Agroforestry Systems and Practices(NaRM471)

NaRM Fourth Year

Semester I 2024
Prepared by: Gashaw Getaneh(MSc.Forest Management and
Utilization )

DTU University,
Deber Tabor,Ethiopia.2024
 1.INTRODUCTION

1.1. The History of Agroforestry

•Cultivating trees and agricultural crops in intimate combination with

one another is an ancient practice that farmers have used throughout
the world (Nair, 1993).
•It was a general custom in Europe to clear fell derelict forest, burn
slash, cultivate food crops for varying periods on the cleared areas and
plant or sow tree species along with or after the sowing of agricultural
crop.
•There were also experiences in Central America, the Phillipines and
Indonesia.
 Conti.----

•From its beginning, agro forestry has coined a strong element of soil
management.
•This is found in both indigenous and modern agro forestry systems.
•The earliest form of agro forestry, shifting cultivation had objectives
that were primarily related to the soil; the use of a natural tree fallow
to restore fertility lost during crop cultivation.
•Modern other indigenous agro forestry systems achieved
maintenance of soil fertility
•There are also traditional agro forestry practices in Ethiopia like the
Enset-coffee based AF system of the southern part.
 Conti.--

The origin of agro forestry as a modern scientific study was the

publication in 1977 of a review of research needs, tress, food and
people (Bene et al, 1977).
•This was where the term “Agro forestry” was coined; but more
importantly it was the breakthrough (step forward) in recognition of
the key concept that the trees and shrubs grown on farmland had
distinctive and valuable roles to play.
•Modern experimental work on agro forestry began in the late 1970s.
Some of the pioneering work was on soil aspects including the first
experiment on hedgerow intercropping (alley cropping)
 Conti.--

 Agro forestry has developed as an interface between agriculture

(including animal production) and
 Forestry in response to the special needs and conditions of tropical
developing countries where there is high population increase and
increased natural resource degradation.
•Agro forestry is becoming the best strategy of these times since there
will be multiple product supply and sustained yield,
•provision of environmental protection and improvement of household
economy.
 Conti.------

1.2. Definition and Concepts of Agroforestry

• Agro forestry is not a new system or concept.

• The practice is very old, but the term is definitely new.

• People raised together trees, crops and animals traditionally on the same farm.

• This practice of mixed farming developed over countries for meeting most of
the requirements of a family.

• The crops provided food grains for livelihood.

• They also gave fodder.

• The trees gave wood for construction of houses.

• They also yielded firewood.

• The animals provided milk and meat

 Conti.----

 Agro forestry is a collective name for land-use systems and

technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos,
etc.) are deliberately grown on the same land management unit as
agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement
or temporal sequence.

 In agro forestry systems, there are both ecological and economical

interactions between the different components.

 The trees in an agroforestry system are not necessarily planted. Instead

natural regeneration of trees may be protected, or mature trees may be
deliberately left in the fields or pastures.

 Hence agroforestry is a much wider concept than tree planting.

 what makes agro-forestry d/t from other forms of land uses?

• It can be seen from the definitions that agro forestry has the

following components (Nair, 1989):

• It is deliberate growing of woody perennials on the same unit of

land as agricultural crops and/or animals either in some form of

spatial mixture or in sequence.

• There must be significant interaction (+ ve or - ve) between the

woody and the non-woody components of the system either

ecological and/or economical.

 Conti.---

• This is a production system, which tends to harmonize the production

of various components and also maximizes the total production from

a given unit of land.

• The production and use is sustainable and makes use of modern

technologies and traditional local experience and is compatible with

the social and cultural life of the local population.

• It is a long-term land management system and the cycle of agro

forestry system is always more than one year.

• Agro forestry is more complex form of land management both

ecologically and economically than agricultural or forestry systems.

 Conti.---
 The main components of agro forestry are trees and shrubs, crops,

pastures and livestock, together with environmental factors of

climate, soils and landforms.

 Other components (e.g. bees, fish) occur in specialized forms.

 Additionally, there are three attributes which, theoretically, all

agroforestry systems possess.

 These are:

1. Productivity: Most, if not all, agroforestry systems aim to

maintain or increase production (of preferred commodities) as well

as productivity (of the land).

 Conti.---
 Agroforestry can improve productivity in many different ways.

These include: increased output of tree products, improved yields of

associated crops, reduction of cropping system inputs, and increased labor

efficiency.
 These include: increased output of tree products, improved yields of
associated crops, reduction of cropping system inputs, and increased
labor efficiency.
2. Sustainability:
By conserving the production potential of the resource base, mainly
through the beneficial effects of woody perennials on soils, agroforestry
can achieve and indefinitely maintain conservation and fertility goals.
 Conti.---

3. Adoptability: The word "adopt" here means "accept," and it may

be distinguished from another commonly-used word adapt, which
implies "modify" or "change."

The fact that agroforestry is a relatively new word for an old set of
practices means that, in some cases, agroforestry has already been
accepted by the farming community.

However, the implication here is that improved or new agroforestry

technologies that are introduced into new areas should also conform
to local farming practices.

These attributes are so characteristic of all agroforestry systems that

they form the basis for evaluation of various agroforestry systems
 1.3. The Role of Agroforestry

1.3.1. Ecological
•In addition to biodiversity conservation, on-farm trees are very important

for their roles in environmental or ecological maintenance. In many part of

the world, research results revealed that some scattered trees/shrubs in

traditional agro-forestry land use systems improve the fertility of the soil,

improve microclimate, maintain soil moisture and also improve the yields

of the crops underneath.

•Improvement of soil condition:

•Nitrogen fixation:

•Reduction in microclimate extremes:

•Potential reduction in soil erosion:

 Cont.-----

 In comparison, a living fence that is running along the contour will

definitely contribute to control the surface runoff of the adjusted
field due to the roots that hold the surface soil.
•Increase in production of agricultural crops from the areas not
presently used for arable agriculture
 Increased supply of industrial wood as a result of the release of
pressure of local demands on production forests,
 Provision of additional employment to the rural communities
 Availability of well-grown pastures and fodder trees on the village
marginal lands and common lands, which help to improve health of
cattle and thereby increase the milk yield of milky animals.
 Benefits of trees to the environment

 ameliorate the (micro) climate, breaking the wind, moderating

temperatures and raising humidity;
 protect the soil against erosion by wind and water, at the same time
improving water infiltration; support companion crops and animals
by their effect on the climate and the soil, but also directly through
providing shade and shelter or protection (live fences, hedges) and
acting as nutrient pumps diversify the landscape and enrich the
environment: where would the birds nest without trees?
 promote biodiversity
 produce oxygen
 combat the greenhouse effect through carbon sequestration
 Conti.---

 reduce storm-water run-off

 help control temperature
 reduce salinity and soil erosion
 reduce noise and air pollution
 act as water filters and improve water quality
 help conserve energy with their shading and evapo-transpiration
effect
 provide nuclei for rain and help increase rainfall
 improve air quality by absorbing polluting gases and odors and
filtering air particles
 save water as shade from trees slows water evaporation
 1.3.2 Economical

• Agro-forestry have a range of economic functions both in the

wealth and health of rural community through

 sustaining household consumption,

 generating cash income,

 providing agricultural inputs,

 traditional medicines and input for small scale-enterprises.

• The use of woody foliage as fodder may reduce the cost of

feeding livestock, or may prevent the economic damage done

by the loss of livestock during famine or drought.

 Conti.-----

 Usually, the woody species used in agro-forestry themselves are

valuable.

• Woody species may provide

 fruit,

 fiber,

 nuts,

 building and

 craft materials, medicines, timber, charcoal, and

 a host of other products which can be used on-farm or sold.

 Conti.---

 Longer-growing tree species used in agro-forestry are often

used by farmers as a "bank account" which can provide cash

income during years with bad harvests.

 As such, agro-forestry practices not only diversify the

economic products available to farmers, but may serve to

increase economic security as well.

 Because agroforestry practices improve economic returns,

agro-forestry has long been seen as an ecologically and

socially "friendly" means of sustainable development.

 Conti.---

 Reduced risk of complete crop failure:

 Because temperature and moisture extremes are not much present

in agro forestry systems,

 the risk of complete crop failure is reduced (i.e. it was observed

that grain growing under Faidherbia albida "Momona" even in

times of water stress is more vigorous compared to plants in the

open field).
 Economic benefits of trees

• Fruit harvested from community orchards can be sold, thus

providing income

• Trees can be utilized for fuel, building materials and craft wood

• Trees Increase Property Values.

• Trees attract businesses and customers to communities

• Trees enhance tourism by adding beauty and shade to a location

• Wood for domestic and industrial use, construction, farm

implements,
 Conti.-----

 Wood based industries (sawmills, pulp and paper mills,

pharmaceuticals,

• Foreign exchange, local trade, cash income, Edible fruits/leaves,

roots, medicinal plants,

• Handicrafts, honey, curing tobacco, steam engine, games

• Employment opportunities at different places

 1.3.3.Climate change and carbon trade

• The role trees play in determining climate has been extensively

discussed in recent years.
• In spite of substantial research many important issues remain
unresolved.
• It is necessary to distinguish the role trees can play in affecting
the climate at a certain locality, i.e. the microclimate, from the
role they can play in determining the climate over larger areas,
the macroclimate.
• Trees have a very significant impact on the climate in the
locality where they grow.
 Conti…

• Trees provide shade, and hence lower temperatures.

• They also help in regulating wind speeds and in retention of moisture

in the immediate surroundings.

• Thus trees can play an important role in determining the microclimate.

• People in most areas in Africa claim that the climate has changed, and

in some areas a change towards a drier climate has been verified

during this century.

• To what extent this can be attributed to long-term trends, deforestation

or other environmental changes still needs to be determined.

 1. 3.4 Livelihood

The benefits of agro forestry under rural conditions are:

• Increase in total production:
• This can be mainly attributed to the increased space utilization of
the field unit.
• Certain tree species give an additional benefit to the farmer in
terms of
• fodder, fruit, farm implements,
• fuel wood, timber, gum, incense,
• tannins, resins and local medicine which finally leads to
increased income for the household .
 1.4 Community, Farm, and Social Forestry

•The escalating worldwide interest in tree planting activities during the

past two decades (1970-1989) resulted in the emergence and

popularization of several other terms with "forestry" endings.

Notable among these are

•Community Forestry,

•Farm Forestry, and

•Social Forestry.
 Conti…..

•Thus, social forestry is considered to be the practice of using trees

and/or tree planting specifically to pursue social objectives, usually

betterment of the poor, through delivery of the benefits (of trees

and/or tree planting) to the local people;

•It is sometimes described as "tree growing by the people, for the

people."
•Social forestry is a slightly wider concept as it includes tree

growing for ornamental purposes in urban areas and in

avenues/paths.
 Conti…..

 Community forestry, a form of social forestry, refers to tree

planting activities undertaken by a community on communal

lands, or the so-called common lands;

 It is based on the local people's direct participation in the process,

either by growing trees themselves, or by processing the tree

products locally.
 Though claimed to be suited for areas with abundant common

lands, the success of community forestry has been hampered by

the "tragedy of the commons."

 Conti…..

 Farm forestry, a term commonly used mainly in Asia, indicates tree

planting on farms.
 The major distinction between agroforestry and these other terms

seems to be that agroforestry emphasizes the interactive association

between woody perennials (trees and shrubs) and agricultural crops

and/or animals for multiple products and services; the other terms

refer to tree planting, often as woodlots.

 Farm forestry can be regarded as almost synonymous to agroforestry,

but it may also include large scale forest production on private farms,

an activity that would fall outside the definition of agroforestry.

 Conti…..

 Community forestry can be placed on any piece of land,

regardless of the land use type.

•The community (peasant associations, cooperatives and

urban dwellers’ associations), schools and individual farmers

and families may perform it.

•The term community forestry has been used to stress the

involvement of people in tree-growing efforts, although

people are, of course, much involved in all agroforestry

activity.
 Conti…..

 In many countries the concept of community forestry has now been

replaced by those of farm forestry or agroforestry.

 This change is the result of the de-emphasis of communal efforts

which have often proven less fruitful than was predicted some years

ago.
•The broad objectives of community forestry are to satisfy the basic

needs of forest products for the local communities and to introduce wide

environmental benefits.
•The immediate objective is to meet existing demands of wood products,

such as construction poles, and timber, fuel wood and other forest-based

products.
 Conti…..

 Trees play an important role in the life of the people

throughout Ethiopia.
 Trees play essential and necessary contributions to day-to-

day life, providing fuel for cooking and warmth, forage for

livestock, construction material for housing, clean and

permanent water, protection from erosion and habitats for

wildlife.
 All these direct benefits have traditionally been granted as

something that one could just go out and collect.

 Conti…..

 But due to the increasing population pressure there is now an acute

shortage of these products in all parts of the country.

 Trees do not only occur in forests but

 also outside forest areas,

 around houses,

 at the corners of fields,

 in grazing lands, etc.

 Although these trees are seldom recorded as forests, they do not

give many communities direct access to wood resources.

•The people of Ethiopia have a long tradition of protecting and
 Conti…..

 Still the natural tree cover is believed to have gone from around
40% at onset of agriculture to only 3-4% today (
 because of land clearance for agriculture, logging for valuable
timber, cutting of fuel wood, overgrazing etc.
 A community forestry program has been carried out through the
ministry of agriculture for the last ten years.
 Many community forestry nurseries have been started in order to
establish community forestry plantations.
 Conti…..

 However, much more will have to be done in the future. As the

existence of trees in the landscape contributes directly to the
conservation of soil, there is a clear desire to integrate
community forestry with soil conservation.
•Community Forestry also has a number of secondary objectives,
including:
 To reduce environmental degradation and rehabilitate degraded
land
 To support and sustain agriculture production on cultivated land
 To contribute to improved grazing conditions and increased
animal production on grassland
 Conti…..

 To reduce the use of cow dung as fuel by making fuel wood more

easily and widely available, which will secure energy supplies and

ensure that the cow dung is used on cultivated land to improve soil

conditions and contribute to increased agriculture

 To strengthen soil conservation efforts by growing trees and shrubs

on soil conservation structures, along gullies etc.

 To improve people’s standard of living by making certain products

more easily available

 To provide shelter and beautification around homestead and public

places.
 Conti…..

1.4.2. Farm forestry

•It is the term usually applied to programs, which aim to encourage

commercial tree growing by individual farmers on their own private

land.
•In these programs trees are regarded as a cash crop, and farmers are

provided with assistance in growing them.

•This may include technical help, free or subsidized seedlings, loans

and various market support measures.

•The approach has been described as "Turning peasants into
 Conti…..

 There is no doubt that under appropriate conditions, where there is a strong market

demand for wood, tree growing can be a profitable activity.

 Successful programs carried out in the Philippines and India, and promising initial

results obtained in Haiti have already demonstrated this .

 Conti…..

There are two types of Farm Forestry:

 Non-commercial farm forestry:

 It involves the raising of trees by individuals usually

farmers for their own domestic needs.

 Commercial farm forestry:

 This is a forestry under which farmers grow trees on a

commercial basis on farmlands where there is a ready

market for wood or other forest based products.

 2.CLASSIFICATION OF AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

2.1. Importance of Classification

•The main purpose of classification should be to provide a practical
framework for the synthesis and analysis of information about existing
systems and the development of new and promising ones.
•Therefore, any classification scheme should:
 Include a logical way of grouping the major factors on which
production of the system will depend;

 Indicate how the system is managed (pointing out possibilities for

management interventions to improve the system’s efficiency);

 Offer flexibility in regrouping the information; and be easily

understood and readily handled (practical)
 Conti…….

2.2. Basis of classification:-

The most obvious and easy way to use criteria for classifying agro
forestry systems are:
 Physical structure:
• spatial arrangements of woody components in re­lation to annual crops
(trees planted at regular spacing, in alleys, in patches or haphazardly);
• vertical stratification (single/multi-storey sys­tem).
 Conti…….

 Temporal arrangement:
 crops/animals and trees mixed permanently or rotated "fallow"
system); length of tree rotation.
• Role of components and their relative importance Production
aims/outputs from the system
• Socio-economic basis:
 refers to the level of inputs of management (low input, high input)
or intensity or scale of management and commercial goals
(subsistence, commercial, intermediate);
 2.3. Structural Bases of Classification

Structure refers to composition, stratification and dimension of the

crop.
2.3.1. Agrisilvicultural system
•The deliberate use of agricultural crops and forests.
•Agrisilviculture covers all systems in which land is used to
produce both forest trees and agricultural crops, either
simultaneously or alternatively.
•Agrisilviculture also includes growing agricultural tree crops with
forest trees.
•Agricultural tree crops include coffee, cocoa, citrus, papaya,
rubber, oil palm, coconut, etc.
 Conti.-----
2.3.2. Silvipastural system
•The silvipasture system means a land management system in which
forests are managed for the production of wood as well as for
rearing of domesticated animals. i.e. the animals are let free for
grazing in the forest areas.
•Cut and carry system may also be used or practiced.
2.3.3. Agrisilvipastural system
•This is a combination of the agrisilviculture and silvipasture
systems.
•The land is managed for the concurrent production of agricultural
and forest crops and for grazing by domestic animals.
 Conti.-----

Fig. 1. Agro-forestry classification on the basis of structure

 2.4. Functional Bases of Classification

•Agro forestry systems yield various types of products and perform

various functions.
•In view of these functions, agro forestry systems can be grouped into
three main classes as under:
2.4.1. Productive agro forestry systems
•The systems predominantly producing the goods required for meeting
the basic needs of society.
 Conti.---

This group may include shifting cultivation, intercropping of trees,

home gardens, trees on field boundaries, plantation crops, fuel wood
and pulp wood plantations, etc.
2.4.2. Protective agro forestry systems
•These systems primarily aim at
ameliorating climate,
reducing wind and water erosion,
improving soil fertility,
providing shelter, and other benefits.
 Conti.-----

This class may include windbreaks and shelterbelts, some hedgerow

intercropping, soil conservation plantations, introduction of cover
crops, etc.
2.4.3. Multi-purpose agro forestry systems
•These agro forestry systems aim at optimising both of the above
functions, i.e. products required for meeting the basic needs such as
food, fodder, etc. and influence for conservation of environment.
•Several agro forestry systems, such as home gardens, hedgerow
intercropping, multipurpose tree plantation,
•and trees on agricultural fields, silvipasture and several other systems
may be grouped into this class.
 2.5. Ecological Bases of Classification
Most agro forestry categories can be found in all agro ecological
zones; therefore, agro ecological zonation alone cannot be taken as a
satisfactory basis of classification of agro forestry systems.
The agro forestry systems can be classified on the basis of individual
ecological parameters also.
• Basis of climate may be:tropical,subtropical,temperate and Sub
alpine and alpine
• Moisture conditions,wet,moist, and Dry
 2.5. Ecological Bases of Classification
•The following are some of the characteristics common to all agro
forestry systems:
 At least one species must be woody perennial
 The crops are grown side by side in some form of spatial
arrangement or sequentially on the same land
 Two or more out puts from all systems of agro forestry
 There may be a complex ecological interaction between the
components
• There is an economic preposition and interaction between
 2.5. Socio-Economic Bases of Classification

• Agro forestry systems can be classified on the basis of socio-

economic considerations. Socio-economic considerations may
include level of production, management systems, technology,
etc.
• On an economic basis,
 Subsistence agro forestry systems
 Commercial agro forestry systems
 Intermediate agro forestry systems
• On the basis of management,
A. Extensively managed examples include, shifting cultivation,
silvipasture, and pastoral silviculture
B. Intensively managed/ deep and thorough
 2.6. Spatial arrangement of trees in agroforestry

It refers to the way annuals and tree crops are arranged on the land.

A. Random mixture

A. Random mixture having no specific pattern and often being the

"arrange­ment" associated with shifting cultivation when trees are
the result of random natural regeneration (seedlings and sprouts)
rather than of systema­tic planting
 Conti.----

B. Alternate row
•Alternate row arrangements allowing only narrow gaps between
rows of trees and perhaps using partial shading when food crops
require it or are tolerant of it.
•Crops obtain more organic fertilizers or green manure from litter fall
and lopping.
 Conti.-----

•C. Alternate strip or zonal arrangements

• Alternate strip or zonal arrangements allowing wider gaps
between tree strips for food crops that require more light or less
moisture.
• The tree alternate rows and alternate strips in B and C are often
made along the contours or across the slope; they have been found
to be an effective means of reducing soil erosion; such contour
hedges reduce runoff and soil creep on cultivated slopes.
 Conti.-----

•D. Border planting

• When short statured crops cannot stand shading and where these
crops are of prime importance.
• The trees serve as boundary markers, as live fences and as fire or
windbreaks; in addition they can produce fodder, twigs, green
manure, etc. windbreaks are a form of border planting with great
potential in the Sahel.
•
 2.7. Agroforestry Systems, Practices, and Technologies

•Agro forestry system: land use system described in terms of its main
components, level of management, nature of output and so on.
•Agro forestry practice: is a distinctive arrangement of components in
space and time and there exist clearly defined management applications.
•Agro forestry practice becomes an agro forestry system when it is
developed or spread to such an extent in a specific area as to form a
definite land utilization type in that area.
•Agro forestry practice in agricultural production system-example
Sesbania on bunds of rice paddies.
•Agroforestry technology:- to an innovation of a new developed on or
modifying an existing system or practice.
 3. AN OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

3.1. The tropical environment

•The geographical definition of the word "tropics" (that part of the

world located between 23.5 degrees north and south of the Equator)

is not of much value in a discussion on land use.

•For the purpose of this book, the word tropics is used in a general

sense, and includes the subtropical developing countries that have

agro-ecological and socioeconomic characteristics, and land-use

problems, that are similar to those of the countries within the

geographical limits of the tropics

 Conti…….

From the agroforestry point of view, the major ecological

regions recognized in the FAO State of Food and

Agriculture Reports (SOFA) are relevant: these are

temperate, mediterranean, arid and semiarid, subhumid

tropical (lowland), humid tropical (lowland) and highland.

•Most nations and people in the tropics are poor; gross

domestic product per person is low (about $ 100-150 per

year) in most of these countries.

 3.1.1. Shifting cultivation

• The term shifting cultivation refers to farming or agricultural systems

in which land under natural vegetation is cleared, cropped with

agricultural crops for a few years, and then left untended while the

natural vegetation regenerates.

• The clearing is usually accomplished by the slash-and-burn method

(hence the name slash-and-burn agriculture), employing simple hand

tools.

• During this period the soil, having been depleted of its fertility during

the cropping period, regains its fertility through the regenerative

action of the woody vegetation.

 3.1.2. Improved fallow

•An improved tree fallow is a rotational system that uses preferred tree
species as the fallow species (as opposed to colonization by natural
vegetation), in rotation with cultivated crops as in traditional shifting
cultivation.
•The reason for using such trees is production of an economic product,
or improvement of the rate of soil amelioration, or both.
•When agroforestry is added, woody species replace crops on the
fallow fields in sequence over time.
 Cont.----

•The main fea­ture which distinguishes fallow-based agroforestry

systems from other agroforestry practices is that trees and shrubs are
not grown with crops on the same plot at the same time, rather crop
cultivation follows once the land is properly reclaimed/ rehabilitated.
•The best species seem to be those which enhance soil fertility,
especially by fixing nitrogen, and which establish ground cover quickly.
 3.1.3. Taungya

 Essentially, the taungya system consists of growing annual

agricultural crops along with the forestry species during the
early years of establishment of the forestry plantation.

 The land belongs to the forestry departments or their large-

scale lessees, who allow the subsistence farmers to raise their
crops. The farmersare required to tend the forestry seedlings
and, in return, retain a part or all of the agricultural produce.

 This agreement would last for two or three years, during which
time the forestry species would grow and expand its canopy.
3.1.3. Taungya
 3.1.4. Home gardens

The traditional home gardens can have three or four storey’s, with
timber, fruit, fodder, fibre and fuelwood trees over spices, herbs and
vegetable crops.
•Home gardens increase productivity because they are labour inten­sive.
Because they are near the home, the labour required can be combined
with home and child-care responsibilities.
•The small plot size implies a high ratio of boundary area to enclosed
space, so that multipurpose living fences may provide a large proportion
of production.
•Home gardens can also accommodate small livestock, such as chickens
or rabbits, and may provide residues or fod­der for pigs, goats or dairy
3.1.4. Home gardens
 3.1.5. Multilayer tree gardens

• The terms multistory tree gardens and mixed treegardens are

used to refer to mixed tree plantations consisting of
conventional forest species and other commercial tree crops,

• especially tree spices, lending a managed mixed forest

appearance.

• As opposed to homegardens, which surround individual

houses, these tree gardens are usually away from houses, and
are typically found on communally-owned lands surrounding
villages with dense clusters of houses.
 3.1.6. Alley Cropping

• Alley cropping also known as hedgerow intercropping is broadly

defined as the planting of two or more sets of single or multiple

rows of trees or shrubs at wide spacing, creating alleyways within

which agricultural, horticultural, or forage crops are cultivated.

• Plantings can consists of:

 a single tree species or a number of species.

 single tree rows or multiple rows may be used.

 Conti.----

 Factors to consider when deciding how many rows to establish and

the arrangement of the trees within the rows may be based on a

number of potential benefits including:

• Annual crop being produced and area removed from production by

tree/shrub rows

• Desired tree/shrub crops and management needed to enhance

production (such as weed control and pruning).

• Erosion concerns that multiple rows and combinations of

trees/shrubs/grasses can better address wildlife habitat created

 Conti.----

 Tree arrangement and spacing in alley cropping

• The position and spacing of hedgerow and crop plants in an alley

cropping system depend on crop light requirements/plant species,

climate, slope, soil conditions and the space required for the

movement of people and tillage equipment.

• Ideally, hedgerows should be positioned in an east-west direction so

that plants on both sides receive full sunlight during the day.

• The spacing used in field trials usually ranges from 4 to 8 meters

between rows and from 25 cm to 2 meters between trees within rows.

Conti.----
 3.1.7. Biomass transfer

• This is also called cut-and-carry mulching or tree-litter mulching.

The trees are grown as a separate block, possibly on less fertile
parts of the farm.
• Leaf matter is cut from the tree, transported and added to the soil
of the cropland.
• The trees may be natural forest or planted and may have other
productive functions.
• This system minimizes tree-crop competition, as there may be no
tree-crop interface at all.
 3.1.8. Windbreaks and Shelterbelts

•A shelterbelt is defined a belt of trees and/or shrubs maintained for

the purpose of shelter from wind, sun, snowdrift, etc. Shelterbelts are

generally more extensive than windbreaks and cover crops longer than

a single farm and sometimes a whole region on a planned pattern.

Shelterbelts are also sometimes called protection belts.

•A windbreak is a narrow shelterbelt and wind breakage, i.e. breaking

the force of wind by trees or branches. A windbreak means any barrier

erected to break down or slow down the effects of wind. Multi-row

windbreaks are often called shelterbelts.

 Conti.---

The purpose of windbreaks and shelterbelts is to provide protection

from the wind. Shelterbelts and windbreaks consist of groups of trees

and shrubs maintained in such a way that they work as a protective

mechanism against wind, supported by other vegetative forms, ex.

Shrubs, herbs, etc., play a significant role in making this protective

mechanism efficient. The height of trees in windbreaks and

shelterbelts is important as it decides the area of protection. The crown

and leaves effectively retard wind action.

 Conti.---

•Windbreaks and shelterbelts perform several functions. Some of the

important functions are:

Controlling the ravages of wind

Improving environmental conditions

Improving output from arable lands and grazing

Controlling wind erosion and shifting sand dunes

Countering the salt-laden winds along the coast

Providing shelter to houses and other constructions,yielding

firewood, fodder and timber

 3.1.9. Crops under tree cover
•The highest yields will be obtained only if appropriate varieties are
used. The major characteristics to be considered are earliness,
tolerance to drought and shade and to pests and diseases, and, of
course, yield potential; but, at the same time, the overall and specific
characteristics of the macro- and micro-climate must fit the plants'
requirements for germination, early growth, etc.
• Some important crops in relation to agroforestry:
Maize, sorghum,
finger millet, wheat,
beans, vegetables (e.g. cassava, sweet potato, Irish potato), tea,
coffee, etc.
 3.1.10. Boundary planting
• Boundaries, established and maintained in different regions of the
plant body, have diverse functions in development.
• One role is to separate different cell groups, for example the
differentiating cells of a leaf primordium from the pluripotent
cells of the apical meristem.
• There is no as such rules on planting trees on boundaries in India
mentioned in the constitution.
• However, the minimum distance to plant tree from house should
be 15 to 20 feet
 Conti…
Some concepts /criteria's for agroforestry practices

 Intentional: combination of components as a whole units

 Intensive: to maintain AF productive and protective functions

 Integrated: the tree ,crop and/or animal components are structurally

and functionally combined in to a single, integrated management
unit

 Interactive: AF management seeks to actively manipulate the

biological and physical interaction b/n the tree , crop ,animal
components for multiple benefits(both ecological and economical)
 3.2. Multipurpose woodlots

• Woodlot means land at least 0.2 hectares and not more than 1

hectare with numbers at least comparable to “Woodlands”

numbers above.

• It does not include a cultivated fruit or nut orchard or a plantation

established for the purpose of producing Christmas trees.

• A woodlot is a parcel of a woodland or forest capable of small-

scale production of forest products (such as wood fuel, sap for

maple syrup, sawlogs, and pulpwood) as well as recreational uses

like bird watching, bushwalking, and wildflower appreciation.

 3.3. Apiculture

• Apiculture:another word for beekeeping – the practice of caring

for honeybees and harvesting honey.
• Apis: the scientific name for a bee.
• The most common honeybee species is Apis Mellifera. Bee
bread:a substance used for feeding larvae, drones and the queen,
made of honey, pollen and royal jelly.
 3.4. Aquaculture

 Aqua-forestry: is the combination of trees and aquaculture.

Trees surrounding fish ponds can enhance the nutrients in the
ponds through leaf litter.
 Mariculture: culturing of fish in marine fishes like prawns,
oyster, bhetki and mullets in marine water for commercial use.
 Aquaculture: Involved in culturing of fish in both marine and
fresh water.
 4. SOIL AND AGROFORESTRY

4.1. Effects of Trees on Soils

4.1.1. Input processes (Processes that augment additions to the soil)

 Maintenance or increase of soil organic matter:

 Nitrogen fixation:

 The roots of a plant constitute 20-30 % of its biomass

 Hence, root decay is a significant process, and it is probable that

cutting back the biomass above ground (coppicing, pollarding,

etc.) results in a temporary increase in root die back.

 When the roots die, nitrogen is released and can be used by other

plants,
Conti……
 Conti……
 Nutrient uptake:
 Atmospheric input: Atmospheric deposition makes a
significant contribution to nutrient cycling. More so in humid
regions than in dry regions.
 Exudation of growth-promoting substances into the
rhizosphere: This has been suggested but not demonstrated.
Specialized biochemical studies would be required to
demonstrate the presence and magnitude of any such effect,
and to separate it from other influence of roots on plant
growth.
 4.2. Nutrient Cycling in Agroforestry Systems

4.1.2. Output processes (Processes that reduce losses from the

soil)
 Protection from erosion and thereby from loss of organic matter
and nutrients
 Nutrient retrieval (enhanced nutrient-use efficiency).
 It is commonly supposed that tree root system intercept, absorb
and recycle nutrients in the soil that would otherwise be lost
through leaching, thereby making a more closed nutrient cycle.
 trapping and recycling nutrients which would otherwise be lost
by leaching including through the action of mycorrhizal systems
associated with tree roots and through root exudation
 4.2. Nutrient Cycling in Agroforestry Systems

Reduction of rate of organic matter decomposition by shading process

which affect soil physical conditions
4.1.3. Processes that affect soil physical conditions
 Maintenance or improvement of soil physical conditions (structure,
porosity, moisture retention capacity and permeability) through a
combination of maintenance of organic matter and effects of roots
 Breaking up of compact or indurate layers by roots
 Modification of extremes of soil temperature: through a
combination of shading by canopy and litter cover
•4.1.4. Processes that affect soil chemical conditions
 Reduction of acidity: Reduction of salinity or sodicity:
 4.1.5. Soil biological processes and effects

 Production of a range of different qualities of plant litter through

supply of a mixture of woody and herbaceous material, including
root residues
 Timing of nutrient release: the potential to control litter decay
through selection of tree species and management of pruning and
thereby synchronize nutrient release from litter decay with
requirement of plants for uptake
 Effects upon soil fauna
 Transfer of assimilate between root systems
4.1.5. Soil biological processes and effects
 4.4. Role of Roots

 Roots, and more generally, the plant–soil interface, including

associated microbiota, could also play a key role in ameliorating

soil degradation and climate change by improving soil quality

and sequestering atmospheric carbon into soil organic matter.

 Roots serve as anchorage for plants and help to reduce soil

erosion. But their chief function is to absorb water from the soil,

thereby obtaining nutrients in solution for nourishment.

 Roots can increase aggregate strength and water stability.

 5. AGROFORESTRY SPECIES:

5.1. Role of Multipurpose Trees in Agroforestry (MPTs)

Every tree provides shade, at least seasonally, and produces leaf
litter, which may help to maintain and improve the soil fertility.
The wood itself may also serve different purposes. All this does not
qualify a tree as a 'Multi-purpose tree' from agro forestry point of
view. Generally, multipurpose trees may be defined as follows:
•" Trees which are purposely introduced on a piece of land with the
aim of establishing a combined agricultural / forestry system
qualify as multipurpose trees, on the condition that the trees help to
reduce the inputs required to operate the system, and contribute to
an all increase of production. "
 Conti……

Soil improving (leguminous) tree species reduces inputs by

replacing industrial fertilizers. At the same time, they may provide
fuel wood, poles, fodder, fruits and by-products such as gum,
medicine or bee forage.
•Desirable characteristics of MPTs & shrubs
 Adaptability to soils and climate;
 Rate of growth, particularly in the early stages;
 Palatability as fodder;
 Ability to withstand adverse conditions in the
seedling/young planting stages;
Conti……

 Growth habit and spatial/temporal resource sharing

characteristics, including rooting characteristics;
 Shelter conferring and soil stabilization attributes;
 Capacity to withstand lopping, pruning, /browsing;
 Vigour/productivity characteristics;
 Nutrient cycling and/or nitrogen fixing capacity;
 Freedom from pests or disease.
 5.2. Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs Commonly Used in Agroforestry

1. Albizia lebbeck(L.) Benth.(Leguminosae; Momosoideae)

2. Azadirachta indica Adr. Juss(Meliaceae)

3. Borassus aethiopum C.Maritius(Arecaceae or Palmae)

4. Cajanus cajan(L.) Millsp.(Leguminosae; Papilionoideae)

5. Cassia siamea Lam.(Leguminosae; Caesalpinioideae)

6. Faidherbia albida Del.A.Chev..(Leguminosae; Mimosoideae)

7. Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit(Leguminosae; Mimosoideae)

8. Moringa oliefera Lam.(Moringaceae)

9. Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.(Leguminosae; Papilionoidae)

Conti…..
Conti…..
 6.Component Interactions and Management

6.1. perception of different scientists about component

interaction in agro forestry systems

•Component interaction refers to the influence of one component

on the performance of the other component as well as the system

as a whole. The types of interactions in two species populations

have often been described on the basis of net effect of interactions

by such terms as commensalistic (positive “+”, effect on species

one and no observable effect “0”, on species two),

amensalistic(-,0), monopolistic, predatory or parasitic(+,-) and

inhibitory(-,-)
 Conti……..

To these synergistic (+, +) could be added as an interaction where the

net effects are positive for both species.

1.Complementary

2 Supplementary

3. Competitive
•In agro forestry, the terms,Below ground and

 Above ground interactions are identified

•Therefore, it is appropriate to consider these interactions based on their
net results as:
1.Positive (beneficial or production enhancing) and
2.Negative (harmful or production decreasing)
 6.2. Positive (Production-Enhancing) Interactions

6.2.1. At the tree- crop interface

1. Microclimate amelioration
 Shade (regulation of temperature, water, suppression)
 Live supports
 Live fences
 Wind breaks or shelterbelts
•Therefore,
1. Presence of trees lowers evaporative water loss and lowers
soil temperature,
2. Presence of litter layer (increases infiltration and reduces
evaporation)
 Conti….

3. Another potentially positive interaction in agro forestry

systems is its ability to suppress light demanding weeds.
6.1.2. At the tree- animal interface
a) Tree fodder and weeds as animal fodder: good quality and
quantity fodder implies good quality and good quantity of milk.
b) Provision of shade:
c) Transfer of manure
 6.3. Negative (Production-Decreasing) Interactions

6.3.1 At the tree crop interface (TCI)

a) Competition for light
b) Competition for nutrients
c) Competition for water
d) Allelopathy
e) Microclimate modification for pests/diseases
6.3.2. At the tree animal interface (TAI)
 Toxic (phytotoxins, ex. Mimosine) or low quality fodder affects animal
production.
 Mechanical damage of trees by animals
 Deterioration of soil properties, through compaction, trampling
 Harbouring diseases/pests (ex. Tsetse fly)
 6.4.Component Management

Management options to achieve

1 Increased growth (2) Decreased growth
- Microclimate amelioration - Pruning
- Fertilization - Pollarding
- Application of mulch/manure -
Trenching
- Soil tillage - Excessive shading
- Adapted species - Herbicides
- Supplemental feeding -
Grazing/browsing
 Cont.------

1. Pruning
Removal of branches from the lower part of the tree crown is known
as pruning or side pruning. While pruning a tree, branches are always
cut near the stem.
The objectives of pruning in agroforestry are threefold:
• Reduction of shade for crops near the tree
• Improving the quality of the trunk, mainly for timber and poles
• Early harvest of branch wood for fuel or other use.
Cont.------

Pruning to reduce shade

 Cont.------

2. Lopping
 Lopping is distinguished from pruning in that branches are not cut
from the base.
 Also lopping is not always done starting from the lower part of the
tree but can be more haphazard.
 Lopping is the most common harvesting technique for tree fodder
in many areas.
 One of the main advantages with this technique is that it allows
harvest without killing the tree.
 All tree species can be lopped, but the growth rate of certain
 Cont.------

3. Pollarding:-
 If all the branches and the top part of a tree are cut off this is known

as pollarding.
 There can be several objectives with pollarding:

• Early harvest of wood, fodder or other biomass

• Production of wood or fodder that is out of the reach of livestock,

hence there is no need for protection from browsing

• Reduction of shade for crops near by

• Regeneration of the tree crown to promote growth of the trunk for

timber or poles.
 Cont.------

Not all species can withstand pollarding. Some commonly pollarded

species are:
•Balanites spp., Bridelia micrantha, Casnarina spp., Cordia

abyssinica, Croton spp., Erythrina abyssinica, Faidherbia (Acacia)

albida, Ficus sycomorus, Grevillea robusta , Jacaranda mimosifolia,

Manihot glaziovii, Markhamia lutea, Morus alba.

 Cont.------

4. Coppicing
•Many species of trees and shrubs have the ability to re-sprout after the
whole tree has been cut.
•Systematic coppicing is applied as the management technique in alley
cropping, and it may be an option for trees on soil-conservation
structures.
•In such a situation coppicing may be done annually, but in other
situations,
•Not all tree species will coppice after being cut. Some commonly
coppiced species are: Calliandra calothyrsus, Cassia siamea, Cassia
spectabilis, Eucalyptus spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Markhamia lutea.
 Conti.---

•Certain species coppice well when young but may not do so if cut at
maturity. Examples are Casuarina spp., Grevillea robusta, Sesbania sesban
and some Albizia spp.
5. Thinning
 A dense stand initially promotes straight growth and small branches, but
later the trees must be thinned otherwise they will grow too slender and
event­ually not reach the desir­ed size.
• Thinning is par­ticularly important for trees grown in woodlots, but applies
also to other situations where trees are growing close to each other.
• Thinning can, for example, be done by removing every second or two out

of every three trees.

 6. Management of roots

Just as the tree crown can be managed to reduce competition, so can

the roots be managed for the same purpose. Trees growing in cropland
can have their shallow roots cut 0.3-0.6 m from the trunk when they
reach a height of 2-3 m.
This is applicable to species which would otherwise compete with
crops.
 7. Socioeconomic aspects of agroforestry
7.1. General principles of economic analysis
•Economic considerations are among the most important factors that will
determine the ultimate value and feasibility of agroforestry to the land
user.
•Most of the natural and human resources necessary for sustained
economic development in developing countries are becoming increasingly
scarce.
•Any economic analysis of agroforestry should keep in mind its
complementary and long-term characteristics
•Determining the economic feasibility of a specific combination will
require information about the social valuation of relevant farm inputs and
outputs.
 Conti…
a).reduce the risk to income from adverse climatic, biological
or market impacts on particular crops
 Trees can impede cultivation of mono crops and
introduction of mechanization.
b) increases labour costs in situations where the latter is
appropriate and/or inhibit advances in farming system,
 Spreads the need for labour inputs more evenly throughout
the year, so reducing the effects of sharp peaks and
 troughs in activity, characteristics of tropical agriculture
where tree-planting season is very restricted.
 7.2. Financial and Economic Analysis

• Financial analysis examines the feasibility of an undertaking from

the private or individual's point of view while economic analysis

concentrates on the desirability of an activity from the perspective

of a society as a whole.

• More specifically,a financial profitability assessment of an

agricultural enterprise, which used subsidized fertilizer, would

include only in its cost calculations, the fertilizer price actually paid

by the farmer.

• An economic analysis, by contrast, would also include the subsidy

expense incurred by the government in calculating the venture's

 7.3. Important Socio-Cultural Factors in Agroforestry

7.3.1. Land tenure

• Land tenure systems that do not guarantee continued ownership and

control of land are not likely to be conductive to the adoption of

long-term strategies such as agro forestry.

7.3.2. Labour

• Almost all agro forestry innovations demand changes in the labour

practices of the farming system into which they are introduced.

Furthermore, rural people examine labour requirements before they

decide whether or not to adopt a new agro forestry practice.

 Conti…..

7.3.3. Marketability of products

7.3.4. Attitudes, beliefs, customs with respect to trees

• These are among the complex and least understood issues as far as

agro forestry intervention is concerned.

• Different societies have different attitudes, beliefs, customs

regarding trees; some customs and beliefs may be positive while

others may be negative, for instance, there are cultures that

sanction the cutting of certain ‘sacred’ trees (ex. Ficus species).

• In some other cultures, women are forbidden to plant trees

because if they do so, their husbands will die.

 Conti…..

7.4. Social acceptability of Agro-forestry

Farmers usually indicate their willingness to plant trees under three

conditions:

i) Securing tree seedlings at no cost

ii) The possibility of inter-planting tree with food crops without

adverse effects on

crop yield; and

iii) The possibility of earning some income from the tree.

 8. DIAGNOSIS AND DESIGN METHODOLOGY

•Diagnosis and Design is a methodology for the diagnosis of land

management problems and the design of agro forestry solutions.

•Diagnosis used in agro forestry is an assessment of the performance of land

use systems.
•Anyone concerned with problem-solving applies that ‘’diagnosis must

precede treatment.’’
•A clear statement of the problem is often all that is needed to suggest a

solution
•Concepts of D & D:

 The objective of diagnosis is to identify constraints within the system that

 Con.----

Problems of land use include both immediate production

shortfalls and long-term sustainability problems.

o Immediate production problems ex. Grazing
o Long-term production problems ex. Decrease of production

or loss of land fertility

• Key features of D&D

1.Flexibility

2. Speed

3. Repetition
8.2. Procedures in Diagnosis and Design

Stages of Diagnosis and Design process (procedures of D&D)

1. Pre-diagnosis

2. The diagnostic stage

3.Design and Evaluation

4.Planning

5.Implementation
 Basic procedures of the Diagnosis and Design (D & D)

D&D Stages Basic questions to Key factors to consider Mode of inquiry

answer
Prediagnostic Definition of the land Distinctive combinations Seeing and comparing
use the of resources ,technology different land use
system and site and land user objectives systems
selection, Production objectives Analyzing and
(which system to focus and strategies, describing the system
on?) arrangement of
How does the system components
work?
(how is it organized,
how does it function to
achieve its objectives?)
Diagnostic How well does the Problems in meeting Diagnostic interviews
system system objectives and direct field
work? (what are its (production observations
problems, limiting shortfalls, sustainability
constraints, problem problems)
generating
syndromes
&intervention points?)
 Basic procedures of the Diagnosis and Design (D & D)

D&D Stages Basic questions to Key factors to consider Mode of inquiry

answer
Design & evaluation How to improve the Specifications for Iterative design and
system? (what is needed problem solving or evaluation of
to improve system performance enhancing alternatives
performance) interventions

Planning What to do to develop Research and Research design, project

and disseminate the development planning
improved system? needs, extension needs

Implementation - How to adjust to new Feedback from on- Rediagnosis and

information station research, on-farm redesign in the light of
trials and special studies new information
 Criteria For Good Agro forestry Design

A) Productivity

• The range of potential productivity improvements achievable

through agro forestry is exceptionally broad.

• Well-designed agro forestry system can contribute to the

improvement of rural welfare through a variety of direct production

roles as well as indirect service roles with in land use systems

• Productivity improvements can be achieved not only by raising or

diversifying yields of useful products, but also by reducing the cost

of production inputs.
 Conti.----

B) Sustainability

. It can be argued that the adoption conservation-oriented of agro

forestry practices designed to increase the long term of productivity of

the production system is in the farmer, sown interest even

C) Adoptability

• One of the best ways to ensure that the relevant adoptability attributes

are identified and incorporated into the design of the technology is to

involve the interested users directly in the technology development

process from the beginning as active participants in the design, trial,

evaluation and redesign of agro forestry innovations.

THANKS!!