CROPPING SYSTEMS (Note)

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Why cropping system?

Agriculture is a backbone of Ethiopia’s economy and livelihood of its people. However,

the crop production system in the country in major is based on growing seasonal field
crops on marginal and small land holdings characterized by degraded land or soil,
backward agronomic practices, low yielding varieties, etc. So, income from such farming
system is not sufficient for the farming family to sustain their lves, live alone selling the
surplus products.
With gradual decline in farm size and depleted soil, it would be so difficult to produce
enough food for the farming family and the country as a whole in the future. Therefore, it
would be a forcing condition to farmers to undertake some land based enterprises, which
will compliment the existing farming activities to get more income and employment,
which leads to better life. Management practices were formulated only for individual
crops.
However, farmers are cultivating different crops in different seasons based on their
adaptability to a particular season, domestic needs and profitability. Therefore,
development of production technology or management practices that keep all crops in
view is required.
If any sequence or rotation of crops extend beyond on time in a year or more than one
year ,such package of management practices for all crops lead to efficient use of costly
inputs besides reduction in production cost.
Eg. -
 The use of residual effect of manure and fertilizer
 N-fixed by legume can considerably reduce production cost if all crops are
considered than individual crop
 Enterprises like – Livestock, Fishery, Poultry, Duckery, Apiary, Mushroom, etc.
production and tree farming can also be included in the system.

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The only way of maintaining sustainability in food production is through vertical
expansion with diversification of farm enterprises, particularly for resource poor small
and marginal farmers by focusing on farmer’s participatory research and generation of
cost reducing, location specific, relevant and technically feasible technology and transfer
of such technology through effective extension network.

To accomplish such activities, the farming system research (FSR) has been developed to
sustain increased food production through vertical expansion.
In recent past, system approach rather than individualistic approach has gained
importance in Agriculture and related enterprises.
In cropping system, crops are intensified both in space and time dimension. Such
intensification is helpful in
 Increasing crop yield per unit land area / season,
 reduction of crop hazards,
 Reduction of production cost and
 Environmentally friendly (reduces soil degradation, weed, disease, insect etc, and
reduce or avoid chemicals used to control them.).

2. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

System: is arrangement of components which processes input into output. System

consists of several components, which are interrelated and interacting among each other.
There following are among several systems
1. Crop system: Is arrangement of crop population that transfer solar energy,
nutrient, water and other inputs into useful biomass.
- Crops can have different species and varieties, but they constitute one crop system only
if they are managed as a single unit.
Eg. In maize crop system, maize is the dominant crop, which is grown in association with
other crops.
2. Livestock system: a land use unit comprising of animals and auxiliary animal feed
sources transforming plants biomass into animal products.
3. Farm household system: A group of usually related people who individually or
Jointly provide management, labor, capital, land & other inputs for production of crops and
livestock, and consume at least part of the farm produce.

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 Farming system: A decision-making and use unit comprising of farmhouse hold, cropping
and livestock system that produces crop and animal products for consumption and sale.
- Farming system is a sub-system of higher-level land- use system such as village or water
shade that intern, forms a component of Agricultural sector of the regional system.
Farming system encompasses (components of FS are)
Soil, Plant, Animal,
Implement, Workers, Inputs, Environment (physical, biological and social
influences) with the strands held and manipulated by a farmer who gives his preference and
aspirations attempts to produce output from inputs and technology available to him.
- Farming system is a scientific integration of different interdependent and interacting farm
enterprises for efficient use of land, labor, and other resources, which produce income for
farmers.
5. Cropping System: Is a component of Farming system. It is a pattern of crops taken up
for a given piece of land or order in which crops are cultivated on piece of land over a fixed
period and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available
technology which determines their makeup.
II. CROPPING SYSTEM –
Cropping System usually refers to a combination of crops in time and space dimension. It
comprises of all components required for production of a particular crop and the
interrelationship between them and environment.
 In addition, the level of management and the amount of resource inputs are integral
aspects of cropping system
 In previous times, management practices in crop production were usually
formulated for individual crops
However, through time, soil degradation, fragmentation of farmlands due to population
pressure, risk aversion, etc. farmers started cultivating different crops in different seasons
based on their adaptability to a particular season, domestic needs and profitability.
Therefore, production technology or management practices that keep all crops in view
must be developed.
- Cropping System considers production of more than one crop than individual crop per
season or more.

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- If any sequence or rotation of crops extend beyond on time in a year or more than one
year, such package of management practices for all crops lead to efficient use of costly
inputs besides reduction in production cost.
- Inclusion of legumes in non legume crops helps in enhancing nutrient to non legume
plants through N-fixation by legume. This considerably reduces production cost.
The use of residual effect of manure and fertilizer reduces the use of chemical fertilizers.
The above points indicate importance of studying science of cropping system for
sustainability of crop production through developing environmentally friendly, less
costly, etc. production system

2.1.1 Classification of Cropping System

2.1.1.1. Bases for classification of Cropping System : Cropping System can be
classified on the basis of -
a. The distribution of crops in time: That is whether it is – Shifting cultivation,
Continuous cropping, Monoculture or Crop rotation is used to produce crop.
b. The distribution of crops in space on the field: That is whether crop is produced by
Intercropping or sole cropping practiced .
c. The level of management and resource utilized : That is whether it is Intensive or
Extensive production system is practiced to produce crop.
d. The type of crop grown: That is whether it is – An Orchard, Arable cropping,
Pasture or Forestry is practiced.

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2.2. Classes of cropping system
2.2.1. Shifting cultivation

2.2.2. Continuous cropping

2.2.3. Monocropping

2.2.4. Multiple cropping

1.1 2.2.1. Shifting cultivation

1.2 Shifting cultivation is a farming system in which the farm is not at a permanent
location. Instead, apiece of land is cleared, farmed for few years and then abandoned in
preference of new site.

1.3 - While the new site is farmed, natural vegetation (Bush fallow) is allowed to grow
on the previous land.

1.4 - The farmer returns back to the old land after many years of bush fallow

1.5 It included moving of homes with the shifting cultivation during the primitive
times.

1.6 - At present, there are few shifting cultivation practices in the world and there is no
moving of homes.
Shifting cultivation was evolved in transitional Agriculture to:
- Cop up with the problems of decreasing soil fertility.
- Unusual high incidence of disease and insect pest
- Social factors may be factors for the decision.
.
Advantages of Shifting cultivation
1. Shifting cultivation is an easy and inexpensive way of getting rid-of excessive
plant debris.
2. Burning process kills pests, Pathogens and weed seeds in the soil.
3. The alkaline ashes left on the soil after burning serves as amendments in humid
tropics with acid soils
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

1. Its linkage with low level input technology and management as farmer
stays on the location for short time.
2. No incentive to invest in permanent structures such as storage, shade, irrigation
facilities soil conservation, etc
3. .Needs high labor
4. Operations were done by simple hand tools.

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 5. Bush burning causes adverse effect on N& S nutrients, because they are converted
to oxide and escape to the atmosphere. It also cause destruction of beneficial micro
organisms
6. Needs great deal of land, because farmers keep several field under various stages of
bush fallow

1.7 2.2.2. Continuous cropping

1.8 Continuous cropping is cultivation of the same piece of land year after year.
In Continuous cropping,
- Fallow may occur, but never occur more than a season or two.
- As continuous cropping entails that the land will be used for cropping on long term
basis, it is often economical to carry out various operations of long- term value on the
land, and it is usually associated with high level of technology and management.
- Such long term operations may include permanent removal of tree stumps and
woody root from field
- Other operation includes construction of Contour bunds for erosion control and
grading of land for irrigation.

1.9 What about the question of soil fertility in absence of bush fallow?

1.10 There are three ways of maintaining soil fertility under continuous cultivation
1. Fertilizer and other soil amendments can be applied at various stages. These
include
- Range of natural organic manure and
- Compost to artificially produced fertilizer
2. Judicious combination of crop and crop combination to be grown. Here, crop rotation
and carefully planned intercrop combination are indispensable.
Eg. Inclusion of legume in none legume crops help in increasing soil fertility.
3. Introducing short tem fallow periods into the cropping cycle.
Eg. Leguminous cover crops can be grown on the land during the fallow period.

Land use utilization under continuous cropping is extremely efficient. Here, a very high
percentage of the land is under crop at any given time.
Even under fallow time it gives economic return, because the forage crops grown on the
fallow land can be used as animal feed, control erosion, increase nutrient in the soil, etc.
The other aspect of efficiency in continuous cropping is that it is economically feasible
and has possibility to establish permanent structure on farm site.
Eg. - Good access road
Irrigation facility
Store house, etc
2.2.3. Monocropping
Monocropping is a practice of growing one crop variety alone in the field in normal
density.
When a farmer plant a single crop on a piece of land at one time, then harvests it before
planting another crop is said to be monocropping (sole cropping).
Types of Monocropping

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 1. Monoculture
2. Crop rotation
1. Monoculture
Monoculture is a repetitive or continuous growing of one crop alone on land.
The practice of monoculture is risk prone activity in that
- It may lead to loss of the entire crop due to natural hazards like drought, insect, and
disease outbreak.
- It also creates an imbalance in nutrient removal from the soil and encourages pest and
disease attack.
- However, Monoculture, if supported by proper technology, can permit maximum
concentration of production efforts on a single target crop.
2. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is a practice of growing different crops one at a time in a definite sequence on
the same piece of land.
Design of good crop rotation requires decision of –
- What type of crop to have in the rotation?
- In what sequence the crop should occur?
- How many years or seasons in one cycle the rotation must run?
Choice of rotation
Choice of rotation on a particular land depends on –
1. adaptation of the crop to a particular soil, climate and economic condition
2. Weeds, plant disease and insect pest can limit the kind of crop to be used in rotation
3. A good rotation that provides maintenance and improvement o soil productivity,
invariably includes a legume crop to promote fixation of Nitrogen
Principles of Crop rotation
For crop rotation, to be beneficial, economically viable in the long run and ecologically
sustainable, the following principles have to be used.

a. Alternate growing of crops with differential ability to absorb nutrients from the soil or
different rooting depths.
eg. If crops with tap root are followed by crops having fibrous roots, they can
absorb nutrient from different soil layers (depths).
2. Alternate crops susceptible to certain diseases with resistant crops.
3. Land succession of crops that take in to account any detrimental or beneficial
effect of one crop on the following crop.
Such effects may be those which arise from
 toxic substances that are produced by previous crop.
 -Effects due to nutrient supply- eg . Sorghum + maize
 -Build up of Organic matter – eg. Legume + cereals
 -Soil structure – Crops with high vegetative cover
 -Soil Micro organism – Non toxic crops
4. Alternate soil exhausting crops with less exhausting crops or with soil building crops.
5. Alternate crops with different peak requirement of labor, water, etc.
Advantages of Crop rotation
1. It is an effective means of controlling disease, insect pest and Weeds.
2. Crop rotation is an effective device of maintaining high soil productivity over

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 several years of continuous cropping.
Eg.-Inclusion of legumes and fallow in the rotation.
3. Crop rotation offers insurance of crop failure to farmers. eg. When the field is
divided into several
4. Crop rotation is used for erosion control.

1.11 2.2 4. Multiple cropping

Multiple cropping refers to growing of two or more crops consecutively on the same field
in the same year. It is intensification of cropping in time dimension without deterioration of
soil fertility.
- In essence, multiple cropping represents a philosophy of maximizing crop production per
unit area of land within a calendar year with minimum deterioration of soil.
- Multiple cropping is a maximum use of land by means of frequent succession of
harvested crop.
- Cropping system that is based on climate, soil and water availability has to be evolved .
Cropping system must provide enough food, fodder and generate income for domestic and
cultivation expenses. So, the objective of this could be achieved through intensive or
multiple cropping.
TYPES OF MULTIPLE CROPING
a. Intercropping
b. Sequential Intercropping
Intercropping -is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land
per season or year.
- Crop intensification is both in time and space dimension.
- There is intercrop competition during all or part of crop growth
- Farmers manage more than one crop at one time in the same field.
OR
- Intercropping is cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field with
or without a raw arrangement
- The crops grown in intercropping are called association.
There are various kinds of intercropping system based on exact special arrangement of
crops on field. However, two major ways of intercropping system are-
a. Mixed intercropping

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 b. Row intercropping
a. Mixed intercropping – is growing of two or more crops simultaneously without
distinct rows. eg. Wheat vs barley, Field pea vs broad bean, Sorghum vs beans, etc.
- The crops involved in the intercropping can be combination of annuals and perennials, or
perennials only or annuals only.
b. Row intercropping – is the type of intercropping where one or more crops are planted
in row. Some crops are allowed to grow with crops having larger raw intervals. Here,
cropping intensity in space dimension is achieved.
The row intercropping Includes
1. Alley intercropping

2. strip cropping

3. Parallel cropping

4. Companion Cropping

5. synergetic cropping

6. Multistoryed cropping

1. Alley cropping – a cropping system in which crops are grown in the alleys formed by
trees or shrubs established, mainly to hasten soil fertility.
Eg. Inclusion of legumes between rows of trees.
2. Strip intercropping - Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in different strips
wide enough to permit independent cultivation, but narrow enough for crops to interact
agronomically.
3. Parallel intercropping: Growing of crops which have different natural habits and zero
competition. e.g. Black gram / Green gram + maize.
The peak nutrient demand period for black or green gram is 30 – 35 days after
sowing, while it is 50 days after sowing for maize.
4. Companion cropping – An intercropping where production of both intercrops is equal
to that of its solid planting. Eg. Mustard / potato / onion + Sugar cane
By growing the above three intercrops individually with sugar cane, the production of none
is hardly affected.

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5. Synergetic cropping: The yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crop on
unit basis. Eg. Sugar + Potato.
6. Multistoreyd /Multilevel/ Multi-tier Intercropping.- is the practice of growing
different crops of varying height, rooting pattern and duration.
The objective is to utilize the vertical space more effectively.
Such intercropping is mostly prevalent in plantation crops like Coconut and arkanut.
Intercropping is possible in coconut garden up to the age of 8 and after 25 years. During
these periods, there is adequate light transmission to the ground that permits cultivation of
the intercrops.
In this cropping system, the leaf canopies of the intercropped components occupy
different vertical layers. The tallest component has foliage tolerant to strong light and
high evaporative demand and he shorter component(s) with foliage requiring shade or
relatively high humidity.
Eg. Coconut + black pepper+ cocoa+ Pine apple can be grown as components of
multistoreyd intercropping.
In this case, coconut is planted with spacing of 7.5m. Rooted cut tings of black pepper are
planted on either of coconut about 7.5cm away from the base. On coconut trunk at height
of about one meter from the ground level, the vines of pepper are trailed. A single row of
Cocoa is planted at the centre of space between coconut rows. Pineapple is placed in the
interspaces.
Coconut growing to the height of 10 or more occupies the top floor.
Black pepper growing to about 6-8m high which forms the second floor.
Cocoa, with its pruned canopy of 2.5m height and pineapple growing to about one meter
height form the first and ground floors, respectively.

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 Cocoa B.pepper
Coconut

Pinapple

In other multitier system in Coconut, Ginger or Turmic and partial shade loving
vegetables form the first tier, Banana in second tier, Pepper in third tier and Coconut or
arcanut in final tier.
In Coffee based multi-tier cropping system, the firs tier is with Pine apple, second tier
with Coffee, third tier with Cocoa / Mandarin or Orange and final tier with fast growing
shade trees necessary for coffee plantation.
Factors to be considered in selecting component crops
1 Rhyzobium symbiosis and Nitrogen transfer. Legumes have definite place in any
cropping system because of their limited demand on resources like water, Nutrient,
and light, their adaptability to varying environmental conditions and capacity to fix
atmospheric N in root nodules.
2 Period and rate of growth to reach physiological maturity – Short duration and
photoperiod insensitive genotypes are suited for multiple cropping systems.
3 Light requirement – Light use efficiency
4 Water use of efficiency

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5 Foliage architecture –vertical and horizontal orientation
6 Economic advantage
Eg. Vegetable deserve their due place in intensive cropping because of
a. high cash and nutritional values
b. Most vegetables can be raised as seedling and planted. Thus, reducing
main field duration and competition with the associated crop
c. The can be grown in inter spaces in between the
orchards and plantation
d. They can be inter or relay cropped in cereal base crop.
7 Social factor- demand of the society.
8 Allelopathic and other effects—The crop should be arranged in such a way that
allelopathic effect, temporary immobilization of nutrients and depletion of nutrients
from the same soil layer do not occur
9 Nutrient demand (Peak time) Note overlapping
10 Complimentarily between component crops
11 physical requirement
The farmer, after deciding the type of crop to grow and spatial arrangement on the field,
he also has to decide exact proportion of the various plants on the field.
Eg. Additive series- Where recommended proportion of base crop and less proportion
for the intercrop are grown together
Replacement series -Where both component crops are less than their recommended
population in pure stand.
Advantages of Intercropping
1. Better use of production resources such as water, light, nutrient.
2. weed suppression
3. Reduction in plant disease and insect incidences.
4. Reduction in soil erosion
5. Yield stability
6. Ecological stability – soil health improvement and agro ecosystem
7. Spreading of labor
8. Risk avoidance

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9. Physiological support of crops to each other
10. Earning of different crop yields from the same field in one season.
Disadvantages of Intercropping
1. Labor intensive
2. Difficulty in chemical weed control – Selectivity problem
3. Difficulty in mechanization
4. Adverse effects such as allelopathy.
Pre requisite of Successful intercropping
The main objective of intercropping is higher productivity per unit area in addition
to stability in production. Intercropping utilizes resources efficiently. So, there are
certain important pre-requisite for intercropping to be successful.
1. The time of peak nutrient demands of component crops should not
overlap. Eg. Maize and mung ; peak nutrient demand for maize is 50- 55
days and that of mung is 30- 35 days.
2. Competition for light should be minimized among the component crops.
3. complimentarily should exist between the component crops
4. The difference in maturity of the component crops should be at least
30days.
5. Competition for co2 and water among component crops should be
minimum
Intercropping is grouped in to two, on the basis of percent of plant population
used for each crop in the system.
a.Additive series intercropping
b. Replacement series intercropping–
a. Additive series intercropping - is the type of intercropping in which one crop is
main crop or base crop and the other crop is an intercrop.
The Intercrop is introduced into the base crop by adjusting or changing crop geometry
i.e. addition of intercrop to the base crop.
Here, plant population of base crop is same to the recommended population in pure
stand where as that of intercrop is less. Cropping husbandry is according to the base
crop.

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 Objective of such intercropping is to get additional income and to cover risk.
Eg. Sawing of potato in the field of sugar cane in between the rows of cane spaced at
a 90 cm.
b. Replacement series intercropping: Where both of the crops are component crops.
Neither is the base crop nor is the intercrop
The plant population of both component crops is less than their recommended population
in pure stand.
Main/ Base crop: This is the crop which is planted or grown at its optimum sole crop
population in an intercrop situation and the second crop is in between rows of the main
crop or base crop with a view of obtaining some extra intercrop yield with out sacrificing
the main or base crop yield.
Component Crop: This is used to refer to either of the individual crops making up the
intercropping situation.
Intercrop yield: yield of component crops when grown in intercropping and expressed
over the total intercropped area (i.e. area occupied by both crops).
2. Sequential cropping /none overlapping intercropping
This is growing of two or more crops in quick succession on the same piece of land in
farming. The sowing of the succeeding crop and harvesting of the preceding crop may be
done simultaneously or in quick succession.
Eg. Just after harvesting of maize, potato is planted and just after harvesting of potato,
chili can be grown following potato.
There is no overlapping between the two or more cropping in sequential cropping, and
called none overlapping cropping.
Types of Sequential cropping
1. Relay intercropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously during the part of
the life cycle of each.
Succeeding crop is planted before harvesting of preceding crop, just after the first crop
reached to its reproductive stage, but before harvest.
Eg. - Some vegetables can be planted before harvesting of maize or sorghum, even
chickpea, pea and beans,

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 - Radish can be planted before harvest of potato. However, these depend up on
availability of soil moisture.
3 Double cropping: Growing of two crops per season in sequence.
4 Triple cropping: Growing of three crops per season in sequence.
5 Quadruple cropping: Growing of four crops per season in sequence.
6 Ratoon cropping: Cultivation of crops re growth after harvest, although no necessary
for grain crops
It is suitable to forage crops, Sorghum, Sugar cane.
Interactions among component crops in multiple cropping systems
a. Interactions among component crops in intercropping system
Terms:
Competition effects: Competition among component crops for light, Nutrient, water, o 2
and others
Complimentarity effects: Effect of one component on the other which enhances growth
and productivity as opposed to competition
Spatial arrangement: Physical or spatial organization of component in multiple
cropping system.
The Interactions among component crops
The Interactions among component crops under multiple cropping systems include both
positive and negative effects.
The positive effect is called complimentarity effect (interaction), and the negative
effect is called competition effect (interaction).
a. Complimentarity interaction: This is a condition where the component crops
growing together in the intercropping systems are free from or less affected by intra
competition or benefited from each other
- Complimentarity interactions under intercropping systems include interactions like;
Anidation in time, anidation in space and N fixation by legume components for the non
legume components.
Anidation : Is a complimentarity effect which occurs both in time and space.
1. Anidation in time: This complementarity effect arises when the component crops of
widely varying duration are planted and grown together in the intercropping system.

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- when the component crops of widely varying duration are planted and grown together,
their peak demand time for growth factor (light , nutrient etc )are likely to occur at
different times, thus reducing competition.
e.g. Combination of sorghum (late maturing) and red gram (early maturing) crops can
show the above interactions.
- In this case, when early maturing red gram is harvested, the condition becomes
favorable for sorghum (late maturing) to put forth its full vigor.
Generally, the intercropped stand removes high amount of nutrient and water than pure
stand.
2. Anidation in Space: a complimentarity effect that arises when the component crops,
which have canopies that occupy different vertical layers, are growing together in the
intercropping system
- In this case canopies of component crops occupy different vertical layers with tallest
component tolerant to strong light and high evaporative demand and the shorter
component favoring shade and high relative humidity.
e.g. Differences of component crops in rooting habit allows the crops to exploit nutrient
and moisture from different soil layers. Hence, they utilize resources in better way with
less competition.
b. Other complimentarily effects ( Interactions ): Such interactions in the
intercropping system occurs through combination of legumes and the non legumes crops.
In Legume and non legume intercropping system, both of the component crops
compliment each other during their growth and development.
- In this case, the legume component supply N-fixed by their roots to the non legume
component with presence of Ryhzobium micoroflora and micorrhiza, one species may
lead to mobilization and greater availability of nutrient to both components.
- The non legume component provides physical support to the legume component.
E.g. Coconut and pepper combination: - Where the taller component provide wind
break to the shorter one.
Maize and bean combination: - where the legume (Bean) component provides
nitrogen to the non legume (maize) component while maize provide physical support to
the bean.

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2. Competition Effects (Negative interaction): Negative interactions in intercropping
systems occur as a result of growing together of crops with negative effects on each other
or from one component to the other component.
e.g. Allelopathy: Any direct or indirect and harmful effect, that one component exert on
the other component in the intercropping system through production and excretion of
chemical substances that escape into the soil or environment.
 So, crops that naturally excrete these harmful
chemicals are intercropped with normal crops, can affect growth, development and
production of the component crop.
3.Other plant interactions
Plants under multiple cropping systems interact to each other. Both positive and negative
interactions are present among the component crops.
1. Competition in cropping system
Plants under intercropping system compete for
Light
Nutrient
Moisture
Space, etc.
1. Competition for Light - Crop production is simply a matter of harvesting sun
energy as much as possible.
In intercropping situation, competition for light can occur if there is no careful selection
of component crops that differ in their light demand or morphology. Eg. Competition
for light between component crops in intercropping system occurs if component crops
with similar; plant height, Peak light demand time, similar leaf orientation, etc. are
allowed to grow together.
Overpopulation also leads to competition for light.
One advantage of intercropping is to minimize light Wastage as much as possible.
However, this can be true if and only if the component crops are selected carefully in
such a way that there could be no competition for light among them.
Intercropping avoid wastage of light energy by increasing light interception upto 30 to
40 %.

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 So, this can be true if the component crops are grown in a condition that competition
for light is minimized through
 Proper choice of crops and varieties--Eg. Maize + Mung bean (with 50 -55 days
and 30 – 35 days of peak light demand time respectively) can be grown together in
intercropping.
 Adjustment of planting density and pattern. Pattern of light interception also
varies according to the age of the crop.
Eg. Light transmission by coconut is only about 20% at the age of 8 – 10 years and this
remains constant till about 25 years of age.
 Light transmission increase as canopy coverage decreases. Eg. Light transmission in
Palm at 40 years increases by 50%.
 When component crops have different growth duration, the peak demand for light
occurs at different times.
- Eg. Sorghum+ beans – after booting of sorghum.
 Proper plant density also avoid competition for light through avoiding overlapping of
leaves that may create shading effect on each other
2. Competition for Moisture and Nutrient Competition for Moisture and Nutrient
results in two types of effects on the less successful or suppressed component.
 The root of this component may grow less on the sides towards plants of aggressive
component.
 Plants affected by competition for soil factors may have increased root / shoot ratio.
 Aggressive component absorb greater quantity of nutrient and moisture
 Component crops with similar rooting habit compete for nutrient and moisture.
 In legume and non legume combination, the non legume takes high amount of P, K
and S, thus, the legume shows deficiency of these nutrients.
 Such problems can be solved by application of these fertilizers.
 Among the crops in the intercrop, Sorghum and Pearl millet components are more
competitive and extract high amount of nutrient.
 In general. The intercrop stands take remove high amount of nutrients and water from
the soil than sole crop stands.
c. Interactions in Sequential cropping

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In Sequential cropping, sole crops are grown in succession.
 So, there is no competition for light, water, and nutrient unlike under mixed and
row cropping systems.
 However, there is a short span of overlapping between two crops in the sequence.
 So, there is competition for light in relay cropped seedlings from the previous
stand for few periods.
 However, such competition can be minimized through
 proper choice of crop and variety
 Adjusting time and method of planting.
 There is complimentarily effect in sequential cropping in that there is
 N-or other nutrient release from residues of previous crop, particularly
from legumes.
 Also carry over effect of fertilizer applied to the preceding crop.
Adverse effects in sequential cropping
In sequential cropping, there are some adverse effects that may happen on one crop
from the other crop in the sequence. Such effects include:
 Danger of allelopathy
 Temporary immobilization of Nitrogen due to wide C/N ratio of the crop
residue
 Carry over effect of pest and diseases.
Terms
Competition effect—Competition of intercropped species for light, nutrient water,
co2 and other growth factor.
Complimentarily effect –Effect of one component which enhances growth and
productivity on another component as compared to competition effect in the
intercropping system.
Component technology - Procedure for growing each component crop.
Farm enterprise – An individual crop or animal production function within a farm
system which is the smallest unit for which resources used and cost- return
analysis is normally carried out.

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Farming system research (FSR) – The study of whole farm system which includes
all enterprises on the farm, their biological, economic and cultural operation and
usually implies some involvement of the farmer in the research process.
Interplanting – All types of planting or seeding into a growing stand. It is used
especially for annual crops grown under stands of the perennial crops.
Maximum cropping – Attainments of highest possible production per unit area per
unit time without regard to cost or return.
Spatial arrangement – physical or spatial organization of component crops in
multiple cropping systems.
Monetary Index – A simple productivity index which incorporate monetary value of
all crops in a system.
AGRONOMIC PRACTICES IN INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS
Agronomy of intercropping systems includes all practices that can contribute for
productivity of crops included in the system.
 Many management decisions are influenced by
 climate,
 inherent soil properties
 Socio-economic conditions.
 Each decision on; Crop and variety, Land preparation, Fertilizer and other
agronomic practices have impact on other factors.
 Intercropping is a major system in rain fed agriculture, although rationing is
practiced under favorable rain fed condition.
Agronomic practices include;
a) Crops and cultivar combination
Crop combination is a very important activity under intercropping system. Crop
combination depends up on;
 Climate
 Locale preference
 Other site specific factors
 Effects that component crops have on each other
 Types of crop / variety

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 Crops to be combined in intercropping system must have differences in;
 Duration
 Morphology
 Rooting system/ habit
 Stress tolerance
 Density response
 Resistance to pests and pathogens
 Yield stability
The logic behind the crop combination is that the spatial and temporal differences of
two or more combined crops utilize available resources more than efficiently than
crops grown alone (sole crop)
The primary objective of crops combination in subsistence farming is to minimize risk
of total crop failure or to maximize yield of primary crop and harvest the second crop
(crops) as bonus. Crop combination is thus, aimed as to achieving of this objective.
b. Adjusting time of planting – Early planting allows crop growth during the
favorable period under rain fed condition and also to gain time for sequential
cropping.
 Sowing crops at different times ensures full utilization of growth factors minimize
competition for growth factors.
 Sequential cropping is hardly practiced in Ethiopia due to uncertainty of rainfall.
So, farmers practice simultaneous cropping.
 Cropping of second (2nd) crop also has problem of planting.

c. Plant population and Row arrangement

 Plant population needs to be determined in order to obtain the targeted yield of
any crop or variety.
 Both higher and lower plant population-than optimum decreases yield and results
in lower yield.
 Therefore, optimum plant population is required for every crop based on their
type of intercropping system and other factors.
 Mostly cereals show plasticity in their yield responses to plant population.

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  This enables choice of plant density that is less competitive to the associated crop
in the intercropping, while maintaining proportion of the potential yield.
 Under intercropping, crop population is determined by the associated crop species
and temporal differences between the component crops.
 In a system where the temporal difference is wide, both of the component crops
can be planted at 100% o the sole optimum population.
Eg. In sorghum + pigeon pea and Ground nut + pigeon pea
 Conversely, in closely maturing crops, the additive population may not be
required, though the total population f both crops be higher than of either of the
crops.
eg. Cereal +legume, and Ground nut + sunflower
 In general, replacement series (where proportion of one crop is substituted for a
population of the other crop) is followed by simultaneous planting of component
crops and less frequent on additive series (where sole crop densities of two or
more are planted).
 Optimum row arrangement for a system with temporal species difference can be
worked out easily.
 The arrangement that utilize high proportion of the early crop to maximize its
yield and allows maturing component crop to fully cover ground should normally
give the highest productivity.
 However, in a system based on spatial differences where the competitive balance
of the component crop is critical for yield advantage, a number of factors such as
o Plant population
o Genotype
o Moisture
o Fertilizer
o Canopy size of the component crop, etc. needs to be considered.
d. Fertilizer needs
-Fertilizer needs of a system may be increased, decreased or unaltered, compared to sole
crops, depending on the component crops involved

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- When both of the component crops respond to a particular nutrient, the intercrop
requirement may be higher than the sole crop.
Eg. Two cereal components crops Phosphorus needs in case of two legumes.
In general, there is no necessity for any additional nitrogen either to the cereal + legume
or legume + legume system.
- Additional phosphorous and nitrogen is necessary for all intercropping system
- Fertility response equations developed for intercropping situation are scarce.
- N- Supplementation Index (NSI) has been proposed to adjust fertilizer requirement.
(NSI (A)= 100x NA + nb / NA) - 1
Where, NSI (A)= NSI of cop A for a given nutrient
NA = Nutrient uptake by sole A for the same land area (kg/ha)
Na = Nutrient uptake by mixture A for the same land area as sole crop A
Nb = Nutrient uptake by B in a mixture for the same land area as sole crop B
The NSI is used to adjust total fertility input into cropping system, based on the relative
uptake of each component crop as sole crop.
Example 1.
N-uptake by sole and intercropped Finger millet is 185.and 163 kgha-1 respectively.
The uptake of N- by sole pigeon pea and as intercrop with finger millet is 101 and 40
kgha-1 respectively. Calculate the NSI of finger millet is 9 .7 %.
NSI of finger millet = 100x 163 + 40 kgha-1 /185 – 1. = 9.7 %
- So, N-requirement for both pigeon pea and finger millet in mixture is 9.7% of that
required by sole Finger millet. Similarly, the NSI for pigeon pea is –
- NSI pigeon pea = 100 x163 + 4 kgha-1 / 101 -1 = 100%
- Methods of fertilizer application are important where components have different
requirements, as with Nitrogen in cereal and legume system
- N- Should be applied to the cereal as far away from legume as possible to avoid
effects on N- fixation.
- If both of the components require the same nutrient, it can be applied in one
application.
- Eg. As in N- for cereal + cereal component and Phosphorous for cereal +legume
system.

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d. Weed Management –
 The intercrop weed management combines two qualitatively aspects of plant /
plant interactions.
 To increase crop yield, complimentarily in patterns of resource use by component
crops must be emphasized.
The goal is to minimize the degree of overlap in resource use by intercropped crops to
exploit more resource so that more yields can be harvested per unit area.
 To achieve weed control, the similarity of requirement of crop and weed species,
the consequent competition for limited resource and suppression of growth and yield of
the associated species are emphasized.
-The main aim of weed management is to create environment that is detrimental to weed
and favorable to the crop.
- Intercropping has potential means of weed control as it offers possibility of a mixture of
crops capturing greater share of available resource than in sole cropping
- Additive mixtures can control weed more efficiently than replacement mixtures.
-The smoother intercrops and live mulch intercrops are high density additive mixtures
and are promising weed controlling systems.
- Under multiple cropping systems, weed management should be planned for individual
crops rather than cropping system due to problems associated with Herbicide residue in
soil.
- Crop weed association must also be considered while planning weed management.
-Pulse crops with smothering effects can reduce weed seed production leading to less
weed problems in succeeding crop.
- Herbicides toxicity in succeeding crop must be avoided through,
1. The use of optimum herbicide dose
2. Application of FYM -The FYM mitigates the herbicide residual toxicity.
a. Colloidal fraction of FYM adsorbs Herbicide molecules and makes them un
available to plants.
b. FYM enhances microbial activities while can degrade the herbicide at faster
rate.
3. Cultural practices

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 - Ploughing with disk plough or intercultivation reduces the Herbicide toxicity.
- This mixes the herbicide with large volume of soil and makes it dilute.
- Deep ploughing inverts and buries Herbicide deep into the soil layer and avoids
oxicity.
4. Crop rotation.
The herbicide applied to the previous crop should not be toxic for the succeeding
crop in rotation.
-eg. Application of – atrazine to Maize
- Diuro to cotton
- Chlorambine to Soya bean
Do not have direct or indirect residual effect on succeeding cotton, maize- Soya
bean Rotation.
5. Use of non -phytotoxic oil and activated carbon
- Mixing Herbicide with non- phytotoxic oil reduces hazard of herbicide toxicity
- Activated carbon has high adsorption capacity due to its tremendous surface area.
6. Use of herbicide safner
- Safner (antidotes) protects the crops from damage by Herbicides.
eg. R27788 – marketed as a mixture with EPTC and butylate is used for soil
application.
- Naphtalic anhydride (NA) – is used for seed dressing on Rice against residual
effect of monilate and alachlor.
- Cyometrinil- is used against metalachlor in grain sorghum.
1. Leaching of the soil –Frequent irrigation for water soluble Herbicides is one way
of reducing Herbicide toxicity
Core must be done to remove (leach) the Herbicide from the root zone.
Adequate drainage must be prepared.
ASSESSMENT OF AGRONOMIC INTERACTIONS
A. Evaluation of cropping systems
- Various cropping systems are practiced in different places. So, their relative advantages
and stability must be evaluated and identified.
- Evaluating the system tells us whether to accept or to reject it.

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- Comparison of these cropping systems is made on in reference to
2. Land use efficiency
3. Biological potential
4. Economic inability, etc.
There are several indices which are used to evaluate the advantages or disadvantages of
cropping systems
1 .Simple value indices
The simple value indices involve allocation of value to each crop and subsequent
calculation of a total value from the sum of the values for the separate crops.
If values of two crops are assessed as K1 and K2 then the value of intercrop
treatment producing mean yield of Y1 and Y2 is
V= K1 x Y1 + K2x Y2
FINANCIAL RETURN
- Financial Return is frequently used value index is that of financial return.
- Other value indices include protein and dry matter
L- However, financial indices have shortcomings like price fluctuation which results in
variation of K1 and K2 ratio. So, employment of several price ratio may be partial
answer to this shortcoming.
Crop Equivalent
- Crop equivalent is where the yield of one crop is converted into yield equivalent of
other crop by using ratio prices of the two crops.
- This index is exactly equivalent to that of financial value index.
Assessment of competition and yield Advantage
Land equivalent ratio (LER),
LER = La + Lb = Ya / Sa + Yb / Sb
Where, La = LER of crop a
-Lb = LEA of crop b
* Ya and Yb = yield of individual crops a and b respectively in mixture
* Sa and Sb = yield of individual crops a and b respectively in pure stand.
Let , La = 0.70 and Lb = 0.40

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 So, LER = 1.10 , This shows (LER 1.10) that produce a combined mixture yield
from pure stand requires 10 % more land, i.e. The mixture gives 10 % more yield over
pure stand.
Thus,
it gives better competitive abilities of the component crops.
It gives actual yield advantages of intercropping.
- In other words, LER is the unit to measure production efficiency of
different cropping systems by converting the production in terms of land
acreage.
- LER gives an accurate assessment of biological efficiency of intercropping.
LER > 1, indicates that the intercropping is beneficial.
Relative Yield Total and Land Equivalent Ratio.
The most important index biological advantage is the relative yield total (RYT)
introduced by Dewit and Vanden Bergh (1965) or LER reviewed by Willey (1979)
The mixture yield of a component crop expressed as a portion of its yield as a sole
crop from the same replacement series is called Relative yield of the crop and the sum
of the relative yields of component crops is called Land Equivalent Ratio (LER). Both
of the Expressions are similar.
Example:
- Sole crop yield of ground nut = 1000 kg ha-1
- Sole crop yield of pigeon pea = 500 kg ha-1
- Mixture yield of ground nut = 700 kg ha-1
- Mixture yield of pigeon pea = 400 kg ha-1
- Price of pigeon pea = 12 birr kg-1
- Price of ground nut = 10 birr kg-1
Calculate LER and total monetary returns due to intercropping?
Solution
a. Land Equivalent Ratio
LER = Ya/ Sb + Yb / Sb = La + Lb
LER = 700 / 1000 + 400 / 500 = 1.5
Monetary Advantage

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Eg.
Financial value of sole ground nut + 1000 x10 = 10,000
Financial value of sole pigeon pea = 500 X 12 = 6,000
Financial value of sole intercropped ground nut = 700x10 = 7,000
Financial value of sole intercropped pigeon pea = 400x 12 = 4,800
Monetary return due to intercropping = 11,800
- Other indices have been proposed as a measure of biological performance of crops
under intercropping system
- Indices are proposed based on two objectives and these are;
1. To assess benefits or overall advantages of intercropping
2. To assess relative performance of two crops, the concept of dominance or
competitiveness.
* The LER or RYT is the main Indexes of intercropping advantages currently used.

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