Test of Significance For Small Samples

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR SMALL SAMPLES
If the size of the sample is less than 30 then the sample is treated as small sample. The statistical
tests concerned with the sample size less than 30 area called small sample tests. The exact
sampling distributions 𝜒 2, 𝑡, 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 are used to conduct small sample tests. On the basis of
sample results, the tests of significance enable us to decide if (i) the deviations between observed
sample statistic and hypothetical parameter value is significant. (ii) the deviations between two
sample statistics is significant. The following are some important tests for small samples:
1. Student t-test 2. F-test 3. Chi-square test (𝜒 2)
Now we discuss most significant test procedures based on 𝜒 2, 𝑡, 𝐹 distributions in detail.
Student t-test for single mean:
Let x1, x2,…, xn be the observation in a random sample of small size n (<30) selected from a
normal population with mean µ and unknown variance σ2. Here σ2 is estimated from the sample
data. Suppose we are interested to test for testing the hypothesis that:
i) If the given normal population mean µ has a specified value of the population mean 𝜇0 (say).
ii) If the sample mean 𝑥̅ differs significantly from specified value of population mean 𝜇0.
iii) If a given random sample x1, x2,…………xn of size n has been drawn from a normal
population with specified mean 𝜇0. Basically, all the three problems are same.
Procedure:
Step1: Set up the null hypothesis H0: µ=µ0 or µ≤µ0 or µ≥µ0 i.e., there is no significant difference
between the sample mean (𝑥̅ ) and population mean µ.
Step2: Set up an alternative hypothesis H1: µ≠µ0 or µ˃µ0 or µ<µ0 i.e., there is a significant
difference between the sample mean (𝑥̅ ) and population mean µ.
Step3: Fix the level of significance α=either 5% or 1% in advance if it is not given in the problem.
Step4: Now we compute the test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by
x̅−E(x̅) x̅−µ
t= = ~t 𝑛−1
SE(x̅) S/√n
1
Where 𝐸 (𝑥̅ ) = µ and 𝑆𝐸 (𝑥̅ ) = 𝑆/√𝑛, 𝑆 2 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 is an unbiased estimate of σ2,
𝑛−1
1
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 =sample mean, (n-1) is the degrees of freedom, n=sample size.
𝑛
For testing the null hypothesis H0, the test statistic t is given by
x̅−µ0 x̅−µ0
Under H0: µ=µ0, the test statistic t becomes t = ~t 𝑛−1(or) t = ~t 𝑛−1
S/√n s/√n−1
1
where 𝑠 2 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑛
Step5: Obtain the critical value or tabulated of t at the given level of significance α= 5% or 1%
and df (n-1) for two tailed or one tailed test from the statistical t table.
Step6: We now compare the computed value of test statistic t obtained from step 4 with the critical
value or significant value (tabulated value) of t obtained in Step 5 at the given level of significance
α% and df n-1. we get the following two cases, as follows.
Step7: Case (i): If |tH0|≤tα i.e., the calculated value of t is less than or equal to the tabulated value
of t then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there no significant difference between the sample
mean and population mean at given level of significance α% and df n-1.
Case (ii): If |tHo|>tα i.e., the calculated value of t is greater than the critical value of t then we
rejected the null hypothesis Ho i.e., H1 is accepted and we conclude that there is a significant
difference between the sample mean and population mean at given level of significance α% and
df n-1.
Note: i. For a two-tailed test, the value of α/2 is taken for α from the statistical t table.
ii. When σ2 is known then in this case we apply the standard normal Z test for single mean.
ii. The α% confidence interval/limits for population mean µ when σ is unknown are given by
𝑆 𝑆 𝑠 𝑠
(𝑥̅ − 𝑡𝛼 , 𝑥̅ + 𝑡𝛼 ) or (𝑥̅ − 𝑡𝛼 , 𝑥̅ + 𝑡𝛼 )
√𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛−1 √𝑛−1
Assumptions of t test for single mean:
Here we make the following three fundamental assumptions:

(i) The parent population from which the sample has been drawn is normally distributed.
(ii) The population variance σ2 is unknown.
(iii) The sample observations are random and independent of each other.
Ex.1.A manufacturer claims that a special type of projector bulb has an average life 160 hours.
To check this, claim an investigator takes a sample of 20 such bulbs, puts on the test and obtains
an average life 167 hours with standard deviation 16 hours. Assuming that the life time of such
bulbs follows normal distribution, does the investigator accept the manufacturer’s claim at 5%
level of significance?
Sol: Given that µ=µ0=160, n=20, 𝑥̅ =167 and S=16 then we want to test the manufacturer claims
that a special type of projector bulb has an average life (µ) 160 hours. So, claim is µ = 160 and
its complement is µ ≠ 160. Since the claim contains the equality sign so we can take the claim as
the null hypothesis and complement as the alternative hypothesis.
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0: µ=µ0=160 i.e., the manufacturer claims that a special type of projector
bulb has an average life (µ) 160 hours.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1: µ≠µ0=160 i.e., the manufacturer claims that a special type of
projector bulb has not an average life (µ) 160 hours. Since the alternative hypothesis is two-tailed
so the test is two-tailed test.
Step3: Given level of significance α= 5%=0.05.
Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

x̅−µ0 167−160 7 7
Under H0: µ=µ0=160, t = = = = = 1.96
S/√n 16/√20 16/4.4721 3.58
⸫ tcal = 1.96.
And also, degrees of freedom df=n-1=20-1=19.
Step5: Taking the critical value or tabulated of t at the given level of significance α= 5% and df
(n-1) =19 for two-tailed test from the statistical t table is ttab = 2.093.
5% and df n-1=19. we get the following statement.
Step7: The calculated value of t is less than the tabulated value of t i.e., |tH0|<tα, n-1 (1.96<2.093)
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that the manufacturer claims that a special type of projector
bulb has an average life (µ)160 hours i.e., we support the manufacture’s claim at 5% level of
significance.
Ex.2. The life expectancy of people in the year 1970 in India is expected to be 50 years. A survey
was conducted in eleven regions of India and the data obtained are given below. Do the data
confirm the expected view.
Life expectancy (Years) x: 54.2, 50.4, 44.2, 49.7, 55.4, 57.0, 58.2, 56.6, 61.9, 57.5, 53.4.
Sol: Given that n=11, Life expectancy (Years) x: 54.2, 50.4, 44.2, 49.7, 55.4, 57.0, 58.2, 56.6,
61.9, 57.5, 53.4. then we can calculate the following table for mean 𝑥̅ and SD S:
S.No. Sample value (x) Deviation (x-𝑥̅ ) (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2

1 54.2 54.2-54.41=-0.21 0.04
2 50.4 50.4-54.41=-4.01 16.08
3 44.2 44.2-54.41=-10.21 104.24
4 49.7 49.7-54.41=-4.71 22.18
5 55.4 55.4-54.41=0.99 0.98
6 57.0 57.0-54.41=2.59 6.71
7 58.2 58.2-54.41=3.79 14.36
8 56.6 56.6-54.41=2.19 4.80
9 61.9 61.9-54.41=7.49 56.10
10 57.5 57.5-54.41=3.09 9.55
11 53.4 53.4-54.41=-1.01 1.02
598.5 236.07
2
From this table, we have ∑ 𝑥 = 598.5, ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) = 236.07, n=11 then
1 1 1 1
sample mean 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥 = (598.5) = 54.41 and 𝑆 2 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 = (236.07)
𝑛 11 𝑛−1 11−1
1
= (236.07) = 23.607
10
⸫ 𝑆 2 = 23.607 ⇒ 𝑆 = √23.607 = 4.8587.
Now we want to test the hypothesis that the life expectancy is more than 50years or not, as follows
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0: µ=µ0=50 i.e., the life expectancy is equal to 50 years.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1: µ≠µ0=50 i.e., the life expectancy is not equal to 50 years. Since
the alternative hypothesis is two-sided so the test is two-tailed test.
Step3: Level of significance α= 5%=0.05.
x̅−µ0 54.41−50 4.41 4.41

Under H0: µ=µ0=160, t = = = = = 3.0104
S/√n 4.8587/√11 4.8587/3.3166 1.4649
⸫ tcal = 3.01
The degrees of freedom df=n-1=11-1=10.
Step7: The calculated value of t is greater than the tabulated value of t i.e., |tH0|˃tα, n-1 (3.01˃2.228)
then we rejected H0 i.e., accepted H1 and we conclude that the life expectancy is more than 50
years at 5% level of significance.
Ex.3.A random sample of six steel beams has a mean compressive strength of 58392 pounds per
square inch with a standard deviation of 648pounds per square inch. Use this information and the
level of significance α=0.05 to test whether the true average compressive strength of the steel
from which this sample came is 58000 pounds per square inch. Assume normality.
Sol: Given that n=6, 𝑥̅ =58392, s=648, α=0.05, µ0=58000 then we want to test whether the true
average compressive strength of the steel from which this sample came is 58000 pounds per
square inch or not, as follows:
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0: µ=µ0=58000 i.e., the average compressive strength of the steel beam
is equal to 58000 pounds per square inch.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1: µ≠µ0=58000 i.e., the average compressive strength of the steel
beam is not equal to 58000 pounds per square inch. Since the alternative hypothesis is two-tailed
so the test is two-tailed test.

x̅−µ0 58392−58000 392 392
Under H0: µ=µ0=580000, t = = = = = 1.3527
s/√n−1 648/√6−1 648/2.2361 289.7903
⸫ tcal = 1.3527.
The degrees of freedom df=n-1=6-1=5.
Step7: The calculated value of t is less than the tabulated value of t i.e., |t H0|<tα, n-1 (1.353<3.365)
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that the average compressive strength of the steel beam is
equal to 58000 pounds per square inch at the given level of significance 5% and df n-1=5.
Ex.4. A tyre manufacturer claims that the average life of a particular category of his tyre is 18000
km when used under normal driving conditions. A random sample of 16 tyres was tested. The
mean and SD of life of the tyres in the sample were 20000 km and 6000 km respectively.
Assuming that the life of the tyres is normally distributed, test the claim of the manufacturer at
1% level of significance using t test.
Ex.5. It is known that the average weight of cadets of a centre follows normal distribution.
Weights of 10 randomly selected cadets from the same centre are as given below:
48, 50, 62, 75, 80, 60, 70, 56, 52, 77
Can we say that average weight of all cadets of the centre from which the above sample was taken
is equal to 60 kg at 1% level of significance.
Ex.6. A machinist is making engine parts with axle diameters of 0.700 inch. A random sample of
10 parts shows a mean diameter of 0.742 inch with a standard deviation of 0.040 inch. Compute
the statistic you would use to test whether the work is meeting the specifications at 5% los.
Ex.7. A random sample of 10 boys had the following I.Q.'s: 70, 120, 110, 101, 88, 83, 95, 98,
107, 100. Do these data support the assumption of a population mean I.Q.of 100? Find a
reasonable range in which most of the mean I.Q. values of samples of 10 boys lie.
Ex.8. A random sample of 16 values from a normal population showed a mean of 41.5 inches and
the sum of squares of deviations from this mean equal to 135 square inches. Show that the
assumption of a mean of 43.5 inches for the population is nor reasonable. Obtain 95 per cent and
99 per cent fiducial limits for the same. Use 5% and 1% level of significance.
Ex.9.A time study engineer developed a new sequence of operation elements that he hopes will
reduce the mean cycle time of a certain production process. The results of a time study of 20
cycles are given below: (cycle time in minutes) 12.25,11.97, 12.15, 12.08, 12.31, 12.28, 11.94,
11.89, 12.16, 12.04, 12.09, 12.15, 12.14, 12.47, 11.98, 12.04, 12.11, 12.25, 12.15, 12.34. If the
present mean cycle time is 12.5 minutes should he adopt the new sequence?
Ex.10.The average breaking strength of steel rods is specified to be 18.5 thousand pounds. To test
this a sample of 14 rods was tested. The mean and standard deviations obtained were 17.85 and
1.955 thousand pounds respectively. Is the result of the experiment significant? Also obtain the
95 per cent fiducial limits from the sample for the average breaking strength of stee1 rods.
Ex.11.The average length of time for students to register for summer classes at a certain college
has been 50 minutes with a standard deviation of 10 minutes. A new registration procedure using
modem computing machines is being tried. If a random sample of 12 students had an average
registration time of 42 minutes with s.d. of 11.9 minutes under the new system. test the hypothesis
that the population mean has not changed. using 0.05 as level of significance.
Student t-test for difference of means:
Suppose we want to test if (a) two independent samples have been drawn from two normal
populations having the same means or (b) the two sample means 𝑥̅ and 𝑦̅ differ significantly or
not, the population variances being equal.
Let x1, x2,…………,xn1 and y1, y2,…………,yn2 be two small independent random samples of
sizes n1 and n2 selected from the given two normal populations with means µ1, µ2 and variances
σ12, σ22 respectively. It is assumed that the population variances are equal and unknown i.e., σ 12=
σ22=σ2, where σ2 is unknown. In this case, σ2 is estimated by value of pooled sample variance S2,
1 1
where 𝑆 2 = [(𝑛1 − 1)𝑆12 + (𝑛1 − 1)𝑆22 ] and 𝑆12 = (𝑛 ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2,
𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2 1 −1)
1 1
𝑆22 = (𝑛 ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2. This can also be written as 𝑆 2 = [∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 + ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2
2 −1) 𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2
Now we want to test the hypothesis about the difference of two populations means i.e., the two
populations means are equal or not, as follows.
Procedure:
Step1: Set up the null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 or µ1≤µ2 or µ1≥µ2 i.e., there is no significant difference
between the two populations means. i.e., the two populations means are equal.
Step2: Set up an alternative hypothesis H1: µ1≠µ2 or µ1˃µ2 or µ1<µ2 i.e., there is a significant
difference between the two populations means. i.e., the two populations means are not equal.
𝑥̅ −𝑦̅−E(𝑥̅ −𝑦̅) 𝑥̅ −𝑦̅−(µ1 −µ2 )
t= = ~t 𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2
SE(𝑥̅ −𝑦̅) 1
S√𝑛 +𝑛
1
1 2
1 1 1 1
Where 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 , 𝐸 (𝑥̅ − 𝑦̅) = µ1 − µ2 and 𝑆𝐸 (𝑥̅ − 𝑦̅) = 𝑆√ + ,
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑛1 𝑠1 2 +𝑛2 𝑠2 2 1
𝑆=√ . If s1, s2 are not given then 𝑆 2 = [∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 + ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 is an
𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2 𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2
unbiased estimate of the common population variance σ 2 and it follows Students t-distribution
with (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2), is the degrees of freedom, n1, n2 are sample sizes.
For testing the null hypothesis H0, the test statistic t is given by
𝑥̅ −𝑦̅ 𝑛1 𝑠1 2 +𝑛2 𝑠2 2
Under H0:µ1=µ2, the test statistic t becomes t = ~t 𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2, where 𝑆 = √
S√𝑛 +𝑛
1 1 𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2
1 2
In case if the assumption σ12= σ22=σ2 dose not hold then the test statistic t is given by
𝑥̅ −𝑦̅
Under H0, the test statistic t is t = ~t 𝑛1 +𝑛2−2
𝑆2 𝑆2
√ 1+ 2
𝑛1 𝑛2
1 1 1 1
where 𝑠12 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 , 𝑠22 = ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 , 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 .
𝑛1 −1 𝑛2 −1 𝑛1 𝑛2
and df (n1+n2-2) for two tailed or one tailed test from the statistical t table.
α% and df n1+n2-2. we get the following two cases, as follows.
of t then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the two
populations means at given level of significance α% and df n1+n2-2.
difference between the two populations means at given level of significance α% and df n1+n2-2.
Note:
i. If σ12= σ22=σ2, where σ2 is known then in this case we apply the standard normal Z test.
ii. If σ12= σ22=σ2 does not hold then in this case also we apply the standard normal Z test for two
means.
iii. The α% confidence interval/limits for the difference of two populations means are given by
1 1 1 1
[(𝑥̅ − 𝑦̅) − 𝑡𝛼 𝑆√ + , (𝑥̅ − 𝑦̅) + 𝑡𝛼 𝑆√ + ]
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
Assumptions of t-test for difference of means.
Here we make the following three fundamental assumptions:
(i) Both parent populations from which the samples have been drawn are normally distributed.
(ii) The population variances are equal and unknown. i.e., σ12= σ22=σ2, where σ2 is unknown.
(iii) The two samples and their observations both are random and independent of each other.
Thus, before applying t-test for testing the equality of means, it is theoretically desirable to test
the equality of population variances by applying F-test. If the variances do not come out to be
equal then t-test becomes invalid and in that case, Behren's 'd'-test based on fiducial intervals is
used.
Ex.1.The IQs of 16 students from one area of a city showed a mean of 107 with a standard
deviation of 10, while the IQs of 14 students from another area of the city showed a mean of 112
with standard deviation of 8. Is there a significant difference between the IQs of the two groups
at a 0.05 level of significance?
𝑛1 𝑠1 2 +𝑛2 𝑠2 2
Sol: Given that n1=16, n2=14, 𝑥̅ =107, 𝑦̅=112, s1=10, s2=8 then 𝑆 = √
𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2
16(102 )+14(82 ) 1600+896 2496

=√ =√ =√ = √89.1429 = 9.4415
16+14−2 28 28
Now we want to test whether there is a significant difference between the IQs of the two groups
at a 0.05 level of significance, as follows:
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 i.e., there is no significant difference between the IQs of the
two groups.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1: µ1≠µ2 i.e., there is a significant difference between the IQs of
the two groups. Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed test.

𝑥̅ −𝑦̅ 107−112 −5 −5
Under H0:µ1=µ2, t = = = =
1
S√𝑛 +𝑛
1 1 1 9.4415√0.0625+0.0714 9.4415√0.1339
9.4415√16+14
1 2
−5 −5
= = = −1.4472
9.4415(0.3659) 3.4549
⸫ |𝑡| = 1.4472
Also, the degrees of freedom (df)=n1+n2-2=16+14-2=28.
n1+n2-2=28 for two-tailed test from the statistical t table is ttab=1.701.
5% and df n1+n2-2=28. we get the following statement, as follows.
Step7: The calculated value of t is less than the tabulated value of t i.e., |tH0|<tα (1.4472<1.701)
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the IQs of
the two groups at given level of significance 5% and df 28.
Ex.2. Below are given the gain in weights (in lbs.) of pigs fed on two diets A and B.
Diet A: 25, 32, 30, 34, 24, 14, 32, 24, 30, 31, 35, 25.
Diet B: 44, 34, 22, 10, 47, 31, 40, 30, 32, 35, 18, 21, 35, 29, 22.
Test if the two diets differ significantly as regards their effect on increase in weight.
Sol: Given that n1=12, n2=15 and let x be a gain in weight on diet A and y be a gain in weight on
diet B then we prepare the following calculation table as follows:
xy 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ 𝑦 − 𝑦̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 (𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2
25
44 -3 14 9 196
32
34 4 4 16 16
30
22 2 -8 4 64
34
10 6 -20 36 400
24
47 -4 17 16 289
14
31 -14 1 196 1
32
40 4 10 16 100
24
30 -4 0 16 0
30
32 2 2 4 4
31
35 3 5 9 25
35
18 7 -12 49 144
25
21 -3 -9 9 81
35 5 25
29 -1 1
22 -8 64
336 450 0 0 380 1410
Form this table, we have ∑ 𝑥 = 336, ∑ 𝑦 = 450, ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) = 380, ∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 1410 then
2
1 1 1 1
Mean of x is 𝑥̅ = ∑𝑥 = (336) = 28, mean of y is 𝑦̅ = ∑𝑦 = (450) = 30 and
𝑛1 12 𝑛2 15
1 1 1
𝑆2 = [∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 + ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 = (380 + 1410) = (1790) = 71.6
𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2 12+15−2 25
Now we want to test if the two diets differ significantly as regards their effect on increase in
weight or not, as follows:
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 i.e., there is no significant between the mean increase in weight
due to diets A and B.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1: µ1≠µ2 i.e., there is a significant between the mean increase in
weight due to diets A and B. Since an alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-
tailed test.
𝑥̅ −𝑦̅ 28−30 −2 −2
Under H0:µ1=µ2, t = = = =
1
√𝑆 2 (𝑛 +𝑛 )
1 1
√71.6( + )
1 √71.6(0.0833+0.0667) √71.6(0.15)
1 2 12 15
−2 −2
= = = −0.6103
√10.74 3.2772
⸫ |𝑡| = 0.6103
n1+n2-2=25 for two-tailed test from the statistical t table is ttab=2.06.
Step7: The calculated value of t is less than the tabulated value of t i.e., |tH0|<tα (0.6103<2.06)
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that the two diets do not differ significantly as regards their
effect on increase in weight at given level of significance 5% and df 25.
Ex.3.Samples of two types of electric light bulbs were tested for length of life and following data
were obtained:
Samples Type-I Type-II

Sample sizes n1=8 n2=7
Sample means 𝑥̅1 =1234hrs 𝑥̅2 =1036hrs
Sample S.D.’s s1=36hrs s2=40hrs
Is the difference in the means sufficient to warrant that type I is superior to type II regarding
length of life?
Sol: Given that n1=8, n2=7, 𝑥̅1 =1234hrs, 𝑥̅2 =1036hrs, s1=36hrs, s2=40hrs then
𝑛1 𝑠1 2 +𝑛2 𝑠2 2 8(362 )+7(402 ) 8(1296)+7(1600) 10368+11200 21568

𝑆=√ =√ =√ =√ =√
𝑛1 +𝑛2 −2 8+7−2 13 13 13
= √1659.0769 = 40.7318
Now we want to test the difference in the means sufficient to warrant that type I is superior to
type II regarding length of life, as follows:
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 i.e., the two types I and II of electric bulbs are identical.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1: µ1˃µ2 i.e., the type I of electrical bulb is superior to type II.
Since an alternative hypothesis is one sided so the given test is one-tailed test.
𝑥̅ 1 −𝑥̅2 1234−1036 198 198

Under H0:µ1=µ2, t = = = =
1 1
𝑆√(𝑛 +𝑛 )
1 1 40.7318√0.125+0.1429 40.7318√(0.2679)
40.7318√(8+7)
1 2
198 198
= = = 9.3917
40.7318(0.5176) 21.0824
⸫ |𝑡| = 9.3917
n1+n2-2=13 for one-tailed test from the statistical t table is ttab=1.77.
Step7: The calculated value of t is greater than the tabulated value of t i.e., |tH0|˃tα (9.3917˃2.06)
then we rejected H0 i.e., accepted H1 and we conclude that the two types of electric bulbs differ
significantly i.e., the type I of electrical bulb is superior to type II at given level of significance
5% and df 13.
Ex.4.The heights of six randomly chosen sailors are in inches: 63, 65, 68, 69, 71 and 72. Those
of 10 randomly chosen soldiers are 61, 62, 65, 66, 69, 69, 70, 71, 72 and 73. Discuss the height
that these data throw on the suggestion that sailors are on the average taller than soldiers.
Ex.5.A group of 5 patients treated with medicine A weight 42, 39, 48, 60 and 41kgs. Second
group of 7 patients from the same hospital treated with medicine B weight 38, 42, 56, 64, 68, 69
and 62kgs. Do you agree with the claim that medicine B increases the weight significantly?
Ex.6.Two horses A and B were tested according to the time (in seconds) to run a particular track
with the following results.
Horse A 28 30 32 33 33 29 34
Horse B 29 30 30 24 27 29
Test whether the two horses have the same running capacity.
Ex.7.To examine the hypothesis that the husbands are more intelligent than the wives, an
investigator took a sample of 10 couples and administered them a test which measures the I.Q.
the results are as follows:
Husbands 117 105 97 105 123 109 86 78 103 107

Wives 106 98 87 104 116 95 90 69 108 85
Ex.8.Find the maximum difference that we can expect with probability 0.95 between the means
of samples of sizes 10 and 12 from a normal population if their standard deviations are found to
be 2 and 3 respectively.
Ex.9.To compare two kinds of bumper guards, 6 of each kind were mounted on a car and then the
car was run into a concrete wall. The following are the costs of repairs.
Guard 1 107 148 123 165 102 119

Guard 2 134 115 112 151 133 129
Use the 0.01 level of significance to test whether the difference between two sample means is
significant.
Ex.10. A company is interested in knowing if there is a difference in the average salary received
by foremen in two divisions. Accordingly, samples of 12 foremen in the first division and 10
foremen in the second division are selected at random. Based upon experience, foremen's salaries
are known to be approximately normally distributed, and the standard deviations are about the
same.
Sample First division Second division

Sample size 12 10
Average monthly salary (Rs.) 1050 980
Standard deviation of salaries (Rs.) 68 74
Paired t- test for difference of means:
In testing of hypotheses about two means, we have used independent samples, but there are many
situations in which the two samples are not independent. Let us now take a particular situation
where (i)The sample sizes are equal i.e., n1 and n2=n (say) ii) The sample observations x1,
x2,…………,xn1 and y1, y2,…………,yn2 are not completely independent but are dependent in
pairs i.e., (x1,y1),(x2,y2),……..,(xn,yn) corresponding to 1st, 2nd,…….,nth unit respectively. Now
the problem is to test if the sample means differ significantly or not.
For ex:
1.Suppose we want to test the efficacy of a particular “drug’’ some 11 persons blood pressure is
measured before and after the intake of certain drug. Let xi and yi (i=1, 2,….., n) be the readings,
in hours of blood pressure, on the 11 individuals, before and after the drug is given respectively.
Here we want to test that there is an effect of a drug or not, so we apply the paired t-test given
below.
2.If we wish to test a new diet on, say, 15 individuals then the weight of the individuals recorded
before diet and after the diet will form two different samples in which observations will be paired
as per each individual. Similarly, in the test of blood-sugar in human body, fasting sugar level
before meal and sugar level after meal, both are recorded for a patient as paired observations, etc.
The parametric test designed for this type of situations is known as paired t-test.
Let (x1,y1), (x2, y2), …,(xn, yn) be a paired random sample of size n and the difference between
paired observations xi and yi be denoted by di, that is, di= xi-yi for all i=1,2,..., n. Hence, we can
assume that d1, d2,.…, dn be a random sample from normal population of differences with mean
d and unknown variance d2. This is same as the case of testing of hypothesis for population
mean when population variance is unknown. Here, we want to test that there is an effect of a diet,
training, treatment, medicine, etc. So, we apply the paired t-test given below.
Procedure:
Step1: Set up the null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 or µ1≤µ2 or µ1≥µ2 i.e., there is no significant difference
between the means in two situations.
Step2: Set up an alternative hypothesis H1: µ1≠µ2 or µ1˃µ2 or µ1<µ2 i.e., there is a significant
difference between the means in two situations.
̅
d
Under H0: µ1=µ2, the test statistic t is t = ~t 𝑛−1
S𝑑 /√n
1 1 1 (∑ 𝑑𝑖 )2
where d̅ = ∑ 𝑑𝑖 , di=xi-yi and S𝑑 = √ ∑(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ )2 = √ ∑ 𝑑𝑖2 − , n=no.of pairs.
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛
and df (n-1) for two tailed or one tailed test from the statistical t table.
α% and df n-1. we get the following two cases, as follows.
of t then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the
means in two situations at given level of significance α% and df n-1.
difference between the means in two situations at given level of significance α% and df n-1.
Assumptions:
This test works under following assumptions:
(i) The population of differences follows normal distribution.
(ii) Samples are not independent.
(iii) Size of both the samples is equal.
(iv) Population variances are unknown but not necessarily equal.

Ex.1.Memory capacity of 10 students were tested before and after training. State the training was
effective or not from the following scores.
Before training 12 14 11 8 7 10 3 0 5 6
After training 15 16 10 7 5 12 10 2 3 8
Sol: Let us define x be memory capacity before training and y be memory capacity after training.
Given that n=10 then we prepare the following calculation table for 𝑑̅ and Sd as follows:
xy d=x-y 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ (𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ )2
12
15 -3 -3-(-1.1)=-1.9 3.61
14
16 -2 -2-(-1.1)=-0.9 0.81
11
10 1 1-(-1.1)=2.1 4.41
87 1 1-(-1.1)=2.1 4.41
75 2 2-(-1.1)=3.1 9.61
10
12 -2 -2-(-1.1)=-0.9 0.81
310 -7 -7-(-1.1)=-5.9 34.81
12 -1 -1-(-1.1)=0.1 0.01
53 2 2-(-1.1)=3.1 34.81
68 -2 -2-(-1.1)=-0.9 0.81
-11 0 94.1
1 1
From this table, we have ∑ 𝑑 = −11 then 𝑑̅ = ∑ 𝑑 = (−11) = −1.1 and
𝑛 10
1 1 94.1
S𝑑 = √ ∑(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ )2 = √ (94.1) = √ = √10.4556 = 3.2335
𝑛−1 10−1 9
Now we want to test the hypothesis that the training was effective or not as follows.
Procedure:
Step1: The null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 i.e., there is no significant effective of the training.
Step2: An alternative hypothesis H1: µ1≠µ2 i.e., there is a significant effective of the training.
Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two tailed test.
Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05.
̅
d −1.1 −1.1 −1.1
Under H0: µ1=µ2, t = = 3.2335 = 3.2335 = = −1.0758
S𝑑 /√n 1.0225
√10 3.1623
⸫ |𝑡| = 1.0758
And also, the degrees of freedom n-1=10-1=9.
n-1=9 for two tailed-test from the statistical t table is ttab =1.833.
5% and df n-1=9. we get the following statement, as follows.
Step7: The calculated value of t is less than the tabulated value of t i.e., If |t|<tα (1.0758<1.833)
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant effective of training i.e., no
change in memory capacity after the training programme at given level of significance 5% and
df 9.
Ex.2.The average losses of workers, before and after certain program are given below. Use 0.05
level of significance to test whether the program is effective or not form the data.
Before program 40 70 45 120 35 55 77

After program 35 65 42 116 33 50 73
Sol: Let us define x be average losses of workers before program and y be average losses of
workers after program. Given that n=7 then we prepare the following calculation table for 𝑑̅ and
Sd as follows:
x y d=x-y 𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ (𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ )2
40 35 5 1 1
70 65 5 1 1
45 42 3 -1 1
120 116 4 0 0
35 33 2 -2 2
55 50 5 1 1
77 73 4 0 0
28 8
1 1
From this table, we have ∑ 𝑑 = 28, then 𝑑̅ = ∑ 𝑑 = (28) = 4 and
𝑛 7
1 1 8
S𝑑 = √ ∑(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑑̅ )2 = √ (8) = √ = √1.33 = 1.153
𝑛−1 7−1 6
Now we want to test the hypothesis that the training was effective or not as follows.
Procedure:
Step1: The null hypothesis H0: µ1=µ2 i.e., there is no significant effective of the program.
Step2: An alternative hypothesis H1: µ1≠µ2 i.e., there is a significant effective of the program.
Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two tailed-test.
Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05.
̅
d 4 4 4
Under H0: µ1=µ2, t = = 1.153 = 1.153 = = 9.1785
S𝑑 /√n 0.4358
√7 2.6458
⸫ |𝑡| = 9.1785
And also, the degrees of freedom n-1=7-1=6.
n-1=6 for two tailed-test from the statistical t table is ttab =2.447.
5% and df n-1=6. we get the following statement, as follows.
Step7: The calculated value of t is greater than the tabulated value of t i.e., If |t|˃tα (9.1785˃2.447)
then we rejected H0 i.e., accepted H1 and we conclude that there is significant effective of program
at given level of significance 5% and df 6.
Ex.3. The scores of 10 candidates prior and after training are given below:
Prior 84 48 36 37 54 69 83 96 90 65
After 90 58 56 49 62 81 84 86 84 75
Is the training effective from the above data by using 0.05 level of significance?
Ex.4. A drug was administered to 10 patients, and the increments in their blood pressure were
recorded to be 6, 3, -2, 4, -3, 4, 6, 0, 3, 2. Is it reasonable to believe that the drug has no effect on
change of blood pressure? Use 5% significance level and assume that for 9 degrees of freedom.
Ex.5.The blood pressure of 5 women before and after intake of a certain drug are given below:
Before 110 120 125 132 125
After 120 118 125 136 121
Test whether there is significant change in Blood pressure at 1% level of significance.
Snedecor’s F-test of significance: (F-test for equality of population variances)
Suppose we want to test (i) whether two independent samples xi, (i=1, 2,.....,nl) and yj, (j=1,2,….,
n2) have been drawn from the normal populations with the same variance σ2 or (ii) whether the
two independent estimates of the population variance are homogeneous or not.
Let x1, x2,…..,xn1 be a random sample of size n1 from a normal population with mean 1 and
variance σ12. Similarly, y1, y2,…..,yn2 be a random sample of size n2 from another normal
population with mean 2 and variance σ22. Here, we want to test the hypothesis about the two
population variances are equal or not, as follows:
Procedure:
Step1: Set up the null hypothesis H0: σ12=σ22 or σ12≤σ22 or σ12≥ σ22 i.e., there is no significant
difference between the two populations variances. i.e., Two populations variances are equal.
Step2: Set up an alternative hypothesis H1: σ12≠ σ22 or σ12˃ σ22 or σ12< σ22 i.e., there is a significant
difference between the two populations variances. i.e., Two populations variances are not equal.
𝑆12
Under H0: σ12=σ22, the test statistic F = ~F(𝑛1 −1, 𝑛2−1) if S12˃S22
𝑆22
𝑆22
Under H0: σ12=σ22, the test statistic F = ~F(𝑛2 −1, 𝑛1−1) if S12<S22
𝑆12
𝑛1 𝑠12 1 𝑛2 𝑠22 1
where 𝑠12 = = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 , 𝑠22 = = ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 , s12, s22 are the variances of
𝑛1 −1 𝑛1 −1 𝑛2 −1 𝑛2 −1
two samples. And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1).
Step5: Obtain the critical value or tabulated of F at the given level of significance α= 5% or 1%
and df (n1-1, n2-1) for two tailed or one tailed test from the statistical F table.
Step6: We now compare the computed value of test statistic F obtained from step 4 with the
critical value or significant value (tabulated value) of F obtained in Step 5 at the given level of
significance α% and df (n1-1, n2-1). we get the following two cases, as follows.
Step7: Case (i): If |FH0|≤Fα i.e., the calculated value of F is less than or equal to the tabulated value
of F then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the two
populations variances at given level of significance α% and df (n1-1, n2-1).
Case (ii): If |FHo|>Fα i.e., the calculated value of F is greater than the critical value of F then we
difference between the two populations means at the level of significance α% and df (n1-1, n2-1).
Assumptions:
The assumptions for F-test for testing the variances of two populations are:
1.The populations from which the samples are drawn must be normally distributed.
2.The samples must be independent of each other.
Ex.1.In one sample of 8 observations, the sum of the squares of deviations of the sample values
from the sample mean was 84.4 and in the other sample of 10 observations it was 102.6. Test
whether the difference of variances of the population is significant or not at 5 per cent level, given
that the 5 per cent point of F for nl=7 and n2=9 degrees of freedom is 3.29.
Sol: Given that nl=8, n2=10 and ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 84.4, ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 = 102.6, α=5%=0.05.
1 1
If S12 and S22 be the estimates of σ12, σ22 then 𝑠12 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 = (84.4) = 12.057
𝑛1 −1 8−1
1 1 1
𝑠22 = ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 = (102.16) = (102.16) = 11.4. Since S12˃S22 (12.057˃11.4)
𝑛2 −1 10−1 9
Now we want to test the hypothesis that the difference of variances of the population is significant
or not at 5 per cent level as follows:
Procedure:
Step1: The null hypothesis H0: σ12=σ22 i.e., there is no significant difference between the two
populations variances.
Step2: An alternative hypothesis H1: σ12≠ σ22 i.e., there is a significant difference between the two
populations variances. Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed
test.
Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05
Step4: Now we compute the test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 if S12˃S22 is given by
𝑆12 12.057
Under H0: σ12=σ22, F = = = 1.057 Since S12˃S22 (12.057˃11.4)
𝑆22 11.4
⸫ Fcal = 1.057
And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1) = (8-1, 10-1) = (7, 9)
Step5: Taking the critical value or tabulated of F at the given level of significance α= 5% and df
(n1-1, n2-1) = (7, 9) for two tailed-test from the statistical F table is Ftab = 3.29.
significance 5% and df (n1-1, n2-1)=(7, 9). we get the following statement, as follows.
Step7: The calculated value of F is less than the tabulated value of F i.e., If |FH0|<Fα (1.057<3.29)
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the two
populations variances at given level of significance 5% and df (7, 9).
Ex.2.An instruct has two classes A and B in a particular subject. Class A has 16 students while
class B has 25 students. On the same examination although there was no significant difference in
mean grades, class A has a standard deviation of 9 while class B had a standard deviation of 12.
Can conclude at the 0.01 level of significance that the variability of class B is greater than that of
A?
Sol: Given that n1=16, n2=25, s1=9, s2=12, α=0.01 then we have
𝑛1 𝑠12 (16)(9)2 16(81) 1296 𝑛2 𝑠22 (25)(12)2 25(144) 3600

𝑠12 = = = = = 86.4, 𝑠22 = = = = = 150
𝑛1 −1 16−1 15 15 𝑛2 −1 25−1 24 24
Now we want to test the hypothesis that the variability of class B greater than that of A or not as
follows:
Procedure:
Step1: The null hypothesis H0: σ12=σ22 i.e., there is no significant difference between the
variability of two classes A and B.
Step2: An alternative hypothesis H1: σ12˃ σ22 i.e., the variability of class B greater than that of A.
Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed test.
Step4: Now we compute the test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 if S12<S22 is given by
𝑆22 150
Under H0: σ1 =σ2 , F =
2 2
= = 1.7361 Since S12<S22 (86.4<150)
𝑆12 86.4
⸫ Fcal = 1.7361
And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1) = (16-1, 25-1) = (15, 24)
(n1-1, n2-1) = (15, 24) for one tailed-test from the statistical F table is Ftab = 2.89.
significance 1% and df (n1-1, n2-1) = (15, 24). we get the following statement, as follows.
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the variability
if both classes A and B at given level of significance 1% and df (15, 24).
Ex.3.The time taken by workers in performing a job by method I and method II is given below.
Method I 20 16 26 27 23 22 -
Method II 27 33 42 35 32 34 38
Do the data show that the variances of time distribution from population from which these
samples are drawn do not differ significantly?
Sol: Given that n1=6, n2=7 then we prepare the following calculation table for S12 and S22:
x y 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ 𝑦 − 𝑦̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 (𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2
20 27 -2.3 -7.4 5.29 54.76
16 33 -6.3 -1.4 39.69 1.96
26 42 3.7 7.6 13.69 57.76
27 35 4.7 0.6 22.09 0.36
23 32 0.7 -2.4 0.49 5.76
32 34 -0.3 -0.4 0.09 0.16
38 3.6 12.96
134 241 0 0 81.34 133.72
From this table, we have ∑ 𝑥 = 134, ∑ 𝑦 = 241, ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 81.34, ∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)2 = 133.72 then
1 1 1 1
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥 = (134) = 22.3, 𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑦 = (241) = 34.4 and if S12 and S22 be the estimates
𝑛1 6 𝑛2 7
1 1 81.34
of σ12, σ22 then 𝑠12 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 = (81.34) = = 16.26
𝑛1 −1 6−1 5
1 1 1
𝑠22 = ∑(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2 = (133.72) = (133.72) = 22.287. Since S12<S22 (16.26<22.287)
𝑛2 −1 7−1 6
Procedure:
Step1: The null hypothesis H0: σ12=σ22 i.e., the variances of time distribution from population
from which these samples are drawn do differ significantly.
Step2: An alternative hypothesis H1: σ12≠σ22 i.e., the variances of time distribution from
population from which these samples are drawn do not differ significantly. Since the alternative
hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed test.
Step4: Now we compute the test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 if S12<S22 is given by
𝑆22 22.287
Under H0: σ12=σ22, F = = = 1.371 Since S12<S22 (16.26<22.287)
𝑆12 16.26
⸫ Fcal = 1.371
And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1) = (6-1, 7-1) = (5, 6)
(n1-1, n2-1) = (5, 6) for two tailed-test from the statistical F table is Ftab = 4.39.
significance 5% and df (n1-1, n2-1)=(5, 6). we get the following statement, as follows.
then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between the variances
of the time distribution by the workers at given level of significance 5% and df (5, 6).
Ex.4.Pumpkins were grown under two experimental conditions. Two rando samples of 11 and 9
pumpkins, show the sample standard deviations of their weights as 0.8 and 0.5 respectively.
Assuming that the weight distributions are normal, test hypothesis that the true variance are equal.
Ex.5.In one sample of 10 observations, the sum of the squares of the deviations of the sample
values from sample mean was 120 and in the other sample of 12 observations, it was 314. Test
whether the difference is significant at 5% level of significance.
Ex.6.The nicotine contents in milligrams in two samples of tobacco were found to be as follows.
Sample A 24 27 26 21 25 -
Sample B 27 30 28 31 22 36
Can it be said that the two samples have come from the same normal populations?
Ex.7.The following are the values in thousands of an inch obtained by two engineers in 10
successive measurements with the same micrometer. Is one engineer significantly more
consistent the other?
Engineer A: 503, 505, 497, 505, 495, 502, 499, 493, 510, 501.
Engineer B: 502, 497, 492, 498, 499, 495, 497, 496, 498.
Ex.8.A laptop computer maker uses battery packs of two brands A and B. While both brands have
the same average battery life between charges (LBC), the computer maker seems to receive more
complaints about shorter LBC than expected for battery packs of brand A. The computer maker
suspects that this could be caused by higher variance in LBC for brand A. To check that, ten new
battery packs from each brand are selected, installed on the same models of laptops and the
laptops are allowed to run until the battery packs are completely discharged. The following are
the observed LBCs in hours:
Brand A 3.2 3.7 3.1 3.3 2.5 2.2 3.2 3.1 3.2 4.3
Brand B 3.4 3.6 3.0 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.2
Assuming that the LBCs of both brands follow normal distribution, test the LBCs of brand have
a larger variance that of those brand B at 1% level of significance.
Chi-square (𝝌𝟐 ) test:
If a set of events A1, A2,……..,An are observed to occur with frequencies O1, O2,……,On
respectively and according to probability rules A1, A2,……..,An are expected to occur with
frequencies E1, E2,……,En respectively with O1, O2,…….,On are called observed frequencies and
E1, E2,……..,En are called expected frequencies.
If Oi (i=1, 2,…..,n) is a set of observed (experimental) frequencies and E i (i=1,2,….,n) is the

corresponding set of expected (theoretical) frequencies then the chi-square statistic (χ2 ) is defined
(𝑂𝑖 −𝐸𝑖 )2
as χ2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 follows chi-square distribution with (n-1) degrees of freedom.
𝑂𝑖
This is used to test whether the difference between observed frequencies and expected frequencies
are significant.
Chi-square test of Goodness of fit:
A very powerful test for testing the significance of the discrepancy between theory and
experiment was given by Prof. Karl Pearson in 1900 and is known as "Chi-square test of goodness
of fit". It enables us to find if the deviation of the experiment from theory is just by chance or is
it really due to the inadequacy of the theory to fit the observed data.
If Oi (i=1,2,.....,n) is a set of observed (experimental) frequencies and Ei (i=1,2,.....,n) is the
corresponding set of expected (theoretical or hypothetical) frequencies then Karl Pearson's chi-
square statistics is given by χ2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ~χ2 (𝑛−1)
𝑂𝑖
Procedure:
Step1: Set up the null hypothesis H0:Oi=Ei or Oi≤Ei or Oi≥Ei;(i=1,2,.....,n) i.e., there is no
significant difference between the observed frequencies or values and corresponding expected
frequencies or values.
Step2: Set up an alternative hypothesis H1:Oi≠Ei or Oi˃Ei or Oi<Ei;(i=1,2,.....,n) i.e., there is a

significant difference between the observed frequencies or values and corresponding expected
frequencies or values.
Under H0: Oi=Ei, the test statistic χ2 is χ2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ~χ2 (𝑛−1)
𝑂𝑖
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

Where Oi= ith observed frequency, Ei=ith expected frequency=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
Step5: Obtain the critical value or tabulated of χ2 at the given level of significance α= 5% or 1%
and df (n-1) for two tailed or one tailed test from the statistical χ2 table.
Step6: We now compare the computed value of test statisticχ2 obtained from step 4 with the
critical value or significant value (tabulated value) of χ2 obtained in Step 5 at the given level of
significance α% and df n-1. we get the following two cases, as follows.
Step7: Case (i): If |χ2H0 |≤χ2 α i.e., the calculated value of χ2 is less than or equal to the tabulated
value of χ2 then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is no significant difference between
the means in two situations at given level of significance α% and df n-1.
Case (ii): If |χ2 H0|>χ2 α i.e., the calculated value of χ2 is greater than the critical value of χ2 then
we rejected the null hypothesis Ho i.e., H1 is accepted and we conclude that there is a significant
difference between the means in two situations at given level of significance α% and df n-1.
Ex.1.The number of automobile accidents per week in a certain community are as follows: 12, 8,
20, 2, 14, 10, 15, 6, 9, 4. Are these frequencies in agreement with the belief that accident
conditions were the same during this 10 week period.
Sol: Given that the observed frequencies Oi=12, 8, 20, 2, 14, 10, 15, 6, 9, 4 and n=10 then we
prepare the following calculation table for E and χ2 ; Ei=𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 / 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠.
Oi Ei (Oi- Ei) (𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2 (𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2

𝐸𝑖
12 10 2 4 0.4
8 10 -2 4 0.4
20 10 10 100 10
2 10 -8 64 6.4
14 10 4 16 1.6
10 10 0 0 0
15 10 5 25 2.5
6 10 -4 16 1.6
9 10 -1 1 0.5
4 10 -6 36 3.6
100 26.6
(𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2
From this table, we have n=10, ∑ = 26.6
𝐸𝑖
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0:Oi=Ei (i=1,2,.....,10) i.e., there is no significant difference between the
observed frequencies and corresponding expected frequencies.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1:Oi≠Ei (i=1,2,.....,10) i.e., there is a significant difference

between the observed frequencies and corresponding expected frequencies. Since the alternative
hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed test.

Under H0: Oi=Ei, χ2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 = 26.6
𝑂𝑖
And also, degrees of freedom (n-1)=10-1=9.
Step5: Taking the critical value or tabulated of χ2 at the given level of significance α= 5% and df
(n-1)=9 for two tailed test from the statistical χ2 table is χ2 𝑡𝑎𝑏 = 16.9.
Step6: We now compare the calculated value of test statistic χ2 obtained from step 4 with the
significance 5% and df 9. we get the following statement, as follows.
Step7: The calculated value of χ2 is greater than the tabulated value of χ2 i.e., χ2 𝑐𝑎𝑙 ˃χ2 tab
(26.6˃16.9) then we rejected H0 i.e., accepted H1 and we conclude that the accident conditions
were not the same during this 10 week period at given level of significance 5% and df 9.
Ex.2.The theory predicts the proportion of beans in the four groups A, B, C and D should be
9:3:3:1. In an experiment among 1600 beans, the numbers in the four groups were 882, 313, 287
and 118. Does the experimental result support the theory?
Sol: Given that observed frequencies Oi=882, 313, 287 and 118 then the expected (theoretical)
frequencies can be computed as follows:
Total number of beans=882+313+287+118=1600, these are to be divided in the ratios 9:3:3:1.

9 3
Therefore, expected frequencies are E(882)= (1600) = 900, E(313)= (1600) = 300,
16 16
3 1
E(287)= (1600) = 300, E(118)= (1600) = 100.
16 16
Now we prepare the following calculation table for χ2 ;

𝐸𝑖
882 900 -18 324 0.36
313 300 13 169 0.5633
287 300 -13 169 0.5633
118 100 18 324 3.24
1600 4.7266
(𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2
𝐸𝑖
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0:Oi=Ei (i=1,2,.....,10) i.e., the experimental result support the theory.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1:Oi≠Ei (i=1,2,.....,10) i.e., the experimental result not support the
theory. Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed test.
Under H0:Oi=Ei, χ2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 = 4.7266
𝑂𝑖
Step7: The calculated value of χ2 is less than the tabulated value of χ2 i.e., χ2 𝑐𝑎𝑙 < χ2 tab
(4.7266<7.815) then we accepted H0 and we conclude that there is good correspondence between
theory and experiment at given level of significance 5% and df 3.
Ex.3. A survey of 320 families with 5 children each revealed the following distribution:
No.of boys 5 4 3 2 1 0
No.of girls 0 1 2 3 4 5
No.of families 14 56 110 88 40 12
Is this result consistent with the hypothesis that male and female births are equally probable?
Sol: Given that observed frequencies Oi=14, 56, 110, 88, 40, 12 and n=5, N=320 then the
1 1
probability of male birth (p)= , the probability of girl birth (q)= and the probability of x male
2 2
1 1 1
births in a family of 5 is P(x)=𝑛𝐶𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑞𝑛−𝑥 = 5𝐶𝑥 ( ) 𝑥 ( )5−𝑥 = 5𝐶𝑥 ( )5 . Now the expected
2 2 2
1 1
frequency of x births is given by E.F(E)=N.P(x)=320(5𝐶𝑥 ( )5 )=320(5𝐶𝑥 )=10(5𝐶𝑥 )
2 32
Substituting x=0,1,2,3,4,5 in E.F, we get the expected frequencies as follows:
E(0)=10(5𝐶0 )=10(1)=10, E(1)= 10(5𝐶1 )=10(5)=50, E(2)= 10(5𝐶2 )=10(10)=100,
E(3)= 10(5𝐶3 )=10(10)=100, E(4)= 10(5𝐶4 )=10(5)=50, E(5)= 10(5𝐶5 )=10(1)=10.
Now we prepare the following calculation table for χ2 ;

𝐸𝑖
14 10 4 16 1.60
56 50 6 36 0.72
110 100 10 100 1.00
88 100 12 144 1.44
40 50 10 100 2.00
12 10 2 4 0.40
320 7.16
(𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2
𝐸𝑖
Procedure:
Step1: Null hypothesis H0:Oi=Ei (i=1,2,.....,5) i.e., male and female births are equally probable.
Step2: Alternative hypothesis H1:Oi≠Ei (i=1,2,.....,5) i.e., male and female births are not equally
probable. Since the alternative hypothesis is two sided so the given test is two-tailed test.

Under H0:Oi=Ei, χ2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 = 7.16
𝑂𝑖
Step7: The calculated value of χ2 is greater than the tabulated value of χ2 i.e., χ2 𝑐𝑎𝑙 ˃χ2 tab
(4.7266˃7.815) then we rejected H0 i.e., accepted H1 and we conclude that male and female births
are not equally probable at given level of significance 5% and df 4.
Ex.4.The following table gives the number of aircraft accidents that occurs during the various
days of the week. Find whether the accidents are uniformly distributed over the week.
Days Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat

No.of accidents 14 16 8 12 11 9 14

Test of Significance For Small Samples

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Test of Significance For Small Samples

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR SMALL SAMPLES

1. Student t-test 2. F-test 3. Chi-square test (𝜒 2)

Now we discuss most significant test procedures based on 𝜒 2, 𝑡, 𝐹 distributions in detail.

Student t-test for single mean:

Assumptions of t test for single mean:

Here we make the following three fundamental assumptions:

(ii) The population variance σ2 is unknown.

Step3: Given level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

And also, degrees of freedom df=n-1=20-1=19.

S.No. Sample value (x) Deviation (x-𝑥̅ ) (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2

Step3: Level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

x̅−µ0 54.41−50 4.41 4.41

The degrees of freedom df=n-1=11-1=10.

Step3: Level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

The degrees of freedom df=n-1=6-1=5.

48, 50, 62, 75, 80, 60, 70, 56, 52, 77

Student t-test for difference of means:

Assumptions of t-test for difference of means.

Here we make the following three fundamental assumptions:

16(102 )+14(82 ) 1600+896 2496

Step3: Level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

Also, the degrees of freedom (df)=n1+n2-2=16+14-2=28.

Step3: Level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

Also, the degrees of freedom (df)=n1+n2-2=12+15-2=25.

Samples Type-I Type-II

𝑛1 𝑠1 2 +𝑛2 𝑠2 2 8(362 )+7(402 ) 8(1296)+7(1600) 10368+11200 21568

Step3: Level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Step4: Test statistic for testing the null hypothesis H0 is given by

𝑥̅ 1 −𝑥̅2 1234−1036 198 198

Also, the degrees of freedom (df)=n1+n2-2=8+7-2=13.

Husbands 117 105 97 105 123 109 86 78 103 107

Guard 1 107 148 123 165 102 119

Sample First division Second division

This test works under following assumptions:

(i) The population of differences follows normal distribution.

(ii) Samples are not independent.

(iii) Size of both the samples is equal.

(iv) Population variances are unknown but not necessarily equal.

Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

Before program 40 70 45 120 35 55 77

Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05.

And also, the degrees of freedom n-1=7-1=6.

Snedecor’s F-test of significance: (F-test for equality of population variances)

two samples. And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1).

2.The samples must be independent of each other.

Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05

And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1) = (8-1, 10-1) = (7, 9)

𝑛1 𝑠12 (16)(9)2 16(81) 1296 𝑛2 𝑠22 (25)(12)2 25(144) 3600

Step3: The level of significance α= 1%=0.01

And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1) = (16-1, 25-1) = (15, 24)

Step3: The level of significance α= 5%=0.05

And also, df = (n1-1, n2-1) = (6-1, 7-1) = (5, 6)

Chi-square (𝝌𝟐 ) test:

If Oi (i=1, 2,…..,n) is a set of observed (experimental) frequencies and E i (i=1,2,….,n) is the

Chi-square test of Goodness of fit:

Step2: Set up an alternative hypothesis H1:Oi≠Ei or Oi˃Ei or Oi<Ei;(i=1,2,.....,n) i.e., there is a

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

Oi Ei (Oi- Ei) (𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2 (𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖 )2