St.

Francis College
ALLEN, NORTHERN SAMAR

Learning Module in General Biology 1

MODULE 3
Cell Modifications and Cell Cycle

WEEK: 5&6
GRADE LEVEL: 11
LEARNING COMPETENCY:
 Describes some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions (e.g.
microvilli, root hair). STEM_BIO11/12-1a-c-5
 Characterizes the phases of the cell cycle and their control points. STEM_BIO11/12-1a-c-6

I. CONCEPT

Living organisms can be made of a single cell, such as bacteria and protists, or they can be multicellular, like
plants, animals, and fungi. Unicellular organisms, like bacteria, are able to perform all life functions within one
single cell. They can transport molecules, metabolize nutrients, and reproduce within this one cell. Multicellular
organisms need many different types of cells to carry out the same life processes. Each of these special types of
cells has a different structure that helps it perform a specific function. Humans have many different types of cells
with different jobs, such as blood cells that carry oxygen and nerve cells that transmit signals to all parts of the
body. Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized in order to perform different functions.
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter
cells. Cell on the path to cell division proceeds through a series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of
growth, DNA replication, and division that produces two identical cells. The cell cycle has two major phases:
interphase and the mitotic phase. During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are
separated, and the cell divides. (Belardo, 2016)

II. EXAMPLE AND DISCUSSION

Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is actually a process that occurs after cell division where
the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can perform their function efficiently and effectively.
Multicellular organisms begin as just one single cell—a fertilized egg. Growing from one single cell to trillions of
specialized cells that perform different functions is a process that happens with the regulation of DNA and RNA.
Specialized Plant Cells
Root cells are specialized plant cells that absorb dissolved minerals and water from the ground. Root cells
grow in long lengths called root hairs in order to increase the surface area of the root system. This also helps anchor
the plant. Since root cells grow underground, you would not expect to find chloroplasts in these cells since the
purpose of chloroplasts is to absorb energy from the s area called the root cap. These cells discharge a slippery
substance that helps them burrow down into the soil more easily. The stem cells of plants are specialized cells that
transport water, nutrients, and the products of photosynthesis throughout the plant. They connect the photosynthesis
factories in the leaves with the storage site in the roots. Xylem cells transport water from the roots in the upward
direction. Phloem cells transport nutrients in both directions to reach all parts of the plant. Some plants have
specialized stem cells that form the wood to support the plant as it grows upward and outward. The cells found in
the leaves of plants are highly specialized, and there are many different types. Columnshaped palisade cells are
found near the surface of the leaf. They are full of chloroplasts ready to capture energy from the sun and turn it into
chemical energy. Along the bottom of the leaf, guard cells open and close to allow the transfer of gases with the
atmosphere as well as the transpiration of water. These cells can help protect the plant from drying out.

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 Specialized Animal Cells
Red blood cells are specialized cells found in animals that transport oxygen throughout the body. Since
transport is their primary function, they do not need a nucleus. The lack of a nucleus leaves more space in the cell
for hemoglobin, the protein that binds to oxygen. This also gives red blood cells their unique shape. Unlike most
cells red blood cells do not reproduce through mitosis. They are created in the marrow found in the bones.

Muscle cells are long, fibrous cells that have the ability to contract. They allow animals to move and allow
their organs to function in circulation as well as digestion. Muscle cells are made up of two special types of
proteins called actin and myosin. Because of actin and myosin, muscle strands are able to slide past each other.
This sliding action allows muscle cells to contract. Since a lot of energy is needed in your muscle cells, you will
find more mitochondria in them than is found in most cells.

Epithelial cells are the cells that line the outside, as well as the inside, of your body. They are the cells that
make up your skin. Skin epithelium is actually located just below the surface of your skin. The epithelial cells are
responsible for making new cells. They also produce the pigment, melanin, which protects us from the sun’s
harmful rays. Epithelium also lines the inside of your digestive tract and your respiratory system. Epithelial cells
come in many shapes and sizes, depending on their function.

1. Apical (Surface or luminal) modifications: It is specialized to carry out functions that occur at these interfaces,
including secretion, absorption, and movement of luminal contents.

• Cilia: are membrane-covered extensions of the entire apical surface. They beat in waves, often moving a
surface coat of mucus and trapped materials. Ciliated epithelia include ciliated pseudostratified columnar
(respiratory) epithelium and the ciliated simple columnar epithelium of the oviducts.

• Flagella: are also concerned with movement. Spermatozoa, derived from seminiferous epithelia, are the only
flagellated human cells.

• Microvilli (brush border or striated border): are plasma membrane-covered extensions of the cell surface.
Their cores are composed of parallel actin microfilaments; these are anchored in a dense mat of filaments in
the apical cytoplasm called the terminal web. By interacting with cytoplasmic myosin, the microfilaments
can contract, shortening the microvilli. The apical surface of absorptive cells is usually covered with
microvilli, which greatly increase the apical surface area when extended. Microvillus-covered epithelia, said
to exhibit a striated border, or brush border, include the absorptive simple columnar epithelium lining the
small intestines and the absorptive simple cuboidal epithelium lining the proximal tubules of the kidney.
• Stereocilia: are not true cilia but very long microvilli. They are found in the male reproductive tract
(epididymis. ductus deferens) where they have an absorptive function, and in the internal ear (hair cells of
the maculae and organ of Corti). where they have a sensory function.

The Cell Cycle

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INTERPHASE

During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for cell division. In
order for a cell to move from interphase into the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions must be met.
The three stages of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.

• G1 Phase (First Gap). In this stage the cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and
the associated proteins as well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of
replicating each chromosome in the nucleus. In this phase, the cell also grows physically larger.
• S Phase (Synthesis of DNA). Throughout the interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed
chromatin configuration. The S phase, DNA replication can proceed through the mechanisms that result in
the formation of identical pairs of DNA molecules- sister chromatids- that are firmly attached to the
centromeric region. The centrosome is duplicated during S phase.
• G2 Phase (Second Gap). In this phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins
necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic phase. There may be additional cell growth during G 2
phases.

THE MITOTIC PHASE

The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated,
and move to opposite poles of the cell, and then are divided into two new identical daughter cells. The first portion
of the mitotic phase is karyokinesis or nuclear division. The second portion is cytokinesis, the physical separation
of the cytoplasmic components into the two daughter cells.

• Karyokinesis

o Prophase. During this phase, the nuclear envelope starts to dissociate into small vesicles, and the
membranous organelles fragment and disperse toward the periphery of the cell. The nucleolus
disappears. The centrosome begins to move to opposite poles of the cell. Microtubules that will
form the mitotic spindle extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as the
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 microtubule fibers lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly with the aid of
condensing proteins and become visible under light microscope.

o Prometaphase. During this phase, many processes that were begun in the prophase continue to
advance. The remnants of the nuclear envelope fragment. The mitotic spindle continues to develop
as more microtubules assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and discrete. Each sister chromatid develops a protein
structure called a kinetochore in the centromeric region. The proteins of the kinetochore attract and
bind mitotic spindle microtubules. As the spindle microtubules extend from the centrosomes, some
of these microtubules come into contact with and firmly bind to the kinetochores. Once a mitotic
fiber attaches to a chromosome, the chromosome will be oriented until the kinetochores of sister
chromatids face the opposite poles. Eventually, all the sister chromatids will be attached via their
kinetochores to microtubules from opposing poles. Spindle microtubules that do not engage the
chromosomes are called polar microtubules. These microtubules overlap each other midway
between the two poles and contribute to cell elongation. Astral microtubules are located near the
poles, aid in spindle orientation, and are required for the regulation of mitosis.

o Metaphase. During this phase, al the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called the metaphase
plate, or the equatorial plane, midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister chromatids are
still tightly attached to each other by cohesion proteins. At this time, the chromosomes are
maximally condensed.

o Anaphase. At this stage, the cohesion proteins degrade, and the sister chromatids separate at the
centromere. Each chromatid, now called a chromosome, is pulled rapidly towards the centrosome
to which its microtubule is attached. The cell becomes visible elongated as the polar microtubules
slide against each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.

o Telophase. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to decondense, relaxing into
chromatic configuration. The mitotic spindles are depolymerized into tubulin monomers that will
be used to assemble cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes form
around the chromosomes, and nucleosomes appear within the nuclear area.

• Cytokinesis
It is the second main stage of the mitotic phase during which cell division is completed via the
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. In animal cells, cytokinesis
follows the onset of anaphase. A contractile ring composed of actin filaments form just inside the plasma
membrane at the former metaphase plate. The actin filaments pull the equator of the cell inward, forming
a fissure called cleavage furrow. In plant cells, a new cell wall must form between the daughter cells.
During interphase, the Golgi apparatus accumulates enzymes, structural proteins, and glucose molecules
prior to breaking into vesicles and dispersing throughout the dividing cell. During the telophase, these
Golgi vesicles are transported on microtubules to form phragmoplast at the metaphase plate. There, the
vesicles fuse and coalesce from the center toward the cell walls; this structure is called cell plate. As more
vesicles fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges with the cell walls at the periphery of the cell. Enzymes
use the glucose that has accumulated between the membrane layers to build a new cell wall.

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 Figure 2. Mitotic Phase © The Biology Corner

 G0 Phase.
Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern in which a newly formed daughter cell
immediately enters the preparatory phases of interphase, closely followed by the mitotic phase. Cells in G 0
are not actively preparing to divide. The cell is in quiescent (inactive stage) that occurs when an external
signal triggers the onset of G 1. Other cells that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle and
nerve cells permanently remain in G0. Different cells take different lengths of time to complete the cell
cycle. A typical human cell might take about 24 hours to divide, but fast-cycling mammalian cells, like the
ones that line the intestine, can complete a cycle every 9-10 hours when they're grown in culture.
Different types of cells also split their time between cell cycle phases in different ways. In early
frog embryos, for example, cells spend almost no time in G 1 and G2 and instead rapidly cycle between S
and M phases—resulting in the division of one big cell, the zygote, into many smaller cells (Khan
Academy, 2015)

III. ACTIVITY
DIRECTIONS: Read and understand the article and Answer the given questions below. Write your
answer in a 1 whole sheet of paper with your name, grade/section and please do not write anything in
this module.

Cancer remains a national health priority in the country with significant implications for individuals,
families, communities, and the health system. Cancer is the third leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the
country after diseases of the heart and the vascular system. Among Filipino men, the 6 most common sites of
cancer diagnosed in 2010 were lung, liver, colon/rectum, prostate, stomach, and leukemia. Among Filipino women
the 6 most common sites diagnosed were breast, cervix, lung, colon/rectum, ovary and liver. Furthermore, 189 of
every 100,000 Filipinos are afflicted with cancer while four Filipinos die of cancer every hour or 96 cancer patients
every day. (DOH, n.d.) Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell division. Its development and progression
are usually linked to a series of changes in the activity of cell cycle regulators. For example, inhibitors of the cell
cycle keep cells from dividing when conditions aren’t right, so too little activity of these inhibitors can promote
cancer. Similarly, positive regulators of cell division can lead to cancer if they are too active. In most cases, these
changes in activity are due to mutations in the genes that encode cell cycle regulator proteins.

Cancer cells behave differently than normal cells in the body. Many of these differences are related to cell
division behavior. Cancer cells may make their own growth factors, have growth factor pathways that are stuck in
the "on" position, or, in the context of the body, even trick neighboring cells into producing growth factors to
sustain them. Cancer cells also ignore signals that should cause them to stop dividing. Another hallmark of cancer
cells are their "replicative immortality," a fancy term for the fact that they can divide many more times than a
normal cell of the body.

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 Questions:

1. What is the reason for having cancer cells? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER
2. Based from your readings, what do you think is the reason why cancer is difficult to treat? EXPLAIN
YOUR ANSWER

IV. EVALUATION
DIRECTIONS: Complete the table below based from your previous readings. Write your answer in a
1 whole sheet of paper with your name, grade/section and please do not write anything in this module.

SPECIALIZED ANIMAL CELLS FUNCTIONS

Red Blood Cells

Muscle Cells

Epithelial Cells

V. REFERENCES

Cell Specialization and Differentiation (n.d.). Texas Gateway for Online Resources. Retrieved from:
https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/cell-specialization-anddifferentiation#:~:text=Multicellular%20organisms
%20need%20many%20different,it% 20perform%20a%20specific%20function.&text=Cell%20differentiation%20is
%20the %20process,order%20to%20perform%20different%20functions.

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