Development and Early Learning: Theories and Research Studies

Abstract

Early childhood development and education theories demonstrate their understanding of how

children develop and learn over time. Theorists like Vygotsky, Piaget and Dewey present

different ideas regarding child development and learning. Montessori Method was introduced

100 years ago but it still has potential to be implemented in today’s world. Two empirical studies

have been reviewed regarding their conceptual foundation. An analysis has been conducted to

examine the roots of Montessori curriculum approach concerning key concepts by Vygotsky and

Piaget. Furthermore, recommendations to adopt Montessori curriculum for early childhood

development and learning are also provided.

Keywords: Montessori, Montessori Method, Vygotsky, scaffolding, ZPD, SCT

1. Introduction

The theories on childhood development are interesting and tend to explain the way children

grow, change and learn over time. Such theories consider various aspects related to development

since the human development is complex and varied to demonstrate. Theorists like Vygotsky,

Dewey and others have provided useful insights regarding educational methods and approaches

that guide the educational leaders in curriculum planning and design. The educational

approaches like Montessori have provided instructions and factors to consider while planning the

curriculum and modifying the environment to make it more child-friendly and learning-oriented.

The educational approach, Montessori, will be discussed in detail in this paper, it should also be

mentioned that educational approaches most likely root back to major theories like Vygotsky’s

sociocultural theory etc.[ CITATION Moo13 \l 1033 ]. This study also includes two empirical studies
based on the concepts given by Vygotsky. Furthermore, the Montessori educational approach

will be analysed in detail to reveal the theoretical concepts behind it.

2. Empirical Research Studies

2.1. Empirical Study “Developing Critical Thinkers in Higher Education: A Vygotskian

Perspective” by Wass (2012).

Conceptual Foundation: The author aimed to investigate the development of critical thinking

in zoology students and thus used Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (SCT) and Zone of proximal

development model (ZPD) to understand the critical thinking development in students. It can be

said that the researcher has used the Vygotsky’s theories as the conceptual foundation for the

research study. Furthermore, the ZPD model is also suggested by the author to be used in

educational approaches to develop critical thinking in students[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

Link to theory: The study is directly linked to Vygotsky’s SCT as the researcher uses it to

understand the experiences of the students with respect to critical thinking. Furthermore,

researcher uses the ZPD model by Vygotsky to understand the limits to development at one time

and at another with the help of a peer. The study’s link to Vygotsky theory can be proven by

discussing what the researcher has stated in the study, the Vygotskian approach provides us a

model that helps in understanding the critical thinking development in students. In addition to

that, Vygotskian approach is also useful for teacher helping them understand students’

development by offering them useful and suitable activities. The social interaction has been

advocated by many theorists including Vygotsky regarding its importance in promoting the

cognition and critical thinking development in students[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

Research Question(s): The study has focused on the development of critical thinking in zoology

learning students. The Vygotsky’s SCT and ZPD model has been used for the conceptual

framework based on which the researcher has chosen the following questions to guide the

direction of the research[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

 The researcher aimed to explore the key experiences of student’s development as

critical thinker

 How social interactions affect student’s development as critical thinkers

 How ZPD can help in learning and teaching of critical thinking?

Method: The empirical research study conducted by Wass aimed to ask the above-mentioned

research questions. To achieve the objectives of the research, the researcher used the qualitative

semi-structured interviews. The interviews were collected between the selected duration of the

study such as during 2006 to 2008. The study is different in terms of the duration on which the

data was collected. The participants chosen for the study were students learning zoology as their

majors, apart from that; no criteria were set for participants. The participants were selected using

non-probability sampling, as stated in the study, the initial planning included announcement

posting on an online learning platform which got good response. The participants volunteered

and 27 responses were collected in the first year. A total of 67 interviews were collected, 27 in

first year, 22 in second year and 18 in 2008[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

The responses of the students were collected and analysed for missing and incomplete values.

Furthermore, to conclude the results, data was analysed using thematic analysis so that

prominent themes and patterns were determined. The data was analysed using general inductive

approach such as major themes and concepts were analysed systematically. The researcher
ensured that ethical considerations were fulfilled. The findings were concluded after data

analysis[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

Findings and Implication of the study: The findings of the empirical study indicate a link

between social interaction and student’s critical thinking development. It can be said that

activities that require students to work with other students or ask them to analyse and determine

their learning experience stimulate critical thinking in them; the findings of this study can

become basis for other students examining the model that can stimulate critical thinking in

students. There were three major findings of the study. The first finding answered the first

research question, the critical thinking development was fund to be linked to curriculum

experiences such as the projects done in groups in third year of the course and activities that

required the students to write and reflect on their learning experience. This implies that activities

that require students to work in a group and learn from each other helped them in achieving the

objectives together. Furthermore, activities that required the students to reflect upon learning

experience stimulated the critical thinking ability to discuss what could have been improved in

their learning experience[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

The second major finding was that social interaction and the environment played a role in the

development of critical thinking in students. The researcher linked this finding to the

development of critical thinking which does not happen in isolation. The researcher agrees with

Vygotsky’s notion that development occurs through social interaction and then from

internalization process. The third finding of the study was that scaffolding technique can be used

to develop critical thinking however it should be carefully implemented to create a zone for

students as critical thinkers. The scaffolding approach is central to ZPD model or theory. The

findings of the study are useful for the teachers and educational leaders focusing on developing
critical thinking abilities in students. For future implications, the findings of the study can be

used to employ scaffolding technique to stimulate critical thinking development in

students[ CITATION Was121 \l 1033 ].

2.2. Empirical Study “Towards an Experimental Verification of Vygotsky's Zone of

Proximal Development: A Docimological Approach” by Ruiz-Hernandez et al. (2017)

Conceptual Foundation: The study conducted an experiment that directly investigated the

concept of ZPD and its existence in a classroom of students where two sub groups were made to

conduct the assignment. Vygotsky’s concepts such as the role of social interaction in learning,

and ZPD that defines the distance between what a child can do alone vs. what he can achieve

with assistance of a more knowledgeable peer are intensively used in the study[ CITATION Rui17 \l

1033 ].

Link to Theory: The conducted experiment provides empirical results that directly investigate

the existence of ZPD in a classroom setting using two groups such as experimental group and

control group. The ZPD concept is tested using an arithmetical problem solving in the form of a

Questionnaire distributed in both groups with a variation that one of the group had assistance in

the form of useful printed heading to solve one of the problems. The other group received no

clue or assistance. The aim of the researcher was to confirm the presence of ZPD process using

this experimental study that can provide empirical basis of the ZPD technique developed and

introduced by Vygotsky[ CITATION Rui17 \l 1033 ].

Research Hypothesis: The study aimed to test one hypothesis: to verify experimentally the

existence of ZPD process it is necessary that the study subjects to be used in solving a problem

may exceed the notion of cognitive transfer[ CITATION Rui17 \l 1033 ].

Method: The methodology used for the study was experimental in nature. Two groups such as

experimental and control groups were made, a total of 80 students participated, 40 in each group.

The experiment was conducted in the classroom and participants of both the groups received

similar treatment. No participants were informed about the nature of the experiment however

they were told that the data will be used in a report. The test questionnaire had other questions as

well, one group such as the experimental group were given assistance in the form of a printed

heading[ CITATION Rui17 \l 1033 ].

Findings and Implication of the study: it was found that no student in the control group was

able to solve the problem. On the other hand, 10 students were able to solve the problem using

the assistance found in the header, if there was no clue, the students would not have been able to

solve the problem. The existence of ZPD process, thus, was observed in 10 cases providing

empirical evidence that students can do better in the presence of assistance. Vygotsky’s ZPD was

confirmed using this experiment that contributed to the field where fewer or no experimental

studies related to ZPD exist. The implication of the study includes that the questionnaire can be

used in schools as a regular experimental activity to continue understanding how ZPD can

facilitate learning process[ CITATION Rui17 \l 1033 ].

3. Curriculum Approach

According to NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children) the

curriculum is defined as an idea that contains significant elements such as instructional practises,

goals, content and pedagogy[ CITATION Gag15 \l 1033 ]. Many factors influence curriculum such as

content standards, values, empirical findings, culture, students’ characteristics, language, and

expectations. A number of curriculum approaches exist such as Waldorf, High-Scope and

Montessori. In this study, the Montessori approach will be discussed in detail[ CITATION Gag15 \l

1033 ].

Montessori educational approach was developed by Maria Montessori in 1907 for children living

in poverty in Italy.

The author Berk (2012) stated that programs like Montessori Method instruct teachers to

encourage children by providing activities from which they can choose on their own, and learn

through interesting activities. The author further explains that freedom of playing stimulates

discovery and exploration in children, an environment where materials are specially designed for

children and multi-age classrooms are provided[ CITATION Ber12 \l 1033 ]. Montessori Method

views children as capable learners and knowledge-wanting individuals. Montessori Method is

widely used in many Montessori schools today, and teachers follow instructions and

recommendation by Montessori to plan their curriculum and learning activities for

children[ CITATION Gag15 \l 1033 ].

The Montessori Method has been around from more than 100 years, to examine the significance

of this approach and to understand why this approach should be implemented, it is crucial to

explain its key feature[ CITATION Mar17 \l 1033 ]s. To examine the effectiveness of this approach,

the key elements should be investigated for effectiveness by the researches. From research, it

has been observed that many schools and teachers have implemented Montessori Method

differently; the name is used without full application of all aspects of the method[ CITATION

Mar17 \l 1033 ]. Few elements of the approach might be beneficial; some schools may have used

the methods and concepts of Montessori without full adherence to the name. Perhaps, it should

be forgotten that implementing a method that was introduced 100 years ago might be risky and

dangerous[ CITATION Mar17 \l 1033 ]. Therefore, it is suggested that Montessori’s method should
be evaluated and investigated empirically before implementing in real-life scenarios. It is

practical to consider the risks and evaluate the major components of the Montessori approach. It

should be mentioned that there are only peer reviewed studies that assess and evaluate the

Montessori approach. Most of them are not longitudinal, the quality of the randomisation in

control groups are also questionable. The sample size used in the studies is narrow and

insufficient to generalise the findings[ CITATION Mar17 \l 1033 ]. Thus, there is a need to conduct

more experiments and empirical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of Montessori approach in

today’s world. One issue in this could be of understanding, if a study claims the method to be

effective, what exactly contribute to the success. Understanding which of the features of

Montessori approach may contribute to successful learning in early childhood might start by

understanding what are the key characteristics or features of the approach[ CITATION Mar17 \l

1033 ]. The crucial components of this approach are as under:

3.1. Child Centred Environment

In Montessori Method, the focus in on the learning environment which is also the most

prominent characteristic with which Montessori’s theory is identified or recognized.

Montessori defines environment as everything in the classroom such as furniture, materials,

furnishing, space, people around, and all places where children learn. Montessori explains

that children tend to learn things from their environment. For instance, they learn language

and culture from their environment particularly from their family and friends. Similarly, they

learn other stuff like skills required for everyday life. Due to this, Montessori emphasized

that teachers or educational leaders should focus on modifying the learning environment for

children. She instructs that environment should be orderly and beautiful so children learn

about keeping things in order. Another important suggestion about environment is that
utensils, material and tools used by children should be fit for their small hands and furniture

customized for their body size. On the other hand, the teachers play significant role of

creating beautiful environment having wonderful textures, sounds and smells. Thus, the

teachers should provide students with the tools that actually work and these materials should

be kept in an organized manner. They should be accessible to the children creating order and

contributing to beautiful learning environment.

3.2. Competence and Responsibility

The Montessori approach educates the teachers to assign responsibilities to children so they

can learn putting things in order and exhibit responsible behaviour. The teachers should

provide the required materials and a learning environment to allow the children learn from

their experience and develop skills without interfering in their learning process. Montessori

explained that children learn by doing things themselves, repeatedly, making an experience.

The concept of responsibility and competence can be applied into educational programs by

teachers. The Montessori approach requires that teachers interfere less in child’s learning

patterning, and allow them to manage things themselves. It is urged that teacher should allow

children to clean and maintain order in the learning environment. Allowing them to

participate in real-life activities, children get a sense of responsibility and competence that

will boost their self-esteem contributing to their development.

This will also be beneficial for teachers; meanwhile, they can observe children allowing them

to do things their way, individual assessment can be carried out through observation.

Montessori teachers are different from traditional teacher because the latter ones are more

about planned schedules and interrupting children according to a limited time. Montessori

teachers, on the other hand, observe more and teach little as they believe that children will
 learn from their experience allowing them to do things on their own. Montessori approach

implies that observation is the key to plan the curriculum, teachers should observe children

individually and their participation in group from a distance without interrupting, based on

their observations they should plan the curriculum rather than making children follow their

pre-planned curriculum.

3.3. Observation

A suitable and orderly learning environment and observation are the two main key

components of Montessori educational approach. Careful observation is necessary for the

teachers to learn about children’s needs and interests. Montessori stated that every child is

capable of learning; it is teacher’s responsibility to provide the environment, and observe

them to provide them with tasks based on their needs and interests. Many teachers do not

spend time to observe and learn about the children, they feel frustrated complaining that

children don’t list or focus and continue hitting each other. Montessori says that teachers

must observe to understand what students need, for instance, children exhibiting aggression

and hitting might require activities that can direct and consume their physical energy. Thus,

observation is the key to understand and modify environment and curriculum according to

children’s needs.

4. Analysis of Theoretical Underpinnings

According to Colgan (2016), the philosophy of Montessori can be viewed as a combination of

many ideas and theories from past philosophers, however, lack of evidence exist to support this

hypothesis. Montessori’s work on education has reflection of Spencer’s naturalism, Dewey’s

learning by doing concept, Frobel’s position on early developmental education, and Vygotsky’s
social interaction theory and importance of observation [ CITATION Col16 \l 1033 ]. The study by

File, et al. (2012) discussed that history textbooks at undergraduate level provides a limited and

mainstream view of educational theories, and curriculum approaches. Three areas have been

noted by the author such as major theorists, popular approaches, and political, private and public

programs. Nevertheless, the information presented in the history is organised in a confusing

manner contributing to several misconceptions regarding how early development educators

interacted and developed curriculum[ CITATION Fil12 \l 1033 ].

Table 1.  Characteristics of Curriculum Models

Key Characteristics Name of Curriculum Name of Name of
Curriculum Curriculum
Montessori- Child Vygotsky- SCT theory
Theoretical Foundation Centered

Montessori- child Vygotsky- natural

Classroom environment & centered environment environment
materials

Montessori- observation- Vygotsky- ZPD

Activities & Schedule oriented

Montessori- prepare-step Vygotsky- Scaffolding

Roles & skills of back-observe-modify
teacher/caregiver

Montessori- children Vygotsky-learning is

Initiating & planning learn from own social in origin
learning experiences experiences

Roles of parents
Assessment (e.g., of
children, classroom quality)
Montessori-observe Vyotsky-social
children regarding their interaction theory
interests
Montessori-observational Vygotsky- ZPD
assessment

Montessori- observing Vygotsky- scaffolding

Inclusion of children with their needs technique
special needs/disabilities
 Practices for inclusion/focus Montessori- prepare the Vygotsky-
on diverse cultures environment sociocultural theory

This section will analyse the Montessori educational approach to understand the theoretical

underpinnings such as key concepts given by Vygotsky and other theorists like Piaget and

Dewey. Particular focus will be on Vygotsky, to examine how rooted is Montessori curriculum

to that of ideas supported by Vygotsky, conclusion of the analysis is recorded in the last

paragraph of the section. Table 1 presents a comparison of both Montessori and Vygotsky

regarding their characteristics.

4.1. Perspectives on Education

According to Vygotsky, the classroom is viewed as a social environment and it impacts on

the self-consciousness of children. Montessori, similar to these ideas, states that school

environment develops and provides a sense of responsibility and competence among children

[ CITATION Cer13 \l 1033 ]. In addition to that, teachers are required to support independence

and self-determination of children at all levels, today, this is used to stimulate motivation in

children [ CITATION Mur11 \l 1033 ]. According to Montessori approach, children should be

left free to construct their own experiences, act freely, and learn effortlessly, the child

becomes his own teacher[ CITATION Dem18 \l 1033 ].

Based on this context, it can be said that curriculum must fulfil children’s interests.

Montessori’s children have learning opportunities of self-consciousness on daily basis and

learn from their own experiences and actions with trial and error. In Montessori curriculum,

children are allowed to work in small groups or individually based on their interest and pace,
they can also choose duration of working along with topics; they take responsibility for the

activities [ CITATION Mur11 \l 1033 ]. The curriculum is, thus, child-centered, and requires

individual evaluation of success based on their goals. Comparatively, in Vygotskian

approach the definitions are at the beginning of the curriculum functioning as threads

combined to the subject. In simple words, the pre-concepts level is extended to construct

conceptual thinking in children. The children are educated about the functioning of major

concepts and then they are given the opportunity to learn different effects of concepts using

their multi-directional thought process[ CITATION Dem18 \l 1033 ].

Montessori approach suggests that education must be initiated from sensory activity and

muscular movement. She says that it should be “from the education of the senses to general

notions, from general notions to abstract thought, from abstract thought to morality” as cited

in [ CITATION Dem18 \l 1033 ]. Furthermore, it is suggested that writing should come first not

after reading. Concerning this concept, Vygotskian theory does not comment on the necessity

of body or senses training. Nevertheless, it is claimed in Demirbaga (2018) that Vygotsky

took inspiration from Montessori’s method of writing and states that children should learn to

write because it is crucial for their mental development. Piaget, on the other hand, said that

children gain knowledge from their environment with the help of their senses.

Montessori’s method states that environment is a necessary component. A confused and

complex environment would impact on child’s thinking thus she emphasizes upon suitable

learning environment. Vygotsky believes that socialization plays integral role in the

development, ZPD such as zone of proximal development is a term given by him to explain

the learning background [ CITATION Gre12 \l 1033 ]. In ZPD technique, Vygotsky describes the

distance between the low level reflection representing the independent skills and the higher
level reflection such as the assistance from a more knowledgeable peer. The idea of

environmental importance has its roots underpinned in the concept of ZPD given by

Vygotsky. Many scholars have suggested otherwise, it is said that Vygotsky has taken

inspiration from Montessori approach[ CITATION Gre12 \l 1033 \m Moo13 \m Dem18] .

4.2. Child Development and Learning

According to Vygotsky, the learning provides direction to guide child development with the

help of social interaction experiences. The cognitive functions are social, Vygotskian

approach has explained the social nature for memorisation, logical thinking, focused

attention and mediated perception in two ways. Firstly, these cognitive functions can be

shifted from generations to generators with the help of learning. Secondly, these functions

can as well be created or developed through social-interaction. Vygotsky advocates that these

cognitive functions like logical thinking cannot be effortlessly gained from the experiences

instead they come as conscious achievement in social context at individual level.

In simple terms, a child’s perception of the world is impacted by what he learns from the

society surrounding him. Looking deeply at the concept and significance of learning

environment presented by Montessori, it can be said that in some way these theories are

linked in this context. They both emphasize upon the significance of the surrounding of the

child during his developmental years. While Vygotsky views it as society, Montessori

signifies learning environment as both classroom and outside environments such as home. A

major difference between these theories, in the context of environment, is how they view the

interaction between learning and development. While Vygotsky emphasizes on the impacts

of teaching and learning on development of child, Montessori advocates the normalisation of

the development. To her, learning takes place when the development is normal.
4.3. Roles: Student and Teacher

The Vygotskian approach suggests that teachers’ role is to aid the children in reaching the

world and the assessment of their achievement is based on the quality of support given by the

teacher such as mediation. Vygotskian approach suggests that teachers play the role of

guidance. Montessori’s approach towards teacher’s role is underpinned in Vygotski’s theory

because it accepts teacher as a guide along with other crucial roles. Montessori instructs,

teachers should know that their role requires them to motivate and support children through

observing their needs and interests. Furthermore, for Montessori teachers the meaning behind

interests and needs are clues that determine the type of content and lesson should be used by

the teacher to engage children in learning process [ CITATION Mur11 \l 1033 ]. Vygotskian

approach, however, further extends teacher’s role to provide the student with the cultural

tools so that they can solve problems contributing to their mental health. The children’s role

is to make use of those tools and learn to apply them inside and outside of the classroom

environment[ CITATION Dem18 \l 1033 ].

In Montessori classrooms, the teacher does not have to have a desk, they are rather seen

sitting in a corner of the room to observe and learn about the needs and interests of students

in group and individually. Montessori teachers allow the children to work with self-

determination and independently to solve the problem without teacher’s intervention.

Although, Vygotsky defines the technique of scaffolding as helping students to enhance their

learning experience but it does not mean that Vygotsky is against the quiet role of teacher in

supporting the students while they make their own experiences. Montessori’s idea of

providing the children with large blocks of time where they can explore their environment

and learn through their experiences is rooted and supported by Piaget’s view of teacher’s
 role. He advocated that for the cognitive development, teachers should provide children with

real-life experiences, open-ended activities, and also gives them uninterrupted blocks of free-

play time[ CITATION Moo13 \l 1033 ].

To some level Montessori’s curriculum seems to have similar notions to that of both Piaget

and Vygotski’s theories. It is hard to say exactly how much curriculum approach of

Montessori is rooted from the educational approaches and theories from Vygotsky or Piaget.

Montessori’s curriculum approach seems to have some concepts similar to Vygotskian

theory; on the other hand, many Piaget’s ideas are resonated in Vygotskain approach. All

these theories seem to have few ideas as common and completely disagree in some of the

concepts such as the significance of play. While Montessori and Vygotskian approach

support that free-play contributes to practising what is already taught to the children and it

also generates new knowledge and cognitive development, Piaget argues that free-play only

facilitates the child to practise what is known or taught[ CITATION Sir15 \l 1033 ].

According to Demirbaga (2018), there are differences in Vygotskian approach and

Montessori method regarding their perspective on the play. Vygotsky thinks that play is

among the most important componenet of learning experiences. It is also seen a tool to

stimulate self-reglatory behavior in children. Montessori, on the other hand, argues that self-

regulation more signficiantly comes from child’s purposeful learning of materials, as she

says “play is the work of the child[ CITATION Sir15 \l 1033 ].” Montessori does not consider

play to be the most important elements of a classroom[ CITATION Dem18 \l 1033 ].

In conclusion, the Montessori approach appears to have reflections of several different concepts

and theories from another era. The curriculum is rooted in the major theories and key concepts

from Piaget, Vygotsky, and Frobel etc. A particular focus has been placed on Vygotskian theory
to examine the roots of Montessori Method, or vice versa. The features of Montessori curriculum

and Vygotskian concepts are somewhat similar and fairly different. Vygotsky calls for natural

environment in early childhood development, whereas, Montessori Method encourages teachers

to create a customised or artificial environment to learn and teach children. Therefore,

Montessori teacher takes control of the classroom, while Vygotsky says that children should

learn the things in natural environment so they can be prepared for unusual situations. Both of

these theories support the importance of environment and its impact on the childhood

development and learning. Montessori however instructs teachers to plan the curriculum and

modify the environment based on the needs and interests of the students.

Vygotsky theory does not specify the order of the classroom; Montessori has specified that

learning environment or the classroom should have rights size of tools, small and fitting for

children. Vygotsky and Montessori both view and agree with the role of the teacher as a

supporting guide and help in cognitive development of children. Both of these theorists agree the

concept that cognitive problems in children can be sort out and relieved through positive social

interaction and education. They both are somewhat supporting the same destination but with

different paths, this can be said theoretically however more evidence is needed to support this

claim.

Between the similarities and differences between the Montessori curriculum and key concepts of

Vygotsky, Piaget, it is hard to declare how much rooted is the curriculum in the educational

theories and concepts by other theorists. Montessori approach has reflections of various concepts

and some are novel ideas that have not been presented by other theorists. Nevertheless, it can be

said that Montessori approach has concepts similar to ideas presented by Vygotsky and Piaget.
Whether Montessori has taken its inspiration from Vygotsky or vice versa, is rather difficult to

say at this point.

5. Discussion and Recommendations

From the analysis of Montessori approach, it can be concluded that the Montessori curriculum

has reflections of several different concepts and ideas. The implementation of Montessori

approach requires careful evaluation of its aspects and assessment of key characteristics because

this approach was introduced 100 years ago. The implementation of such an old approach might

be risky and dangerous. For anyone who desires to implement Montessori approach in early

childhood development and learning, it is crucial that assessment is considered for all the

aspects. The effectiveness of Montessori approach has not established in the academic literature

yet, more evidence is needed to confirm the effectiveness and its real-life implementation. The

studies examining the effectiveness raise issues in terms of the factors that contribute to the

effectiveness of development and learning in children[ CITATION Han14 \l 1033 ].

If I was appointed as an educational leader in a school district, or if I consider the Montessori

approach to be implemented as a foundation for an early childhood development and learning

program then I recommend that Montessori approach should be implemented with few

modifications. First of all, the Montessori Method does not discuss the importance of preparing

the child for the unusual environments. Montessori emphasizes that children learn from their

environment and thus the environment should be modified according to children’s needs and

interests. It would not be wrong to say that Montessori support an artificial environment for

learning. Such an environment might facilitate learning and development but it may not prepare

the child for the unusual situations. Vygotskian approach prepares the child for the unusual
situations because learning and development is encouraged to take place in the natural

environment.

Another issue is that Montessori approach is more than just an approach, it sounds like a lifestyle

which will not be easily implemented. For a Montessori school, if the classrooms have to be

modified according to the needs and interests of the children, it will be more expensive as

compared to other theories and curriculum. Such a school would also charge more fees because

of the inclusion of high quality materials and hiring teachers that can follow the program

religiously. This will pose a limitation for the poor children to get the education and training they

need; only the rich kids will be able to get admission in this school. On the other hand, one might

argue that expenses can be reduced but it remains to be true that getting certified as a Montessori

school is highly costly[ CITATION Mar17 \l 1033 ].

Moreover, the nature of the curriculum in Montessori Method is loose and the classroom

structure has been emphasized more. Montessori classrooms are different from traditional

classroom, the children are allowed to move and explore, and there are no traditional desks and

chairs. The teachers are there to help and guide the students, it implies that teachers do not

enforce any regulations and rules or instruct any lesson on their own. Since the environment and

curriculum design is child-centered, the students might get interested in one subject and become

more interested in another. This loose nature of the curriculum may leave students less prepared

for some classes and over-prepared for the others[ CITATION Mon13 \l 1033 \m Nav17].

Lastly, the Montessori teachers are encouraged to provide freedom to students but they are not

instructed or directed when to intervene, if needed. Having endless amount of freedom might

not always be a beneficial thing in the long run. Some children might not feel comfortable in

such environment; few students may even feel comfortable with desk-chair setting because it
provides them with a little private space. It is not necessary that every child would be

comfortable and interested in the learning environment; the teacher thinks would be suitable.

Every child may not be able to learn and be stable around the Montessori classroom setting. The

Montessori approach is advantageous in some aspects, but other aspects as the ones mentioned in

this section are not as much beneficial when considered to be implemented in the longer run.

This approach is not for every child. Some children may feel comfortable in a Montessori

classroom, and be able to survive and functional well in the society but others may become

dissatisfied and their development may get effected. It cannot be neglected, at this point, that

Montessori teachers play an integral role in impacting the learning and development of children

following Montessori approach of education.

Therefore, it is recommended that Montessori approach should be considered as a beneficial

approach with parts of its features that may benefit and facilitate learning in children. The

question regarding which features should be adopted remains for the teachers and educational

leaders to decide. Since there is a lack of data and evidence to establish the effectiveness of

Montessori approach in today’s world, as a whole, it is recommended to use it in parts. It means

that a curriculum plan should be prepared based on the major theories like Vygotsky, Piaget, and

Montessori, rather than adopting the Montessori in its essence. Such a school might not be

certified as a Montessori school, it will be a modified version of Montessori, addressing the

issues presented above. For instance, the Montessori program requires artificial environment

which will be highly expensive. Thus it is recommended that the learning should take place in

natural environment because it will prepare the students for the unusual situations as supported

by Vygotskian approach.
A curriculum approach based on the needs and interests of the students might be beneficial in the

old day, but in this century, technology and rapid progress has left the world continuously

changing and surprising. The children of today’s world are needed to be prepared for the unusual

situations. Some of the concepts by Montessori are remarkable, for instance, the idea that

classroom should have right tools and right sizes that should fit their children. The possible and

executable ideas and features should be adopted, with modification of the ones that are not

suitable or those that do not prepare the students for unusual situations or for real-life for that

matter. It is therefore suggested that, curriculum base on major theories like Vygotsky and

Montessori in combination is better as compared to adopting the original Montessori Method.

6. Conclusion

Early childhood development and learning theories help understand how children learn and

develop. Many theorists have provided their own understanding of development and learning

experiencing in children. Some theorists like Montessori claim that children learn from their

environment, including materials, learning tools, people in their surroundings and everything

else. On the other hand, Vygotsky argues that children do not only learn from their own

experiences but also from a more knowledgeable peer. The analysis of Montessori educational

curriculum approach reveals that it has taken inspiration from some of the concepts by

Vygotskian approach, however, the Vygotskian approach also agrees with some of the concepts

given by Montessori and even provide extended perceptions towards education, teachers’ and

students’ roles, and development of children. With few modifications, scholars have discussed

that Montessori and Vygotskian approach are similar to one another; they are like one dream but

having two visions. Nevertheless, the Vygotskian approach may have taken inspiration from

many Montessori theories and ideas, not the other way around.
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