INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATIONAL

LECTURE 3: SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

By – Raphael Tumaini O’maitarya
0755340506/0655820165: Email – rafaeltumaini@gmail.com
_________________________________________________________________________

LECTURE SUMMARY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
 Scientific research is based not on the phenomenon being investigated
but by the way the investigation is carried out.
 Scientific approach is objective (unbiased/disinterested of the
researcher’s personal belief), systematic and verifiable.
 It is objective since it is based on the observable and/or on measurable
aspects and avoid interest of the researchers.
 Educational psychologists do not accept resolutions that might be have
the following weaknesses:
o Biased,
o Personal beliefs, opinions, speculation or experience alone
o Measurement errors.
 Verifiability is founded on the premise that someone else can
crosscheck the findings by repeating the same research.
 Thus, scientific approach is based on empirical evidence obtained
through the following:
o Measurement,
o Experiments, and
o Statistical analysis.
3.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Educational psychology relies on scientific research to investigate and
understand the complex processes involved in learning, development,
and teaching.
 The field employs rigorous research methods to gather empirical
evidence, test hypotheses, and inform educational practices.
 Here are several ways in which educational psychology relates to
scientific research:
o Experimental Research:

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  Educational psychologists conduct controlled experiments to
investigate specific variables and their impact on learning
outcomes.
 For example, a study might explore the effects of different
teaching methods on students' academic performance.
 Experimental designs allow researchers to establish cause-and-
effect relationships and identify effective instructional
strategies.
o Cognitive Research:
 Cognitive psychology is a fundamental aspect of educational
psychology, focusing on mental processes such as memory,
attention, and problem-solving.
 Through experiments and observational studies, researchers
in educational psychology examine how students acquire,
store, and retrieve information.
 Cognitive research informs instructional design, helping
educators create learning environments that align with
cognitive principles.
o Developmental Research:
 Educational psychologists study the developmental milestones
and changes that occur across the lifespan.
 Longitudinal studies track individuals over time to understand
how cognitive, emotional, and social development impact
learning.
 This research helps educators tailor instruction to the age and
developmental stage of their students.
o Learning Theories:
 Educational psychology is deeply rooted in various learning
theories, such as behaviorism, constructivism, and social
cognitive theory.
 These theories provide frameworks for understanding how
learning occurs and guide research on effective teaching
strategies.
 For instance, research might examine how reinforcement or
scaffolding influences student learning.
o Assessment and Measurement:

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  Educational psychologists develop and validate assessment
tools to measure various aspects of learning and cognitive
abilities.
 Psychometric research ensures that tests are reliable and valid,
providing accurate information about students' knowledge and
skills.
 This scientific approach helps educators make informed
decisions about curriculum and instructional interventions.
o Neuroscience Integration:
 Advances in neuroscience have led to a growing interest in
understanding the neural mechanisms underlying learning and
educational processes.
 Educational psychologists collaborate with neuroscientists to
explore the brain's role in memory, attention, and motivation.
 This interdisciplinary research enhances our understanding of
how the brain and behavior intersect in educational contexts.
o Inclusive Education Research:
 Educational psychology contributes to research on inclusive
education by examining effective strategies for accommodating
diverse learners, including those with special needs.
 Evidence-based practices help educators create inclusive
environments that address the individual needs of all students.
o Technology Integration:
 With the rise of educational technology, research in educational
psychology explores how digital tools impact learning.
 This includes studies on the effectiveness of online learning
platforms, the use of educational apps, and the integration of
technology in the classroom.
 Scientific research informs decisions about the design and
implementation of technology-enhanced learning experiences.
 Educational psychology relies on scientific research to inform,
validate, and improve educational practices.
 Through the application of rigorous research methods, educational
psychologists contribute valuable insights that help educators create
best learning environments and enhance student outcomes.
3.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH:
 There are several research methods in scientific research.

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  They can be qualitative or quantitative researches.
Qualitative Research:
o Focuses on exploring attitudes, behaviors, and experiences
through methods like interviews, focus groups, and content
analysis.
Quantitative Research:
o Involves numerical data and statistical analyses to examine
patterns, relationships, and trends.
 The following are various research methods in scientific research:
3.3.1 Experimental Research:
 Involves manipulating variables to observe their effects and establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
3.3.2 Correlational Research:
 Examines the relationship between two or more variables without
manipulation, focusing on the degree of association.
3.3.3 Descriptive Research:
 Aims to describe and present an accurate portrayal of a
phenomenon, often using surveys, observations, or case studies.
3.3.4 Longitudinal Research:
 Studies participants over an extended period to observe changes and
developments over time.
3.3.5 Cross-Sectional Research:
 Collects data from participants at a single point in time for
comparisons and analysis.
3.3.6 Case Study:
 Case study is an in-depth exploration of a particular individual, group,
event, or phenomenon.
 It is done to gain a detailed understanding, context, and insights into
a specific case.
 It often uses multiple sources of data (interviews, observations,
documents) to provide a comprehensive analysis.
 For example: Investigating the impact of a new teaching method on
student learning in a specific school.
3.3.7 Action Research:
 Action research involves systematic inquiry by practitioners to solve
specific problems or improve practices within their own context.
 To bring about practical change and improvement in a real-world
setting.
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  Collaboration between researchers and practitioners, iterative cycles
of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting.
 For example: A teacher collaboratively working with colleagues to
enhance classroom strategies and assess the impact on student
engagement and achievement.

3.4 STEPS IN CONDUCTING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH:

 In doing research, the following steps are followed:
i. Identify Research Problem:
 Clearly define the research question or problem to be addressed.
ii. Review Literature:
 Conduct a comprehensive review of existing research to inform the
study.
iii.Formulate Hypothesis or Research Questions:
 Develop testable hypotheses or specific research questions.
iv.Select Research Design:
 Choose the appropriate research design based on the nature of the
study.
v. Select Participants (Sampling):
 Define the target population and select a representative sample.
vi.Ethical Considerations:
 Obtain ethical approval, informed consent, and address
confidentiality and participant rights.
vii. Data Collection:
 Collect data using appropriate methods (surveys, interviews,
observations, etc.).
viii. Data Analysis:
 Analyze data using statistical or qualitative methods, depending on
the research design.
ix.Interpret Results:
 Interpret findings in the context of the research questions and
existing literature.
x. Draw Conclusions:
 Summarize key findings and draw conclusions based on the evidence.
xi.Communicate Results:
 Share results through academic publications, presentations, or
reports.

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 xii.Peer Review:
 Submit research for peer review to receive feedback and ensure
methodological rigor.
xiii. Revision or Replication:
 Revise the study based on feedback or replicate the research to
validate findings.
xiv. Implementation (if applicable):
 If the research has practical implications, recommend and monitor
the implementation of changes.
xv. Continuous Learning:
 Engage in ongoing learning and potentially conduct follow-up studies
to expand knowledge.
 These steps collectively ensure a systematic and rigorous approach to
scientific research across various methodologies.
 For example, consider the following example of how scientific research
might be conducted to investigate problems of learning science subjects in
Tanzanian secondary schools, following such steps:
Research Question:
o "Why do students in Tanzanian secondary schools face
challenges in learning science subjects?"
Literature Review:
o Researchers would start by conducting a literature review to
understand existing studies on science education in Tanzanian
secondary schools.
o They might find studies highlighting issues such as resource
constraints, teacher training, and curriculum effectiveness.
Research Design:
o For this example, a mixed-methods approach is chosen.
o The researchers decide to use surveys to collect quantitative data on
students' perceptions and performance in science subjects and
qualitative methods like interviews to gain a deeper understanding of
the challenges.
Participant Selection:
o A representative sample of secondary school students from different
regions in Tanzania would be selected.
o This sample would include students from various socioeconomic
backgrounds and academic performance levels.

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Ethical Considerations:
o Ethical guidelines would be followed, obtaining informed consent
from students and ensuring the confidentiality and privacy of the
collected data.
o The researchers would also obtain permission from relevant
authorities, such as the Ministry of Education.
Quantitative Data Collection:
o Researchers distribute surveys to students, asking questions about
their attitudes toward science, study habits, access to resources, and
perceived challenges in learning science subjects.
o The surveys include both closed-ended questions for quantitative
analysis and open-ended questions for qualitative insights.
Qualitative Data Collection:
o In-depth interviews and focus group discussions are conducted with
a subset of students, teachers, and possibly parents.
o These qualitative methods aim to explore the underlying reasons for
the challenges identified in the surveys.
o Questions might address issues like teacher-student interactions, the
adequacy of learning materials, and the relevance of the curriculum.
Data Analysis:
(a). Quantitative Analysis:
o The survey data is analyzed using statistical methods to identify
patterns and correlations.
o For example, statistical tests could reveal associations between
certain study habits and academic performance.
(b). Qualitative Analysis:
o Thematic analysis is applied to the qualitative data from interviews
and focus groups.
o This involves identifying recurring themes and patterns in
participants' responses.
Integration of Findings:
o Quantitative and qualitative findings are integrated to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the challenges in learning science
subjects.
o Triangulation, or comparing results from different methods,
strengthens the validity of the overall findings.
Interpretation of Results:

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 o Researchers interpret the results in the context of the research
questions and existing literature.
o They may discover, for instance, that a lack of learning resources and
low teacher-student engagement are significant factors contributing
to the challenges in learning science subjects.
Recommendations:
o Based on the findings, researchers develop recommendations for
addressing the identified challenges.
o This might include policy suggestions, teacher training programs, or
improvements in learning materials and facilities.
Dissemination:
o Researchers share their findings through academic journals,
presentations at conferences, and reports to relevant educational
authorities in Tanzania.
o Dissemination ensures that the research contributes to evidence-
based decision-making in education.
Follow-up Studies:
o The research process is iterative.
o Follow-up studies might be conducted to assess the impact of
implemented changes or to explore new questions that arise from the
initial findings.
 Through this systematic and scientific approach, researchers can uncover
the specific challenges faced by students in learning science subjects in
Tanzanian secondary schools and provide actionable insights to improve
science education in the country.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWRES

FOR MTT &A.E
1. What is scientific research? Describe how educational psychology
relate to scientific research.
Scientific Research is a systematic process of gathering, analyzing,
and interpreting data to gain knowledge, test hypotheses, and answer
specific questions.

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 - It involves applying rigorous methodologies and principles of
scientific inquiry to investigate and understand various phenomena.
- Scientific researches rely on measurements, experiments and
statistical analysis.

Educational Psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on

studying human behavior in educational settings.

- It aims to understand how students learn, develop, and interact in

educational environments, and how educational practices can be
optimized to enhance learning outcomes.
- It is knowledge based on cognitive, developmental and school
psychology to study how to assist individual learners to develop their
potentials.

The following is how educational psychology is closely related to scientific

research in the following ways:

It investigate effects of teaching methods using experimental

Studies:
- Educational psychologists conduct controlled experiments in school
settings to investigate the effects of different teaching methods,
learning strategies, or interventions on student performance.
- For example, an educational psychologist might conduct a
randomized controlled trial to test the effectiveness of a new
teaching technique on student achievement in a specific subject.

It often use observational Studies:

- Researchers in educational psychology often use observational
methods to gather data on students' behavior, learning styles, and
interactions with teachers and peers.
- Observational studies can provide valuable insights into the
dynamics of the classroom and inform instructional practices.

It uses Surveys and Questionnaires in gathering information to

be processed to generate its knowledge:

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 - Educational psychologists use surveys and questionnaires to collect
data from students, teachers, and parents about their experiences
and attitudes related to education.
- These surveys can help identify trends, understand learning
preferences, and assess the effectiveness of educational programs.

It track students' progress and development using

Longitudinal Studies:
- Educational psychologists may conduct longitudinal studies that
track students' progress and development over an extended period.
- Longitudinal research provides valuable information about
educational outcomes over time and allows for the examination of
factors that influence learning and academic achievement.
It used statistical, measurements and experiments (Meta-
Analyses) in analyzing information:
- Educational psychology incorporates meta-analyses, which are
systematic reviews that combine and analyze data from multiple
studies.
- Meta-analyses can provide a comprehensive and statistically robust
summary of research findings on a particular educational topic,
helping educators make evidence-based decisions.

Generally, educational psychology and scientific research are closely

intertwined, with researchers in this field using scientific methods and
principles to investigate various aspects of education and learning.

- The findings from educational psychology research contribute to the

development of evidence-based educational practices and inform
educational policies that can enhance student learning and
achievement.
2. Teachers should be scientific researchers and able to analyze
research reports. Discuss this assentation in relation to teaching
and educational psychology.
Introduction
Scientific research is a process of investigation phenomenon as the attempt
to gain knowledge of things that exist using statistical, measurements and
experiments.

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 - It is therefore the knowledge building process which also inspires
people including teachers.
- Research inspires teachers ‘personal growth and development.
- Scientific research is the research conducted through scientific
approach.
- Scientific approach is systematic since it has laid down procedures of
carrying out an investigation.
- Scientific research is the research conducted for the purpose of
contributing towards science by the systematic collection,
interpretation and evaluation of data.
- Scientific research in done in a well and logical planned manner.
- It is based not on the phenomenon being investigated but by the
way the investigation is carried out.
- Scientific research is objective, systematic and verifiable.
- It is objective since it is based on the observable and/or on
measurable aspects.
Main body
- Educational Psychology by its nature is treated as a science.
- Like science, it employs different objective methods of data
collection, experiments and drawing inferences.
- It deals with the study of an organized and systematic body of
knowledge concerning human behaviour of all kinds.
- Therefore, Teachers should be scientific researchers and able
to analyze research reports
- This is due to the following reasons:

Educational psychologists Relies on scientific resolutions:

 Educational psychologists do not accept resolutions (findings)
that might be biased, based on personal beliefs, opinions,
speculation or experience alone.
 It requires scientific investigated reports only.
Educational psychology is founded in verifiably researched
knowledge:
 The knowledge body of education psychology need to be
verifiably founded on the premise that someone else can
crosscheck the findings by repeating the same research
scientifically based on empirical evidence.

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  Teachers should be able to utilize such kind of expertise.
Educational psychology findings are to be shared by
teachers:
 Teachers bring their expertise for classroom management and
teaching activities by actively sharing and/or utilizing the
educational psychology knowledge they have gained through
scientific research.
Educational psychology assist the formation of teacher
professional community:
 Teachers also build a professional community and shape the
minds within that community through scientific research
activities done in educational psychology area.
Educational psychology studies emotional, cognitive and
social processes:
 Educational psychology, as the branch of psychology deals with
the scientific study of human learning. It's concerned
with studying the emotional, cognitive and social processes in
learning, and using such knowledge to aid better learning
processes.
Educational psychology It investigate the learning process:
 Educational psychologists often work in school to help students
improve the learning experience. This is possible because as
the field work it relate to scientific research, in which it
investigates the learning process and to evaluate programs
designed to foster learning.
Conclusion
Educational psychology relates to scientific research because it relies on it
to develop new understanding about the teaching and learning to improve
educational practices at schools.
- To harvest this necessary and very much needed knowledge teachers
must be scientific researchers.
3. Outline main stages of conducting scientific research in educational
psychology.
Introduction
Research in the psychology of education is focused on the strategies, actions
and practices that enhance the learning of students, taking into account their

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individual characteristics, however, importantly, research is also focused on
the strategies, actions and programs that benefit the learners and teachers.
Main body
The main stages of conducting research in Educational Psychology are:
i. Conceptualizing the problem
- The first thing is to identify a problem that is researchable i.e.,
research problem.
- A problem is any issue that can be answered by doing research.
- Some of the things we may like to study cannot be explained through
scientific approach.
- Scientific methods cannot be applied in finding the existence of God,
or God’s relationship with student’s academic performance.
- Research problem can be a result of personal experiences in one’s
professional field (e.g., teaching/learning experiences in school
settings) or developed from the findings of other researches
(normally research findings raise new questions that need to be
answered through scientific methods).
- A research problem may be finding why most students from area ‘A’
are dropping out of school and performance of most of those
remaining in school is low.
- When formulating the research problem, one has to draw from
theories and other materials related to phenomenon under
investigation.
- This knowledge gained shows what is going on the area of research
and also is used to formulate the hypothesis.
ii.Hypothesis formulation
- A hypothesis is a tentative answer to scientific research question that
has not yet been tested.
- It states the predictions about what research will find.
- For some research projects, you might have to write several
hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.
- Hypothesis is a statement indicating the relationship of the variables
of the research and indicating the expected results of the study.
- Hypothesis of the above research problem may be “ Students of
parents with secondary education in area “A” are more likely to
complete schools than students whose parents have only primary
school education”.
- Variables are the elements in the hypothesis.
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 - In the above hypothesis the variables are “ parents with secondary
education”, “parents with primary school education” and “completing
school”. So, the main activity in this stage is to identify and clarify the
research problem.
iii. Data Collection
- This stage involves determining instruments and mechanisms of
obtain information needed in solving the research problem.
- In this step, information gathered is used to test the hypothesis.
- The hypothesis is not determined as correct or incorrect, but if it is
rejected or accepted on the data obtained.
- There are several ways of collecting data that are to be discussed in
the following section.
iv. Conclusions (analysis, interpretations and reporting)
- The raw data collected is processed through statistical procedures so
that results can be analyzed and interpretations made.
- Statistical analysis determines if the results happened by chance or
are the results of conditions created or that observed by the
researcher.
- The results are used to make conclusions that indicate the application
of findings in respective situations.
Conclusion
Generally, scientific research is the organized and it is a systematic method
of finding answers to questions. It is systematic because it is a process
broken up into clear stages that lead to conclusions. Research is organized
because there is a planned structure or method used to reach the
conclusion.
4. Outline major research methods and discuss basic methods
used to collect data in scientific researches.
5. Identify strengths and limitations of each main method of
collecting data in scientific research.
Introduction
There are two major types of research methodology in Educational
Psychology.
- These are the following;
o Quantitative methods and
o Qualitative methods.

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 - In quantitative approaches it is the measurements and test scores
which are used.
- Variables in the research are quantified and statistical methods are
applied for the interpretation of the data.
- In qualitative approaches are used to study theoretical variables
that can only be inferred and are difficult to quantify.
- This method can be used to describe events, processes, motivation,
attitudes and personal experiences.
- For example, a participant might be directed to narrate his feelings
under specific conditions and then his/her explanation is recorded
and analyzed.
Main body
the following are some of methods used to collect research data
Descriptive Study
Meaning
- This is the type of qualitative study which aim to determines the
current status of the behavior in the research problem.
- The main aim is to understand and describe the way things are.
- So, the researcher is collecting data to test hypothesis.
- Descriptive study is used to get understanding of student’s the
attitudes, opinions, and the occurrences of behaviour among
students.
Steps in data collection
One mean of collecting data in descriptive study is through observation.
- Natural observation is systematic observation and recording data
(thus scientific) in a natural setting while the researcher is detached
from the activities of the group under study.
- This can either be observing students and teachers in the classroom,
cafeteria or in the playing field.
- In Participant observation the researcher (Observer) is actively
engaged in the activities of the group of the study.
- So, the observer is both part of the group and is also involved in
recording the data.
Another method in descriptive is Survey research.
- This involves selecting a number of people (sample) to collect data
that represents the views, opinions, attitudes and/or beliefs of a
population.

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 - Data can be collected by asking questions through questionnaires
and/or conducting interviews.
- Due to technological advancements these instruments can be
administered either by face-to-face or through e-mail and/or phones.
Single Case Study
What is a single case study?
Single case study is the research methods which is based on investigating
one single individual or specific event.
- It used when an opportunity avails itself for a study that could not
otherwise be done due to ethical or practical reasons.
- We cannot inject students with addictive drugs to study their levels of
aggressions against others.
- However, we can observe the levels of aggression of students who
are discovered to be drug addicts.
- The findings of case study can help us to come up with some
understanding of a phenomenon.
- However, since the results cannot be analyzed statistically, their
interpretations cannot be generalized to other people.
Correlational study
What is correlation study?
This study determines the relationship between two or more variables that
are associated.
- It indicates whether there is relationship or not.
- Statistical approach is used to determine the strength of the
relationship and if it is either positive or negative.
- The score of relationship lies between the coefficient of -1 (negative)
and +1 (positive).
- A score close to 0 means there is no relationship between the
variables.
- There is no relationship between the height of student and his/her
test score.
- A score close to -1 implies a negative relationship i.e., if one variable
increases the other one decreases and vice versa.
- A good example is the relationship between test score and number of
wrong answers.
- If the number of wrong answers increases the test score decrease,
when the number of wrong answers decreases the test score
increase.
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 - A score close to +1 means a positive relationship i.e., if one variable
increases the other variable also increases.
- When the number of correct answers increase also the test score
increases.
The strength of the relationship can be used to make predictions.
- However, finding that there is a relationship between the variables
does not mean there is cause-effect relationship i.e., one cannot say
either of the variables is the cause of the relationship.
- The number of correct or incorrect test answers is not the cause of
academic performance of a student but rather due to other factors
such as mental ability, study skills or level of difficulty of the test.
Experimental Research
What is experimental research? How is it applied in education?
This is the research method used by educational psychologists to
determine cause-effect relationship between variables i.e., to find out if a
certain variable is the cause of behaviour or condition.
- Experimental research is conducted in a laboratory or controlled
environment whereby conditions or factors thought to
cause/influence the respective behaviour are carefully manipulated.
- The factor that is manipulated is called the independent variable
while the behavior being observed or measured is called the
dependent variable.
- So independent variable is the factor considered to be influential,
cause or has effect on the dependent variable.
- If the dependent variable changes due to manipulation of the
independent variable, then we say there might be cause-effect
relationship between the two variables i.e., independent variable has
an influence on the dependent variable.
In many experimental researches two groups of individuals are used.
- These are the following;
o Experimental group, and
o Control group.
- At the beginning of the research both groups are equal in all aspects.
- Random sampling is used to form these groups.
- This technique gives each individual of the study an equal chance to
be selected in either group and eliminates the biases that the
researcher may have.

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 - Experimental group is the one manipulated while the control group is
treated the same way as the experimental group with the exception
of the manipulated factor.
- The factor manipulated in the experimental group is the independent
variable while the behavioral outcomes of the two groups are the
dependent variable.
Cross-sectional Research and Longitudinal Research
What is cross section research? Why is it called longitudinal
research?
These are research methods that are time span researches.
- They are research studies based on charges related to period of time.
- For example, we might be interested to know the characteristics of
students at different stages of development.
There are two main approaches used in time span researches.
- These are the following;
o In cross-sectional research, and
o In longitudinal research
Longitudinal and cross-sectional research are two different approaches
used in research studies to gather and analyze data. Here are the
differences between longitudinal and cross-sectional research:
Longitudinal Research:
- Longitudinal research involves studying the same individuals or
groups over an extended period.
- It focuses on observing and collecting data from participants at
multiple points in time, allowing for the examination of changes and
developments over time.
- Researchers can track patterns, trends, and relationships over a
longer duration, which provides a deeper understanding of the
subject under investigation.
- Longitudinal research enables the examination of the effects of time
and the ability to establish temporal relationships between variables.
- Examples of longitudinal research include cohort studies, panel
studies, and follow-up studies.
Cross-Sectional Research:
- Cross-sectional research involves collecting data from different
individuals or groups at a specific point in time.

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 - It captures a snapshot of a population or phenomenon at a particular
moment, allowing researchers to analyze and compare data from
different individuals or groups.
- Cross-sectional research provides information about the prevalence,
distribution, and associations between variables at a specific time
point.
- It is often used to study large populations and to gather data
efficiently within a shorter timeframe.
- Examples of cross-sectional research include surveys, opinion polls,
and prevalence studies.
In summary, the key difference between longitudinal and cross-sectional
research is the time dimension.
- Longitudinal research follows the same individuals or groups over
time, while cross-sectional research captures data from different
individuals or groups at a specific point in time.
- Both approaches have their strengths and limitations, and the choice
between them depends on the research objectives, resources, and
the nature of the research question.
Action Research
What is action research?
Action research is research carried by a teacher or several teachers, rather
than psychologist or research experts, with the aim of solving a specific
problem in the classroom or school.
- The findings are used to remedy and improve teaching/learning
processes.
- In Action Research a teacher uses research procedures to gain skills
that help them to deal with problems or situation that hinder
effective learning in their classrooms.
- So, the teacher has to know how to formulate question that
accurately reflects the problem/situation, to define the terms in the
question, collect data and use analysis processes that yield findings
that are valid and reliable.
- From the findings the teacher makes strategies for instructional
improvement or for addressing the adverse situation.
- The implications are that as an effective teacher you are not only
going to teach but also be a researcher in the classroom all the time.

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 - In action research you may follow the same procedures used in the
other types of researches to avoid personal biases but have reliable
results that lead to effective line of action.
As an example, a teacher may observe that a certain student in the class is
always causing commotion and that s/he is supported by some other
students despite being warned several times.
- Firstly, the teacher formulates a question “What makes Bahati to
make commotion?
- The teacher needs to define commotion.
- Next, the teacher engages in data collection.
- The teacher records when and how many times s/he makes
commotion and through interview deduce why s/he makes
commotions.
- Also, s/he may record when and how many times the other students
support him/her.
- Then next follows the data analysis.
- The findings from the analysis may reveal that Bahati and his/her
colleagues are not motivated learn the teacher’s subject.
- Based on the findings the teachers make an action plan on how to
make students motivated to learn his/her subject.
Conclusion
6. What are ethics in research? With examples, elaborate why is it
necessary for teachers and educational psychologist to adhere
to ethics in research during conducting scientific research
studies?
7. When conducting a research student in education psychology,
there are several ethical issues a teacher has to bear in mind.
Examine this statement by using school-based examples.
Introduction
Research ethics are the moral principles that govern how researchers
should carry out their work.
- These principles are used to shape research regulations agreed by
groups such as university governing bodies, communities or
governments.
- All researchers should follow any regulations that apply to their work.
- Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical
principles to research activities which include the following;
 Precautions
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  Confidentiality
 Gaining concert
 Permission
 Design and implementation of research,
 Respect towards society and others,
 The use of resources and research outputs,
 Avoiding scientific misconduct and
 Consideration of the regulation of research.
- When conducting a research study (even action research) there are
several ethical issues the researcher has to bear in mind.
- If these are ignored the processes and the findings of the research
might cause harm to participants; be rejected and/or legal actions
taken against the researcher.
Main body
- The ethics in research include the following;
o Precaution: This is about to maintaining the wellbeing of
the participants.
o Make sure the research does not lead to harm of the
participants physically, mentally or emotionally.
o Gaining consent: This is about asking permission and
getting acceptance from the participants.
o Permission from responsible authorities is ethical before
embarking on collecting data.
o If the participants are too young to make decision, then you
are required to seek consent from their parents or teachers.
o In case animals are used in the study make sure they are
treated humanely.
Conclusion
Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your
research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary
participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for
harm, and results communication.

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