Chapter 03

Transformation means changing some graphics into something else by applying rules.
We can have various types of transformations

such as translation, scaling up or down, rotation, shearing, etc. When a transformation takes place on a 2D plane, it is called 2D
transformation.
Transformations play an important role in computer graphics to reposition the graphics on the screen and change their size or
orientation.
The three basic transformations are
(i) Translation
(ii) rotation and
(iii) Scaling.
1.Translation: it refers to the shifting of a point to some other place, whose distance with regard to the present point is known.
2.Rotation:- The name suggests is to rotate a point about an axis. The axis can be any of the coordinates or simply any other
specified line also.
3.Scaling:- it is the concept of increasing (or decreasing) the size of a picture. (in one or in either direction. When it is done in both
directions, the increase or decrease in both directions need not be same)
4.Shearing:- It is transformation which changes the shape of the object. The sliding of layers of objects occur. The shear can be in one
direction or in two directions.
5.Reflection:- Its in computer graphics is used to emulate reflective objects like mirrors and shiny surfaces.
Homogeneous Coordinates
To perform a sequence of transformation such as translation followed by rotation and scaling, we need to follow a sequential
process
● Translate the coordinates,

● Rotate the translated coordinates, and then
● Scale the rotated coordinates to complete the composite transformation.
To shorten this process, we have to use a 3×3 transformation matrix instead of a 2×2 transformation matrix. To convert a 2×2 matrix
to 3×3 matrix, we have to add an extra dummy coordinate W.
In this way, we can represent the point by 3 numbers instead of 2 numbers, which is called a Homogeneous Coordinate system. In
this system, we can represent all the transformation equations in matrix multiplication. Any Cartesian point P(X, Y) can be converted
to homogeneous coordinates by P’ (Xh, Yh, h).
Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

Translation
Let-
● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)

● New coordinates of the object O after translation = (Xnew, Ynew)
● Translation vector or Shift vector = (Tx, Ty)
Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty)-
● Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate has to be moved.

● Ty defines the distance the Yold coordinate has to be moved.
This translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates to the old

coordinates of the object as-
● Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes translation towards X axis)

● Ynew = Yold + Ty (This denotes translation towards Y axis)
In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as-
● The homogeneous coordinates representation of (X, Y) is (X, Y, 1).

● Through this representation, all the transformations can be performed using matrix / vector multiplications.

The above translation matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
Problem-01:
Given a circle C with radius 10 and center coordinates (1, 4). Apply the translation with distance 5 towards X axis and 1 towards Y
axis. Obtain the new coordinates of C without changing its radius.
Solution-
Given-
● Old center coordinates of C = (Xold, Yold) = (1, 4)

● Translation vector = (Tx, Ty) = (5, 1)
Let the new center coordinates of C = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the translation equations, we have-
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 1 + 5 = 6

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 4 + 1 = 5
Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).
Alternatively,
In matrix form, the new center coordinates of C after translation may be obtained as-
Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).

Problem-02:
Given a square with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0). Apply the translation with distance 1 towards X axis and 1
towards Y axis. Obtain the new coordinates of the square.
Solution-
Given-
● Old coordinates of the square = A (0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
● Translation vector = (Tx, Ty) = (1, 1)
For Coordinates A(0, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner A = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
Thus, New coordinates of corner A = (1, 4).
For Coordinates B(3, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner B = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
Thus, New coordinates of corner B = (4, 4).
For Coordinates C(3, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner C = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C = (4, 1).

For Coordinates D(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner D = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner D = (1, 1).
Thus, New coordinates of the square = A (1, 4), B(4, 4), C(4, 1), D(1, 1).
Scaling
● Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of objects.

● Scaling subjects the coordinate points of the original object to change.
● Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
● If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.
● If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.
Consider a point object O has to be scaled in a 2D plane.
Let-

● Scaling factor for X-axis = Sx
● Scaling factor for Y-axis = Sy
● New coordinates of the object O after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew)
This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations-
● Xnew = Xold x Sx

● Ynew = Yold x Sy
In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as-

For homogeneous coordinates, the above scaling matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D SCALING IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-01:Given a square object with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0). Apply the scaling parameter 2 towards X
axis and 3 towards Y axis and obtain the new coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Old corner coordinates of the square = A (0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
● Scaling factor along X axis = 2
● Scaling factor along Y axis = 3
Let the new coordinates of corner A after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
● Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0

● Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after scaling = (6, 0).
For Coordinates D(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner D after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Thus, New coordinates of corner D after scaling = (0, 0).
Thus, New coordinates of the square after scaling = A (0, 9), B(6, 9), C(6, 0), D(0, 0).
2D Reflection in Computer Graphics-

Reflection is a kind of rotation where the angle of rotation is 180 degree.
The reflected object is always formed on the other side of mirror.
The size of reflected object is same as the size of original object.
Consider a point object O has to be reflected in a 2D plane.
Let-

● New coordinates of the reflected object O after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew)
Reflection On X-Axis:
This reflection is achieved by using the following reflection equations-

● Xnew = Xold
● Ynew = -Yold
In Matrix form, the above reflection equations may be represented as-
For homogeneous coordinates, the above reflection matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
Reflection On Y-Axis:
● Xnew = -Xold
● Ynew = Yold
For homogeneous coordinates, the above reflection matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D REFLECTION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-
Problem-01:
Given a triangle with coordinate points A(3, 4), B(6, 4), C(5, 6). Apply the reflection on the X axis and obtain the new coordinates of
the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (3, 4), B(6, 4), C(5, 6)
● Reflection has to be taken on the X axis
Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the reflection equations, we have-
● Xnew = Xold = 3
● Ynew = -Yold = -4
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after reflection = (3, -4).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold = 6
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after reflection = (6, -4).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold = 5
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after reflection = (5, -6).

Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after reflection = A (3, -4), B(6, -4), C(5, -6).
Problem-02:
Given a triangle with coordinate points A(3, 4), B(6, 4), C(5, 6). Apply the reflection on the Y axis and obtain the new coordinates of
the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Reflection has to be taken on the Y axis
Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = -Xold = -3
● Ynew = Yold = 4
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after reflection = (-3, 4).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Ynew = Yold = 4
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after reflection = (-6, 4).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Ynew = Yold = 6
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after reflection = (-5, 6).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after reflection = A (-3, 4), B(-6, 4), C(-5, 6).
2D Shearing in Computer Graphics-

1.In Computer graphics,2D Shearing is an ideal technique to change the shape of an existing object in a two dimensional plane
In a two dimensional plane, the object size can be changed along X direction as well as Y direction.
So, there are two versions of shearing-
1. Shearing in X direction
2. Shearing in Y direction
Consider a point object O has to be sheared in a 2D plane.
Let-

● Shearing parameter towards X direction = Shx
● Shearing parameter towards Y direction = Shy
● New coordinates of the object O after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew)
Shearing in X Axis-
Shearing in X axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold

● Ynew = Yold
In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as-
For homogeneous coordinates, the above shearing matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
Shearing in Y Axis-
Shearing in Y axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
● Xnew = Xold
● Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold

For homogeneous coordinates, the above shearing matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D SHEARING IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-01:
Given a triangle with points (1, 1), (0, 0) and (1, 0). Apply shear parameter 2 on X axis and 2 on Y axis and find out the new coordinates
of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Shearing parameter towards X direction (Shx) = 2
● Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shy) = 2
Shearing in X Axis-
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3

● Ynew = Yold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (3, 1).

Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Ynew = Yold = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (0, 0).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Ynew = Yold = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 0).

Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (3, 1), B(0, 0), C(1, 0).
Shearing in Y Axis-

Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold = 1
● Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (1, 3).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (0, 0).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
● Xnew = Xold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 2).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Y axis = A (1, 3), B(0, 0), C(1, 2).

If we provide values less than 1 to the scaling factor S, then we can reduce the size of the object. If we provide values greater than 1,
then we can increase the size of the object.
Rotation
2D Rotation in Computer Graphics-
In Computer graphics,2D Rotation is a process of rotating an object with respect to an angle in a two dimensional plane.Consider a
point object O has to be rotated from one angle to another in a 2D plane.
Let-

● Initial angle of the object O with respect to origin = Φ
● Rotation angle = θ
● New coordinates of the object O after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew)

This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations-
● Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ

● Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as-
For homogeneous coordinates, the above rotation matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D ROTATION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-01:

Given a line segment with starting point as (0, 0) and ending point as (4, 4). Apply 30 degree rotation anticlockwise direction on the
line segment and find out the new coordinates of the line.
Solution-
We rotate a straight line by its end points with the same angle. Then, we re-draw a line between the new end points.
Given-
● Old ending coordinates of the line = (Xold, Yold) = (4, 4)

● Rotation angle = θ = 30º
Let new ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 4 x cos30º – 4 x sin30º
= 4 x (√3 / 2) – 4 x (1 / 2)
= 2√3 – 2
= 2(√3 – 1)
= 2(1.73 – 1)
= 1.46
Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 4 x sin30º + 4 x cos30º
= 4 x (1 / 2) + 4 x (√3 / 2)
= 2 + 2√3
= 2(1 + √3)
= 2(1 + 1.73)
= 5.46
Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).
Alternatively,
In matrix form, the new ending coordinates of the line after rotation may be obtained as-

Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).
Problem-02:
Given a triangle with corner coordinates (0, 0), (1, 0) and (1, 1). Rotate the triangle by 90 degree anticlockwise direction and find out
the new coordinates.
Solution-
We rotate a polygon by rotating each vertex of it with the same rotation angle.
Given-
Let the new coordinates of corner A after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Xnew
=0
Ynew
=0
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after rotation = (0, 0).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Xnew
=0
Ynew
=1+0
=1
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after rotation = (0, 1).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Xnew

=0–1
= -1
Ynew
=1+0
=1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after rotation = (-1, 1).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after rotation = A (0, 0), B(0, 1), C(-1, 1).
In rotation, we rotate the object at particular angle θ (theta) from its origin. From the following figure, we can see that the point
P(X, Y) is located at angle φ from the horizontal X coordinate with distance r from the origin.
Let us suppose you want to rotate it at the angle θ. After rotating it to a new location, you will get a new point P’ (X’, Y’).

Computer graphics 3D Translation
In Computer graphics,3D Translation is a process of moving an object from one position to another in a three dimensional
plane.Consider a point object O has to be moved from one position to another in a 3D plane.
Let-
● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold, Zold)

● New coordinates of the object O after translation = (Xnew, Ynew, Zold)
● Translation vector or Shift vector = (Tx, Ty, Tz)
Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty, Tz)-
● Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate has to be moved.

● Ty defines the distance the Yold coordinate has to be moved.
● Tz defines the distance the Zold coordinate has to be moved.
This translation is achieved by adding the

translation coordinates to the old coordinates
of the object as-
● Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes

translation towards X axis)
● Ynew = Yold + Ty (This denotes
translation towards Y axis)
● Znew = Zold + Tz (This denotes
translation towards Z axis)
In Matrix form, the above translation

equations may be represented as-
PRACTICE PROBLEM BASED ON 3D TRANSLATION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-
Given a 3D object with coordinate points A(0, 3, 1), B(3, 3, 2), C(3, 0, 0), D(0, 0, 0). Apply the translation with the distance 1 towards X
axis, 1 towards Y axis and 2 towards Z axis and obtain the new coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Old coordinates of the object = A (0, 3, 1), B(3, 3, 2), C(3, 0, 0), D(0, 0, 0)
● Translation vector = (Tx, Ty, Tz) = (1, 1, 2)
For Coordinates A(0, 3, 1)
Let the new coordinates of A = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
● Znew = Zold + Tz = 1 + 2 = 3
Thus, New coordinates of A = (1, 4, 3).
For Coordinates B(3, 3, 2)
Let the new coordinates of B = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
● Znew = Zold + Tz = 2 + 2 = 4
Thus, New coordinates of B = (4, 4, 4).
For Coordinates C(3, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of C = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
● Znew = Zold + Tz = 0 + 2 = 2
Thus, New coordinates of C = (4, 1, 2).
For Coordinates D(0, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of D = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1

● Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
● Znew = Zold + Tz = 0 + 2 = 2
Thus, New coordinates of D = (1, 1, 2).
3D Rotation in Computer Graphics-

In Computer graphics,3D Rotation is a process of rotating an object with respect to an angle in a three dimensional plane. Consider a
point object O has to be rotated from one angle to another in a 3D plane.
Let-

● Initial angle of the object O with respect to origin = Φ
● Rotation angle = θ
● New coordinates of the object O after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
In 3 dimensions, there are 3 possible types of rotation-
● X-axis Rotation
● Y-axis Rotation
● Z-axis Rotation
For X-Axis Rotation-

● Xnew = Xold
● Ynew = Yold x cosθ – Zold x sinθ
● Znew = Yold x sinθ + Zold x cosθ
For Y-Axis Rotation-
● Xnew = Zold x sinθ + Xold x cosθ

● Ynew = Yold
● Znew = Yold x cosθ – Xold x sinθ

For Z-Axis Rotation-
● Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ

● Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
● Znew = Zold
PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 3D ROTATION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-
Problem-01:
Given a homogeneous point (1, 2, 3). Apply rotation 90 degree towards X, Y and Z axis and find out the new coordinate points.
Solution-
Given-
● Old coordinates = (Xold, Yold, Zold) = (1, 2, 3)

For X-Axis Rotation-
Let the new coordinates after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 1
● Ynew = Yold x cosθ – Zold x sinθ = 2 x cos90° – 3 x sin90° = 2 x 0 – 3 x 1 = -3
● Znew = Yold x sinθ + Zold x cosθ = 2 x sin90° + 3 x cos90° = 2 x 1 + 3 x 0 = 2
Thus, New coordinates after rotation = (1, -3, 2).
For Y-Axis Rotation-

● Xnew = Zold x sinθ + Xold x cosθ = 3 x sin90° + 1 x cos90° = 3 x 1 + 1 x 0 = 3

● Ynew = Yold = 2
● Znew = Yold x cosθ – Xold x sinθ = 2 x cos90° – 1 x sin90° = 2 x 0 – 1 x 1 = -1
Thus, New coordinates after rotation = (3, 2, -1).
For Z-Axis Rotation-
● Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ = 1 x cos90° – 2 x sin90° = 1 x 0 – 2 x 1 = -2

● Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ = 1 x sin90° + 2 x cos90° = 1 x 1 + 2 x 0 = 1
● Znew = Zold = 3
Thus, New coordinates after rotation = (-2, 1, 3).
3D Scaling in Computer Graphics-

In computer graphics, scaling is a process of modifying or altering the size of objects.
● Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of objects.

● Scaling subjects the coordinate points of the original object to change.
● Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
● If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.
● If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.
Consider a point object O has to be scaled in a 3D plane.
Let-
● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold,Zold)

● Scaling factor for X-axis = Sx
● Scaling factor for Y-axis = Sy
● Scaling factor for Z-axis = Sz
● New coordinates of the object O after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations-
● Xnew = Xold x Sx

● Ynew = Yold x Sy
● Znew = Zold x Sz
In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as-

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 3D SCALING IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-
Problem-01:
Given a 3D object with coordinate points A(0, 3, 3), B(3, 3, 6), C(3, 0, 1), D(0, 0, 0). Apply the scaling parameter 2 towards X axis, 3
towards Y axis and 3 towards Z axis and obtain the new coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Old coordinates of the object = A (0, 3, 3), B(3, 3, 6), C(3, 0, 1), D(0, 0, 0)
● Scaling factor along X axis = 2
● Scaling factor along Y axis = 3
● Scaling factor along Z axis = 3
Let the new coordinates of A after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).

● Znew = Zold x Sz = 3 x 3 = 9
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9, 9).
Let the new coordinates of B after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).

● Znew = Zold x Sz = 6 x 3 = 18
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9, 18).
Let the new coordinates of C after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after scaling = (6, 0, 3).
For Coordinates D(0, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of D after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).

3D Reflection in Computer Graphics-

● Reflection is a kind of rotation where the angle of rotation is 180 degree.
● The reflected object is always formed on the other side of the mirror.
● The size of the reflected object is the same as the size of the original object.
Consider a point object O has to be reflected in a 3D plane.
Let-

● New coordinates of the reflected object O after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew,Znew)
In 3 dimensions, there are 3 possible types of reflection-
● Reflection relative to XY plane

● Reflection relative to YZ plane
● Reflection relative to XZ plane
Reflection Relative to XY Plane:
● Xnew = Xold
● Ynew = Yold
● Znew = -Zold
Reflection Relative to YZ Plane:
● Xnew = -Xold
● Ynew = Yold
● Znew = Zold
Reflection Relative to XZ Plane:

● Xnew = Xold
● Ynew = -Yold
● Znew = Zold
PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 3D REFLECTION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-01:
Given a 3D triangle with coordinate points A(3, 4, 1), B(6, 4, 2), C(5, 6, 3). Apply the reflection on the XY plane and find out the new
coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (3, 4, 1), B(6, 4, 2), C(5, 6, 3)
● Reflection has to be taken on the XY plane
Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 3
● Ynew = Yold = 4

● Znew = -Zold = -1
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after reflection = (3, 4, -1).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 6
● Ynew = Yold = 4
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after reflection = (6, 4, -2).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 5
● Ynew = Yold = 6
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after reflection = (5, 6, -3).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after reflection = A (3, 4, -1), B(6, 4, -2), C(5, 6, -3).
Problem-02:
Given a 3D triangle with coordinate points A(3, 4, 1), B(6, 4, 2), C(5, 6, 3). Apply the reflection on the XZ plane and find out the new
coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Reflection has to be taken on the XZ plane
Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 3
● Znew = Zold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after reflection = (3, -4, 1).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 6
● Znew = Zold = 2

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after reflection = (6, -4, 2).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 5
● Znew = Zold = 3
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after reflection = (5, -6, 3).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after reflection = A (3, -4, 1), B(6, -4, 2), C(5, -6, 3)

In Computer graphics,3D Shearing is an ideal technique to change the shape of an existing object in a three dimensional plane. In a
three dimensional plane, the object size can be changed along X direction, Y direction as well as Z direction.So, there are three
versions of shearing-
3. Shearing in Z direction
Consider a point object O has to be sheared in a

3D plane.
Let-

● Shearing parameter towards Z direction = Shz
● New coordinates of the object O after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
Shearing in X Axis-
● Xnew = Xold
● Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold

Shearing in Y Axis-

● Ynew = Yold
● Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold
Shearing in Z Axis-
Shearing in Z axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold

● Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold
● Znew = Zold

Problem-01:
Given a 3D triangle with points (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 2) and (1, 1, 3). Apply shear parameter 2 on X axis, 2 on Y axis and 3 on Z axis and find
out the new coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shz) = 3
Shearing in X Axis-
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 0
● Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 0 + 3 x 0 = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (0, 0, 0).
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (1, 3, 5).
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
● Xnew = Xold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 3, 6).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(1, 3, 5), C(1, 3, 6).
Shearing in Y Axis-

● Ynew = Yold = 0

● Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold = 0 + 3 x 0 = 0

● Ynew = Yold = 1

● Ynew = Yold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Y axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(3, 1, 5), C(3, 1, 6).
Shearing in Z Axis-
● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0

● Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
● Znew = Zold = 0

● Znew = Zold = 2


● Znew = Zold = 3
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Z axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(5, 5, 2), C(7, 7, 3).
To gain better understanding about 3D Shearing in Computer Graphics

In Computer graphics,3D Shearing is an ideal technique to change the shape of an existing object in a three dimensional plane .In a
three dimensional plane, the object size can be changed along X direction, Y direction as well as Z direction.
So, there are three versions of shearing-
3. Shearing in Z direction
Consider a point object O has to be sheared in a

3D plane.
Let-

● Shearing parameter towards Z direction = Shz
● New coordinates of the object O after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
Shearing in X Axis-
● Xnew = Xold
● Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold
Shearing in Y Axis-


● Ynew = Yold
● Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold
Shearing in Z Axis-
Shearing in Z axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold

● Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold
● Znew = Zold

Problem-01:
Given a 3D triangle with points (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 2) and (1, 1, 3). Apply shear parameter 2 on X axis, 2 on Y axis and 3 on Z axis and find
out the new coordinates of the object.
Solution-
Given-
● Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shz) = 3

Shearing in X Axis-
● Xnew = Xold = 0
● Xnew = Xold = 1
● Xnew = Xold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(1, 3, 5), C(1, 3, 6).
Shearing in Y Axis-

● Ynew = Yold = 0

● Ynew = Yold = 1


● Ynew = Yold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Y axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(3, 1, 5), C(3, 1, 6).
Shearing in Z Axis-

● Znew = Zold = 0

● Znew = Zold = 2

● Znew = Zold = 3
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Z axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(5, 5, 2), C(7, 7, 3).
Projections:-
1.In the 2D system, we use only two coordinates X and Y but in 3D, an extra coordinate Z is added.
2.3D graphics techniques and their application are fundamental to the entertainment, games, and computer-aided design industries.
It is a continuing area of research in scientific visualization.
3.Furthermore, 3D graphics components are now a part of almost every personal computer and, although traditionally intended for
graphics-intensive software such as games, they are increasingly being used by other applications
.
1.Parallel Projection
1.Parallel projection discards z-coordinate and parallel lines from each
vertex on the object are extended until they intersect the view plane.
2.In parallel projection, we specify a direction of projection instead of
center of projection.
3.In parallel projection, the distance from the center of projection to
project plane is infinite.
4.In this type of projection, we connect the projected vertices by line
segments which correspond to connections on the original object.
5.Parallel projections are less realistic, but they are good for exact
measurements.
6.In this type of projections, parallel lines remain parallel and angles are
not preserved. Various types of parallel projections are shown in the following hierarchy.
Orthographic Projection
In orthographic projection the direction of projection is normal to the projection of the plane. There are three types of orthographic
projections −
● Front Projection
● Top Projection
● Side Projection
● Axonometric projection

Axonometric projection
Orthographic projections that show more than one side of an object are called axonometric orthographic projections. The most
common axonometric projection is an isometric projection where the projection plane intersects each coordinate axis in the model
coordinate system at an equal distance. In this projection parallelism of lines are preserved but angles are not preserved. The
following figure shows isometric projection −
Oblique Projection
1.In oblique projection, the direction of projection is not normal to the projection of the plane.
2.In oblique projection, we can view the object better than orthographic projection.
3.There are two types of oblique projections − Cavalier and Cabinet.
4.The Cavalier projection makes a 45° angle with the projection plane.The projection of a line perpendicular to the view plane has
the same length as the line itself in Cavalier projection. In a cavalier projection, the foreshortening factors for all three principal
directions are equal.
5.The Cabinet projection makes a 63.4° angle with the projection plane. In Cabinet projection, lines perpendicular to the viewing
surface are projected at ½ their actual length. Both the projections are shown in the following figure −
Perspective Projection
In perspective projection, the distance from the center of projection to project plane is finite and the size of the object varies
inversely with distance which looks more realistic.
The distance and angles are not preserved and parallel lines do not remain parallel. Instead, they all converge at a single point called
center of projection or projection reference point. There are 3 types of perspective projections which are shown in the following
chart.
● One point perspective projection is simple to draw.
● Two point perspective projection gives better impression of depth.
● Three point perspective projection is most difficult to draw.

The following figure shows all the three types of perspective projection −

Chapter 03

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Chapter 03

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Transformation means changing some graphics into something else by applying rules.

We can have various types of transformations

● Translate the coordinates,

Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

● Initial coordinates of the object O = (X​old​, Y​old​)

Given a Translation vector (T​x​, T​y​)-

● T​x​ defines the distance the X​old​ coordinate has to be moved.

This translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates to the old

● X​new​ = X​old​ + T​x​ (This denotes translation towards X axis)

In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as-

● The homogeneous coordinates representation of (X, Y) is (X, Y, 1).

Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

● Old center coordinates of C = (X​old​, Y​old​) = (1, 4)

Let the new center coordinates of C = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ + T​x​ = 1 + 5 = 6

Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).

Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).

Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

​For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ + T​x​ = 0 + 1 = 1

Thus, New coordinates of corner A = (1, 4).

​For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ + T​x​ = 3 + 1 = 4

Thus, New coordinates of corner B = (4, 4).

​For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ + T​x​ = 3 + 1 = 4

Thus, New coordinates of corner C = (4, 1).

Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

Let the new coordinates of corner D = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ + T​x​ = 0 + 1 = 1

Thus, New coordinates of corner D = (1, 1).

● Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of objects.

Consider a point object O has to be scaled in a 2D plane.

● Initial coordinates of the object O = (X​old​, Y​old​)

This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations-

● X​new​ = X​old​ x S​x

In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as-

Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D SCALING IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

​For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after scaling = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ x S​x​ = 0 x 2 = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9).

​For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after scaling = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ x S​x​ = 3 x 2 = 6

Chapter 03 Compiled By Dashrath Kale

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9).

​For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after scaling = (X​new​, Y​new​).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

● X​new​ = X​old​ x S​x​ = 3 x 2 = 6

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after scaling = (6, 0).

● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)

Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty)-

● Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate has to be moved.

● Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes translation towards X axis)

● Old center coordinates of C = (Xold, Yold) = (1, 4)

Let the new center coordinates of C = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 1 + 5 = 6

For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1

For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4

For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4

Let the new coordinates of corner D = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1

● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)

● Xnew = Xold x Sx

For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0

For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6

For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6

For Coordinates D(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner D after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0

● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)

For Coordinates A(3, 4)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

For Coordinates B(6, 4)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

For Coordinates C(5, 6)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

For Coordinates A(3, 4)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

For Coordinates B(6, 4)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

For Coordinates C(5, 6)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)

● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold

For Coordinates A(1, 1)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3

For Coordinates B(0, 0)

● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0

For Coordinates C(1, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

● Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 0 = 1

For Coordinates A(1, 1)

● Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3

For Coordinates B(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).