 6.7% of agriculture land, altitude < 250 m above sea
level, average year temperature 9-10°C, precipitation 500-600 mm, soils:
Chernozem, Luvisol, Arenosol, medium heavy to light. Main crops: grain maize,
sugar beet, early potatoes, termophilous fruits and vegetables, grapevine, high
quality winter wheat and spring barley, soybean, sunflower, alfalfa (Southern
Moravia)
 Beet production area – 24.5%, < 350 m, 8 - 9 0 C, 500 - 650 mm, Chernozem,
Luvisol, Arenosol, medium heavy to light. Main crops: sugar beet, early potatoes,
vegetables, oilseed rape, hop, sunflower, alfalfa, winter wheat, spring barley (Elbe
region, Ohře region, Haná)
 Cereal production area – 40.5%, 300 - 600 m, 5 – 8.5 0 C, 550 - 700 mm, Orthic
Luvisol, Albic Luvisol, medium to heavy, main crops: cereals, oilseed rape, pea,
(sugar beet, potatoes – less suitable).
 Potatoes production area – 18.5%, 5 - 8 0C, 550 - 900 mm, Cambisol, Cambic
Podzol, medium heavy, main crops: potatoes, fodder cereals, oilseed rape, flax
(highlands near Pelhřimov, Havlíčkův Brod, Svitavy, Klatovy).
 Fodder crops production area – 10%, 5 - 6 0C, >700 mm, Stagno-gleyc Cambisol,
medium heavy, main crops: less suitable for crop production (potatoes, flax), high
percentage of pastures and meadows (submountain and mountain regions).
Cultural Practices in Crop Production

SOIL TILLAGE

Soil tillage is defined as mechanical or soil-stirring actions exerted on soil to modify soil
conditions for the purpose of nurturing crops. The aim of these actions is to provide a suitable
environment for seed germination and crop root development while suppressing weeds,
controlling soil erosion, and maintaining adequate soil moisture.
 Primary tillage is used initially to break and loose the soil. Crop residues, weeds
and/or manures are incorporated into the soil. Equipment used includes moldboard,
disk, rotary, chisel, and subsoil plows. The moldboard plow is adapted to the breaking
of many soil types. It is well suited for turning under and covering crop residues.
Different soils require different-shaped moldboards in order to give the same degree of
pulverization of the soil.
 Secondary tillage is used for seedbed preparation, weed management, erosion
management and/or pesticide incorporation. Used for stirring the soil at comparatively
shallow depths, secondary-tillage equipment is generally employed after the deeper
primary-tillage operations; some primary tillage tools, however, are usable for
secondary tillage. There are five principal types of harrows: the disk, the spike-tooth,
the spring-tooth, the rotary cross-harrow, and the soil surgeon. Rollers, or pulverizers,
with V-shaped wheels make a firm and continuous seedbed while crushing clods.
These tools often are combined with each other.
 Tertiary tillage begins after planting and includes the cultivation of crop rows.
In response to increasing costs of fossil energy, devastating soil erosion, intensive use of
fertilizers and pesticides, and environmental concerns in connection to with water pollution
and general operational costs, innovative farming technologies are urgently needed. Annual
crop systems do not have to remain dependent on extensive and repeated tillage and reduced
tillage can help improve soil quality and fertility.

Conventional tillage
Conventional tillage (also called intensive tillage) comprises all tillage types that leave less
than 15% of crop residues on the soil surface after planting the next crop or less than 1100
kg.ha-1 of small grain residue through a critical erosion period. Generally, such tillage
techniques include plowing or intensive tillage.
Conventional moldboard plowing that turns the soil followed by secondary tillage operations
for preparing seedbed is still used as the preferred tillage option in conventional agriculture,
especially in those systems producing annual grains and vegetables, or for soils with internal
drainage problems, e.g., clay soil with poor structure or for pure sandy soils. In the temperate
regions of Europe, the common cultivation practice is to plow in late summer or early autumn,
after disking or cultivating the stubble. The plow cuts and turns topsoil at various depths,
typically between 15 and 35 cm. This primary and secondary tillage is followed by post-
planting cultivation (often combined with herbicide use) for controlling weeds. Farmers can
be locked into a cycle of continuous plow tillage. The justification for this common practice
varies from yield security, residue-free soil-surface-improved seedbed preparation, and
drilling (especially where precision drilling of crops is used), to weed control and burying
weed seeds.
On the other hand, plowing often reveals common soil-related problems such as soil
compaction, soil erosion, deteriorated water percolation, and high energy and time
requirements. Where soil is at risk from soil erosion, plowing should be used only for good
specific agronomic reasons.
Conservation tillage
Conservation tillage is any tillage and planting system that covers 30% or more of the soil
surface with crop residues after planting. According to this definition, conservation tillage
includes no-tillage, ridge-tillage, mulch-tillage, and zone-tillage. Tillage types that leave 15-
30% residue after crop planting are included in reduced-tillage systems.
 No-tillage
With no-tillage, the soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting except for nutrient
injection. Planting or drilling is accomplished in narrow seedbed or slot created by
coulters, row cleaners, disk openers, or tine openers. Weed control is accomplished
primarily with herbicides. Cultivation may be used for emergency weed control. Other
common terms used to describe no-tillage are direct seeding, zero-till, slot-till, and slot
planting.
 Ridge-tillage
With ridge-tillage, the soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting except of
nutrient injection. Planting is completed in a seedbed prepared on ridges with sweeps,
disk openers, coulters, or row cleaners. Residue is left on the surface between ridges.
Weed control is accomplished with herbicides, cultivation or both. Ridges are rebuilt
during cultivation.
 Mulch-tillage
With mulch till, the soil is disturbed prior to planting. Tillage tools such as chisels,
field cultivators, disks, sweeps, or blades are used. Weed control is accomplished with
herbicides, cultivation or both.
 Zone-tillage and strip-tillage
These terms are not used as official survey categories because they are considered
modifications of no-tillage or mulch-tillage. Less than 25% row width disturbance is
considered no-tillage, more than 25% row width disturbance is considered mulch-till.

Several trade-offs are involved in the choice of tillage systems. Conventional tillage deals
most effectively with heavy stubbles. It also provides the most uniform seedbeds, the best
assurance of crop stand, and the best weed control. Yields tend to be greater with
conventional tillage than by other methods but risk of erosion during the crop period is also
greater. Conventional moldboard plowing is also the most costly soil tillage operation.
Dependence on herbicides for weed control increases with each reduction in tillage and no-till
systems are entirely dependent upon pre- and postemergence herbicides, rotation, and
competitive effects for weed control.
Nutrient cycling and fine root development vary with degree of residue incorporation
accomplished in the tillage. In untilled fields, nutrients tend to be leached from residues by
rainfall and losses to runoff are generally greater than when residues are incorporated. In
comparison with soils under conventional and reduced tillage, the surface layer of no-till soils
has much more organic content, more nutrients, and dramatically lower pH whereas lower
horizons generally have less organic matter and less nutrients. With nutrients and root growth
concentrated near surface, no-till crops are vulnerable to nutrient deficiency as the soil dries.
Deep placement of fertilizer is an effective solution to that problem.

CROP ROTATION

Crop rotation means changing the crops grown in a field, in a planned sequence from year to
year. If annual (vegetable) crops are grown in the same place year after year, there is a risk
that soil borne pests and diseases will become a problem, and that plant health and vigour will
decline. A better system is to move crops around the growing area. This ancient practice,
known as rotation, continues to be used today to the benefit of both soil and plants. Here are
some benefits of crop rotation:
 Pesticide costs may be reduced by naturally breaking the cycles of weeds, insects and
diseases.
 Grass and legumes in a rotation protect water quality by preventing excess nutrients or
chemicals from entering water supplies.
 Meadow or small grains cut soil erosion dramatically. Crop rotations add diversity to
an operation.

Crops differ in:

a) the quantity and quality of crop residues
b) the mode of rooting
c) the relation to organic manuring
d) the influence on soil structure
e) the relation to the soil nutrients reserve
f) the relation to soil moisture
g) the relation to pests and diseases
h) the length of vegetation

Ad a) Individual crops differ in the both quality as well as quantity of crop residues
(above- as well as under-ground organic matter), which remain after the harvest of a particular
crop in the field.
Crop residues are very important for the soil fertility status. General rule says: More residues
after the harvest of the crop, more beneficial to the fertility status of the soil. Cereals, legumes
and other crops form a special group, which leave a variable amount of crop residues after
harvest. It is because cereals even though they have poor root system they add to the soil a
good amount of straw and legumes can fix a pretty good amount of nitrogen via their
symbiosis with Rhizobium species.
The dynamics of the soil fertility is also influenced by quality of the crop residues. That
characteristics is given by the ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C : N).Optimum lies between 15:1
and 23:1. If the ratio is higher than 30:1 there is a real chance of the development of so called
nitrogen depression.

Ad b) Mode of rooting
There exist big differences among the crops on mode and depth of rooting. Further,
depending on the structure of soil profile and on climatic conditions of microenvironment
there are differences in rooting even within the species. As a general rule, there are
distinguished:

1. Deep-rooting plants
Their roots can reach nutrients, which are otherwise leached out through excessive rainfalls
or inappropriate drainage from the topsoil. Another advantage of such plants are: (1) their
roots provide mechanical processing of deep layers of soil profile, where farmers cannot
reach by their equipment while tilling the land ; (2) after dying of roots, their organic matter
accumulates there and there are spaces for air and water.

Examples: alfalfa (Medicago sativa), clover (Trifolium spp.), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris),
lupin (Lupinus spp.), soyabean (Glycine max)
2. Shallow – rooting plants
Their root system is spread only through the topsoil. Their roots need balanced soil solution
with directly available nutrients.

Examples: cereals (except maize), lentil (Lens culinaris), flax (Linum usitatissimum),
potatoes ( Solanum tuberosum)

There has been observed and experienced by farmers great beneficial effects while
alternating deep rooting crops with shallow rooting ones within the rotational system. After
the harvest of deep rooting plants the topsoil is enriched for nutrients transported from lower
layers, moreover in case of legumes for atmospheric N assimilated by Rhizobium species.
There are also optimal conditions prepared for successful development of root system of the
successive crop. The bigger area of soil profile is utilised more efficiently.

Ad c) Manuring is one of the main regulating measure in any crop-based farming system,
because there is an direct effect of it on development of soil life and active surfaces in the
soil. Through manuring farmers are giving back to soil most of the nutrients lost by harvest.
Individual crops have different demands on manure. For some crops, manure is essential
(potatoes, sugar beet..), others react positively through higher yield (some cereals and
technical plants) and still others are suppressed by manure in their development, but are in
perfect condition while cultivated as a successive crops to manured crops. The effect of
manure in temperate regions is usually longer than one vegetative season, so in that case
manure-loving crops are the best choice as foregoing crop.
Manured crops farmers add to rotation when there is considerable decrease in soil quality
from the cultivation of preceding crops (usually cereals or shallow rooting plants)

Ad d) Any plant has positive effect on the quality of soil structure. However, there are
differences in intensity of this positive effect. The type of root system and length of the
vegetative cover of soil are the main factors influencing the soil structure. While forming soil
structure, roots work mechanically and bio-chemically. In the process of rooting, young roots
disconnecting the soil particles, pressing them and forming soil aggregates. Microbial
organisms transform the root exudates with organic matter of death roots and surface roots
into high molecular compounds with colloid characteristics. These can agglutinate together
by mechanical forces to form structural aggregates. After the harvest, crop residues are
destroyed by soil microorganisms and further improve the quality of soil aggregates. Plants,
which recover the soil structure, e.g. soil is resistant against the compaction and erosive
effects of water – are perennial legumes and grasses or their mixtures. Some crops on the
other hand perform relatively negative effects on soil structure. These effects are not done by
plants themselves but by mode of their cultivation and harvest technologies. These crops are
potatoes, some broad row oil crops and technical crops, from cereals it is spring barley. To
reach the balance in soil structure within the rotation system farmers should rotate crops with
negative and positive effects on soil structure.

Ad e) Crops with high resorbence power can obtain nutrients from fixed bonds. After their
harvest the actual content of minerals is low – critical and farmers should not rotate two such
crops in a successive manner. In rotational systems the general practise is to insert crops with
high resorbence power after medium resorbence power plants (cultivated ad foregoing crop)
for they can utilize all the available nutrients. If we wish to improve yield, we can high
resorbance power crop insert after very good foregoing crop in order to utilize efficiently its
positive effect.
Examples: high resorbance power crops – oats, sorghum, lupin , buckwheat
low resorbance power crops – wheat, barley, bean, lentil, chickpea,

Ad f) There are big differences among crops in water demand for successful yield formation.
Firstly, it is a consequence of amount of water resorbed by plant during its growth. This
depends on transpiration intensity, density of crop stand, total biomass and depth fro which
water was resorbed. Amount of water, which remains in soil after harvest also considerably
depend on the mode of caring for soil during the vegetative season. Perennial forages,
especially alfalfa are the plants, which take off the soil th most of its water. Successive crop in
arid areas suffer from lack of water and give less yield. Instead of wheat, which is very water
demanding crop, it is more suitable to rotate other crop after perennial forages.
Other water demanding plants:
Sunflower, sugarbeet, cucurbitaceous and brassicaceous vegetables….

Ad g) Alternating the crops is basic rule in avoiding disease epidemics or harmful pests
attacks. Rightly conducted rotational systems prevent development especially those
pathogenic agents whose life cycle is longer than vegetative season (especially for temperate
regions or in areas where dry periods occur) or which are highly specific to their host crop.
Crops, which suffer attacks of the same pathogens is not advisable to rotate in succession
(time bound isolation) and moreover, it is desirable to create also spatial isolation. For
example, minimum time-bound isolation for Brassicaceae is at least four years, due to
Plasmodiophora brassiceae.

There is no one-size-fits-all crop rotation. Each garden/farm has its own unique soil, climate
and human and animal interaction. General guidelines for building crop rotation follows:
 Follow a legume-sod crop with a high-nitrogen-demanding crop such as corn to take
advantage of the nitrogen supply.
 Grow less-nitrogen-demanding crops such as oats, barley, or wheat in the second or
third year after a legume sod.
 Grow the same annual crop for only one year if possible to decrease the likelihood of
insects, diseases, and nematodes becoming a problem.
 Don't follow one crop with another closely related species, since insects, disease, and
nematode problems are frequently shared by members of closely related crops.
 Use longer periods of perennial crops, such as legume sod, on sloping land and on
highly erosive soils. Using sound conservation practices such as no-till planting or
strip-cropping along the contour may lessen the need to follow this guideline.
 Try to grow a deep-rooted crop, such as alfalfa, safflower, or sunflower as part of the
rotation. It can scavenge deep in the soil for nutrients and water, and channels left
from the decayed roots can promote water infiltration.
 Grow some crops that will leave a significant amount of residues to help maintain
organic matter levels.
WEED MANAGEMENT

Weed can be defined as a plant out of place, plant growing where it is not desired. It is a plant
that forms populations that are able to enter habitats cultivated, markedly disturbed or
occupied by man, and potentially depress or displace the resident plant populations which are
deliberately cultivated or are of ecological and/or aesthetic interest. But weeds can be also
viewed as valuable agroecosystem compound that provides services complementing those
obtained from crops. Human attitudes play a fundamental role in determining what plants are
weeds. From a purely ecological perspective weeds may be regarded as colonizers, plants that
are adept at capitalising on disturbance. Weeds are pioneers of secondary succession of which
the weedy arable field is a special case. Weed management is a systematic approach to
minimise weed impacts and optimise land use, and it is an approach that combines prevention
and control. Weed management emphasise minimising the effects of, but no eliminating,
weed populations.

Preventive weed management

The most basic of all weed control methods is prevention, that is, those measures taken to
forestall the introduction and spread of weeds. Such measures include production of weed-
free seeds, cleaning of weed-infested seed, and proper quarantine and regulation of
contaminated crop seed. Crop rotation is practised as a means of weed management to prevent
or reduce the build-up of high populations of certain weeds common to a particular crop.
Weeds are spread from continent to continent, region to region, and farm to farm.
Dissemination of weeds by this mean is largely preventable; only common sense and
diligence are needed to ensure success. Other preventable means of dissemination include
transport of seeds and plant parts from farm to farm on planting, tilling, harvesting, and
processing machinery. Manures and/or irrigation water often transport the seeds and
vegetative parts of weeds.
The overall concept of prevention has been overshadowed during the last decades by the
development and use of modern herbicides and effective mechanical weed control systems.
These tools have lead to mistaken impression that effective control always can be obtained
after weeds have invaded an area. This impression may hold true in some instances, but it will
eventually lead to added cost and increased potential for environmental problems.

Mechanical weed management

Mechanical weed management includes hand and machine tillage, mulching, flooding,
heating, cutting, pulling, and dragging. Mechanical methods are the oldest methods of
managing weeds. They can be done with unskilled labour and generally are economical, non-
polluting, without residual hazards, and relatively safe to operator.
 Manual weed removal. Hand pulling is one of the oldest weed management methods,
and it is most effective against annual and biennial weeds when entire root system can
be removed from the soil. It is still used also on large farms to eliminate weed escapes
rather than allowing such weeds to produce seeds and proliferate.
 Hoeing. Hoeing is the selective uprooting or cutting of weeds. It is most effective
against annuals and biennials, but established perennials may even succumb after
repeated hoeing. Hoes must be kept sharp for maximum effectiveness and easy to use.
 Hand hoeing by migrant workers and close cultivation is very effective weed
management practice in wide-row crops.
 Smothering with nonliving or living mulch. Mulches are effective in weed
management because they exclude light, provide a physical barrier to emergence, and
affect soil temperature and moisture. Common nonliving mulches are plastic sheets,
straw, grass clippings, chips of bark, sawdust and various others. Smother and cover
crops are receiving more attention because of their efficiency in reducing soil erosion
and inhibiting weed growth.
 Water management. Aquatic weeds can be managed by water drainage and terrestrial
weeds by flooding. Successful control of many terrestrial perennial weeds occurs after
several weeks to months of submergence.
 Heat or burning. Flame cultivators and weed burners can be used for selective and/or
non-selective weed management. Selective flaming is used to destroy cambial issues
in young weeds (not to burn weeds) especially in wide-row crops, including
vegetables.
Solarisation of soil has been accomplished by covering the soil with sheets of plastic.
Heating of wet soil surface by sunlight to temperatures greater than 65°C kills
nondormant weed seeds and greatly reduces weed seedling populations.
 Cutting or moving. Manual cutting implements are used on small infestations or areas
inaccessible to power mowers. There are various power mowers and mowing is a
common management practice for controlling weeds in shelterbelts and orchards.
 Tillage. Weed management is one of the most important purposes of tillage. This is
done by burial, cutting, desiccation, or depletion of food reserves of weeds. Also,
tillage stimulates bud and seed growth of weeds, which facilitates their subsequent
management.

Biological weed management

Biological management is a broad term for the exploitation of living organisms or their
products to reduce or prevent the growth and reproduction of weeds. The organisms, or agents
(bioagents), that have been used for biological weed management are diverse and include
various types of animals as well as plants, fungi, and bacteria. Biological management also
involves the use of crop competition, allelopathy, resistant varieties, natural chemical agents,
and other approaches. Biological management uses biological processes that are always at
work and that can be increased and manipulated to the detriment of weeds. Biological stress is
always happening at some level in weed populations that infest crops. Three approaches are
used in effort to regulate weed populations with herbivores and pathogens.
 Conservation methods involve modifying the environment to retain or increase
populations of resident control agents and intensify the damage they inflict on weeds.
 Inoculation methods involve introduction of relatively small numbers of biological
control agents that will suppress a target weed species as their populations establish,
increase, and disperse. In many cases, organisms used as inoculative control agents are
not native to the regions into which they are released and are collected from the
originally territory of their introduced host weed species.
 Inundation methods involve introducing either native or exotic control agents in large
numbers to suppress the target weed quickly. Organisms used as control agents are not
expected to persist for long periods or disperse long distances.
The use of any one organism as a weed biocontrol agent should be integrated with the use of
other weed-suppressive herbivores, pathogens, competitors, and management practices. The
possible impacts of introduced weed biocontrol agent on target and non-target organisms
should be rigorously evaluated and openly discussed before the agents are released.

Chemical weed management

Chemical weed management is the use of chemicals (herbicides) by man to control unwanted
vegetation. Currently, herbicides are the primary method for managing weeds in industrialised
countries and are becoming more widely used in developing countries. Multiple factors
promote the use of herbicides as primary tools for weed management. Herbicides can
markedly reduce labour requirements for weed management in both mechanised and
nonmechanised farming systems. Herbicide use is favoured by the adoption of reduced or no-
till practices and by the use of direct-seeding techniques in place of transplanting. But heavy
reliance on herbicides reduces their efficacy by selecting for tolerant or resistant weed species
and genotypes. Herbicides can also negatively influenced environmental quality and human
health. To minimise the potential for damage, effective weed management systems that are
less reliant on herbicides are needed.
 Herbicide mode of action. Herbicides can be defined as chemicals toxic to plants,
causing their damage and/or death. Their toxicity can have several reasons: Amino
acid synthesis inhibition (active ingrediencies like glyphosate and glyphosate
analogues, imidazolines and sulfonylureas); contacts-membrane disruption
(bipyridiniums, diphenyl ethers); hormonelike herbicides (benzoic acids, phenoxy
acids, 2-pyridinecarboxylic acids, quinolinecarboxylic acids); lipid synthesis inhibition
(cyclohexenediones, aryloxyphenoxypropanoates); photosynthesis inhibition
(biscarbamates, hydroxybenzo-nitriles, triazines, uracils, ureas); pigment synthesis
inhibition (aminotriazole, isoxazolidinones, pyridazinones); meristem mitotic
inhibition (dinitroanilines, N-phenylcarbamates, carbamothioates, chloroacetamides).
 Selectivity. Selectivity is a relative term, which indicates that a given herbicide is safer
to some plants than others. Non-selective herbicide is toxic to all plants while
selective herbicide is one that is much more toxic to some plants than others within the
limits of i. a specified dosage range, ii. the method of herbicide application, and iii.
environmental conditions that follow application. The selectivity can be result of
different physical placement (toxic concentration of herbicide is in direct contact with
weed but concentrations toxic to crop are prevented), differential absorption,
differential translocation, or differential metabolism.
 Application. Herbicides should be applied only to crops or other areas for which use
has been approved and specified on label. It is necessary to follow recommended
application rates. Overapplication may damage crops, or may cause deleterious off-
target effects. Herbicide application is limited only at times or growth stages specified
on label and farmers should closely observe all recommended posttreatment harvest or
feeding intervals, also the intervals recommended between application and planting of
follow-up crops. Important is also prevention of unnecessary human and animal
exposure to herbicide sprays and all treated areas. When mixing or handling
herbicides, farmers should wear goggles, rubber gloves, and other protective clothing
recommended by the label.
 Herbicide resistance in weeds. Herbicide resistance is an evolved condition whereby
exposure of a weed population to a herbicide leads to a predominance of genotypes
that can survive and grow when treated with herbicide concentrations that are
normally fatal in untreated populations. Under field conditions in which the same
herbicide or class of herbicides is applied repeatedly, herbicide resistance may evolve
in four to five years. Suggested strategies for preventing or delaying the evolution of
 herbicide resistance in weeds include using individual herbicides with different modes
of action sequentially and using mixtures of herbicides with different modes of action
concurrently. The underlying assumption in these strategies is that weeds are less
likely to evolve resistance to several unrelated compounds than to a single compound.
 Herbicide hazards and toxicity. Toxic hazard of pesticides vary greatly, and there are
two types of risk associated with pesticide use: acute poisoning, which results from
exposure to a single dose of the pesticide through handling, mixing, application, or
entry into or near treated areas (headache, skin and eye irritation, fatigue, dizziness,
nausea, cramping, fever, diarrhoea, and difficulty in breathing); and chronic poisoning
from repeated long-term exposure to low level of the pesticide (resulting in cancer and
disorders in of the immune, endocrine, neurological, and reproductive systems). Many
proponents of herbicide use do not find available data sufficiently compelling to
assume that herbicides pose important human health risk. Opponents believe there is
adequate evidence that they do, particularly in developing countries.

Individual weed species important for Central Europe can be found at

www.weed-atlas.eu
Plant Diseases
A plant disease is a disturbance from a pathogen or environmental factor that interferes
with plant physiology, producing changes in plant appearance (= symptoms) or yield loss.
These changes may result from direct damage to cells, from toxins or by-products that affect
plant metabolism, or from a pathogen's interference with nutrient and water uptake by the
affected plant_ Diseases can be caused by noninfectious agents or by pathogens, infectious
agents that can reproduce or replicate. Infectious agents causing plant disease include:
Viruses, A number of different viruses attack plants, causing various diseases. They
often cause mottling or other characteristic symptoms on infected plants, but
biochemical methods are required to confirm identification of plant viruses. Viruses occur
within host plant cells and are carried by the sap and vascular system within a plant, but
cannot move to a new plant host unless transmitted in sap, plant material, or other debris.
Wounds caused by human contact are a frequent method of virus transmission. Viruses may
persist in sap on tools used in grafting or pruning operations. A vector is an organism that
acquires a plant pathogen (such as a virus or mycoplasma) from an infected host and
transmits it to another. Certain types of insects (e.g., aphids, leafhoppers) are the most
important vectors of plant viruses. Feeding on infected plants causes them to acquire various
viruses that they may then transmit to uninfected plants. Some species of mites and
nematodes may also serve as vectors of plant viruses. Viruses can also be transmitted in seed or
other propagating material. In some cases, they are even transmitted by pollen, by a few types
of fungi, or by dodder, a parasitic plant. Incidental contact with plant wounds by living
organisms or inanimate objects is of concern for possible virus transmission. The host ranges
of particular plant viruses vary. However, some viruses have many weed hosts
from which vectors can acquire the virus and move it into crop plants. Some of the
more important virus diseases include tomato spotted wilt, tobacco mosaic, cucumber mosaic,
sugarcane mosaic, sugarbeet yellows, citrus tristeza, and several bean and squash mosaics.
Bacteria. Most bacteria are beneficial as decomposers, but others cause diseases in many
different kinds of organisms. Those that cause diseases in plants do not infect humans and
animals, and vice versa. Due to their extremely small size, identification is difficult and usually
requires chemical tests and growth on specific culture media. Their rapid reproductive rates
and short life cycles make bacteria the ultimate r strategists, capable of rapid colonization of a
susceptible host. Some bacterial plant pathogens may infect only one plant species while
others have wider host ranges. Depending on the bacterial species and the host, plant-
pathogenic bacteria cause blights, leaf spots, cankers, crown galls, vascular wilts, or soft rots.
Citrus canker and fire blight of pear are examples of important bacterial diseases. Other
bacterial species infect vegetable crops, causing a number of bacterial blights on foliage and
soft rots on fruit.
Mycoplasmas. Mycoplasmas are closely related to bacteria, and are also classified in the
kingdom Monera. Like bacteria, they are susceptible to certain kinds of antibiotics. Like viruses,
they require a vector or other mechanical means of transmission to infect a host plant.
Fungi. Although most fungi are involved in decomposition of organic matter , several
thousand species are plant parasites. Some may feed on living or dead plant tissue and may
become facultative parasites on damaged or unhealthy host plants. The life cycles of many
fungal parasites are complex and highly specialized. Fungal mycelia can be difficult to
identify, and often a fungus must be cultured to produce reproductive structures before a
positive identification can be made. Many fungi have alternate hosts on which they can
persist in the absence of a susceptible crop plant. Moisture is important in the life cycles of
many species (discussed later in this chapter). Fungi affect plants by causing leaf spots, rusts,
root rots, vascular wilts, or seedling damp-off. Fungi cause many serious diseases on
agricultural crops, such as cereal rusts, mildews, late blight of potato, and many others.
Noninfectious Agents of Plant Disease
Many symptoms of plant disease result from nonpathogenic causes. Deficiencies
of important macro- and micronutrients are a common cause of characteristic symptoms. If
deficiency alone is the cause, symptoms may be relieved by application of appropriate
fertilizer elements. However, nutrient deficiencies may also arise as complications from other
causes (root damage, pathogenic root diseases, nematodes, etc.), and in these cases, any relief
from nutrient application will be only temporary. A number of other factors commonly
cause noninfectious disease symptoms on plants. These include injury from frost, heat or
water stress, air pollution, chemical burns (pesticides or surfactants), lightning, etc. Herbicide
injury may occur from direct application or from residues in soil. Diagnosis can be
complicated because plant tissue killed or injured by these causes may be colonized by
secondary infections of bacteria or fungi.

Outline of methods for managing plant diseases in agriculture.

Method Remarks
Biological
Parasites Versus bacteria or fungi
Cross protection Versus viruses
Chemical
Fungicides Target fungi
Bactericides Target bacteria
Insecticides Target insect vectors of plant viruses
Physical
Soil sterilization Raises soil to temperatures that are lethal to plant pathogens
Soil solarization Raises soil to temperatures that are lethal to plant pathogens
Hot water Treatment of live plant material
Burning Kills plant pathogens in crop residues
Flooding Limited to specific situations
Radiation Limited postharvest application
Refrigeration Slows disease progress postharvest
Tillage Varies depending on situation.
Preventive
Quarantines Federal, state, regional levels
Certification programs Disease-free seed and plant material
Sanitation Many ways to limit disease introduction:
Site selection Plant in sites free of disease
Tissue culture Clean propagation material
Clean equipment Avoid disease spread on tools, soil, tractors, etc.
Remove crop debris Reduce inoculum source and buildup
Remove alternate hosts Weed hosts of viruses, other pathogens
Roguing Removal of infected plants
Pruning Removal of diseased wood
Cultural
Host-Cropping practices that improve plant health
Resistant cultivars Important method for disease management
Crop nutrition Favors crop needs rather than pathogen
Transplants versus direct seed Reduced exposure to soil diseases during seedling stage
Shallow planting of seed Reduced exposure to soil diseases during seedling stage
Environment-Cropping practices that reduce factors favoring disease
Irrigation type Minimizes leaf wetness
Wide row spacing Increases air circulation and drying of foliage
Low plant density Increases air circulation and drying of foliage
Soil drainage Wet soils favor many diseases
Timing of planting Useful for some situations
Pathogen-Cropping practices that may reduce plant pathogens
Liming Affects pathogens that need low pH
Crop rotation Useful versus soil pathogens
Cover crops Varies with situation
Organic amendments Varies with situation
Pests
Main groups of agricultural pests:
 Nematodes
 Mites
 Insect
 Moluscs (snails, slugs)
 Vertebrates (rodents)

Pest management strategies:

Prevention or exclusion. Preventive strategies are aimed at keeping a pest from entering
a region or field in which it is not present. A variety of preventive or sanitation tactics
may be helpful for this purpose, Preventive strategies are particularly useful in limiting the
spread and introduction of exotic pests across regional and international borders.
Eradication. These strategies attempt to eliminate a pest from an area in which it is
already present. When successful, spectacular results can be achieved . But eradication of
most pests, even from a single field, is an extremely difficult and expensive task. Not only
would it be nearly impossible, but it may not even be worthwhile to eliminate every weed
since very low numbers of weeds may have no impact on crop yield. For these reasons,
many people prefer to use the term "management" rather than "control" when referring to
reduction of pest population because, in practice, we rarely control or eliminate any pest.
Pest population reduction. Many pest management strategies focus on reduction of pest
numbers. Strategies for pest population reduction may be responsive, based on current
biological information obtained from a particular field, or they may be preemptive, based on
calendar or historical expectations.
No action. This can be an appropriate strategy for many minor pests and for situations when
a pest is not expected to be particularly damaging.

Regardless of the strategy chosen and the specific tactics used, two basic management questions
may be asked:
1. How should the pest be managed? (Or which tactic[s] should be used?)
2. When should the pest be managed, if at all? (Or is the management plan economical?)

Outline of methods for managing plant-parasitic nematodes in agriculture.

Method Remarks
Biological
Parasites Bacteria, fungi
Predators Mites, nematodes, etc.
Chemical
Nematicides Fumigants and nonfumigants
Physical
Soil sterilization By steam, hot water, microwave, etc.
Soil solarization See Application 10-2
Hot water Kills nematodes in planting material
Flooding Limited to specific situations
Tillage Not much effect on nematodes
Fallow Deprives nematodes of a host
Paring Cut infected parts from planting material
Propping Supports bananas with damaged root systems
Burning Affects foliar nematodes
Preventive
Quarantines Government programs
Certification Nematode-free planting material
Sanitation Critical in many areas:
Site selection Avoid nematode-infested sites
Tissue culture Clean planting material
 Clean equipment Avoid moving nematodes in soil
Remove crop debris Reduces future buildup of nematodes
Remove weed hosts Avoid points of nematode infestation
Cultural
Cropping practices that improve plant health
Resistant cultivars Important method for nematode management
Crop nutrition May improve crop tolerance to nematodes
Transplants versus direct seed Gives head start to root system
Timing of planting Use for some situations
Cropping practices that may reduce nematodes
Crop rotation Breaks nematode cycle by providing an unfavorable host
Cover crops Breaks nematode cycle by providing an unfavorable host
Organic amendments Inconsistent; results vary
Green manures Suppressive effects possible from some residues
Intercropping Inconsistent; often not much effect
Trap crops Risky

Outline of some methods for managing insect pests in agriculture.

Method Remarks
Biological
Predators Least specific biological agent
Parasitoids Often highly specific
Pathogens Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes
Sterile male release Regional effort in specific situations
Chemical
Insecticides Natural and synthetic products
Acaricides Target mites
Repellants Limited to specific situations
Attractants Pheromones
Physical
Soil sterilization Limited to specific situations
Hand-picking Inefficient; limited to small scale
Traps Includes flypaper, sticky traps, etc.
Barriers Limited to specific situations
Heat Postharvest control of insect pests in stored products
Radiation Postharvest control of insect pests in stored products
Flooding Limited to specific situations
Tillage Affects some kinds of insects
Burning Destroys pests in crop residues
Preventive
Quarantines Regional and government programs
Sanitation:
Crop residues Cleanup is important
Overwintering sites Cleanup is important
Damaged fruit Cleanup is important
Alternate hosts Cleanup is important
Pruning May limit access of some insects to trees
Cultural
Cropping practices that provide advantages to crop
Resistant cultivars Physical or nutritional effects
Crop nutrition A trade-off
Timing of planting Useful for some situations
Early harvest Reduce insect damage
Cropping practices that may reduce insects on crop
Crop rotation Useful against insects with narrow host range; limited mobility
Cover crops Useful against insects with narrow host range; limited mobility
Spatial heterogeneity Diversity maintained in several areas:
Intercropping Lowers some insects in main crop
Trap crops Attract insects away from main crop
Regional diversity In borders, other fields, landscape
CEREAL CROPS
Cereal crops dividing

- family Poaceae, with except buckwheat (family Polygonaceae) and amaranth (family
Amaranthaceae)

Ist group cereals IInd group cereals

Wheat (Triticum L.) Maize (Zea mays L.)
Barley (Hordeum L.) Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.)
Rye (Secale L.) Sorgho (Sorghum MOENCH)
Oat (Avena L.) Rice (Oryza L.)
Triticale (Triticale WITTMACK) Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum MOENCH)
Amarant (Amaranthus MOENCH)

Ist and IInd cereals group characterization

Ist group cereals:

- groove (rýha) is on the bottom side of the kernel
- they have hollow stalk
- they have lesser demands for warmth, higher demands for moisture
- they create winter and spring forms
- they have rapid initial development
- they need long day (14 – 16 hours) for formation of generative organs (ears)
IInd group cereals:
- kernel is without groove
-
stalk is filled by the pith (dřeň)
- they have higher demands for warmth, lesser demands for moisture
- they create only spring forms
- they have slow initial development
- they need short day (less than 14 hours) for formation of generative organs (ears)
Cereal crops importance and utilization

• Cereal crops were used for people nourishment many thousands year ago due to:
- easy grain harvesting
- easy storage from harvest to harvest
- possibility of reserves creation
- favourable proportion of basic nutritional matters
- extension in all continents
•
Cereal crops are the oldest culture plants

• Cereal crops have a decisive position in ecosystem on arable land (they occupy more than
50% of arable land in the zone temperate).
• They occupy the first place among crops in view of importance for people nourishment in
the world.
• Wide adaptation to environmental conditions of all continents (great genetic and varietal
diversity) is typical for them.
Structure of utilization of the world cereal crops production
For people nutrition For animal nutrition
World in total 822 000 000 tons 642 000 000 tons
U.S. 30% 70%
Europe 43% 57%
South America 45% 55%
China 80% 20%
India 98% 2%

Cereal crops utilization in people nutrition:

- they have favourable proportion of basic nutritional matters content (saccharides and
proteins)
- they occupy decisive portion of the energy uptake from food and often also substantial
portion of the total protein uptake
- about 60 – 80% of daily energy requirements is covered by cereal crops in developing
countries
- only 20 – 40% of daily energy requirements is covered by cereal crops in developed
countries
Flour products from different cereal crops (bread, pastry), malt and beer, alcohol (whisky),
rice, oatmeal, groats, pearl barley are the main cereal products for human nutrition.

Cereal crops utilization in animal nutrition:

- utilization of the whole cereal grain in animal nutrition (especially for feeding pigs and
poultry) – wheat, triticale, winter barley
- utilization of the whole cereal plants for animal nutrition (for livestock feeding) - maize

Cereal crops utilization for industrial purposes:

- starch – biodegradable materials (packing industry, building industry, pharmaceutic
industry), sticks, binders, powders – wheat, maize

Growing area and yield of grain of the main cereal crops in the Czech Republic (average of
the years 2000 – 2007)
(arable land 3 062 000 ha)
Crop Growing area % of the arable land Yield of grain
(ha) (t.ha-1)
Wheat 850 000 27.8 4.71
Barley in total 499 000 16.3 4.25
from this:
Spring (malting) barley 353 000 11.4 4.14
Winter (fodder) barley 146 000 4.7 4.54
Rye 44 000 1.4 3.92
Oat 59 000 1.9 3.04
Triticale 50 000 1.6 3.96
Maize 70 000 2.3 6.74
Cereal crops utilization as a source of renewable energy in the Czech
Republic:
• Present situation:
- since the January 2008 – compulsory addition of bioethanol to the car petrol
- at the beginning - mixtures of 2% of bioethanol and 98% of usual petrol unleaded
• In perspective:
- since the 2009-2010 – mixtures of 5% of bioethanol and 95% of petrol unleaded
- supposed consumption of bioethanol - 2 000 000 hl per year
- about 600 000 tons of cereal grain (wheat, triticale) from cca 140 000 ha per year will be
need for demanded production of 2 000 000 hl of bioethanol

Percentage of the various cereal crops of the total structure of cereals in the Czech
Republic

maize triticale other cereals

oat winter wheat
5% 4% 1%
3% 47%

spring barley
25% winter barley rye spring wheat
8% 3% 4%

Environment requirements

Climatic requirements:
Considerable differences of different cereal crops in climatic requirements.

• Ist group cereal crops – generally less warm-required:

- wheat is the most demanding (warmer and drier conditions of maize and sugar beet growing
regions)
- rye is the most resistant – it is main cereal crop of mountain and sub-mountain regions, high
frost-resistance

• IInd group cereal crops - generally more warm-required:

- maize – warm- and moisture-demanding
- sorgho – warm-demanding, moisture-undemanding
- rice – highly warm- and moisture-demanding

• Considerable progress in breeding of some cereal crops of the II nd group is evident –

breeding for earliness and cold-resistance, expanding of selected varieties to the zone
temperate, including the Czech Republic (sorgho)
.

Soil requirements:
Considerable differences among different cereal crops in soil requirements.

• Ist group cereal crops:

- wheat - the most-demanding cereal crop (black soils, brown soils, soils with a good humus
content and pH neutral)
- rye – cereal crop of light, sandy, more acidic soils
• IInd group cereal crops:
- intolerant to heavy, cold and water-logged soils
- maize is the most-demanding
- sorgho is less-demanding – tolerant also to acidic soils and salinisation

General principles of winter cereal crops growing technology

Including to crop rotation, soil preparation:

• Main principles of winter cereals growing technology are similar for different species.
• Including to crop rotation after the improving forecrops – legumes, root crops, pulses, oil
crops
• In the high percentage of cereal crops in crop rotation (over 50%) is cereal crop frequently
ranked after other cereal crop
• Rye, triticale and winter barley are more tolerant to cereal forecrop
• Soil preparation – in accordance with the lenght of period between forecrop harvesting and
cereal crop sowing. Prevailing practice: stubble ploughing (10 – 12 cm), tillage (18 – 22 cm),
pre-seeding preparation.

Recommended time of winter cereal crops sowing:

• From the half of September to the half of October (15.9. – 15.10.).

Recommended sowing rates (sowing rate = number of germinating

kernels/m2):
• Usually 350 – 450 kernels/m2.

Winter cereal crops overwintering:

• Cereal crops should optimally have about 2 - 3 offshoots per plant to the winter beginning.
• Cereals crops stop their growth in autumn in temperature below +5°C
• Frost resistance: rye (to –30°C), triticale (to –20°C), wheat (to –20°C), multi-row barley (to
–15°C)
• Long time snow cover – plant damaging by the snow mildew – Fusarium nivale
• Plants waterloggeding by water from the snow thawing – plants asphyxiation
• Plants damage in temperature fluctuation over and below 0°C – soil movements – root
cracking

Plant nutrition and fertilization:

• P, K and Mg doses – determination on the basis of soil analyses, soil type and productivity
of growing locality. Ploughing under by stubble ploughing or tillage. Doses of P2O5 45 - 125
kg.ha-1, doses of K2O 50 - 200 kg.ha-1, doses of MgO 40 - 140 kg.ha-1.
• Liming – usually is not necessary.
• Organic fertilizers – usually are not used.
• The main nutrient – nitrogen. Total dose of N – in agreement with forecrop, growing locality
and growing intensity. Orientation N doses in total: for winter wheat 80 – 120 kg.ha -1, winter
barley and rye 60 – 90 kg.ha-1, triticale 80 – 120 kg.ha-1.

Nitrogen doses dividing:

• Autumn (basic) N dose – before sowing - usually is not used.
• Regeneration N dose – from the end of February to the half of March (30 – 40 kg N.ha-1).
• Production N dose – on the begenning of shooting (40 – 50 kg N.ha-1).
• Late, qualitative N dose – from the earing to flowering (30 kg N.ha-1).

Weed, pest and disease control:

• Weed control:
- in autumn - first treatment by herbicides (application between cereal sowing and
germinating)
- in spring - another treatment according to weeds occurrence in cereal growth.

• Pest control:
- aphis – sucking on leaves, limitation of assimilats intake to grain
- larvae of different beetles – damage of tissue and perforation of leaves
- treatment – application of insecticides

• Diseases (some examples):

Diseases damaging bases of the stalks:

„Eyespot disease“ (stéblolam) - brown spots
on the base of stalks, disposition to lodging.
Treatment by the seed dressing.
Diseases of leaves :
„Grass mildew“ (padlí travní) – Erysiphe
graminis; leaves spots, fungi rusts – reducing
assimilation organs output. Treatment by
fungicides.

Diseases of ears:
Fusarium sp. fungi – invasion to ears
and grains, production of dangerous
metabolits - mycotoxins. Treatment by
fungicides.

Cereal crops yield components

Cereal crops grain yield is formed by the following yield components:

1) Number of ears per area unit – m2 (E)
2) Number of grains in one ear (G)
3) Grain weight (weight of 1000 grains in grams) (W)

Grain yield in tons per ha is possible to calculate from the following relation:

Y (t/ha) = E x G x W
100 000

Average values of the cereals yield components

Cereal crop/ Number of ears per Number of grains in Weight of 1000
yield component m2 ear grains (g)
Winter wheat 400 – 650 26 – 35 38 – 46
Multi-row winter 500 – 650 35 – 45 35 – 42
barley
Two-row spring 650 - 1100 15 – 20 36 – 44
barley
Rye 350 – 550 26 – 34 30 – 36
Oat 400 – 550 30 – 35 28 – 35
Triticale 450 - 650 26 - 32 38 – 42

Harvest and post-harvest treatment

• Cereal crops are harvested in full ripeness, optimal moisture content of grain during the
harvest 14%.
• Stands for the food utilization are harvested at first.
• Delayed harvest – unfavourable influencing quality and yield.
• Moisture content in grain during the harvest higher than 15% - necessity of the post-harvest
grain drying in the grain drying houses.

Quality evaluation

Requirements for quality of wheat

Quality parameters of grain Wheat for bread Wheat for biscuits and
(proofing dough) pastry

Moisture content (%) max. 14 max. 14

Test weight (kg.hl-1) (objemová hmotnost) min. 76 min. 76
Protein content (%) min. 11,5 max. 11,5
Sedimentation index (ml) min. 30 max. 25
Falling number (s) (číslo poklesu) min. 220 min. 220
Impurities (%) max. 6 max. 6

Requirements for quality of malting barley

Quality parameters of grain
Basic quality of the malting barley grain
Moisture content (%) 14
Percentage of grain over the sieve 2,5x22 mm 95
(%)
Grain admixtures (%) 2
Germinability (%) 98
Protein content (%) 11

ROOT CROPS
General characterization and dividing

Root crops:
- products with the high content of moisture (70 - 90%)
- very productive crops with the high yields
- source of energetically rich matters (saccharides)
Root crops dividing:
- root (bulb) crops : sugar and fodder beet (Beta vulgaris L., var. altissima)
- tuber crops: potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.)
S U G A R B E E T

Sugar beet importance and utilization

• Sugar beet was originally cultivated in gardens like ornamental plant.
• Like technical crop for sugar production was used from the beginning of 19th century.
• The biggest world producers of sugar from sugar beet are: Germany, France, Italy, Poland,
Russia, Ukraine, U.S., China.
• The biggest world producers of sugar from sugar cane are: Brazil, Cuba, Mexiko, India,
Indonesia.

Sugar beet utilization:

• Technical crop for sugar production
• Fodder purposes (beat leaves – top, by-products from the sugar factory – cuttings and
molasses)
• Beet distillery (on the beginning) – ETBE (ethyl-tercial-butyl-eter) production – alternative
bio-fuel

Sugar beet and sugar consumption in the Czech Republic:

• Annual consumption of sugar in the Czech Republic per person and year is 39 – 40 kg.
• This consumption is possible to ensure on growing area 60 – 70 000 ha, in sugar content in
sugar beet root 16% and sugar beet yield 42-45 t.ha-1.

Production of sugar in the world and percentage of sugar from sugar beet on total sugar
production (the rest – sugar from sugar cane)
Year World sugar production Percentage of sugar from
in total sugar beet
(tons) (%)
1980 88 014 000 35.6
1996 122 268 000 29.8
2006 146 184 000 25.5

Long-term average production parameters of sugar beet in the Czech Republic

Yield of roots 45 – 50 t.ha-1
Yield of the raw sugar 7 – 9 t.ha-1
Yield of the white (refined) sugar 5 – 7 t.ha-1

Quotas of sugar production for EU and for the Czech Republic

EU Czech Republic
Existing quotas of sugar 17 440 000 t 450 000 t
Sugar beet yield formation
• Yield of sugar is given by number of roots per ha, by their average weight and sugar content
in root.
• Production process is limited especially by:
- quality (organization) of stand – number of plants per area unit, density of plants and
distance between plants
- lenght of production process (lenght of vegetation)
Average yield components of sugar beet
Number of plants 80 – 100 000 per ha
One root weight 600 – 800 g
Sugar content in root (in percentage) 16 – 18 %
Sugar content in one root (in grams) 80 – 120 g

Sugar beet requirements for environment

• Soil type: very fertile black and brown soils with a good humus content
• Lenght of vegetation period: more than 180 days
• Average daily temperature: over 8°C
• Precipitations per vegetation: 250 – 400 mm
• The main growing regions in the Czech Republic: Polabí, South Moravia, Haná
General principles of sugar beet growing technology

Including to crop rotation:

• The most suitable forecrops for sugar beet – winter cereals.
• Unsuitable forecrops - legumes (worse field germination of sugar beet due to undecomposed
remains from forecrop).
• It is suitable to use stubble catch crops for the green manuring in crop rotations with the high
percentage of sugar beet (about 40%). Like stubble catch crops are used for example crops
from the family Brassicaceae (oilseed rape). They are cultivated to the growth stage „leaf
rose“, then they are ploughed under by tillage to the soil for enriching of soil about organic
matter and improving properties of soil.
• Sugar beet is susceptible to the beet eelworm if grown frequently on the same field. To
avoid this, sugar beet should be followed on the same field by three years of cereals.
Fertilization:
• Organic fertilization – is necessary. Farmyard manure about 40 t.ha -1 is usually ploughed
under during the September.

• Doses of mineral fertilizers:

- average dose of phosphorus about 60 kg of P 2O5.ha-1 and potassium about 100 kg of K 2O.ha-
1
, application in autumn
- average dose of nitrogen 80 – 120 kg N.ha-1, application in spring

Soil preparation and stand formation:

• In autumn: stubble ploughing, P and K ferilizers ploughing under by tillage to a depth of 18-
20 cm during the August or September, then deep tillage to a depth of 24-30 cm during the
October.
• In spring: – pre-sowing soil preparation to a depth 3-4 cm, sowing.

• Sugar beet stand formation:

- row-spacing - 45 (50) cm
- distance between the plants in row 18 – 21 cm
- time of sowing 15.3. – 10.4., soil temperature min. 5°C

Weed, pest and diseases control:

• Weed control:
- mechanical treatment - stubble ploughing, line weeding
- chemical treatment (application of herbicides in two or three terms by the weed growth)

• Pest control – the most important pests:

- eelworm (damaged roots have subglobular form with many small roots – like root celery)
- aphis – sucking on the leaves, treatment by insecticides
- fleabeetles – leaves damaging (perforation), treatment by insecticides

• Diseases (some examples)

Sugar beet mildew –

fungal disease – white covers on leaves,
treatment by fungicides

Rhizomania – virus disease – browning

and rotting roots, yellow spots on leaves,
treatment – using tolerant varieties

Sugar beet harvest

• Harvest beginning – usually on the beginning of October, end of harvest usually to the
November 15th
•
Harvest in the technological maturity – sugar beet is suitable for processing, rate of sugars to
non-sugars is optimal. Sugar beet leaves are yellowed and downbent.
• Beet is topped before lifting, then loaded to the truck and transported to the sugar factory.
• Total harvest losses should not exceed 5 – 10%.

Sugar beet growth in technological maturity Sugar beet with leaves topped by the clean cut

Sugar beet quality

• Quality of sugar beet is given by the technological quality of roots.

• Root should be healthy, unfrostbitten, topped by the clean cut.
• The basic quality parameters are:
- sugar content – polarization (P) – content of sucrose in root (in average 16 – 19%)
- soluble ash content in root (Pp)
- alpha-amino nitrogen (harmful N) – nitrogen from amino acids

Sugar production in t.ha-1:

SP (t.ha-1) = sugar content (%) x yield of roots (t.ha-1)

100

Price of sugar beet is calculated per 1 ton of sugar beet at the basic sugar content 16%. At
lower sugar content is applied price discount, at higher sugar content price surcharge.

POTATOES

Potatoes importance and utilization

• Potatoes were grown on the area of present Columbia, Peru, Chile, Ecuador and other South-
American countries many hundreds years before America discovering.
• In Europe - first information about their cultivation from 1565 (in Spain).
• In Bohemia – first information about their cultivation from the second half of 17th century.
• The highest potatoes widening in Bohemia during 19th century and before the World War
Second.
• After 1990 great decreasing of growing area.
• People nourishment
- important source of saccharides (energetic value)
• Animal nourishment (especially substandard potatoes – feeding for pigs)
• Industrial raw material for the starch and bioethanol production
Utilization of potatoes world production in total:
- 52% for people nourishment
- 34,5% for animal feeding
- 11% for new cultivation (seed potatoes)
- 2,8% for starch production
- 0,7% for bioethanol production

• The biggest world producers of potatoes: U.S., Canada, Germany, France, Netherlands,
Great Britain.
• Consumption of potatoes in the Czech Republic per person and year 75 – 80 kg.

Potatoes growing area, yield and production in the Czech Republic

Year Harvest area Yield Production
(ha) (t.ha-1) (tons)
1970 229 301 16.91 3 873 000
1980 130 043 15.03 1 921 000
1990 109 664 16.06 1 755 000
1995 77 869 17.08 1 330 000
2004 54 137 20.94 1 133 000
2006 35 974 24.85 893 815

Utility ways of potatoes

Utility way Potatoes utilization
Seed potatoes Healthy seed, specific technology in the seed regions.
Table early potatoes Very early varieties harvested in June and July, so called „new
potatoes“
Table late potatoes Potatoes for consumption during the all year, harvested in
August and September
Potatoes for the special Special requirements for quality of tubers in relation to product
food products (chips, frozen products)
Industrial potatoes Potatoes for production of starch and bioethanol (high yield,
high content of starch in tuber – over 17%)
Fodder potatoes For animal feeding (pigs) – especially substandard tubers

Potatoes yield components

• Potatoes yield is given by: number of potatoe plants per ha (40-55 000), number of tubers
per plant (9 – 20), weight of one tuber (40 – 90 g).
• Ideal potatoe plant should have: higher number of stems (5-7), lower number of tubers per
plant (10 - 12), higher weight of tuber (about 70 g).
•
Potatoes yield should be 25 t.ha-1 and more.
Requirements for environment

• Temperature during the vegetation period – optimally 15-20°C

• Potatoes need higher precipitations during the vegetation period.
• Potatoes have low cold-resistance.
• Typical growing region of potatoes in the Czech Republic – Českomoravská highlands
(annual precipitations 650-800 mm).
• Potatoes prefer lighter, sandy loam, permeable soils, pH 5,5-6,5.
• Organic fertilization (farmyard manure) is necessary.

General principles of potatoes growing technology

Including to crop rotation:

• The best forecrops: legumes, pulses, silage maize, fodder beet.
• In practice usually given between two cereals.
•
They should be followed on the same field by 3 – 4 years.

Fertilization:
• Combination of organic and mineral fertilizers is the most efficient.
• Farmyard manure (30-40 t.ha-1) – application in autumn (by tillage).
• P and K mineral fertilizers – application in autumn along with the organic ferilizers.
• N ferilization in spring – usually total dose before seeding (early potatoes 110 – 130 kg
N.ha-1, semi-late and late potatoes 80 – 90 kg N.ha-1).

Choice of varieties:
•Dividing of the potatoes varieties by the lenght of vegetation season:
- very early (to 110 days)
- early (110 – 120 days)
- semi-early (121 – 130 days)
- semi-late (131 – 145 days)
- late (over 145 days)

Stand formation:
• Row-spacing 75 or 70 cm
• Late potatoes – 40 - 46 000 plants per ha
• Early potatoes – about 50 000 plants per ha
• Term of seeding: to 20.4. in the sugar beet growing region, from 30.4. to 15.5. in the
potatoes growing region
• Deep of seeding 6 – 8 cm

Cultivation during the vegetation season:

• Herbicides treatment before potatoes germination is used usually.
•
Ridging by the special ploughshare several times from the germination of stand to the
beginning of buds formation is necessary.
 First ridging after stand germination

Last ridging on the beginning of buds formation

• The most important pest:

- Colorado beetle (mandelinka bramborová) -
treatment by insecticides

• The most important disease:

- potatoes blight (plíseň bramborová) -
treatment by fungicides

Potatoes harvest and storage

• Healthy stands – harvest in full maturity (dry leaves, potatoes skin firm and ripe).
• Stands damaged by potatoes blight – premature destruction of leaves mechanically or
chemically (prevention to transfer infection from the leaves to the tubers). Harvest is possible
minimally 10 days after leaves destruction.
• Harvest by special potatoes harvesters.

Potatoes storage
• Storage in the special potatoes stores.
• On the storage beginning (first 10 – 14 days after the harvest) – optimal store temperature
15 – 18°C.
• Then cooling-down to the final store temperature (4 – 6°C).
• About 14 days before delivering from the store – increasing temperature to 10°C (increasing
resistance to manipulation).
• During all storage time – optimal air moisture 93 – 98%

Quality evaluation of potatoes for human consumption

• Evaluation:
- look of fresh, raw tubers
- look of tubers after boiling
- smell of boiled, bisected tubers
- taste
- darkening after boiling
- cooking type

Individual signs are evaluated by classification on points, total number max. 100 points, min.
50 points.

Dividing of potatoes according to cooking type:

• Cooking type A – tallowish potatoes, solid, strenght cooking consistence (for potatoes salad)
• Cooking type B - lightly mealy (usual side dish potatoes)
• Cooking type C – mealy potatoes (for mashed potatoes)
• Cooking type D – intensely mealy potatoes, unsuitable for people consumption

Quality evaluation of industrial potatoes

• Evaluation:
- Starch content in tuber (13 – 25%)
-
(low starch content - to 15%, medium starch content 15.1 – 18%, high starch content - over
18%)
OIL CROPS

Oil crops importance and utilization

• Oil crops – plants with economically important oil content.

• The most important oil crops from the world point of view: soybean, oilseed rape, cotton,
groundnut, sunflower, olive, coconut (copra), oil palm, flax, maize.
• The most iportant oil crops from the european point of view: oilseed rape, sunflower, olive,
soybean, flax, maize.
• Oil crops are important raw material for the food industry (source of the plant oil) - for the
people nourishment (oilseed rape, soybean, olive, sunflower, groundnut, palm oil, maize,
poppy).
• Raw material for food industry (source of protein) – for people nourishment (soybean).
• Industrial raw material (source of the plant oil) for chemical industry (oilseed rape, flax) and
renewable energy resource instead of fossil fuels – bio-diesel (oilseed rape).
• Fodder raw material – extracted meals (extrahované šroty), seed pomace (výlisky) or the
whole seeds – part of feed mixtures for animals.
• Oil crops biomass is used as a green manuring (stubble catch crops) (strniskové
meziplodiny).

Plant oil source

Plant oil is contained in different types of the oil crops fruits:
seed – oilseed rape, soybean, groundnut, flax, poppy
achene - sunflower, cotton
nut – coco palm
pulpy drupe - olive, oil palm

World production of the most important oil crops

Production (tons) %
Soybean 198 730 000 57.74
Oilseed rape 37 990 000 11.04
Cotton 34 820 000 10.12
Sunflower 25 490 000 7.41
Groundnut 33 660 000 9.78
Oil palm 8 080 000 2.35
Coconut (copra) 5 380 000 1.56
World in total 344 160 000 100
Harvest area and yields of the main oil crops in the Czech Republic (average 2000 -2006)
Oil crop Harvest area Yield
(ha) (t.ha-1)
Oilseed rape 320 000 2.8
Poppy 32 000 0.8
Sunflower 35 000 2.2
White mustard 34 000 1.2
Oil flax 3 400 1.1
Soybean 10 000 1.6

Winter oilseed rape – importance in the Czech Republic

• Winter oilseed rape is the most important and widespread oil crop in the Czech Republic
(percentage on the processed oil production about 95%).
• After 1989 became important transformation crop of the czech agriculture – replacement of
traditional fodder crops (fodder beet, fodder legumes).
• Winter oilseed rape – the most important export commodity of the total czech crop
production.
• The most important crop for production of the plant oils in the Czech Republic (food and
technical usage).
• By-products after the pressing oil – rapecakes and extracted meals (pokrutiny a extrahované
šroty) are important components of fodder for animals.
• Energetic utilization – oilseed rape straw – direct combustion, methyl-esters of the rapeseed
oil – production of bio-diesel.
• Stubble catch crop for the green manuring.

Oilseed rape – utilization for production of bio-diesel

• Bio-diesel is mixture of the usual diesel and methyl-esters of the rapeseed oil.
• Pressed rapeseed oil is modified by the process of reesterification (creation of methyl-
esters).
• Quality parameters of methyl-esters of the rapeseed oil during combustion are almost the
same like in usual diesel.

• Present situation of bio-diesel in the Czech Republic:

- from September 2007 – compulsory addition of methyl-esters of the rapeseed oil to the usual
diesel
- at the beginning - cca 2% portion of methyl-esters in the total volume of diesel marketed in
the Czech Republic
- in the year 2008 – supposed consumption of 947 000 hl of methyl-esters; it means cca
233 000 tons of the rape seeds
- since 2009-2010 – increase of methyl-esters portion in diesel to 4.5%

Agroecological advantages of winter oilseed rape

• Winter oilseed rape has a positive effect in crop rotations: increasing of soil fertility,
decreasing of usage of the mineral fertilizers, reducing of weeds.
• Excellent forecrop for cereal crops, especially for winter wheat.
• Growing is successful also in regions with high sulphur immissions (round about coal power
stations).
• Oilseed rape straw – important organic fertilizer.
• Important source of feed for bees.
Environment requirements

• Main growing regions for winter oilseed rape – potatoes, cereal and sugar beet regions

• The most suitable soil-climatic conditions for the winter oilseed rape:
- lighter, sandy loam and loam soils
- annual sum of precipitations 500 – 750 mm, annual average of temperature 6.5 – 8.5°C
• Oil-seed rape is intolerant to:
- heavy, waterlogged soils
- localities with hard frost –15 až –20°C (frost-heaving)
- localities with long-term continuous snow layer

Present level of the winter oilseed rape yield components

Yield component Present level
Number of plants per m2 (in autumn, after germination) 60 – 80
Number of pods per plant 80 – 100
Number of seeds per pod 15 – 20
Weight of thousand seeds (g) 4,5 – 5,0
Harvest losses (%) 5 – 20
Available yields (t.ha-1) 2.7 – 4.0

General principles of winter oilseed rape growing technology

Including to crop rotation:

• Winter oilseed rape should be followed on the same field by 4 – 5 years.
• Forecrop has to allow winter rape sowing during the August.
• The best forecrops for winter rape: early potatoes, peas.
• The most frequent forecrops: cereals, especially winter barley.
• Winter rape is excellent forecrop for cereals.
Fertilization:
• It is possible to use organic ferilizers (farmyard manure max. 20 – 30 t.ha-1), it is necessary
to plough under min. 3 weeks before sowing, together with P, K and Mg fertilizers.
• High demands for sulphur – application in spring together with nitrogen fertilizers
• N fertilization:
- during regeneration period after overwintering 60 – 70 kg N.ha-1
- on the beginning of stem elongation 70 – 80 kg N.ha-1
- during the period of yellow buds 20 – 30 kg N.ha-1

Stand formation:
• Sowing from the half to the end of August
• Sowing rate 2.5 – 4.0 kg.ha-1 (60 – 90 seeds per m2)
• Number of plants in spring (after overwintering) 40 – 60 per m2
• Row-spacing
12.5 cm or 21 – 25 cm
• Deep of sowing 1.5 – 2 cm

Plant protection:
• Weeds – treatment by the herbicides.
• Pests - treatment by the insecticides.
• Diseases – treatment by the fungicides.

Harvest and postharvest treatment

• Harvest in the second half of July.

• Seeds should be in the full maturity, darkly coloured.
• Seed moisture 14 – 16%.
• Postharvest airheating drying (to seed moisture under 8%).

Oilseed rape quality requirements

Quality parameters:
Seed moisture content (%) max. 8
Impurities (%) max. 2
Erucic acid content (%) max. 2
Oil content (%) min. 42
Glucosinolates content (mol.g-1 of seeds) max. 30
(glukosinoláty = antinutriční látky)
Sprouted seeds ( porostlá semena) (%) max. 2

Poppy – importance and utilization in the Czech Republic

• Human usage – poppy seeds (bakery products, sweets, cakes)

• Important raw material for the pharmaceutic industry – poppy dry straw (content of
alcaloids – morfine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine)

Environment requirements, including to crop rotation

• Poppy has not any special requirements for environment.

• The main growing areas are especially in the sugar beet and cereal growing regions.
• The best forecrops – root crops fertilized by the farmyard manure, pulses and legumes.
Cereals are the most frequent forecrops.

General principles of poppy growing technology

Stand formation, fertilization:

• In autumn after the forecrop harvest – stubble ploughing and tillage.
• In spring – sowing by the special sowing machines, which are able to sow very small
amount of seeds.
• Row-spacing about 25 cm, sowing rate about 1.5 kg/ha, deep of sowing 0.5 – 1 cm, term of
sowing – to the end of April.
• The main nutrient – nitrogen. Total dose of N 60 – 70 kg N.ha-1. Application before sowing.

Plant protection:
• Weed protection – problematic. Poppy has a low resistance to usual herbicides - it is
possibility of damaging (scorch) of the poppy plants. Special herbicides for weeds in poppy
are not available.
• The most important disease of poppy – helminthosporiosis of poppy – yield reduction to
80%.
• The most important pests: poppy aphis.

Harvest and postharvest treatment

• Harvest by usual combine-harvesters, adapted for harvest of very small seeds.

• Harvest in full seed ripeness (August) – the poppyhead has to be dry and brown; seeds blue,
rose or white colour; shaking with the poppyhead causes noise (crackling).
• During harvest – separation of seeds and poppy dry straw
• Drying of seeds to the 8% moisture, drying of poppy dry straw to the 15% moisture

Poppy seed quality requirements

Quality parameter 1st quality class 2nd quality class

Smell Distinctively characteristic for Also less characteristic
the healthy poppy
Taste of seeds Distinctively characteristic for Also less characteristic,
the healthy poppy slightly bitter
Colour Blue or white It is not evaluated
Moisture content of seeds 8% 10%
Impurities 5% 8%

Sunflower – importance and utilization in the Czech Republic

• Human usage:
- oil type of sunflower – sunflower oil – very high dietetic quality, achenes with the thin skin
and the high content of oil 45 – 50%
- confectionary type of sunflower – big achenes with increased content of saccharides and
proteins
• Fodder usage:
- sunflower extracted meals, whole achenes
- silage type of sunflower – special varieties with high production of green biomass
• Ornamental types of sunflower
Environment requirements, including to crop rotation

• Sunflower is warm-requiring and drough resistant crop.

• Cultivation in maize growing region (South Moravia).
• Sunflower prefer deep, fertile soils (black soils) with the high content of humus.
• Cereals are usually used as a forecrop for sunflower.

General principles of sunflower growing technology

Fertilization:
• Sunflower is high demanding for nutrients.
• P, K and Mg fertilizers – application by tillage in autumn, it is also possible to use farmyard
manure (30 – 40 t.ha-1).
• Nitrogen fertilization – total doses of N relatively low - 40 – 60 kg N.ha -1 (high N doses
decrease oil content in achenes). Application of 2/3 of the total N dose in spring during
presowing soil preparation; the rest of N is applied after the sunflower germination.

Stand formation:
• Sowing date about 15.4.
• Row-spacing 70 cm
• Sowing of 55 – 65 000 achenes per ha (4,5 – 6 kg.ha-1) to the deep 3 – 5 cm

Plant protection:
• Weeds are harmful especially on the beginning of the sunflower vegetation (to 20 – 25 days
after germinating). Treatment by herbicides.
• Fungal diseases – the most important is Sclerotinia of sunflower – treatment by fungicides.
• Pests – any problem in sunflower.

Harvest and postharvest treatment

• It is necessary to dry sunflower pulpy flower before the harvesting – chemical treatment of
stand about 10 days before the harvest (preparative „Reglone“).
• Harvest in moisture content of achenes to 15%.
• After the harvest – drying of achenes to moisture content 8%.

Sunflower quality requirements

Moisture of achenes (%) max. 8
Impurities (%) max. 2
Achenes damaged (%) max. 3
Oil content in achenes (%) min. 44
MEDICINAL, AROMATIC AND SPICY PLANTS
(MASP)
• about 40 000 MASP species in the world
• about 120 MASP species in conditions of the Czech Republic (30 species is possible to grow
in pure culture, the others are wildly growing, like components of meadows or forests)

MASP utilization
• medicine
• pharmacy
• food industry
• cosmetics
• parfumery
• alternative medicine
• vegetables
• ornamental plants

MASP for medicaments production (therapeutics):

- basic viewpoint for their evaluation is content of therapeutically active matters

Examples:
Foxglove lanigerous (Digitalis lanata) – náprstník vlnatý
Ergot fungi (Claviceps purpurea) – námel (paličkovice nachová)
Marian thistle (Sibylum marianum) – ostropestřec mariánský
Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata) – jitrocel kopinatý
Common agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria) – řepík lékařský

Foxglove lanigerous Buckhorn

Common agrimony Marian thistle

Wider utilization of MASP:
• food industry
• liquers

Chamomile
• cosmetics

Examples:
Wild chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) – heřmánek pravý
European elder (Sambucus nigra) – bez černý
Common benedict (Canicus benedictus) – benedikt
Marigold (Calendula officinalis) – měsíček lékařský

• vegetables

Examples:
onions, garlic, parsley
Garlic

• ornamental plants

Examples: Thimbleweed
gentian (hořec), mallow (sléz),
thimbleweed (třapatka)

MASP world production

Europe (170 – 200 000 ha)

• main producers: Hungary, France, Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Belgium
• import 130 000 tons of MASP (85% to EU)
• export 76 000 tons of MASP to 150 countries
• the most important MASP species growed in Europe: Caraway seed (kmín kořenný),
Common coriander (koriandr obecný), Common fennel (fenykl obecný), Marian thistle
(ostropestřec mariánský), Sweet anise (anýz vonný), Common wormwood (pelyněk pravý),
Wild chamomile (heřmánek pravý), Clamath weed (třezalka tečkovaná)

Asia
• main producers: India, China, Japan, Corea, Vietnam, Thailand
• the most important species: ging-seng plantations

America
• main producers: Argentina, Brazil, U.S.

Africa
plantations for pharmaceutic and cosmetic industry: Yellowbark (chininovník), Cacao-tree
(kakaovník), Coffee-tree (kávovník), Tea-tree (čajovník)
Ethiopia – production of spicery and aloe

MASP production in the Czech Republic

• long tradition
• good export possibilities (Germany)
• increasing demands of processors
• popularity of MASP growing by the small gardeners

Large-area of MASP cultivation in the Czech Republic:

• Caraway seed (Carum carvi) – 2 500 ha
• Marian thistle (Sibylum marianum) – 2 500 ha
• Ergot fungi (Claviceps purpurea) (paličkovice nachová – námel) – 1 500 ha

Poppy dry straw:

- about 17 000 ha
- yield 0,3 – 0,4 t.ha-1 of the clean poppy dry stray (empty poppyhead and 10 cm of stem
bellow poppyhead, without impurities and dust)
- quality evaluation – min. content of morphin in the poppy dry straw – 0,5%

Some another important MASP species cultivated in pure field

cultures in the Czech Republic:
Wild chamomile (Chamomilla recutita)
Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
Garden mellise (Melissa officinalis) – meduňka
Common thyme (Thymus vulgare) – tymián
Buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata)
Great burdock (Arctlium lappa) – lopuch větší
Marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis) – proskurník lékařský
Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) – kozlík lékařský
Angelica (Archangelica officinalis) – andělika lékařská

Picking of wildly growing MASP in the Czech Republic:

• in cases, where MASP cultivation in pure, field cultures is not possible from the ecological
or economical point of view (European elder – bez černý, Birch tree – bříza bělokorá, Dog-
rose – růže šípková)
Affecting of active matters yield and quality in MASP and basics
of the MASP growing technology

• Climate – temperature, precipitations, sunshine, elevation above sea level

Majority of essential (siličnatých) drugs – from Mediterannean demand higher temperatures.
Alcaloids drugs demand higher sunshine intensity.
High precipitations – decreasing of mucilages content (obsah slizů).
• Soil – fertility (physical, chemical and biological properties). Root drugs is not possible to
grow in heavy, waterlogged soils.

• Nutrition:
- nitrogen – supporting leaves drugs formation
- phosphorus – supporting flower and fruit drugs formation
- potassium – supporting root drugs formation
• Crop rotation – suitable forecrops (root crops, legumes, cereals)

• Harvest time:
- leaf drugs – on the beginning of buds formation
- flower drugs – during flowering
- root drugs – at the end of vegetation (autumn)
- fruit drugs – in full maturity

• Post harvest drying – drying temperature 35 – 60°C

• Storage – for 2 years maximally; in darkness, dryness, temperatures to 15°C

Possibilities of MASP utilization

• Fresh sap from plants in original stage without additives is the most effective
• Plant extracts – also used in industrial processing (food and cosmetic industry)
• At home – tea drinks (leach of drugs by water)
Methods of tea drinks preparation:
- macerate (macerát) – cold leach (drugs conteining mucilage or starch)
- infusion (nálev) – leach by hot water
- decoction (odvar) – drugs are boiled in water (drugs from roots, bark, wood)

Galenics – simple preparatives from MASP:

- tinctures – leach by alcohol extraction
- extracts – plant extracts
- aromatic water – water or alcohol solutions of plant essential oils (silice)
- alcohols – alcohol plant extracts
- herbal vinegars – maceration of drugs in vinegar
- herbal oils – maceration of drugs in plant oils
- medicinal wines – plant extracts extracted by wine
Active matters

• products of primary and secundary plant metabolism

Occurrence in the all parts of plants, but in higher amount only in some organs, for
example in:
- root (radix)
- stool – oddenek
- leave (folium)
- flower (flos)
- fruit (fructus)

Drugs

All dried – treated or untreated raw materials of the plant origin (for example leaves of
peppermint, flowers of common agrimony) and animal origin (glands, snake venom, honey)
for production of pharmaceuticals and technologically important pharmaceutical raw
materials, or for direct medical use (teas, oak bark) and food use (caraway, fennel).

Plant drugs dividing:

1) According to lenght of vegetation (annual, biennial, perennial)
2) Organographic view point – according to harvested part of plant – drug:
- radicular
- foliar
- floral
- fruital
3) Pharmacologic view point – dividing according to families (Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae,
Asteraceae ……)
4) Pharmacochemical view point – according to main active matters (alcaloidal,
glycosidal …….)
5) Pharmacodynamical view point– according to prevailing effect

Plant drugs dividing according to pharmacodynamical view point:

Antidiabetics – plants decreasing level of blood sugar (bilberries, bean-pods, hop cones,
blowballs – pampelišky)

Diuretics – diuretic plants – improving of diuresia (cammock thorny, nettle – kopřiva,

parsley)

Carminatives – plants against to tympanites (fennel, agrimony, peppermint, caraway)

Hypotonics – plants decreasing of blood pressure (garlic, hawthorn – hloh, mistletoe –

jmelí, nettle)

Expectorancias – plants supporting expectoration (wild-thyme – mateřídouška, hyssop –

yzop)

Laxatives – laxative plants (flaxen seed, rhubarb – rebarbora)

Phytoncids – plants effecting like antibiotics (garlic, onions, common agrimony, wild
chamomile)

Antipyretics – plants anti pyretic (lime tree – lípa, willow, European elder)

Secretolytics – plants dampening cough (coltsfoot – podběl, golden-rod – divizna,

buckhorn)

Antidepressives – clamath weed – třezalka, oregano – dobromysl, valerian)

Afrodisiacs – cheese-rennet – svízel syřišťový, coriander, mustard, calamus – puškvorec)

Lactagogas – plants supporting lactation (fennel)

Obstipancias – antilaxatives (billberies, oak bark)