1.

Basic unit of all matter - ATOM ATOMIC NUMBER

2. Two classifications of matter - MIXTURES AND  Number of protons in the nucleus
PURE SUBSTANCES  Fixed number
3. A number that describes the quantity of protons in
the nucleus - ATOMIC NUMBER MASS NUMBER
4. A number that is the sum of the protons and  Total number of protons + neutrons
neutrons in an atom - ATOMIC MASS
 may vary from atom to atom
5. Three principal subatomic particles -ELECTRON(-),
PROTON(+), NEUTRON(uncharged)
1. Protons = Electrons = ATOMIC NUMBER
6. What is the charge of 02? - ZERO
7. Atoms of the same element with different number of 2. Neutrons = Mass number - atomic number
neutrons - ISOTOPES 3. Mass No. = Protons + neutrons
4. Electrons = Protons - Charge

Charge = sum of positive and negative

TWO CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER Charge charges
1. Mixtures  NEUTRAL ATOM, the number of protons =
number of electrons
 Variable composition
 Charge, for example, of 02=
 Components retain physical properties
 Distribution of electrons changes during chemical
 Separated to their components by physical
reactions
means  For charged atoms, number of protons are
 Homogenous mixtures uncharged. WHY?
 Heterogenous mixtures
2. Pure substances A(mass number)
-P+N
 Fixed composition Z (atomic number)
 Cannot be separated to their components - protons
by physical means NEUTRONS
 Elements - Atomic # - mass#
 Compounds ELECTRONS
- protons - charge
Law of Definite Composition/ proust’s
law
 Pure compounds always consist of the same Isotopes
elements in the same proportion by mass.
 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Atoms of the same element with different number of
neutrons
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION
 When chemical elements combine, they so do in a
ratio of small whole numbers.
 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

 The total mass of all products of a chemical
reaction is equal to the total mass of all reactants
of that reactions
 Energy may be created nor destroy

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
Atom 1. PROTIUM - most abundant (no neutron)
2. DEUTERIUM - heavy hydrogen
a) D20 = deuterium oxide (heavy water)
 All matter is composed of small, indivisible 3. TRITIUM - radioactive (radiolabel)
particles called “Atomos” - Democritus
 Basic unit of an element that can enter into
chemical combinations.
 Can be identifies by the number of protons and
neutrons
 Quantum numbers
 Electrons are arranged in major quantum
numbers occupying the space around the nucleus.
 Each electron is assigned with four quantum
numbers
Symbol Values Function
Principal n 1,2,3 SIZE • Heavy metals – Found in the two bottom rows.

Azimuthal l 0 to (n-1) SHAPE • Metallic elements – Protein precipitants, major

or angular (spdf) exception being the alkali metals. Therefore, they are
Magnetic ml -1 to +1 Orientation toxic (e.g. Ba, Tl, Pb and Hg).

Electron ms -1/2 OR +1/2 Spin • Amphoteric

spin – Elements are equally acidic and basic.
– If a line is drawn diagonally through H and Be, and
through Al, Ge, Sb and Po, the elements on the line
Valence Electrons and some adjacent to it are amphoteric.

 All atoms except hydrogen and inert gases have  DIAGONALS OR BRIDGE ELEMENTS
one or more completely occupied lower major – The 1 st member of the family can be quite unlike
quantum groups and have the suborbitals of their the other members; it more closely resembles the 2 nd
highest major quantum numbers only partially member of the adjacent group to the right.
filled.  Mas ka mukha niya yung katabi niya
 Electrons of the outer, partially filled energy level  Li - Mg, Be-Al, B-Si, C-P
give the electrons their chemical properties.
 ORBITAL ELECTRONS
Periodic table – Predict the possible oxidation states, the shielding of
nuclear charge, and the polarizability for each
element.
- predict the charge
- loss electron (+)(CATION)
- gain electron (-) (ANION)
ATOMIC RADIUS AND IONIC RADII
– Give an indication of the relative size of the members
of a family.
Atomic (uncharged) Ionic (either nag gain na or
loss)
• Negative ions – always larger than the neutral
atom
• Positive ions – always smaller
 Provides clues to the physical and chemical
properties of the elements and their compounds.
• Ionization Potential
 MENDELEY - chemist who first arranged atoms
 A measure of the energy required to remove an
systematically.
electron by overcoming the attractive force of the
GROUPS COMMON NAME
nucleus. (GROUP 1 AND 2)
I-A Alkali metals • Metals – low ionization potentials, readily
I-B Coinage metals form cations.
II-A Alkaline earth • Nonmetals – high ionization potentials
II-B Volatile metals / zinc
III Boron/ aluminum Electronegativity (5, 6, 7, 8)
IV-A Carbon Attraction of nucleus for electrons
IV-B Titanium • Metals – low electronegativity, thus
V-A Nitrogen electropositive
V-B Tantalum • Nonmetals – High electronegativity
VI-A Chalcogens especially halogens(FLOURINE) ; attract
VII-A Halogens additional electrons to form anions
VIII-A Inert gases
VIII B Triads
Isotopes - Atoms that have the same atomic number
but different in nucleus
ACID BASE
Isotones -Elements having the same number of ARRHENIUS Hydrogen ions Hydroxide ions
neutrons BRONSTED proton donor Proton acceptor
LEWIS Electron acceptor Electron donor
Isobars - Different elements having the same mass
number but different atomic number HYDROCHLORIC ACID
 Pan acid, roast acid
Elements of Group I Group IA and IB  Muriatic acid (36%)
 Pale yellow
GROUP 1
 Characterized by having only one valence electron, NITRIC ACID
ns1.  Eau forte
 Subgroups:  Strong water
Group IA • (n-1)s2 (n-1)p6ns1  Xanthropoteic acid (yellow stain) (nitration in amino
Group IB • (n-1)d10ns1 acid)
 Strongly metallic, giving rise to cations, M+
SULFURIC ACID
Group IA: The Alkali Metals  Oil of vitriol
• Highly Nasty Kids Rub Cats Fur  Oxidizing acid
– H – Li – Na – K – Rb – Cs – Fr  Not official
• Properties:
– One valence electron outside of a well-shielded core: BORIC ACID
easily removed, forming monovalent cations.  Antiseptic
– As the group is descended:  Buffer component
• Ionization potential decreases  Eyewash
• Atomic radius increases
• Electropositivity increases PHOSPHORIC ACID
• Activity increases (correlated with atomic weight)  2 ionization lang
• Oxidation potential increases (except Li)  Source of phosphate
• Degree of solvation of ions decreases (ABILITY
TO BE DISSOLVED BY SOLVENT)
– Most reactive of all the metallic elements Lithium (Li)
– Do not form complexes • Lightest metal
– Form white solid hydrides quite readily when heated • Depresses the CNS – In its former therapeutic
with hydrogen gas (M + H2 = metal hydrides) applications (eg. LiBr) the activity was inherent in the
– Only Li readily reacts with Nitrogen, (even at room anion.
temp) to form Li3N – Lithium Carbonate USP and Lithium Citrate USP
– Have high affinity for oxygen forming oxides • Used in the treatment of hypomanic and manic
– React vigorously with water forming H2 gas and states.
metallic hydroxides. • No normal physiological role
– Alkali metal hydroxides are all alkaline in aqueous • Bridge element (KAPAMILYA PERO KAPUSO)
solution
• Alkalinity naturally increases as ionic radius Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)
increases.
 Living cell ("PISO")
• Generally, alkalinity increases from right to left and
– Na: cation of the extracellular fluids
from top to bottom of the periodic table.
– K: cation of the intracellular fluids
 USE: electrolytes
Hydrogen (H)
• Inflammable air
• Lightest element/gas
Sodium (Na)
• Use: inflating balloons
Common cation of choice to optimize the
• Monovalent cation (H+/hydronium) = acids
• Monovalent anion (H-/hydride) = metal hydrides pharmaceutical utility of the organic medicaments (eg.
reducing agents methional Na, phenobarbital Na, or Na citrate)
• Isotopes:
 Protium – most abundant NaCl:(rock salt, table salt) electrolyte replenishers
 Deuterium – heavy hydrogen, D2O =  Component of NSS (0.9%)
deuterium oxide, heavy water  Na+ promotes retention of fluid in the tissues
 Tritium – radioactive Caution: patients with edema
 Sodium can increase hypertension or acidic
 Potassium (K) • Occurs in the respiratory pigment hemocyanin, in
• Has diuretic effect many enzymes, and is distributed widely in foods
• Causes muscular contraction
Copper Compounds
Rubidium (Rb) and Cesium (Cs) • Protein precipitants (hence, toxic!)
• Very similar in behaviour to potassium • Fungicide and algaecide (in swimming pool)
• No application in pharmacy and medicine at this time – Bourdeaux mixture (CuSO4 + CaO)
• Cesium (Cs) • Insecticide, paris of green – Copper acetoarsenate
– Catalyst • Emetics (CuSO4 .5H2O)
– CsCl: used in density gradient centrifugation
CuSO4 .5H2O
Ammonia and Ammonium Compounds • aka Blue vitriol, blue stone
• Ammonia (NH3 ) – Basis for Fehling’s and Benedict’s Solutions
– Coordinated readily with a proton to form the (classic test solutions for reducing sugars)
ammonium ion (NH4 + ) – Antidote for phosphorus poisoning
– Mild alkalizer – Component of bourdeaux mixture
– Volatile (pungent odor)

Ammonium Salts Silver

• 2 nd most malleable metal
• Solutions of ammonium are rather acidic than • 1 st best conductor of electricity
basic. • Has oligodynamic action
• Therapeutically active: • Germicide – Can precipitate protein and chloride in
– (NH4 )2CO3 : expectorant (carbonate) the affected tissue (in situ - on site)
– NH4Cl: expectorant (chloride)
– NH4Br: central depressant (bromide) Silver Compounds
• Light sensitive – must be protected by the use of
light-resistant containers
Group IB: The Coinage Metals • Soluble silver salts are toxic
• Members • Poisoning: Argyria (NaCl)
– Copper (Cu): "Cuprum"
– Silver (Ag): "Argyrium" • Silver Nitrate (AgNO3 )
– Gold (Au): “Aurium" – Removal of warts
• Employed for ornamental and coinage purposes, – Eyewash for newborn babies of mothers with
hence termed as "coinage metals" gonorrhea (erythromycin na ginagamit ngyon)
– Indelible ink – aka: Lapis infernalis, lunar caustic,
• Properties: caustic pencil
– Very malleable - 3rd degree burn
– Excellent conductors of heat and electricity
– Disproportionation • Silver sulfadiazine (Flammazine®)
– Treatment of 3rd degree burns (germicidal action)
REDUCTION OXIDATION - transfer of electrons
 LEORA • Silver proteinates/proteins
 GEROA – Mild silver protein (Argyrol): 19 – 23/25% Ag,
antiseptic for the eyes
– Strong silver protein (Protargol) : 7.5 – 8.5%
OLIGODYNAMIC -(antibacterial)
Ag, antiseptic for ears, nose, and throat
ability to inhibit growth(bacteriostatic) or
– Colloidal silver protein (Colargol): 18-22% Ag,
kill of bacteria (bacteriocidal) general germicide

Copper (Cu) Gold (Au)

• Only reddish colored metal • King of all metals
• 3 rd most malleable metal • Most malleable metal
• 2 nd best conductor of electricity • 3 rd best conductor of electricity
• Essential trace element (needed in the body) • Chemically unstable to heat, light, and even very mild
• Small quantities enhance the physiological utilization reducing agents – Stability is improved by complexation
of iron
 FE2 HEMOGLOBIN • Dissolved by
 CU HEMOCYANIN – Aqua regia (royal water) – 3 HCl:1 HNO3
– Selenic Acid (single acid that can dissolve gold)

• Compounds are employed for systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE) and arthritis
• Dimercaprol (British Anti-Lewisite/BAL) – Antidote
for gold toxicity
-originally arsenic siya
Official Gold Compounds
• Aurothioglucose (IM)
• Gold sodium thiomalate (IM)
• Auranofin (PO) – For rheumatoid Arthritis
• The radioactive isotope 198Au – Treatment of
certain malignancies
Group II Elements
• Characterized by the presence of two electrons in the
outermost orbital (bivalent)
– Group IIA: (n-1)s2 (n-1)p6ns2
• (except for the small Be atom whose
structure is 1s22s2 )
– Group IIB: (n-1)d10ns2
Group IIA: The Alkaline Earth Metals
• Members
– Beryllium (Be)
– Magnesium (Mg)
– Calcium (Ca)
– Strontium (Sr)
– Barium (Ba)
– Radium (Ra)
Be My Cake, Seniorita BarbaRa
• Function uniformly in the +2 oxidation state
• The similarity between Ca, Sr and Ba is especially
striking. They react readily with water to form hydroxides
& hydrogen gas.
• Mg reacts similarly but only at elevated temperature.
Beryllium (Be)
• Amphoteric – The cation complexes easily as in
[Be(H2O)4 ] 2+ or Be(NH3 )4 ] 2+
• Bridge element – Resembles aluminum in its
behaviour
• Be metal and its compounds are extremely toxic!
– Beryllium is the most toxic metal!
Magnesium (Mg)
• 2nd most plentiful cation inside the cell
• Natural calcium channel blocker
– Antidote for toxicity: Calcium gluconate (IV)
• Lightest of all structurally important metals
 MICO (magnesium in, calcium out)
Magnesium Compounds
• Insoluble compounds – used as gastric antacids
• Mg(OH)2 and MgSO4 – used as cathartics
• MgSO4 – anticonvulsant
• Magnesium stearate – employed as a lubricant in
the preparation of compressed tablets.
• Artificial radioactive isotope 27Mg – employed
in research involving photosynthesis.
 Magnesium present in chlorophyll
Calcium (Ca)
• 2 nd most abundant extracellular cation
• Cation of hydroxyapatite, the major constituent
(98%) of the bones and teeth
• Therapeutic uses:
– Antacids, and calcium replenishers
- Ca(OH) - milk alakali syndrome that
causes renal calculi
- dialysis (calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide)
• Cation of choice to carry therapeutically active anions
– Ca aminosalicylate and Ca cyclobarbital.
• 45Ca isotope
– employed in studies involving mineral
metabolism.
Strontium (Sr)
 Very similar in behavior to Ca
 No application in pharmacy or medicine
 In the past, it has been used as the carrier cation
for therapeutically active anions, as in strontium
bromide
 Salts are used in red pyrotechnics (Flame test?)
Barium (Ba)
 Chemically the most active of Group IIA
 Ba(OH)2 (baryte) is soluble strong base
– Ba(OH)2 lime: Carbon dioxide absorbent
 BaSO4 (white heavy precipitate)
- used as radiopaque agent in X-ray imaging
and other diagnostic procedures
 Toxicity: Baritosis (low voice)
 Antidote: Epsom salt (MgSO4 ) - cathartics and
anticonvulsant
Radium (Ra)
 Radioactive substance discovered by Marie Curie
 It can cause cancer
 ALPHA - non penetrating
 BETA- less penetrating (cause DNA damage)
 GAMMA - high penetrating (do not be expose)
Group IIB: The Volatile Metals
• Members –Zinc (Zn) – Cadmium (Cd) – Mercury (Hg)
• Have comparatively low boiling points
– 907o (Zn), 768o (Cd) and 357o (Hg), hence they are
referred to as the volatile metals
• The common oxidation state is +2, but Hg also
exhibits in the +1 state (Mercurous: Hg2 2+)
• Only Zn is sufficiently amphoteric to form stable
oxygen complex, ZnO2 2- (zincate ion)
Zinc (Zn)
 Does not occur free in nature, it is available as a
ore
 White - zinc sulfide
 Zinc Ores: Pink - MnS  In former years, metallic mercury was important
– Zinc Blende (ZnS) Orange - SbS therapeutically as a cathartic and parasiticide,
– Sphalerite Yellow - CdS but it has been replaced largely by more
– Willemite [[Zn2SiO4 ] efficacious and less toxic medicaments.
– Calamine [Zn2SiO4 .H2O] (Zno + calmoseptine)  Diuretics - ORGANIC MERCURY
– Smithsonite [ZnCO3 ]  The radioactive nuclides 197Hg and 203Hg
 Metal present in insulin are used in a diagnostic capacity
 Essential trace element
 Essential component of carbonic anhydrase and Elements of Group III
many other enzymes.  Includes 36 elements
 Antidote for toxicity: Sodium bicarbonate (baking – Group IIIA (5 elements)
soda) – Group IIIB (31 elements)
 NaHCO3  Subgroup IIIB
 Metabolic acidosis – Transition elements
 Systemic alkalizer – The lanthanides (14 elements)
– Actinides (14 elements)
Zinc Compounds
- skin infection, astringent Group IIIA
• All soluble Zinc salts show some degree of hydrolysis • Members: – Boron (B) – Aluminum (Al) – Gallium (Ga)
Zn2+ + 2H2O [Zn(OH)]+ + H3O+ – Indium (In) – Thallium (Tl)
• Soluble in water or in the gastric fluid – eg. ZnO
hence may be poisonous BAE Alden Goes wild In Town
• Strong zinc sulfate solution – emetic
• Artificial radioactive isotopes of Zn  Each element has the structure ns2np1
– employed in studies of mineral metabolism  Theoretically two oxidation states are possible
– The first, +1, arises by the loss of the single
• Employed in the treatment of various external p electron. The resulting helide structure,
surfaces of the body and in wound healing, taste ns2 , has sufficient stability to give rise to
acuity, and various ophthalmic problems (eg macular stable ions such as Ga+ , In+ , and Tl+
degeneration)  With the loss of all three valence electrons the +3
oxidation state appears in all the elements of the
Cadmium (Cd) family.
 Intermediate in properties to zinc and mercury  Properties – With increasing atomic number, the
 CdSO4 – used both as a topical astringent and +3 state becomes more electrovalent in
for eye infections. character
 CDS - yellow  Members of this family give rise to an interesting
 Cadmium Sulfide – Treatment of seborrheic series of double salts, the alums.
dermatitis  Common formula is M+ 2M3+ 2 (SO4 )4 .24H2O
 Toxicity – Itai-itai disease (ouch ouch – M+ is a monovalent ion
disease) • Na+ , K+(prototype) , Rb+ , NH4 + ,
- Osteoporosis Tl+
- affected kidney – M3+ is a trivalent ion
• Al3+, Tl3+, Cr3+, or Fe3+
Mercury (Hg)  The prototype (alum): K2Al2 (SO4 )4 .24H2O
 Toxicity: Minamata disease
 Best antidote: Sodium Formaldehyde Boron (B)
Sulfoxylate NF  Metalloid – (borderline element possessing both
 Quicksilver metallic and nonmetallic character)
 Messenger of the gods  Bridge element – certain properties resemble
 Mercury is a true metal. It is only in the family those of silicon
which has two series of salts.  Toxic!
 Extremely toxic. All common mercury salts Scarlatiniform rash – Boiled lobster
are poisonous! appearance (red-orange skin)
 Egg albumen may be used in an emergency – Dusting powder containing boric acid
caused numerous fatalities (infants deaths)
situation.
 The borohydride ion, [BH4 ] - – available
 Mercury that falls into cracks and other difficult
commercially as sodium salt, which is a valuable
to clean places is removed best by covering
reducing agent
with powder sulfur, allowing several days for  Boric acid and Sodium borate (borax)
conversion to sulfide, then vacuuming. – feebly bacteriostatic
 – Boric acid: topical anti-infective; in a
solution, it is used as an eye wash.
– Sodium borate: ingredient of cold creams,
eye washes, and mouthwashes.
 Sodium perborate is an oxidizing type of local
anti-infective.
 Various borate buffers are used in collyria (?)
 All common metals, except the alkalies,
precipitate as insoluble borates.
 Boric Acid and Sodium Borate (borax) are
cited in the NF.
Aluminum (Al)
 Most abundant of the metals (in earth’s crust)
 3 rd most abundant element
–1 st: Oxygen
–2 nd: Silicon
 Amphoteric – Only those compounds in which it
acts as a base are pharmaceutically important
 Toxicity: Shaver’s Disease (Bauxite
pneumoconiosis)
 Many insoluble aluminum compounds find use as
gastric antacids
 Astringent and antiseptic – used for various
skin conditions and in antiperspirants and
deodorants
 Simethicone - anti flatulent
Gallium(Ga) Indium(In) & Thallium(Tl)
 Radioactive isotopes, 67Ga, 111In, 113In, and
201Tl – diagnostic aids
 Gallium – Appears to be useful in treating
cancer-related hypercalcemia
 Indium – Quite similar to both aluminum and
gallium.
 Thallium – Thallium compounds (most toxic):
used in insecticides, especially ant poisons
 Poisoning: Green tongue and alopecia
Group IIIB
 Members
– Scandium (Sc) – Yttrium (Y) – Lanthanum (La) –
Actinium (Ac) – Lanthanides (rare earth elements) –
Actinides
 Properties – Have an increasing metallic
character as the atomic number increases, with
less tendency towards covalency.
 Cerium – Exhibits valence states of 3 (cerous)
and 4 (ceric)
 Cerium (IV) – widely used analytical reagent
 Crium sulfate - ANALYSIS SA Fe
 Indicator: orthophenantrioline
Elements of Group IV
 Each has four valence electrons, two of which are
s electrons (+4 oxidation state)
– Group IVA: ns2np2
– Group IVB (n-1)d2ns2
 Form inert pair ions, except carbon and silicon
 Except for the larger atoms, many of the
compounds are covalent or predominantly
covalent
Group IVA: Carbon Family
 Members:
– Carbon (C)
– Silicon (Si)
– Germanium (Ge)
– Tin (Sn)
– Lead (Pb)
 C and Si – first two "short period“ members,
unlike other members, they are nonmetallic.
– Carbon, but not Silicon can exhibit a
valence of 2
 The bonding of this group is predominantly
covalent
 Oxides of C and Si are acidic, those of other
elements of the group are amphoteric
Carbon (C)
 Basic building unit of organic compounds
 Can form multiple bonds with itself
– catenation to organic compounds (chain
formation)
 2 forms (polymorph - same identity but differ in
crystalline form)
– Crystalline: diamond(hardest), graphite
– Amorphous: charcoal, anthracite
Silicon (Si)
 2 nd most abundant element on earth
 OSA (abundance of element on earth)
 Forms an inert oxide, silicon dioxide (Silica)
– Occurs abundantly in nature in both
amorphous and crystalline states such as
sand, quartz, opal, or siliceous earths
 Siliceous Earths (diatomaceous earth, Fuller’s
earth, Kieselguhr, Celite) and infusorial earth
– Siliceous skeletal remains of diatoms and
infusoria
– Used as mild abrasives (polishing or
exfoliating agent)
 Silicosis – Lung condition resembling chronic TB,
which develops after long exposure (7 years or
more) to respirable dust (silica particles 5 μm or
less in mean diameter)
 Asbestosis – Pulmonary condition similar to
silicosis
 Silicon forms numerous silicic acid
– Metasilicic acid [H2SiO3 ]
– Orthosilicic acid [H4SiO4 ]
– Disilicic acid [H6Si2O7 ]
 Attapulgite (Mg5 (Si8O20)(OH)2 .8H2O)
– Has adsorptive properties
– Anti-diarrheal
 3 Clay minerals
1. Montmorillonites (Smectite/Bentonite –
swelling clays ):Al4 [(OH)2 (Si8O20)].3H2O
2. Kaolinite – clarifying agent(FILTER)
3. Illites
 Talc (Mg3 (OH)2Si4O10)
– Softest mineral
– Used in dusting powders as protective and
lubricant (it can cause ovarian cancer) , and
filter aid
- lubricant - magnesium stearate na
 Bentonite – Suspending agent
 Feldspars (KAlSi3O8 ) – The most common
rock
 Pumice – Porous rock of volcanic origin, used as
dental abrasive (polishing agent)
 Glass – generic term used to identify vitreous
silicate minerals prepared by fusing a base, such
as Na2CO3 & CaCO3 , with pure silica
 Silicon + base = glass
 MnO2 – masks the blue-green color of
the iron usually present in silica
 Borates – reduce coefficient of
expansion.
 K+ – gives brown and light resistant
glass
Germanium (Ge)
 Properties are intermediate to those of Si & Sn
 Purported to have immune system enhancing and
antitumor effects.
 Has remarkable electrical properties – valuable
in the manufacture of semiconductors and other
microelectronic parts
Tin (Sn)
 Forms in two oxidation states:
– +2: somewhat electrostatic
– +4: covalent character
 Both hydroxides are amphoteric
 Stannous Fluoride – Topically as dental
prophylactic
 Tin dioxide preparations – Germicidal effect,
particularly against staphylococcal organisms that
are often resistant to other germicides
Lead (Pb)
 Most metallic element of group IVA
 Highly toxic!
– cumulative poison (neurotoxic) deposited
sa brain kaya toxicity niya to
– Absorbed readily in the GIT and broken skin,
and is deposited in bones.
Group IVB: The Titanium Family
 Members
– Titanium (Ti)
– Zirconium (Zr)
– Hafnium (Hf)
 Transitional in character
 Hf is so similar to Zr
 Can exhibit valences of 2, 3 and 4; lower valence
forms (colored) are less stable than the
tetravalent forms (colorless).
 All members are amphoteric and their cations
readily form complexes
Titanium (Ti)
 Forms three oxides
– TiO
– Ti2O3
– TiO2 (official in USP) (titanium dioxide)
 used as a solar-ray protective; as such,
popular ingredient in various lotions and creams
for prevention of sunburn (high refractive index)
Zirconium (Zr) and Hafnium (Hf)
 Hafnium occurs in small quantities in zirconium
ores.
 Zirconium (as the hydrous oxide or carbonate)
– has been used as a lotion or cream for contact
dermatitis.
 Basic aluminum
– zirconium compounds - antiperspirants
Elements of Group V
• Have five valence electrons
– Group VA: ns2np3
– Group VB: (n-1)d3ns2
Group VA: The Nitrogen Family
 Members
– Nitrogen (N)
– Phosphorus (P)
– Arsenic (As)
– Antimony (Sb)
– Bismuth (Bi)
 N and P are both nonmetallic, As is a metalloid,
and Sb & Bi are metals
 Oxidation states: +3 and +5
 Bismuth also exists in -3 oxidation state.
 Oxides of N and P are acidic.
Nitrogen (N)
 Most component of dry air
 Occurs free in the atmosphere (78%)
 Colorless, tasteless, and odorless inert gas.
 Can form triple-bond structure, hence the N2
molecule shows little reactivity with other
elements, but the free nitrogen atom is very
reactive.
 Prepared by fractional distillation of liquid air.
- BOILING POINT (same or close to each other)
 Nitrogen NF – Employed pharmaceutically as an
inert atmosphere in ampules(increase stability)
 and other containers or substances that would be
affected adversely by air.
 Nitrogen(I) Oxide USP– nitrous oxide
– Inhalatory general anesthetic
- laughing gas
 Sodium Nitrite USP
– Antidote for cyanide poisoning – vasodilator
- pero mas preferred (sodium thiosulfate)
- nitrite (nitroso compounds - they are
carcinogenic)
 Nitric Oxide (NO)
– An important neurotransmitter causing
vasodilation
– lowers BP
 Nitrite ion is toxic!
– Reacts with hemoglobin to form
methemoglobin.
– They can form N-nitroso derivatives of
amines and amides which may be
carcinogenic
– Nitrate ions is reducible to nitrite in the
intestine and may cause
methemoglobinemia. (fe2 convert to fe3)
Phosphorus (P)
 Two common allotropes
1. Yellow (white phosphorus) (toxic)
2. Red Phosphorus (brown to red
amorphous powder – nontoxic)
 Almost insoluble in water, but soluble in
Chloroform, benzene or carbon disulfide
 Poisonous! On the skin, it causes severe, slow to
heal burns.
 Antidote: Cupric Sulfate
Arsenic (As)
 Lewisite metal
 Component of Salvarsan, Arsphenamine
– 1 st anti-syphilis (Paul Ehrlich)
 Compound 6O6 and magic bullet
 Toxicity
1. As 3 + toxic – binds to –SH of enzymes
(keratin) and bones
2. As 5 + – nontoxic
 Manifestation: Mees’ lines – dark discoloration
of nails
 Antidote:
BAL/Dimercaprol (IM – if absorbed);
Mg(OH)2 & Fe3+ mixture (oral – if As is still in GIT)
 Arsenic Trioxide – used to prepare insecticides
such as:
– Paris green
– Fowler’s solution (Potassium arsenite
solution) (insecticide)
– Donovan’s solution
 Antileukemic agent (1mg/mL injection)
– Promyelocystic leukemia
Antimony (Sb)
 Toxic!
 Antimony Potassium Tartrate (antimonyl
potassium tartrate, tartar emetic) USP, and for
Antimony Sodium Tartrate USP
 Used in the treatment of schistosomiasis (flukes)
Bismuth (Bi)
 Peptic ulcer
 Official Bismuth Compounds
– Bismuth Subnitrate
– Bismuth Subgallate
– Milk of Bismuth: antacids (-OH and CO3 2-
ions)
 Colloidal bismuth subcitrate – Clinically used in the
treatment of peptic ulcer disease.
 Causes black stools
 Antidote for toxicity: Dimercaprol IM/BAL
Group VB
 Members
– Vanadium (V)
– Niobium (Columbium/Cb) – (Nb)
– Tantalum (Ta)
Tantalum
Unaffected by the body fluids, it is used in sheet form for
the surgical repair of bones.
Elements of Group VI
 Have six valence electrons.
 Common positive oxidation states: +4 and +6; +1
and +2 also exist.
 -2 and -1 appear only in the Group VIA elements
Group VIA: The Chalcogens
Members
– Oxygen (O)
– Sulfur (S)
– Selenium (Se)
– Tellurium (Te)
– Polonium (Po)
 Oxygen – nonmetallic; Polonium – metallic
 Sulfur-Tellurium-Selenium Triad
– “ The Sulfur Family " – Displays
strongly family relationship
 Oxidation states: -2 ( oxide, sulfide), +4 and +6
 Properties:
– m.p., b.p., densities and atomic volume increase
with atomic number.
– As group is descended, electronegativity decreases,
nonmetallic character decreases.
 General formula for oxides: XO2 and XO3
– These are anhydrides of the acids represented by
H2XO3 and H2XO4 .
 – Eg. Sulfurous Acid ("ite")? Sulfuric Acid ("ate")?
•Compare the acidity? (madaming oxygen mas acidic)
3 - ITE
4 - ATE
2- HYPO -ITE
Oxygen (O)
 Most abundant element
 2 nd most electronegative element
 ELECTRONEGATIVE (F, O, CL)
 Oxidation states:
-2(OXIDE),
-1 (PEROXIDE)
and 0 (OXYGEN GAS)
 Oxygen USP – therapeutic gas in the treatment of
condition involving hypoxia
 Ozone (O3 ) – allotropic form of oxygen, powerful
OA
 Ozonized air
– Air treated to convert some of its oxygen into
ozone
– Used in various disinfecting and bleaching
operations.
 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2 ) and peroxides
- AGUA OXINADA
– Series of oxygen compound in which O has
-1 oxidation state.
– Pure conc. H2O2 – stable
 Commercial preparations
– stabilized by acetanilid and traces of mineral
acid (eg. H3PO4 )
– Available as 3, 6, 30, 70 and 90% solutions.
– Concentration: volume strength, the volume
of oxygen gas released from one volume of
solution.
1. 30% (100 volumes) - powerful OA, hence not
applied topical
2. Topical - 3% solution (10 volumes)
 Mild, fast acting, oxidizing germicide
3. Solution - 6% (20 volumes)
 Bleach mild enough for use on hair
Sulfur (S)
 Exists in different allotropic forms
1. Alpha-sulfur (rhombic) – stable at rm temp.
2. Beta-sulfur (monoclinic) – stable at 96
 Scabicide, keratolytic, fungicidal, cathartic
 Oxidation states: -2 (sulfide), 0, +2, +4 and +6.
Selenium and Tellurium
 In general, selenium and tellurium compounds are
analogous to sulfur.
 Selenium – toxic at large doses (contact
dermatitis), but an important trace element.
– Selenium Sulfide (and Lotion) USP is
employed as a 2.5% suspension in the
topical treatment of seborrheic dermatitis
- anti dandruff
 Tellurium – no medicinal applications
Group VIB
• Members
– Chromium (Cr)
– Molybdenum (Mo)
– Tungsten (W): Wolfram
– Uranium (U)
 Properties
– Metallic
– lower oxidation state oxides
– basic, while higher oxidation state
– acidic, giving rise to chromates, molybdates, and
tungstates
Chromium (Cr)
 Trace element
 Has a wide margin of safety
 Glucose tolerance factor
 Two basic hydroxides – Cr(OH)2 and Cr(OH)3
 51Cr is employed as biological tracer in certain
hematological procedures.
Molybdenum (Mo)
 Trace element
 Distinctly acidic (& Tungsten)
 Cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes
Uranium
 Both acid- and basic-forming
 Radioactive element discovered by Becquerel
 Used in the manufacture of atomic bomb
Elements of Group VII
 Subgroups
– Group VIIA: ns2np5
– Group VIIB: (n-1)d5ns2
 The halogens are nonmetallic in character; the
transition elements of the family are metallic
Group VIIA: The Halogen Family
Members
– Fluorine (F) (most reactive) white gas
– Chlorine (Cl) pale yellow gas
– Bromine (Br) liquid (orange)
– Iodine (I) (least reactive) violet (solid)
– Astatine (At)
 Berzelius – Suggested the word halogen derived
from two Greek words, meaning sea salt and to
produce, which thus means the producer of sea salt.
 Physical state changes from that of gas (F and Cl) to
liquid (Br) to solid (I)
 Properties
– As atomic weight increases (group is descended):
• m.p. and b.p. rise
• Colors deepen
• Densities increase
• Atomic radius increases
• Affinity for H increases (H1)
• Affinity for O increases
• Electronegativity decreases
 Nomenclature of oxyacids
– HXO HYPOCHLOROUS ACID CLO(hypochlorite)
– HXO2 CHLOROUS ACID CL02(chlorite) Astatine (At)
– HXO3 CHLORIC ACID CL03 (chlorate)  Synthetic radioactive element
– HXO4(CL) PERCHLORIC ACID CLO4(perchlorate) (non  Resembles iodine, but is more metallic
aq titration)  Has no pharmaceutical applications
• Their salts?
• Order of acidity = mas madaming oxygen mas Pseudohalogens (Halogenoids)
tumataas • Inorganic anions:
Oxidizing property? – CN- cyanide (sodium nitrate)
– CNO- cyanate
Fluorine (F) – CNS- thiocyanate
 The best oxidizing agent – N3- nitrite
 Most electronegative element – [Fe(CN)6 ] 3-
 Exhibits peculiar difference among the family
1. NACl - white curdy precipitation Group VIIB
 With exception of gold and platinum, it attacks all • Members – Manganese (Mn) – Technetium (Tc) –
metals at ordinary temperatures. Rhenium (Re)
 Essential element and is present in teeth and bone
 Sodium flouride - salt form (antiseptic and anti • Metallic
cariogenide) • Higher oxides give rise to very stable oxosalts with
the +6 and +7 oxidation states, such as MnO4 - , TcO4
Chlorine (Cl)
- , and ReO4 -
 Very reactive nonmetallic element
• Compounds of these elements are colored
 Most common chlorides are water soluble except:
AgCl, Hg2Cl2 , Cu2Cl2
 Chloride ion is frequently the carrier of choice for Manganese (Mn)
other metal cations (eg. Zn, Hg and Al)  Metabolism
 Hydrochloric acid NF – Pharmaceutical necessity  Essential trace element – Enzymes: pyruvate
(neutralizing, stabilizing or solubilizing other carboxylase
substances)  Potassium Permanganate USP (kmno4)
 Ammonium Chloride – Expectorant and systemic Mineral chameleon
acidifying agent for metabolic alkalosis 4- brown
 Na, K and Ca chlorides – electrolyte replenishers 2- colorless or pink (no need nang indicator)
 Sodium Hypochlorite Solution USP (Dakin’s – Local anti-infective (OA)
Solution)(NAClO) – Effective germicide, viricide, – Astringent and powerful deodorant and
and deodorant cleanser
 Sodium Hypochlorite Topical Solution – – Antidote for various alkaloids and other toxic
Contains 0.025% sodium hypochlorite substances
 Bleaching powder (Calcium Hypochlorite) – - titration siya ginagamit
Effective & least expensive disinfectants. (chlorox)
Technetium (Tc)
Bromine (Br)  From Greek technetos, meaning artificial
 Dark reddish brown, fuming liquid with a suffocating  First element produced artificially
odor.  99Tc – Used diagnostically in various forms
 Powerful caustic and germicide but is not employed
as such. Rhenium
 No known biological role.  Very rare element
 Bromide – has central depressant action  Employed as a catalyst for dehydrogenation
 Toxicity: Brominism
Group VIIIA: The Inert Gases (NOBLE GASES)
Iodine (I) • Members
 Effective antimicrobial – Iodine solutions – include K – Helium (He)
or Na iodide (SOLUBILIZING AGENT) – Neon (Ne)
 IODOPHORS - increase solubility of iodine – Argon (Ar)
 Low iodine vapor pressure – Krypton (Kr)
 Essential for proper thyroid functioning – Xenon (Xe)
 Expectorant (HI, KI) – Radon (Ra)
 131I and 125I – diagnostic agents  All group 0 elements except radon occur in the
 Elemental iodine – toxic! atmosphere
 Antidote: Sodium thiosulfate and corn starch  Monoatomic
 Iodi - titration with iodine  Colorless, odorless gases
 Iodo - titration of iodine  Ar, Ne, Kr, He and Xe – produced from liquid air
by fractional distillation.
 Ra – recovered from the natural decay products of  Used in the manufacture of beer
radium.
 Outermost electron shell: (except He) – ns2np6 Nickel (Ni)
 Chemically inert  Metal in fancy jewelries
 Have high ionization potentials  No pharmaceutical application
 Oxidation state: +2
Helium (He)
 2 nd lightest gas Osmium (Os)
 Used to prepare synthetic airs/artificial airs  Heaviest and densest metal
 Inhalation of pure helium produced a Donald duck or  CATALYST
Chipmunk-like sound
Platinum (Pt)
Neon (Ne)  Catalyst
Used for advertising purposes  Cisplatin – Cancer chemotherapy

Argon (Ar) Palladium (Pd)

 Most abundant noble gas • Catalyst
 Substitute for nitrogen as an inert atmosphere for
industrial processes
 By-product of the fractionalization of liquid air for the
production of O2 and N2

Krypton (Kr)
 Least abundant noble gas
 Krypton (and xenon) have been investigated for
possible use as anesthetics

Xenon (Xe)
133Xe – used for diagnostic studies both by inhalation
and intravenous injection.

Radon (Rd)
 Synthetic and radioactive noble gas
 Inert gas given off by Radium salts – (alpha emitter)
 Used in treatment of certain types of cancer

Elements of Group VIIIB

 Triads
1 st: Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co) and Nickel (Ni)
2 nd: Ruthenium (Ru), Rhodium (Rh) and Palladium
(Pd)
3 rd: Osmium (Os), Iridium (Ir) and Platinum (Pt)
 2 nd and 3rd triads are known as the platinum
metals; the term noble metals is also used.
– 1 st – Iron triads (FECONI)
– 2 nd – light Pt metals (RURHPD)
– 3 rd – heavy Pt metals(OIP)

Iron (Fe)
 Oxidation states:
– +2: usually green (hydrated), white (anhydrous)
– +3: yellow to brown (hydrated), vary in color
(anhydrous)
 Iron (II) salts – undergo slight hydrolysis
 Essential trace element – transportation of oxygen Pharmaceutical Aids and Necessities
by hemoglobin • Acids and Bases
 Functions in various cytochromes (oxidative • Buffers
enzymes of the body cells) • Antioxidants
• Water
Cobalt (Co) • Glass
 Red (hydrated), Blue (Anhydrous)
– CoCl2 – dehydrating agent
Acids and Bases
 Cyanocobalamin (Vit?)
• Acid-Base Theories
 – Arrhenius Concept
– Bronsted-Lowry Concept
– Lewis Acid-Base Concept
Arrhenius Concept
 Acids – Any substance which is capable of
providing hydrogen ions (or protons H+ ) in
aqueous solution.
 Bases – Any substance containing hydroxy groups
and/or capable of providing hydroxide ion (OH- )
in aqueous solution
BrÖnsted-Lowry Concept (Protonic concept)
 Acids – Any substance capable of donating a
proton (H+ ) in a chemical reaction (difference
from Arrhenius?)
 Bases – Any substance capable of accepting a
proton (H+ ) in a chemical reaction
BrÖnsted-Lowry Concept
 Brönsted acid ionizes to produce a proton and the
conjugate base of the acid. HA ?
 More examples:
– HCl
– H2SO4
– H2CO3
– H3PO4
– NH4 +
• General rule: – Strong acids have weak conjugate
bases and similarly, strong bases have weak conjugate
acids.
Lewis Acid-Base Concept
• Acids – Any substance which can accept a share in a
pair of electrons in a reaction. – Electron acceptor
(electron seeking, electrophilic)
• Bases – Any substance that donates a pair of
electrons to share with an acid in a reaction. – Electron
donor (nucleophilic species
Hard and Soft Acid-Base Concept
Pearson’s HSAB principle – Further categorizes the
acids and bases according to the properties of charge,
size (ionic radius), polarizability, etc.
Dissociation Constant (Ka)
HA H+ + A-
 A strong acid is an acid that loses its proton easily,
while a weak acid holds its proton tenaciously.
 The conjugate base of a strong acid is a WB,
whereas that of a weak acid is a strong base
 The % ionization and the ionization constant are
measures of the strength of a given acid.
pH
 Logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
activity (also as the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion activity):
 pH = log[1/H+ ] = – log[H+ ]
Buffers
 Buffer systems are pairs of related chemical
compounds capable of resisting large changes in
the pH of a solution caused by the addition of
small amounts of acid or base.
 Chemical pair: WA/Salt or WB/Salt
 Buffer Action – Ability to resist pH changes
 Buffer Capacity – Efficiency to resist pH
changes
• CH3COOH & NaCH3COO
• NH4OH & NH4Cl
• H3BO3 & Na3BO3
• Na2PO4 & NaHPO4
Blood
 Blood stays at pH = 7.4, even when various
reactions in the body produce much H+ and OH-
 The buffer system in blood is H2CO3 /HCO3
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
• Useful in calculating:
– pH of a buffer system if its composition is known
–The molar ratio of the components of a buffer
system required to give a solution of a desired pH.
 • Indicator: Phenolphthalein – Can be
esterified with other polyhydroxy compounds
such as glycol, mannitol and catechol.

• Official ID Tests
– Borate solution, acidified with HCl, added with iodine
TS and polyvinyl alcohol solution (1 in 50): an intense
blue color.
– When ignited, forms greenbordered flame with
H2SO4 and methanol.

 Pharmacological Action – Boric acid & sodium

Acid-Base Indicators borate and sodium perborate.
 Antiseptic properties
 Poisoning – Circulatory depression, vomiting and
diarrhea, followed by shock and coma.
 Fatal dose: 15-20g (infant); 5-6g (adult) –
Scarlatiniform rash or boiled lobster appearance

Official Inorganic Acids
• Boric Acid, NF XIII
• Hydrochloric Acid, USP XVIII
• Diluted Hydrochloric Acid, NF XIII
• Nitric Acid, NF XIII
• Phosphoric Acid, NF XIII
• Sulfuric Acid
Boric Acid (H3BO3 , 61.83 g/mol)
 Aka Sal Sedativum Hombergi
 Orthoboric acid (technical name), Boracic acid (old
name)
 Physical properties:
– Pearly scales (smooth);
Crystalline – suitable for preparing aqueous
solution
– bulky powder (unctuous)
- dusting powders and ointment
– Soluble in water & alcohol, freely soluble in
glycerin, boiling water and boiling alcohol.
• Uses
– Buffer (official use)
– Vehicle for ophthalmic solutions (1.9% boric acid)
• Maintains pH of 6 and isotonicity (Epinephrine
Bitartrate Ophthalmic Solution)
– Dusting powder
– Boric acid ointment (antiseptic)
– weakly germicide
– Boroglycerin Glycerite
– suppository base
Hydrochloric Acid HCl, 36.46 g/mol
• Hydrochloric Acid Physical Properties – Colorless,
fuming liquid, pungent odor
• Hydrogen Chloride (gas) Physical Properties –
Colorless, acrid irritating odor and an acid taste
• Chemical properties
– Strong monoprotic acid
– Reacts with metal oxide and hydroxides producing
metal chloride and water
– Hydrogen in HCl can be displaced by metals
preceding hydrogen in the electromotive series to
cause evolution of hydrogen gas – Assay
• 1N NaOH
• Indicator: Methyl orange

 Chemical properties:
– Weak acid (pKa = 9.19) • Chemical Properties
– Official assay: – Chloride ion causes precipitation of insoluble chlorides
 1 N sodium hydroxide of metals such as Ag, Pb, and Hg (I).
 Glycerin – HCl can be oxidized by strong OA, resulting to evolution
of chlorine gas.

Hydrochloric Acid
• Manufacture of HCl? (rock salt reacted with H2SO4?)
– Pan acid – Roaster acid
• Muriatic Acid – From Latin muria = brine
– Technical grade of HCl containing 35 – 38% HCl +
impurities including chlorine, arsenous and sulfurous
acids and iron. (Yellow color)
• Pharmacological Action (Chloride ions)
– With Na+ , they are necessary for osmotic functions
(tonicity)
– Cl- can cause acidosis – HCl: parietal cells of stomach
• Digestive function
• Uses
– Pharmaceutical aid (acidifying agent)
– Forms water-soluble hydrochloride salt when reacted
with basic organic compounds.
– Reason: relatively easy to prepare and low toxicity
Diluted Hydrochloric Acid
• Contains not less than 9.5 and not more than 10.5 g
of HCl in 100 mL solution.
• Used in the treatment of achlorhydria. – Use drinking
tube (?)
• Used in extraction of basic drugs, and to test for
alkaline properties.
– Ergot Fluiextract – Nux vomica – Pentobarbital
Sodium Elixir
Nitric Acid HNO3 , 63.01 g/mol
• Eau forte (strong water)
• Physical Properties – Highly corrosive fuming liquid –
Highly irritating odor
Nitric Acid
 Chemical Properties – Xanthoproteic test
(nitration of aromatic amino acids)
– yellow stain – Strong monoprotic acid
 – Assay • 1N NaOH • Indicator: Methyl red
• Chemical Properties – Strong Acid – Strong OA
• Metals (except Au and Pt)
• Nonmetals (e.g. S and P) – Nitrating Agent
• Mixed acid
• Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
• Xanthoproteic test
• Official ID Tests (Nitrate)
– With H2SO4 and ferrous sulfate, a brown color is
produced at the junction of the two liquids.
– When heated with H2SO4 , + metallic copper,
brownish-red fumes are evolved.
– Nitrates do not decolorize when acidified KMNO4 TS
(distinction from nitrites).
• Pharmacology (Nitrate)
– No specific action in the body
– Used in relatively large doses as potassium and
ammonium salts for diuretic effect.
• Uses
– Acidifying agent, OA, and nitrating agent
– Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, coal tar dyes
and explosives.
– External use: destroys chancres and warts, but rarely
prescribed for internal use.
• Toxicity
– Ingestion (damages tissues) and Inhalation
(suffocation) can lead to pulmonary edema (congested
lungs)
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 , 98.00 g/mol
• Orthophosphoric Acid
• Occurrence:
– Apatite (3Ca3 [PO4 ]2 .CaF2 )
– Phosphorite or Phosphate Rock (Ca3 [PO4 ]2 )
• Physical Properties
– Very deliquescent (crystals)
– Colorless and odorless syrupy liquid
• Chemical Properties – Strong triprotic acid
• ionizes in 3 steps – Non-volatile and non-oxidizing
acid
• Assay
– Involves titration of first two protons only.
– 1N NaOH
– Indicator: Thymolphthalein
Phosphoric Acid
• Chemical Properties – Can also act as a base
(amphiprotic or amphoteric)
• Chemical Properties
– When heated to 200oC: pyrophosphoric acid
• H3PO4 -> H4P2O7 + H2O (200C)
– When further heated to 300 degrees C:
metaphosphoric acid (glacial phosphoric acid)
• H4P2O7 -> 2HPO3 + H2O (300C)
• Official ID tests
– With AgNO3 TS, yield a yellow precipitate that
is soluble in 2 N HNO3 and in 6 N NH4OH.
– With ammonium molybdate TS, acidified
solutions: yield yellow precipitate that is
soluble in 6 N NH4OH.
 – Dehydrating agent
– Acid properties
– OA
 Metals above H: form sulfate salts +
H2 gas
 Metals below H: Evolution of SO2
– Sulfonating or sulfating agent &
others.
• Sulfonic acids
- Oleum or fuming sulfuric acid
(Nordhausen acid)
– Sulfur trioxide dissolves in conc. H2SO4
to form somewhat viscous liquid

• Pharmacology
 Buffer systems for maintaining acid-
base balance
 Metabolism of carbohydrates
 Bone formation (calcium phosphate)
 Regulation of calcium metabolism and
level in the blood.
• Official ID tests
– With BaCl2 TS: yield a white precipitate
that is insoluble in HCl and HNO3.
– With Pb(CH3COO)2 TS: yield white
precipitate that is soluble in CH3COONH4
TS.
– HCl: no precipitate (distinction from
thiosulfates).

• Uses
– Acidifying agent
– Buffer
– Aids proteolytic enzymes in the formation
of peptones (water-soluble protein
derivatives)
– Dil. H3PO4: antidote for lead toxicity
• Pharmacology (Sulfate)
(soluble lead phosphates – deleading
– Not absorbed in the GIT when
the body)
administered orally.
• Diluted Phosphoric Acid
 Saline cathartics
– Each 100 mL contains 9.5 to 10.5 g of
- Injection of sulfates causes
H3PO4
diuresis
• Uses
Sulfuric Acid – Dehydrating agent (Pyroxylin, USP)
(Non-Official) H2SO4, 98.06 g/mol – Salts of basic organic drug molecules
• Oil of Vitriol (by Basil Valentine)
• Physical Properties:
• Diluted sulfuric acid
– Colorless, odorless, hygroscopic liquid of
– Contains approximately 10% of H2SO4
oily consistency
– Non-volatile acid
Official Inorganic Bases
– Dissolves in water and alcohol with the
• Strong Ammonia Solution, NF XIII
evolution of large amount of heat (highly
• Calcium Hydroxide, USP XVIII
exothermic)
• Potassium Hydroxide, USP XVIII
• Chemical Properties
• Sodium Carbonate, USP XVIII
– Strong diprotic acid
• Sodium Hydroxide, USP XVIII
– Assay
• Soda Lime, USP XVIII
• 1N NaOH
• Indicator: Methyl red
 Strong Ammonia Solution
NH3, 17.03 g/mol
• Ammonium Hydroxide, Stronger
Ammonia Water
 Spirit of Hartshorn
 Physical Properties
– Clear, colorless liquid,
exceedingly pungent.
• Official ID Test
– Ammonium salts are decomposed by the
addition of an excess of 1 N sodium
hydroxide, with the evolution of ammonia,
recognizable by its odor and by its alkaline
effect upon moistened red litmus paper
exposed to the vapor. Warming the
solution accelerates the decomposition.
[1]NH4+ + NaOH -> NH3↑ + H2O + Na+
• Haber Process
– Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in
volume proportions of 1–3 under high
pressure (bet 100 and 1000 atm), passed
through a promoted iron catalyst at a temp
of 400o to 550oC.
• Ammonolysis
HgCl2 + H2O -> Hg(OH)Cl + HCl
(hydrolysis)
HgCl2 + NH3 -> Hg(NH3)Cl + HCl
(ammonolysis)
• Uses
– Bronsted base
– Used in the manufacture of HNO3 and
NaHCO3
Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OH)2, 74.09 g/mol
• Slaked lime, lime water, hydrated
lime, Milk of Lime
• Physical properties
– White powder, alkaline and slightly bitter
taste
– Slightly soluble in H2O (1 g in 630 mL),
very slightly soluble in boiling H2O (1 g in
1300 mL)
– Solution: clear, colorless
Calcium Hydroxide
• Slaking
– Manufactured by careful addition of a
limited amount of H2O to Lime (CaO).
• Chemical Properties
– pH = 12.3, capable of neutralizing acids
– Assay
• 0.1 N HCl
• Indicator: phenolphthalein
• Official ID Test (Ca)
[1] Ca2+ + (NH4)C2O4 -> Ca2C2O4↓ +
2NH4+ (White precipitate)
• Uses
– Fluid electrolyte (Ca2+)
– Topical astringent and protective
(Calamine lotion)
– Antacid
– Manufacture of calcium soap
– The solution may be added to babies
formulae for the purpose of preventing
curdling of milk in the presence of acid
gastric contents, thus promoting
digestibility of the milk.
Potassium Hydroxide
KOH, 56.11 g/mol
• Caustic Potash
• Physical Properties
– White or nearly white fused masses,
small pellets, flakes, sticks
• Chemical Properties
– Very deliquescent
– Rapidly absorbs moisture and CO2 from
the air
– Strong base, have a similar property with
NaOH
– Assay:
 1N H2SO4
 Indicator: methyl orange
• Official ID Tests
– Strongly alkaline to litmus paper,
phenolphathalein
– Corresponds with that of K.
 • Uses of various drugs
– Caution: It rapidly destroys tissues – Saponifying agent
(escharoticproperties)
– Used to make soap Soda Lime
• Calx Sodica
Sodium Carbonate • Mixture of Ca(OH)2 and NaOH or KOH or
Na2CO3.H2O, 124.00 g/mol both.
• Monohydrated Sodium Carbonate
• Uses
• Physical Properties – Metabolism test
– White, orthorhombic, crystalline or – Anesthesia
granular powder – Oxygen therapy
– Odorless, strong alkaline taste
– Efflorescent (at >50oC) Buffers
 Hydration
– Na2CO3 (anhydrous) = soda ash Pharmaceutical Buffer Selection
– Na2CO3.H2O • Should be inert relative to the other
– Na2CO3.7H2O components of the preparation.
– Na2CO3.10H2O = sal soda,
washing soda, soda crystals Does not:
– Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O = sodium – Participate in redox reactions
sesquicarbonate or urao or trona – Alter solubility of other components
– Form complexes with other ingredients
• Uses – Participate in acid-base reactions other
– Electrolytes than those required as part of their buffer
– Antacid action
– Systemic alkalizer (sodium bicarbonate)
– Used to make acidic form of drugs; • 2 categories
source of 1. Standard buffer systems designed to
carbonate provide a solution having a specific pH for
analytical purposes
Sodium Hydroxide 2. Actual pharmaceutical buffers
NaOH, 40.00 g/mol designed to maintain pH limits in drug
• Caustic Soda, Soda Lye preparations.
• Definite pH, pH ranges from 1.2 to 10.0
• Physical Properties
– Practically identical to those of KOH Primary Buffer Solutions
– Very deliquescent – HCl Buffer
– Primary difference: contains nmt 3.0% – Acid Phthalate Buffer
Na2CO3 – Neutralized Phthalate Buffer
– Should not be stored in glass-stoppered – Phosphate Buffer
containers – Alkaline Borate Buffer
– Acetate Buffer
• Official ID Tests
– Corresponds to the tests for Sodium Actual Buffer Systems
– Flame test? • Designed to maintain pH limits
Examples
• Uses 1. Sorensen Phosphate Buffer (pH =
– Caustic: damages tissue 5.9 to 8.0)
– Alkalinizing agent to form soluble sodium
salts
– A phosphate buffer system modified
with NaCl to make it isotonic with
physiological fluid.
– Modified Phosphate Buffer System
2. Borate Buffers (Buffer Pair: B4O7-
2/H3BO3)
 Feldmans’ (pH 7 – 8.2)
 unstable
 Atkins and Pantin (pH 7.6 – 11.0)
 With Na2CO3.H2O
 NaCl
 Gifford’s (pH 6 – 7.8)
 With Na2CO3.H2O
 NaCl
Antioxidant
• Reducing Agents
• Mechanisms of Action
– Either the antioxidant is oxidized in place
of the active constituent
– If the active component is oxidized, the
antioxidant reduces it back to its normal
oxidation state
Official Antioxidants
• Hypophosphorus Acid, NF XIII
• Sulfur Dioxide, USP XVIII
• Sulfur Bisulfite, USP XVIII
• Sodium Metabisulfite, NF XIII
• Sodium Thiosulfate, USP XVIII
• Sodium Nitrite, USP XVIII
• Nitrogen, USP XVIII
Hypophosphorus Acid
HPH2O2/H3PO2; 66.00 g/mol
• Physical Properties
– At ordinary temp, colorless, syrupy liquid
or slightly yellow, odorless containing not
less than 30% and not more than 32% of
HPH2O2
• ID Tests
– When heated, it liberates spontaneously
inflammable phosphine.
– Yields white precipitate with HgCl2 TS.
The precipitate becomes gray with an
excess of hypophosphorus acid.
– Gives red precipitate of Cu2H2 when
warmed with CuSO4 TS.
• Uses
– Hypophosphorus and its salts
(hypophosphites) have no pharmacological
actions
– Antioxidant (0.5 to 1%): HI Syrup and
FeI2 syrup
– Preservatives in certain food
Sulfur Dioxide
SO2; 64.06 g/mol
• Physical Properties
– Colorless, nonflammable gas with strong
suffocating, irritating, pungent odor
• Chemical Properties
– Strong reducing agent
– As the pH approaches neutral to alkaline
values, SO2 is converted almost totally to
bisulfite and sulfite.
• Uses
– Preservatives
– Because of its gaseous state, it is usually
used in injectable preparations enclosed in
a single-dose ampules or multiple-dose
vials.
– Usual concentration: 0.1 – 1.0%
Sodium Bisulfite
NaHSO3; 104.06 g/mol
• Sodium Hydrogen Sulfite, Sodium Acid
Sulfite
• Physical Properties
– USP: mixture of NaHSO3 and Na2S2O5
– White or yellowish crystals or a granular
powder
– Unstable to air, giving off SO2
• Commercial Bisulfite (Preparation)
– Metabisulfite (Na2S2O5) + water
• Uses
– Externally used against parasitic skin
diseases
– Internally used as antiseptic in gastric
Fermentation.
 Sodium Metabisulfite Nitrogen
Na2S2O5; 190.10 g/mol N2; 28.01 g/mol
• Disodium Pyrosulfite
• Properties
• Physical Properties – Inert gas
– White crystal or white to yellowish crystalline • Can be used to protect chemicals, reagents, and
powder pharmaceuticals from air oxidation by displacing the
– Contains an amount of Na2S2O5 not less than air in reaction vessels and containers.
66.0% and not more than 67.4% of SO2.
• Uses
• Uses – Retards oxidation of sensitive products (oil,
– Usually found in solutions of drugs that vitamins, etc)
contain the phenol or catechol nucleus (phenylephrine
and epinephrine) to prevent oxidation of these Water
compounds to quinones.
– Usual concentration: 0.1% Properties of Water
• Tasteless, odorless, clear liquid
Sodium Thiosulfate • At 1 atm, it exists as a liquid between 0C –100C.
Na2S2O3.5H2O; 248.18 g/mol • Viscosity decrease very rapidly with rise in
• Sodium hyposulfite (misnomer) temperature
• Sodium hydrosulfite • Hydration
• Hydrolysis
• Physical Properties • H-bonding
– Odorless and has a cooling, bitter taste. • Amphoteric
– Efflorescent at above 23C • Can be a RA or OA
– Deliquescent at moist air.
Mineral Waters
• Chemical Properties
– Redox reaction (manifestation: decolorization) • Alkaline Waters
• Carbonated Waters
• Pharmacology • Chalybeate Waters
– Antidote for cyanide poisoning • Lithia Waters
– Antidote for arsenical and heavy metal • Saline Waters
poisoning (without sound experimental basis) • Sulfur Waters
• Siliceous Waters
• Uses
– Infrequently used as a cathartic and as an antiseptic Alkaline Waters
wash to combat ringworm and other parasitic skin • Usually contain appreciable quantities of NaSO4 and
diseases. MgSO4, together with some NaHCO3

Sodium Nitrite Carbonated Waters

NaNO2; 69.00 g/mol • Are those which have been charged with carbon
dioxide under pressure while in the earth.
• Physical Properties • Contain Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2.
– Deliquescent when exposed to atmosphere • Artificial carbonated waters
and subsequently converted to sodium nitrate. – Charging waters under pressure with CO2
– Salt Peter
• Pharmacology Chalybeate Waters
– Relaxes smooth muscle (esp smaller blood vessels) • Contain Fe in solution or suspension and are
– Antidote for cyanide poisoning characterized by ferruginous taste.
• Upon exposure to the atmosphere, the iron is
• Uses usually precipitated as hydroxide or oxide.
– Anti-Rust Tablets • Spring and well waters.
– Hypotensive
Lithia Waters
• Contains Li2CO3 or LiCl
 Saline Waters metals, foreign volatile matter, total solid content,
• Purgative Waters and bacteriological purity.
• Contains relatively large amounts of MgSO4 and • Official as solvent and is used to make several
Na2SO4 with NaCl. official solutions, tinctures and extracts.

Sulfur Waters Purified Water

• Contain H2S
• Deposits sulfur upon exposure to atmosphere
Siliceous Water
• Contain very small quantities of soluble
alkali silicates.
Hardness of Water
• Temporary Hardness (bicarbonate hardness)
– Caused by Ca or Mg bicarbonates which can
be removed by boiling or addition of hydroxides.
• Permanent Hardness
– Caused by sulfates, chlorides, or hydroxides of Ca
and/or Mg.
– Cannot be removed by boiling or addition of
hydroxides.
• Water obtained by distillation or by ion exchanged
treatment.
• Clear, colorless, odorless liquid and is not intended
for parenteral administration.
• For USP test reagents
• Must be labeled to indicate the method of
preparation.
• Water of choice for extemporaneous compounding.
Water for Injection
• Water purified by distillation
• Contains no added substance.
• Must pass a pyrogen test.
• Intended for use as a solvent for the
preparation of parenteral solutions.
• Finished preparation should be sterilized.
• Stored at a temp below 4C or above 37C.
• Used by large scale pharmaceuticals.

Temporary Hard Water Bacteriostatic Water for Injection

• Boiling • Sterile water for injection containing one or more
– releases bicarbonates as carbon dioxide suitable antimicrobial agents.
– Benzyl alcohol
• Clark’s Lime Process • Used in compatibility with antimicrobials
– Addition of slaked lime. • Stored in single-dose or in multiple-dose containers,
• Addition of Soluble Alkali Carbonates or not larger than 30-mL size.
Hydroxides • For extemporaneous parenterals
– Precipitates as carbonates
Sterile Water for Injection
• Addition of Ammonia • SWFI is a water for injection sterilized and
• Polyphosphate Chelation suitably packaged which contains no antimicrobial
• Chelation by the Zeolite (Permutit) Process agent.
• Deionized or Deminineralized Water • Most difficult to prepare.
• May be stored in single-dose containers, not larger
Permanent Hard Water than 1000-mL size.
• Addition of Soluble Carbonates • Used for extemporaneous compounding (IM and IV)
• Polyphosphate Chelation
• Deionized or Demineralized Water Pharmaceutically Acceptable Glass
– Ion-exchange resins

Official Waters
• Water, USP XVIII
• Purified Water, USP XVIII
• Water for Injection, USP XVIII
• Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP XVIII
• Sterile Water for Injection, USP XVIII

Water, USP
• Clear, colorless, odorless liquid which has
specifications for pH, Zn, other heavy
Gastrointestinal Agents elevate gastric pH sufficiently to inhibit pepsin activity
• Not absorbed by the body.
Drugs used to treat Acid Peptic Disease • May cause hypophosphatemia
• Drugs that decrease acid
– Antacids Dihydroxyaluminum Sodium Carbonate
– H2 • Used in the treatment of dyspepsia and heartburn
-Receptor Antagonists • Adjunct for the management of peptic ulcer,
– Proton-Pump Inhibitors gastritis and esophagitis
• Drugs that enhance mucosal protection. • A partial systemic antacid.
• Has a rapid onset of action due to the sodium
Antacids carbonate and a sustained but less intense antacid
• Antacids neutralize acid and decrease pepsin activity. • Action is due to aluminum hydroxide.

• Acid Neutralizing Capacity Dihydroxyaluminum Aminoacetate

– number of milliequivalents of HCl required to • Rapid onset of action due to the protonation of the
maintain 1 ml of an antacid suspension at pH 3 for 2 amine group with a sustained buffering effect due to
hr in vitro. the two hydroxyls and glycine carboxyl group.
• May cause constipation and hypophosphatemia.
Side Effects of Antacids
• Soluble antacids such as NaHCO3 maycause Calcium Carbonate
systemic effects such as electrolyte imbalance and • Has rapid onset of action.
systemic alkalosis. • May cause constipation.
• Hypercalcemia and Milk-Alkali Syndrome. • Indicated as a calcium supplement
• Rebound Hyperacidity.
• Constipation; Laxation Tribasic Calcium Phosphate
• Antacid property may be due to H+- accepting
Antacids • Property of the phosphate anions or the production
• Sodium Bicarbonate of OH- upon the hydrolysis of phosphate anions.
• Basic Aluminum Carbonate Gel
• Aluminum Hydroxide Other Antacids
• Dihydroxyaluminum Sodium Carbonate • Magnesium Carbonate (Magnesium Carbonate
• Dihydroxyaluminum Acetate Hydroxide)
• Calcium Carbonate • Magnesium Hydroxide (Milk of Magnesia)
• Tribasic Calcium Phosphate • Magnesium Oxide
– Light and Heavy Magnesium Oxide
Sodium Bicarbonate – Light and Heavy Magnesia
• Aka Baking Soda, Sodium Acid Carbonate – Calcined and Heavy Calcined Magnesia
• Disadvantages: • Magnesium Phosphate (Tribasic Magnesium
– Reacts with HCl to form CO2 gas causing epigastric Phosphate)
distress and eructation. • Magnesium Trisilicate (2MgO.3SiO2.xH2O)
– Has rapid onset of action, but short duration of
action Antacid Mixtures
– May be absorbed systemically Antacids are used commonly in combination in
order to:
Basic Aluminum Carbonate Gel  Combine fast- and slow-reacting antacids to
• Aka Basaljel obtain a product with a rapid onset and a
• Used for the treatment of gastric hyperacidity relatively even, sustained action.
• Adjunct in the treatment of peptic ulcer  Lower the dose of each component and minimize
• Since it is excreted as aluminum phosphate, this the possibility of certain adverse events.
may cause phosphate urinary stones  Use one component to antagonize one or more
side effects of another component (e.g. laxation
Aluminum Hydroxide vs constipation)
• Aka Colloidal Aluminum Hydroxide, Amphojel,
Alternagel Protectives (Antacids)
• Used in the management of peptic ulcer, gastritis • Bismuth Subnitrate ([Bi(OH)2NO3]4.BiO(OH))
and esophagitis. • Bismuth Subcarbonate ([(BiO)2CO3]2.H2O)
• Relatively weak antacid and does not
• Bismuth Subsalicylate • Sodium Phosphate and Sodium
• Milk of Bismuth Biphosphate Oral Solution
• Simethicone • Potassium Sodium Tartrate (Rochelle Salt)
• Sucralfate • Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom Salt)
• Magnesium Oxide
Bismuth Compounds
• Mechanism of Action Topical Agents
– A soluble salt forms when it reacts with gastric Categorized as:
acid but hydrolyzes to form insoluble bismuthyl salts • Protectives
(BiO+) • Astringents
– Does not neutralize gastric acid but coats the • Antimicrobials
gastric walls and acts as a mechanical protective.
– Forms a complex with the glycoprotein Protectives
component of mucus that creates the protective Topical Protectives
barrier. • Talc
• Zinc Oxide
Simethicone • Calamine
• An antifoaming agent • Zinc Stearate
• Decreases the tendency of gastroesophageal reflux. • Titanium dioxide
• Silicon Polymers
Sucralfate
• A sucrose sulfate-aluminum complex. Talc (3MgO.4SiO2.H2O)
• It forms an ulcer-adherent complex with the • Aka Talcum, French Chalk, Purified chalk
proteinaceous exudate at the ulcer site; this covers – Softest mineral
the ulcer site and protects it from further attack by – In nature: it occurs in lumps known as steatite
pepsin and acid. (soap stone)
– native hydrous magnesium silicate
Cathartics/Laxatives – Liable to be contaminated by bacteria
• Drugs that either accelerate fecal passage or
decrease fecal consistency. • Uses
– Dusting powder (should not be applied on broken
Types of Cathartics/Laxatives skin or wound)
• Stimulant – Lubricating agent or lubricant (foot powders and
– Stimulate water secretion into GIT, inhibit water also in tableting process)
absorption or increase motility. – Filtering aid (chemically inert, particle size: 80/100
mesh, non-adsorptive properties)
• Saline/Hyperosmotic
– exert osmotic effect that increases water content Zinc Oxide
and volume of stool. • Uses
– Mild astringent, weak antimicrobial and topical
• Lubricant antacid
– allow easier passage of stool due to oil coating; may – Antiseptic and skin protective (Dusting powder,
also inhibit colonic water absorption. paste and ointment)
– Dental cement
• Bulk-forming – Used in some bandages and adhesives
– absorb water, increasing the volume of stool.
Calamine
• Emollient • Calcined native zinc oxide ore with ferric oxide (pink
– surfactants that facilitate mixture of water and lipid- or reddish-brown powder)
soluble substances to soften stool; stimulate water • Uses
secretion into GIT – Mild astringent
– Dusting powder
Saline Cathartics – Used as a cream, lotion or ointment in various skin
• Sodium Phosphate disorders
• Sodium Phosphate and Sodium
Biphosphate Enema
 Zinc Stearate • Zinc Chloride
• Mixture of fatty acid zinc soaps
• Uses Alum
– Mild astringents and has anti-infective properties • Powerful astringent in acidic solutions
– Dusting powder • Sometimes used as a styptic
– Protective for skin inflammation
– Lubricant in tablet manufacturing Aluminum Acetate Topical Solution
– Water-proofing agent • Aka Burrow’s Solution
• used in the treatment of athlete’s foot, dermatitis,
Titanium Dioxide diaper rash, dry skin, poison ivy poisoning and
• Has a higher refractive index (absorbs UV light) inflammation of the external ear.
• Uses
– Prevent sunburn Aluminum Chloride
– Used as a white pigment in lotions and cosmetic • Astringent
preparations • Anhidrotic
– Relief of pruritus and in dermatoses
Aluminum Chlorohydrates
Silicon Polymers (Silicones) • less acidic than AlCl3
• Inert polymers with a structure constituting of • Hydrates of Al(OH)2Cl
alternate atoms of silicon and oxygen and organic
groups (methyl or phenyl) Aluminum Sulfate
• Uses • Powerful astringent
– Skin protectant • Buffered with sodium aluminum lactate
– Anti-foaming agent • Used in the alum flocculation process
– Used for dressing the wounds
Zinc Chloride
Other Protectives • Aka Butter of Zinc
• White Lotion • Deliquescent
• Magnesium Trisilicate
• Basic Aluminum Carbonate Antimicrobials
• Chalk
• Kaolin • Antiseptic
• Bentonite – any agent which kills or inhibits the growth of
microorganisms found in living tissue.
Astringents
• Disinfectant
Astringent and Antiperspirant – same as above but found in inanimate objects.
• Locally-applied protein precipitants that have low
cell penetrability • Germicide
• Uses: – fungicide, bactericide, amoebicide and etc.
– Styptic
– Antidiarrheal Mechanism of Action
– Reduce inlammation of mucous membranes • Oxidation
– Promote healing • Halogenation
– Decrease sweating • Protein Precipitation (Astringent)
Types Hydrogen Peroxide
• Salts of cations (Al, Zn, Mn, Fe, Bi) • Contains 2.5 – 3.5 g of H2O2
• Other salts that contain above mentioned • Usually deteriorates on standing and agitation
metals (MnO4-) • Decomposes rapidly in the presence of OA or RA
• Tannins or related polyphenolic • May act as an OA or RA, depending on the chemical
compounds. environment.
• Alum • Mild oxidizing antiseptic (due to the action of
• Aluminum Acetate Topical Solution catalase)
• Aluminum Chloride
• Aluminum Chlorohydrates
• Aluminum Sulfate
 Sodium Perborate
• Previously official in NF XII
• Also used as a bleaching agent in non-chlorine
laundry bleaches.
Potassium Permanganate
• Odorless, dark purple crystalline compound.
• A strong oxidizing agent both in the dry state and in
solution
• Acid solutions reduce the permanganate ion (Mn+7)
to the manganous ion (Mn+2)
• Neutral or alkaline solutions reduce the
permanganate ion (Mn+7) to the manganic ion(Mn+4)
Silver Compounds
• Antimicrobial activity: due to protein precipitant
action
• Silver Nitrate Topical Solution
– prophylaxis against infection by gonococcal
microorganisms.
• Silver Sulfadiazine
– effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa; used as
adjunct in the prevention treatment of wound sepsis
in 2nd- and 3rd-degree burns.
• Argyria
– gray to gray-black staining of the skin produced by
silver deposition.

Chlorinated Lime Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds

• Aka Bleaching Lime or Chloride of Lime
• Made by passing Cl gas over slaked lime; contains
calcium hypochlorite, calcium hydroxide and chloride
ions.
• Chloramines
– organic amines with one or two chlorine atoms
bonded to nitrogen.
Examples:
• Chloramine-T (Na p-toluenesulfonchloramide)
• Halazone [p-(dichlorosulfamoyl) benzoic acid]
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution, USP
• Dakin’s Solution
– Contains not less than 4.0 and not more than 6.0
percent of NaClO.
• Labaraqque’s Solution
– 2.5% solution of NaClO
• Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
(Modified Dakin’s Solution)
– in each 100 ml, contains not less than 450 mg and
not more than 500 mg of NaClO; contains bicarbonate.
• Sodium Hypochlorite Topical Solution, USP
– in each 1000 ml, contains not less than 0.20 g and
not more than 0.32 g of NaClO; contains
biphosphates
Iodine Preparations
• Antimicrobial property: due to oxidation and
iodination
• Sulfur exists in different allotropic forms.
• Fungicide, parasiticide, keratolytic agent and
depilatory agent
• Sublimed Sulfur: aka “Flowers of Sulfur”
– formed from condensing sulfur vapor; composed
primarily of rhombic sulfur.
• Precipitated Sulfur: “Milk of Sulfur”
– prepared from the reaction of sulfides and HCl.
• Sulfur Ointment
– prepared from Precipitated Sulfur, Mineral Oil and
White Ointment.
• Sulfurated Potash: “Liver of Sulfur”
– a mixture composed primarily of potassium
polysulfides and potassium thiosulfate; prepared by
heating potassium carbonate and sulfur at a
maximum temperature of 185°C
• Selenium Sulfide
– used in the treatment of seborrhea dermatitis; has
cytostatic effects.
• Cadmium Sulfide
Antimony Compounds
• Antimony Potassium Tartrate: “Tartar Emetic”
– emetic property due to irritant action on GI musosa;
previously indicated for the treatment of
schistosomiasis

• Iodophores • Stibophen
– compounds such as iodides or PVP that enhances – Treatment of schistosomiasis
the solubility of I2
Arsenic Compounds
Iodine Preparations • Melarsoprol
• Iodine Topical Solution – Organic arsenical used for the treatment of African
• Strong Iodine Solution Sleeping sickness.
• Iodine Tincture • Tryparsamide
• Strong Iodine Tincture • Carbarsone
– used in the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis
• Glycobiarsol amount of hemoglobin is inadequate to supply
– bismuthyl-containing pentavalent arsenic enough oxygen to the tissues
compound, used in the treatment of intestinal
amebiasis • Causes
– Hemorrhage
Miscellaneous Inorganic Pharmaceutical – CO poisoning
Agents • Carbon Dioxide-Oxygen Mixture (antidote)
• Inhalants
• Respiratory Stimulants Stagnant
• Expectorants • Occurs when the general circulation is inadequate or
• Emetics when circulation is locally retarded.
• Dental Products • Tension and rate of oxidation is normal, but each
• Antidotes portion of the blood tarries in the capillaries,
permitting surrender of a larger portion of its oxygen.
Inhalants • Therapy: Cardiotonic drugs
• Oxygen
• Carbon Dioxide Histotoxic
• Helium • In the histotoxic type, tissue cell oxidation may be
• Nitrogen interfered with in several ways:
• Nitrous Oxide – It may depend on the failure of that form of
oxidation which is chemically dehydrogenation
Oxygen – Toxic substances of exogenous origin (eg. CN-)
• Discovery • Oxygen therapy has no therapeutic value
– Yne (Duckworth)
– Dephlogisticated Air (J. Priestley) Uses of Oxygen
– Empyreal Air (K.W. Scheele) • Widely used in medical practice and surgery
• Oxygen = Greek word signifying Acid former – Pneumonia, angina, asthma, bronchitis, etc.
• The process by which oxygen reaches the – For chloroform and nitrous oxide poisoning
tissues consists of three steps: – Resuscitation
– Diffusion from alveolar air to blood plasma – High altitudes (airplanes) and in submarines: O2 is
– Surrender from blood plasma to red blood supplied from tanks
corpuscles to form oxyhemoglobin – For treating warts
– Abstraction of oxygen from oxyhemoglobin by
the tissues via complex physiochemical Storage of Oxygen
processes and also by diffusion • Oxygen
– Storage: Green colored cylinders
Major Division of Oxygen Requirement • Oxygen (20%) is often used mixed with Helium for
• Anoxic therapeutic purposes.
• Anemic – Storage: Brown-Green colored cylinders
• Stagnant • Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Mixture
• Histotoxic – Storage: Gray-Green colored cylinders

Anoxic Inhalants
• The oxygen supply to the tissues is inadequate
because the blood arrives with its oxygen at a • Carbon Dioxide
lowered tension. – Used as a respiratory stimulant and in the treatment
• Causes of lowered oxygen tension of CO-poisoning.
– High altitudes – Storage: Gray metallic cylinders
– Increase in the inert gases normally present or
abnormal presence of other inert gases • Helium
– Disturbed pulmonary function – a diluent for oxygen
– Defect in cardiac septum (allowing mixing of
arterial and venous blood) • Nitrogen
– diluent for oxygen
Anemic – Storage: Black Cylinder
• Oxygen tension is normal, but the
 • Nitrous Oxide (laughing gas) • Zinc Chloride
– Anesthetic – Dentin desensitizer
– Used often with 20 to 25% Oxygen as diluent
• Zinc-Eugenol Cement (Zinc + Clove oil)
Respiratory Stimulants – Dental protective, dentrifice
• Ammonium Carbonate
– Aka Sal volatile, Preston’s salt, Hartshorn Antidotes
– Consists of varying proportions of NH4HCO3 and
NH2CO2NH4
– Used in the preparation of Aromatic Ammonia Spirit • Physiological antidote
– counteracts the effects of a poison by producing
Expectorants other effects
• From Latin expectorare = to expel from chest
• Works by signaling the body to increase the amount • Chemical antidote
or hydration of secretions, resulting in more yet – changes the chemical nature of the poison
clearer secretions and as a byproduct, lubricating the • Mechanical antidote
irritated respiratory tract. – prevents the absorption of the poison

Expectorants Universal Antidote

• Sodium Iodide • Components:
• Potassium Citrate – MgO
• Ammonium Carbonate – Activated charcoal
• Ammonium Chloride – Tannic acid
• Ammonium Iodide
• Antimony Potassium Tartrate Physiological Antidote
• BEST EXPECTORANT: (?) • Sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate
– Cyanide poisoning: CN- combines with the ferric ion
Emetics of cytochrome oxidase which stops the electron
• Latin emetica, Greek emetike = to vomit transfer process.
• Agents that cause vomitting (emesis)
• Cupric Sulfate Chemical Antidote
• Zinc Sulfate • Precipitants
• Cadmium Chloride – Cupric sulfate: Phosphorus poisoning
• Antimony Potassium Tartrate – Sodium phosphate: Iron poisoning
– Magnesium sulfate: Ba and Pb poisoning
Dental Products
Mechanical Antidote
• Stannous Fluoride • Adsorbents
– Anticariogenic – Kaolin
– Activated Charcoal
• Sodium Fluoride
– Anticariogenic Essential and Trace Ions & Nonessential Ions

• Ammoniacal Silver Nitrate Solution (with RA Essentiality

such as formaldehyde or eugenol)
– Protects dentin • It must have a specific role, where deficiency of that
element results in adverse effects that are reversed
• Amalgam upon resupply. Thus, it is important to distinguish
– Dental fillings nutritional effects from pharmacological effects,
identifying an essential biochemical function for these
• Calcium Sulfate (Plaster of Paris) metals.
– CaSO4.2H2O
– Calcii Sulfas Exsiccatus Essential Trace Ions
– Component of pasta • Iron
• Copper
• Zinc
• Chromium
• Molybdenum ammonia (brown gelatinous ferric hydroxide)
• Selenium • Precipitated by potassium ferrocyanide to form
• Manganese intense blue precipitate (Prussian blue)
• Sulfur • Ferric salts – give dark-colored precipitates with
• Iodine tannins.

Iron (Fe)
• Ferrum (Latin word)
Iron (Fe)
• Occurrence
• Official ID Tests
– Necessary constituent of blood (hemoglobin) and
– Ferrous and ferric compounds
oxidases
• Yield a black precipitate with ammonium sulfide TS.
– Found in chromatin, therefore in all cells
This precipitate is dissolved by the cold HCl with the
evolution of hydrogen sulfide. (Chemical Reaction?)
• Most important source (Iron ores):
– Hematite (Fe2O3), aka Red Oxide
– Magnetite (Fe3O4), black magnetic oxide of
iron (ferrous ferrite)
– Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O), brown hydrated oxide

• Other sources:
– Siderite (native ferrous carbonate)
Pharmacological Actions
– Siderite + Clay + Shale = Iron stone (Ferrous
• Essential part of hemoglobin
Carbonate)
• External
– Iron pyrite – native iron sulfide
– Ferric type (ability to precipitate proteins)
• “Fool’s Gold” (Shining golden yellow crystals)
• Astringents
– FeCl3 – poison ivy poisoning (ability to precipitate
• Physical Properties
phenols, however, the ppt is exceedingly irritating)
– Metallic Iron – fine, bright wire, filings or powder
• Internal
– Reduced Iron – odorless, grayish-black powder
– 3-15 mg (adult requirement)
• Chemical Properties
– Metallic
– Metallic Iron: Very active chemically.
– Ferric salts (less absorbed) (?)
– Ferrous Ion
– Ferrous salts (much absorbed)
– Ferric Ion
• anion of choice (?)
Metallic Iron
• Site of absorption: Acidic duodenal section of GIT
• Metallic Iron: Very active chemically.
• Excretion: sloughing off of cells, hemorrhage,
– Rusting is probably due to impurities.
menstruation (loss is about 1 mg daily)
– CO2 stimulates the formation of hydrated
ferric oxide (Ferric hydroxide or rust)
• Ferritin – iron-carrying protein
• Transferrin (siderophilin) – Iron-binding protein
Ferrous ion
• Hydrated – greenish
Secondary Anemia
• Anhydrous – colorless
• Hypochromic microcytic anemia
• Slowly oxidized by O2, but rapidly when in solution.
– Low hemoglobin, small size cells
• Precipitated more or less completely by alkali
• Dishemopoeitic anemia
hydroxides as green-white ferrous hydroxide. (upon
– Inefficient production of blood cells (iron deficiency
contact with air?)
as major causative factor)
• Potassium cyanide (excess)
– Other factors: bleeding, ulcer, TB
Yellow prussiate of potash – Potassium Ferrocyanide
Red prussiate of potash – Potassium Ferricyanide
Primary Anemia
Potassium ferricyanide + ferrous ion = Turnbull’s Blue
• Macrocytic Anemia
– Blood cells are larger than normal
Ferric ion
– Not secondary to other disease, bt due to diseased
• Brown or yellow in color
condition of the blood-making portions of the body.
• Prone to hydrolysis
– Tx: Vit B12
• Precipitated by alkali hydroxides and
 Treatment of Anemia Water for Injection.
• Hematopoietics • IM only (used where oral therapy is
– Aid in the production of blood cells contraindicated or ineffective)
• Hematinics
– Increase hemoglobin content Iron Sorbitex Injection
• Jectofer®
Official Iron Compounds • Sterile solution of complex of iron, sorbitol,
• Ferrous Fumarate, USP and citric acid that is stabilized with the aid
• Ferrous Gluconate, NF of dextrin and an excess sorbitol.
• Ferrous Sulfate, USP • IM only (used where oral therapy is
• Iron Dextran Injection, USP contraindicated or ineffective)
• Iron Sorbitex Injection • SE: Dark urine due to formation of FeS
• Iron Sucrose Injection
• Ferrous Fumarate, USP Iron Sucrose Injection
• Ferrous Gluconate, NF • Sterile colloidal solution of ferric hydroxide
• Ferrous Sulfate, USP complex with sucrose in Water for Injection
• Iron Dextran Injection, USP
• Iron Sorbitex Injection Other Compounds of Iron
• Iron Sucrose Injection • Ferric Ammonium Citrate, NF
• Ferric Chloride (FeCl3.6H2O)
Ferrous Fumarate – Ferric Chloride Solution – Liquor Ferri Chloridi
• Hematinic • Iron and Ammonium Acetate Solution
• Usually available as 200-mg tablets. – Basham’s Mixture
• Ferrous Carbonate (FeCO3)
Ferrous Gluconate – Chalybeate Pills, Blaud's Pills, and Ferruginous Pills.
• Ferrous Gluconate Tablets, NF (Fergon) • Ferrous Chloride
• Less irritating to GIT – Native FeCl2 is known as Lawrencite
• Usual dose: 300mg 3x a day
Copper
Ferrous Sulfate • Cuprum
• FeSO4.7H2O
• Green Vitriol, Iron Vitriol • Physical Properties
• Oxidizes readily in moist air to form yellow basic – Malleable and ductile
ferric sulfate [Fe4(OH)2(SO4)5]. – Red: reflected light
• Most widely used oral iron preparation – Greenish: Transmitted light
• DOC for treating uncomplicated iron-deficiency – Excellent conductor of heat and electricity
anemia.
• Chemical Properties
• Hematinic – Copper
• Ferrous Sulfate Tablets (Feosol ®) – Cuprous salts
• Ferrous Sulfate Syrup, NF – Cupric salts
• Dried Ferrous Sulfate • Disproportionation Reaction
• Ferrous ammonium sulfate FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
or Mohr’s Salt • Two oxides:
• Oxidizes readily upon exposure to air, the crystals of – Red cuprous
which become coated with brownish yellow basic – Black cupric
ferric sulfate.
Cuprous
Iron Dextran Injection • All of the cuprous compounds are white when
• Imferon® freshly prepared with the exception of the sulfide
• Fe(OH)2(colloid) + Dextran (black) and oxide (red).
– Is a sterile, colloidal solution of solution of ferric
hydroxide [Fe(OH)3] complexed with partially Cupric
hydrolyzed dextran of low MW, in • Most are blue in color, some are greenish- blue
• Actually exists with 4 moles of water: Cu(H2O)4 2+
Official ID Tests carbonate.
• Solutions of Cu2+, acidified w/ HCl, deposit a red • Physical Properties
film of metallic Cu upon bright, untarnished surface of – Bluish-white, moderately hard metal. Becomes
metallic iron. brittle when cold.
• With excess of NH4(OH), produces first a bluish
precipitate and then a deep blue-colored solution. • Chemical Properties
• With potassium ferrocyanide TS, yield a reddish- – + Ammonium sulfide (?)
brown precipitate w/c is insoluble in diluted acids. - Zinc Sulfide: White Sulfide
– + Fixed alkali (?)
Official ID Tests - White flocculent zinc hydroxide (amphoteric)
– Zinc and gold ions: are the only well known ones
that are soluble in both ammonium hydroxide and
fixed alkali.
– Flame test with cobalt salt: Rinmann’s green
(Cobalt zincate)

Official ID Tests
Pharmacological Actions • With sodium acetate, it yields a white precipitate
• Catalyst – for better assimilation of iron with hydrogen sulfide w/c is insoluble in acetic acid,
• Important in oxidative phosphorylation (ATP but is dissolved by HCl.
production) • Ammonium sulfide TS produces a similar
• Needed in the formation of elastin and collagen precipitate in neutral or in alkaline solutions.
• Important component of tyrosinase • With potassium ferrocyanide TS, it yields a white
precipitate that is insoluble in 3 N hydrochloric acid.
Toxicity
• Wilson’s Disease
– Hepatolenticular degeneration
– Familial inability to regulate copper balance with the
consequence that toxic amounts of copper are
deposited in various tissues.
– Tx; Dimercaprol, Penicillamine (Cuprimine)

Official Copper Compounds

• Cupric Sulfate, NF
• Cupric Sulfate Injection
• Cupric Chloride
• Cupric Chloride Injection Pharmacological Actions
• Metal present in insulin
Cupric Sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O) • Highest concentration in testis, hair and nails, none,
• Blue vitriol or blue stone and pigmented tissues of eye
• Uses • Essential part of an enzyme structure in the RBC,
– Used in the determination of reducing sugars gastric mucosa, and renal cortex
– Fehling’s Solution and Benedict’s Solution • Involved in the acceleration of acid-base balance by
– Emetic – stimulates the vomiting reflex center the kidney.
– Phosphorus poisoning (chemical reaction?) • Has emetic action
– Fungicidal/Algaecide (Bordeux Mixture) – • Wound healing (3-4x faster than normal healing)
swimming pools, usually in conjunction with chlorine – 200mg three times daily (to avoid?)
– Astringent and irritant • Exhibits astringent, corrosive and mild antiseptic
properties
• Deficiency: linked to atherosclerosis
• Toxicity: generally manifests as copper deficiency
Zinc
• Occurrence
Official Zinc Compounds
– Brass
• Zinc Chloride, USP
– Zinc Blende (ZnS)
• Zinc Oxide, USP
– Calamine: used for the official product and
• Zinc Peroxide, USP
also for impure naturally occurring zinc
• Zinc Stearate, USP
• Zinc Sulfate, USP
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2)
• Astringent and Antiseptic
• Used when a more powerful escharotic action is
needed such as in the treatment of growths and
gangrenous sores.
• Used as mouth washes to impart antiseptic and
astringent properties.
• Desensitizer of dentin (topically)
Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
• Technical grade: Zinc white
• Medicinal grade: whiter, softer form
• Uses
– Dermatology: mild astringent and weak antiseptic
action
– Astringent and protectant
– Zinc Oxide ointment (dusting powder)
• Tx of eczema, impetigo, ringworm, varicose ulcers,
pruritus and psoriasis.
Zinc Peroxide, ZnO2
• Medicinal Zinc Peroxide, USP
– Consists of a mixture of zinc peroxide, zinc
carbonate and zinc hydroxide
• Has deodorizing properties and used as dusting
powder
• Used in tx of wounds, human bites, deep surgical
wounds, ringworm and dermatophytosis
Zinc Stearate
• Consists chiefly of variable proportions of zinc
stearate and zinc palmitate
• Mildly antiseptic and astringent
• Used to treat various types of skin diseases.
• Dusting powder (not for infants)
– Can cause pulmonary inflammation
• Official use: lubricant in tablet manufacture
Zinc Sulfate (ZnSO4.7H2O)
• Stable and soluble
• Emetic
• Official use: Ophthalmic astringent
• White Lotion (ZnS)
– Preparation from Sulfurated Potash and ZnSO4?
K2S + ZnSO4 -> ZnS + K2SO4
Chromium
• Greek word color
• Physical Properties
– Very hard, crystalline, silvery metal
– Very low ductility and malleability
Chemical Forms
• Metallic Chromium
• Divalent Chromium (blue): Strong RA
– Readily oxidized to chromic ion in aerobic conditions
• Trivalent Chromium: obtained by reducing
dichromates in acid
– Most stable form, but is not as bioavailable as
hexavalent form.
• Hexavalent Chromium: non-metallic, most
bioavaliable
• Chromates (CrO42-)
• Dichromates (Cr2O72-)
Pharmacological Actions
• Chromates and Dichromates: very similar effect
• Destructive to tissues (PO or IV)
• Produces a characteristic nephritis and glycosuria
• Chromate dust: development of ulcers of the skin
and nasal mucosa
• Dichromates, esp potassium dichromate: cancer tx
Glucose Tolerance Factor
• Chromium deficiency is marked by glucose
tolerance impartment, glycosuria, and elevations in
insulin serum
• Chromium has an effect on glucose metabolism in
humans; however, it is no longer believed to be
because of a substance called the GTF as GTF activity
has now been found to be independent of chromium
content
Chromium Products
• Chromium Chloride Injection
• Chromium Trioxide (CrO3)
– Non-official
– Chromium anhydride
– Should not be brought in contact with organic
substance!
– Caustic, Astringent
Molybdenum
• Physical and Chemical Properties
– Malleable, silvery white metal
– Insoluble in HCl, HF, and dil H2SO4
• Important component of plant growth, importance
in humans not yet conclusively proven.
• Molybdenum enzymes play an important role in
catalyzing redox reactions that characteristically
involve oxygen transfer
• Human molybdenum cofactor deficiency, is a
hereditary metabolic disorder characterized by
neurodegeneration, resulting in death during early
childhood
• Molybdenum is relatively non-toxic; amounts greater
than 100 mg/kg will produce toxic effects.
 Selenium - Large doses: very severe gastro-enteritis
• Discovered by Berzelius (Gr. Selene = moon)
 Required for the synthesis of
Pharmacological Actions mucopolysaccharides of cartilage
• Factor 3 in preventing liver necrosis in rats  Required for the conversion of mevalonic acid to
• May be of therapeutic value in the treatment of squalene.
kwashiorkor
 No deficiency state has been found in humans.
• Oral administration can produce intestinal irritation
 Toxicity
and paralysis of the small blood vessels and blood-
forming organs. - Seen in miners exposed to manganese oxide
• Tx of certain dermatoses (Sulfur relationship) dust for long periods.
- Psychiatric abnormalities that resemble
Deficiency and Toxicity schizophrenia
- Neurological disorders similar to Parkinson’s
Keshan disease  Tx: Levodopa can be given to relieve symptoms.
 a type of juvenile cardiomyopathy found in places
with low Se intake. Iodine
 Considered one of the more toxic essential - Heaviest non-metallic element
element. - Chemical properties resemble those of chlorine
- Organic Se is more toxic than Inorganic Se. and bromine.
- Can be decolorized by strong OA, thus it
functions as RA.
Official Selenium Compound Official ID Tests
 Selenium Sulfide, USP – SeS2  Upon the addition of chlorine TS, dropwise, it
- Selenium Disulfide (Selsun Cream ®) liberates iodine, which colors the solution yellow
- Component of shampoo (2.5%) used in to red.
treating seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff)  When the solution is shaken with chloroform, the
latter is colored violet. The iodine thus liberated
Manganese
gives a blue color with starch TS.
 Occurrence  Silver nitrate produces, in solutions of iodides, a
- Pyrolusite (MnO2) – principal manganese ore yellow curdy precipitate that is insoluble in nitric
 Physical Properties acid and in 6 N ammonium hydroxide.
- Very hard, brittle, lustrous gray white metal [1]
2I- +Cl2 →I2 +2Cl-
resembling cast-iron in appearance.
[1-1]
Chemical Forms I2 + CHCl3 → violet CHCl3
[1-2]
Name Valence Example I2 + starch → starch-iodo complex
[2] -
Manganous 2 Mn(PH2O2)2 I + AgNO3 → AgI↓ +NO3 -
[2-1]
AgI↓ + HNO3 → no reaction
Manganic 3 Mn2(SO4)3
[2-1]
AgI↓ + NH4OH → no reaction
Manganite 4 Na2MnO2
Pharmacological actions
Manganate 6 Na2MnO4  Internal:
Permanganate 7 KMnO4 - Essential for the synthesis of two hormones
produced by the thyroid gland, triiodotyronine
Pharmacological Actions (T3) and thyroxine (T4)
 External:
 Permanganates
- Antiseptic
- Powerful OA
- Antibacterial (1:5000)
- 0.02 to 0.1 %: used in urethral injections
 Non-Essential Trace Ions
 Deficiency
- Goiter: A swelling of the thyroid Non-Essential Ions
gland as a response to iodine  Fluoride • Barium
deficiency.  Bromide • Cadmium
 Acute Iodine Toxicity  Lithium • Lead
- Marked by salivation, lacrimation,  Gold • Mercury
coryza, soreness of the teeth and  Arsenic • Nickel
gums, headaches, swollen salivary  Antimony • Beryllium
glands.  Aluminum • Strontium
 Silver
Pharmaceutical Uses
 Lugol’s Solution (Strong Iodine Solution) Fluoride
- Consists of aqueous solution of KI and
I2.
 Iodine Tincture (alcohol)
 Iodine Solution (aqueous)
 Phenolated Iodine Solution (Boulton’s
Solution)
 Strong Iodine Tincture – has antifungal
properties

Official Iodine Compounds Fluoride

 Povidone-Iodine  Occurrence (as Fluorine)
 Iodine - Fluorite or Fluorspar [CaF2]
 Potassium Iodide - Apatite or fluoroapatite
 Sodium Iodide [CaF2.3Ca2(PO4)2] – Cryolite
[AlF3.3NaF]
Povidone-Iodine Solution
 Betadine, Isodine, Polyvinylpyrrolidone-
Iodine Complex
 Antiseptic
- Intravaginal
- Topical
Pharmacological Actions
Potassium Iodide  Fluorine
 Iodide of choice (stable in air) vs NaI (?) - Highly irritating to skin, eyes, and
 Has diuretic action mucous membrane
 Present in several solutions such as: - Freon (CF2Cl2): refrigerants
- Nessler’s Solution - Teflon: A polymer of tetra fluoro-
- Wagner’s Solution ethylene – container of HF
- Mayer’s Solution  Fluoride
- Extremely germicidal
Sodium Iodide
 PO as a source of iodine
 Some value in the treatment of herpes
zoster opthalmicus
 Preferable to KI for application to
tissues because it is better tolerated.

Pharmacological Actions
 Major component of bones and teeth is
Calcium Hydroxyapatite,
Ca10(P04)6(OH)2
 Replacement of -OH- with F- causes
the formation of fluoroapatite, which
has a lower solubility than
hydroxyapatite.
 Enhances remineralization and inhibits
demineralization.
 Studies have shown that
supplementation lowers the incidence
of osteoporosis.
Toxicity and Controversies
 Binds to ribosomes and inhibits protein
synthesis
 Chronic exposure to high fluorine may
cause fluorosis.
- Skeletal fluorosis
- Dental fluorosis
ACCURATE PHOTOS OF ENAMEL
FLUORISIS
Skeletal Fluorosis
Official Fluoride Compounds
 Sodium Fluoride
 Sodium Monofluorophosphate
 Stannous Fluoride
Sodium Fluoride
 Generally a protoplasmic poison
 Excellent antiseptic and has been
used as preservative
 Research: Significant correlation
between low bone density and low
fluoride content.
 Prevents dental caries
- Fluoride-containing drinking water
Sodium Monofluorophosphate
 Formula: Na2PO3F
 PO3F2− +OH− →HPO42− +F−
 Advantages over NaF:
- Teeth does not require pre-treatment
before application
- No hazard with respect to local toxicity
or systemic intoxication
Stannous Fluoride
 Valuable adjunct in the prevention of
caries and seems to have a definite
superiority over NaF:
- Simplified application
- Greater effectiveness (anticariogenic)
 Dentrifice (Crest toothpaste)
Bromide
 Introduced by Locock for the treatment
of epilepsy.
 Its use declined after the introduction
of new antiepileptic drugs (eg.
phenobarbital and phenytoin)
 Still found in prescription and OTC
drugs due to its sedative effect.
 Bromine
- When handling bromine, it is always
advisable to have ammonia water
 within reach to stop its action
(chemical reaction?)
 Bromine T.S. (Bromine Water)
- Saturated solution of bromine
prepared by agitating from 2-3 mL of
bromine with 100 mL of cold distilled
water in glass-stoppered bottle
(coated with petrolatum)
 Bromine, Tenth Normal Solution
(Koppeschaar’s Solution)
- Solution of potassium bromate (3mg)
and potassium bromide (15mg) in
water sufficient to make a liter.
psychosis, ataxia, and, if severe,
stupor and coma.
o Antidote: NaCl
- Bromide Psychosis (Mental disease)
Official Compounds
 Potassium Bromide
 Sodium Bromide
Potassium Bromide (KBr)
 Central depressant
 Employed in cases of mental
excitement and all conditions arising
from, e.g. insomia, nervousness, etc.
 Controls seizures of epilepsy

Sodium Bromide
 Sedative due to its central depressant
effect

Lithium
 Greek word Stone
Official ID Tests  Physical Properties
 Upon the addition of chlorine TS, - Lightest of all metals
dropwise, liberate bromine, which is - Preserved by coating with petrolatum
dissolved by shaking with chloroform, - Flame test?
coloring the chloroform red to reddish
brown. Official ID Tests
 With sodium carbonate TS, made
 Silver nitrate TS produces in solutions
of bromides a yellowish-white alkaline with sodium hydroxide, yield a
precipitate that is insoluble in nitric acid white precipitate on boiling.The
and is slightly soluble in 6 N precipitate is soluble ammonium
ammonium hydroxide. chloride TS.
 Flame test?
 Solutions of lithium salts are not
[1]
2Br- + Cl2 → Br2 + 2Cl-
precipitated by sulfuric acid or soluble
Br2 + CHCl3 → brown CHCl3
[2] sulfates (distinction from strontium).
AgNO3 +Br-→AgBr↓+NO3-
[2-1]
AgBr↓ + HNO3 → no reaction [1]
2Li+ +Na2CO3 → Li2CO3↓ + 2Na+
[2-2]
AgBr↓ + 2NH4OH → Ag(NH3)2Br + 2H2O
Li2CO3↓ + 2NH4Cl → (NH4)2CO3 + 2LiCl
[1-1]
[2]
Li+ + HCl → LiCl + H+
Pharmacological Action
LiCl→ Li↑ + Cl↑
 Sedative
Li↑ → Li*
 Toxicity
Li* → Li↑ + hv
- Bromism: bromide intoxication
(Bromide acne)
Pharmacological Actions
o Primarily a chronic neuropsychiatric
 Behaves systemically very much like K
disorder, manifested as headache,
ion.
tremor, irritability, slurred speech,
 Depressant to the CNS and to the
confusion, lethargy, hallucinations,
circulation
 Has diuretic action
 Stimulates the vagus and my produce - Aqua Regia (?) – best reagent for
gastro-enteritis dissolving gold metal
 Now recognized as a “Mood-Stabilizing - Purple of Cassius (reaction?)
Agent”
 Used in mania and bipolar manic--
‐depressive illness.
 Precise mechanism of action is still
unknown.
Pharmacological Actions
Toxicity and Side Effects
 Early use was of empirical nature,
 Has a very narrow therapeutic range.
largely based on legend and folklore.
- 0.6-1.25 meq/L: Generally accepted
 Robert Koch (1890) discovered anti-
safe range
tubercular activity in vitro.
- 0.9-1.1 meq/L: Target range for manic
 1925-1935
or hypomanic states
- activity against rheumatoid arthritis
 Side effects: nausea, diarrhea,
was discovered.
daytime drowsiness, polyuria,
 1960
polydipsia, weight gain, fine hand
- conclusive proof of activity against RA.
tremor, and Dermatological reactions,
 1970s-early 1980s
including acne.
- development of an orally active Au(I)
 Poisoning
compound and in- depth
- Weakness, drowsiness, loss of
understanding of Au’s biochemistry.
appetite, nausea, tremors and blurring
 1980s-1990s
of vision
- discovery of anti-cancer property.
Official Lithium Compounds
Rheumatoid Arthritis
 Lithium Carbonate (Quilonium)
• Chronic inflammatory
 Lithium Citrate
disease characterized
 Lithium Hydroxide
by the migration of
 Lithium Bromide (Non-official)
activated phagocytes
and leukocytes into
Lithium Bromide (LiBr.xH2O)
synovial tissue, which
 Used as sedative because of the central
causes progressive
depressant properties of bromide ion.
destruction of cartilage
 Potentially toxic.
bone and joint swelling.
GOLD
Pharmacological Action
 Gold is taken up by macrophages and
inhibits antigen processing and
decreases phagocytic activity.
 Gold accumulates in the lysosomes of
synovial cells and macrophages,
Gold forming gold laden deposits known as
 King of All Metals aurosomes.
 Physical and Chemical Properties  The degradative enzymes in the
- Most malleable and ductile metal lysosomes are inactivated.
- Inactive and permanent metal  Down-regulate pro-inflammatory genes.
- Dissolved by Selenic Acid
[Au3(SeO4)3]

Non/Official Compounds of Gold
 Gold Sodium Thiosulfate, NF
 Auranofin
 Aurothioglycanilide
 Aurothioglucose
 Gold Sodium Thiomalate
Gold Sodium Thiosulfate
 Na2Au(S2O3)2.H2O
 IM treatment for nondisseminated
lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid
arthritis
 Dose: 5-25 mg
Auranofin
 Thioglucose-phosphine
 Oral administration
 Ridaura®
Aurothioglycanilide
 N.N.D. (Lauron, alpha-
Auromercaptoacetanilide)
 Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis
 Administered as a suspension in
sesame oil (IM)
Aurothioglucose
 Contains nmt 5% sodium acetate
(stabilizer)
 Tx of Rheumatoid Arthritis and non-
disseminating lupus erythematosus
 IM in the form of suspension in
vegetable oil
 Dose: 50 mg
Gold Sodium Thiomalate
 Antirheumatic
 IV
 Myochrysine
- Commercial Preparation
Arsenic
 Very common environmental toxicant
 Protoplasmic poison!
- Arsine (AsH3) > Arsenic3+ > Arsenic5+
> Organic Chemicals
 Mechanism of toxicity:
- Binds with the –SH groups in the
tissue
- Antidote: BAL
Acute Poisoning
 GI discomfort, burning lips, constriction
of the throat, difficulty in swallowing,
projectile vomiting, and severe diarrhea
 Oliguria with proteinuria and hematuria
eventually, skeletal muscle cramps and
severe thirst!
 Shock; coma and death. In severe
poisoning, death can occur within an
hour
Chronic Poisoning
 The most common early signs of
chronic arsenic poisoning are muscle
weakness and aching, skin
pigmentation, hyperkeratosis, and
edema.
 GI involvement is less prominent in
long-term exposures.
 Garlic odor of the breath and
perspiration, excessive salivation and
sweating, stomatitis, generalized
itching, sore throat, coryza, lacrimation,
numbness, burning or tingling of the
extremities, dermatitis, and alopecia.
 Uses
- Anti-leukemic activity (1878)
o Trisenox ®: Arsenic Trioxide in
water with NaOH and dil. HCl to
adjust pH (7.5-8.5)
- Polycythemia vera
- Antiprotozoal infection (Syphilis)
Fowler’s Solution
 Aka Potassium Arsenite Solution
- K2CO3 + AsO3 with distilled water.
- Insecticide
Specific Test for Arsenic
 Gutzeit Test
- Used to detect excessive quantities of
arsenic
- Treat with sulphuric acid, then further
treated with sulphurous acid. (to
reduce arsenic to arsenous ion to
produce Arsine)
- The sample is introduced into mixture
of KI and acid SnCl2 , then with Zn
metal. (Produces hydrogen gas which
reduces arsenous to arsine).
- Arsine + HgBr2 → orange-yellow stain

Antimony (Sb)
 Stibium
 Allotropes
- Metallic Sb
- Amorphous (explosive) Sb
- Black Sb
- Yellow Sb Barium (Ba)
 Very Toxic
Pharmacological Action  Not pharmaceutically important,
 Less readily absorbed as compared to although:
As - Found useful in treating special forms
 Topical irritant of heart disease.
- Causes papular eruptions which
develop into vesicular and pustular Pharmacological action
sores.  Stimulates smooth muscle (laxative
 Irritant to GIT, hence produces emetic action)
action. - Used by the pharmacologist in
 Toxic and dangerous! studying antispasmodics

Organic Compounds of Sb Official Barium Compounds

 Antimony Potassium Tartrate (Tartar  Barium Sulfate
Emetic) - Diagnostic agent
 Stibophen - Can be mistakenly prescribed as
 Antimony Sodium Thioglycollate barium sulfide or barium sulfite
 Antimony Thioglycollamide
Cadmium (Cd)
Pharmaceutical Uses  Naturally occurring minor element and
 Treatment of: one of the metallic components in the
- Protozoan infections earth’s crust and oceans
- Schistosomiasis  Produced as a by-product from the
- Leishmaniasis (Kala Azar) extraction, smelting and refining of the
 Trivalent form > Pentavalent form nonferrous metals such as zinc, lead
and copper.
 Chemically, it reacts with hydrogen
sulfide, forming bright yellow cadmium
sulfide.
 Cadmium metal and cadmium
compounds are used as pigments,
coatings, specialty alloys, and
electronic compounds.
 More than 80% of its use is in
rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries
Exposure!
 Cadmium can be absorbed via oral and
non-oral routes (i.e.dermal and
respiratory)
 Cd, upon absorption, accumulates in
the liver and kidneys.
 Acute toxicity with Cd resembles flu.
Itai-Itai Disease: The Ouch-ouch
disease
 Symptoms are osteomalacia,
osteoporosis and renal failure.
 Similar ionic radius with Ca+2, may
compete with cellular transporters!
 Renal damage causes disruption in
activation of Vitamin D.
 May also cause anemia, teeth
discoloration and olfactory toxicity
(anosmia).
Lead (Pb)
 History
- Known since earliest historic time
- It is mentioned in The Old Testament
(Job and Numbers)
 Principal lead ores:
- PbS (Galena) – most important and
widely distributed
 Lead is ubiquitous- in air, food, water,
soil, households etc.
- Paint (until 1970)
- Petrol (tetraethyl lead)
- Household dust (via settlement of air
pollution) – Solder
- Ceramic glazes
- Pesticides (lead arsenate)
- Cigarettes
- Mines, smelters
Absorption
 Children absorb lead well orally
(~50%); adults poorly (~10%).
Children also have more hand to mouth
activity.
 Lead absorption is enhanced if diet is
poor in iron or calcium.
 Pica is one of the worst risk factors.
 Lead can be inhaled.
 Tetraethyl lead can be absorbed via
skin.
Mechanism of Toxicity
 Although the molecular targets for lead
are unknown, a vast amount of
evidence accumulated over many years
has shown that lead disrupts processes
that are regulated by calcium
 Affinity to SH- groups.
Acute Lead Poisoning
 Relatively infrequent and follows
ingestion of acid soluble lead
compounds or inhalation of lead vapors
 Local actions in the mouth produce
marked astringency, thirst and a
metallic taste.
 Nausea, abdominal pain, and vomiting
 Stools may be black from lead sulfide,
and there may be diarrhea or
constipation.
 AcuteCNSsymptomsincludeparesthesias,
pain, and muscle weakness
 An acute hemolytic crisis sometimes
causes severe anemia and
hemoglobinuria.
Chronic Lead Poisoning
 GI, neuromuscular, CNS, hematological,
renal, and other disturbances,
occurring separately or in combination.
 The CNS syndrome, or lead
encephalopathy, is more common
among children; the GI syndrome is
more prevalent in adults
 Early signs of lead encephalopathy
include clumsiness, vertigo, ataxia,
falling, headache, insomnia,
restlessness, and irritability; delirium
with repetitive tonic-clonic convulsions
or lethargy and coma follow.
Treatment
 Calcium Disodium Edetate (EDTA)
 Dimercaprol
Non-Official Lead Compounds
 Lead Acetate (CH3COO)2PB.3H2O
 Lead Subacetate Solution
[(Pb2O(CH3COO)2]
- Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis or Goulard’s
Extract
 Diluted Lead Subacetate Solution
(Official)
- Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus or
Lead Water
 Lead Monoxide (PbO)
- Litharge
Mercury (Hg)
 Aka Quicksilver or liquid silver
 Can be obtained from HgS or Cinnabar
(Crystalline red)
Chemical Forms
 Elemental Hg
 Inorganic Hg (mercurous or mercuric
salts)
 Organic Hg (methyl-, ethyl-, or
phenylmercury)
Elemental Mercury
 Sources:
- Liquid Form: Measuring devices; disc
batteries; fluorescent light bulbs;
amalgams
- Vapor form: burning fossil fuels;
mining
 Exposure Pathways:
- Inhalational: easily absorbed; can
cross BBB
- Dermal: minimal absorption
- Placental: can accumulate in the fetus
- Oral: minimal absorption
Inorganic Mercury
 Sources:
- Mercurous or Mercuric salts: still used
in the industry as protein precipitants,
disinfectant, parasiticide
 Exposure Pathways:
- Oral: gastric irritant but low systemic
absorption unless protective barrier is
compromised
- Dermal: poor absorption unless
exposed to large amounts
Organic Mercury
 Sources:
- Hg from industrial processes are taken
up by other organisms and is
converted to organic compounds.
- Organic Hg: used as fungicide
 Exposure Pathways:
- Oral: completely absorbed due to lipid
solubility
- CNS: easily crosses BBB
- Placenta and Breast Milk: easily
crosses placenta and accumulates in
breast milk
Official ID Test
Mercuric Salts
 Solutions of mercuric salts yield a
yellow precipitate with 1 N sodium
hydroxide. They also, in neutral
solutions with potassium iodide TS,
form a scarlet precipitate that is very
soluble in an excess of the reagent.
Hg2+ + 2NaOH → HgO↓ + H2O + 2Na+
[1]
Hg2+ + 2KI → HgI2↓ + 2K+
[2]
[2-1]
HgI2↓ + 2KI → K2[HgI4]
Official ID Test  Originated in Minamata, Japan (1950s)
Mercurous Salts  Chisso Corporation
 Decomposed by NaOH, producing a - Industrial processes (Production of
black color and with HCl, solutions of acetaldehyde to make plastics)
mercurous salts yield a white - Methyl mercury began to spill in the
precipitate that is blackened by 6 N bay
ammonium hydroxide. With KI TS, a
yellow precipitate, that may become
green upon standing, is formed.
[1]
Hg22+ + 2NaOH → Hg2(OH)2↓ + 2Na+
[2]
Hg22+ + 2HCl → Hg2Cl2↓ + 2H+
[2-1]
Hg2Cl2↓ + NH4OH → Hg(NH2)Cl↓ + Hg↓ +
NH4Cl + 2H2O
[3]
Hg22+ + 2KI → Hg2I2↓ + 2K+
[3-1]
Hg2I2↓ + 2KI → K2[HgI4] + Hg↓

Pharmacological Action
 Has diuretic action
- Due to direct renal effect
Official Mercury Compounds
 Antiseptic action
 Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl)
- Protein precipitant
 Mercuric Chloride (HgCl2)
- Combine with –SH group of bacterial
 Mercuric Oxide (HgO)
cells
 Mercurous Chloride (Hg2Cl2)
 Antisyphilic action
- Mercurous chloride
Non-Official Mercury Compounds
 Cathartic Action (Has laxative effect)
 Red Mercuric Iodide (HgI)
 Parasiticidal and Fungicidal Action
- Ammoniated Mercury Ointment (Blue
Ammoniate Mercury
ointment)
 HgNH2Cl
 Very toxic!
 When heated, it is sometimes known
 Poisoning (Protoplasmic) can be caused
as non-fusible white precipitate to
by:
distinguish it from a related compound,
- Organic Hg compounds
Hg(NH3)2Cl2 (fusible white
- Inorganic Hg compounds
precipitate)
 Uses
Poisoning
- Dusting powder against eczema and
 Early symptoms of poisoning
parasitic skin diseases
- Burning metallic taste, thirst, soreness
- Anti-infective
 Followed by:
- Anti-staphylococcal infections
- Salivation, sore gums, bloody diarrhea,
sever gastric pain and usually
Mercuric Chloride
vomitting
 Mercuric bichloride: HgCl2
 Treatment
 Aka Corrosive sublimate
- Egg albumin
 Uses
- Gastric lavage
- Antiseptic
- Dimercaprol
- NaCl reduces irritation – Has diuretic
- Best antidote?
effect
Minamata Disease
 Mercury Poisoning!
Mercuric Oxide Nickel, Beryllium, Strontium
 Yellow to orange yellow (HgO)  No pharmaceutical applications
 Aka Yellow precipitate
 Uses
- Against inflammatory eye conditions
such as blepharitis and conjunctivitis

Mercurous Chloride
 HgCl
 Aka Calomel
 Use
- Cathartic (Calomel Tablets)
- Prophylactic against syphilis

Red Mercuric Iodide

 HgI
 Component of reagents used to test
alkaloids

Silver
 2nd most malleable metal
 2nd best conductor of electricity
 Has oligodynamic action
 Germicide
- Can precipitate protein and chloride in
the affected tissue (in situ)

Silver Compounds
 Light sensitive
- must be protected by the use of light-
resistant containers
 Soluble silver salts are toxic
 Poisoning: Argyria
 Silver Nitrate (AgNO3)
- Removal of warts
- Eyewash for newborn babies of
mothers with gonorrhea
- Indelible ink
- aka: Lapis infernalis, lunar caustic,
caustic pencil
 Silver sulfadiazine (Flammazine®)
- Treatment of burns (germicidal action)
 Silver proteinates/proteins
- Mild silver protein (Argyrol): 19 –
23/25% Ag, antiseptic for the eyes
- Strong silver protein (Protargol) :
7.5 – 8.5% Ag, antiseptic for ears,
nose, and throat
- Colloidal silver protein (Colargol): 18-
22% Ag, general germicide