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435
436 Nickel Smelting and Refining
cathodes is the most common technology used process used for nickel. Chloride electrolytes are
for nickel refining. Electrowinning, where nickel used although sulfuric acid solutions are used
is removed form solution in cells equipped with more often.
inert anodes is the more common refining
slag granulation, but the majority should be
Waste Characteristics recycled.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a major air pollutant The smelter contributes a slag that is a dense
emitted in the roasting, smelting and converting silicate. Sludges that require disposal will result
of sulfide ores (nickel sulfide concentrates where neutralized process effluents produce a
contain 6-20% nickel and up to 30% sulfur). precipitate.
Sulfur dioxide releases can be as high as 4
metric tons of sulfur dioxide per metric ton of Pollution Prevention and Control
nickel produced, before controls. Reverberatory
furnaces and electric furnaces produce sulfur Pollution prevention is always preferred to the
dioxide concentrations of 0.5-2.0% while flash use of end-of-pipe pollution control facilities.
furnaces produce sulfur dioxide concentrations Therefore every attempt should be made to
of over 10%—a distinct advantage for the incorporate cleaner production processes and
conversion of the sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid. facilities to limit, at source, the quantity of
Particulate emission loads for various process pollutants generated.
steps include: 2.0-5.0 kilograms per metric ton The choice of flash smelting over older
(kg/t) for the multiple hearth roaster; 0.5-2.0 technologies is the most significant means to
kg/t for the fluid bed roaster; 0.2-1.0 kg/t for reduce pollution at source.
the electric furnace; 1.0-2.0 kg/t for the Pierce- Sulfur dioxide emissions can be controlled by:
Smith converter; and 0.4 kg/t for the dryer • recovery as sulfuric acid;
upstream of the flash furnace. Ammonia and • recovery as liquid SO2 (absorption of clean
hydrogen sulfide are pollutants associated with dry off gas in water or chemically absorbed by
the ammonia leach process; hydrogen sulfide ammonium bisulfite or dimethyl aniline);
emissions are associated with acid leaching • recovery as elemental sulfur (using
processes. Highly toxic nickel carbonyl is a reductants such as hydrocarbons, carbon or
contaminant of concern in the carbonyl refining hydrogen sulfide).
process. Various process off gases contain fine
dust particles and volatilized impurities. Toxic nickel carbonyl gas is normally not
Fugitive emissions will occur at furnace emitted from the refining process because it is
openings, launders, casting molds and ladles decomposed in decomposer towers. However
that are carrying molten product. The transport very strict precautions throughout the refining
and handling of ores and concentrates produce process are required to prevent the escape of the
wind borne dust. nickel carbonyl into the workplace. Continuous
monitoring for the gas with automatic isolation
Liquid effluents of any area of the plant where the gas is
detected is required. Worker protection against
Pyrometallurgical processes for processing liquid nickel carbonyl contact with skin is
sulfidic ores are generally dry and effluents are afforded by impervious clothing.
of minor importance although wet electrostatic Prevention measures for reducing emissions
precipitators (ESPs) are often used for gas of particulate matter include encapsulation of
treatment and a resulting wastewater could furnaces and conveyors to avoid fugitive
have high metal concentrations. Process bleed emissions. Covered storage of raw materials
streams may contain antimony, arsenic or should be considered.
mercury. Large quantities of water are used for
437 Nickel Smelting and Refining
Wet scrubbimg should be avoided and must be justified in the EA and acceptable to
cooling waters should be recirculated. Storm MIGA.
waters should be collected and used in the The following guidelines present emission
process. Process water used to transport levels normally acceptable to the World Bank
granulated slag should be recycled. To the Group in making decisions regarding provision
extent possible, all process effluents should be of World Bank Group assistance, including
returned to the process. MIGA guarantees; any deviations from these
levels must be described in the project
Treatment Technologies documentation.
The guidelines are expressed as
The discharge of particulate matter emitted concentrations to facilitate monitoring. Dilution
during drying, screening, roasting, smelting and of air emissions or effluents to achieve these
converting is controlled by using cyclones guidelines is unacceptable.
followed by wet scrubbers, ESPs, or bag filters. All of the maximum levels should be
Fabric filters may require reduction of gas achieved for at least 95% of the time that the
temperatures by, for example, or dilution with plant or unit is operating, to be calculated as a
low temperature gases from hoods used for proportion of annual operating hours.
fugitive dust control. Preference should be
given to the use of fabric filters over wet Air Emissions
scrubbers.
Liquid effluents are used to slurry tailings to For nickel smelters the following air emissions
the tailings ponds which act as a reservoir for levels should be achieved:
the storage and recycle of plant process water.
However, there may be a need to treat bleed Air Emissions from Nickel Smelting
streams of some process effluents to prevent a Parameter Maximum value
build-up of various impurities. Solid wastes milligrams per normal
from nickel sulfide ores often contain other cubic meter (mg/Nm3)
metals such as copper, and precious metals, and
Particulates 20
consideration should be given to further
processing for their recovery. Slag can be used Nickel 1
as construction material after nickel recovery as Sulfur dioxide 2 kg/t sulfuric acid
appropriate (e.g. return of converter slag to the
furnace). Sanitary sewage effluents require Liquid Effluents
treatment in a separate facility or discharged to
a municipal sewer. For nickel smelters the following effluent
Modern plants using good industrial emissions levels should be achieved:
practices are able to achieve the following in
terms of pollutant loads: The double contact Effluents from Nickel Smelting
double absorption plant should emit no more
Parameter Maximum value
than 0.2 kg of sulfur dioxide per metric ton of milligrams per liter
sulfuric acid produced (based on a conversion (mg/L)
efficiency of 99.7 percent). PH 6-9
Total suspended solids 50
Emission Guidelines
Nickel 0.5
Emission levels for the design and operation of Iron 3.5
each project must be established through the Total metals 10
Environmental Assessment (EA) process, based
on country legislation and the Pollution
Prevention and Abatement Handbook as applied to Note: Effluent requirements are for direct
local conditions. The emission levels selected discharge to surface waters.
438 Nickel Smelting and Refining
Ambient Noise
Key Issues
Noise abatement measures should achieve
either the following levels or a maximum The following box summarizes the key
increase in background levels of 3 dB(A). production and control practices that will lead
Measurements are to be taken at noise receptors to compliance with emission requirements:
located outside the project property boundary.
• Use flash smelting for sulfidic ores; electric
furnaces should only be used where
Ambient Noise regenerative energy is available.
• Choose oxygen enrichment processes that
Maximum Allowable Leq allow higher SO2 concentrations in smelter
(hourly), in dB(A) gases to assist in sulfur recovery.
Receptor Daytime Nightime • Recover as much SO2 as possible by
07:00 - 22:00 22:00 - 07:00 producing sulfuric acid, liquid sulfur
Residential; 55 45 dioxide or other sulfur products.
institutional; • Reuse process waters, recirculate cooling
educational waters and use storm water for the process.
Industrial; 70 70 • Enclose processes and conveyors to
commercial minimize fugitive emissions, and cover raw
material storage.
The emission requirements given here can be
consistently achieved by well-designed, well- Further Information
operated and well-maintained pollution control
systems. The following are suggested as sources of
additional information (these sources are
Monitoring and Reporting provided for guidance and are not intended to
be comprehensive):
Frequent sampling may be required during
start-up and upset conditions. Once a record of Bounicore, A.J. and W.T. Davis. 1992. Air Pollution
consistent performance has been established, Engineering Manual. New York: Van Nostrand
sampling for the parameters listed above should Reinhold.
be as detailed below.
Air emissions (filters and stacks) should be World Bank, Environment Department. 1995.
monitored continuously for SO2 and particulate “Industrial Pollution Prevention and Abatement:
matter. Nickel Smelting and Refining.” Draft document.
Liquid effluents should be monitored daily
for pH and total suspended solids and at least United Nations Environment Programme. 1993.
weekly for all other parameters. “Environmental Management of Nickel Production.
Monitoring data should be analyzed and A technical Guide.” Technical Report No. 15
reviewed at regular intervals and compared
with the operating standards so that any
necessary corrective actions can be taken.
Records of monitoring results should be kept in
an acceptable format. These should be reported
to the responsible authorities and relevant
parties, as required, and provided to MIGA if
requested.