HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN EDUCATION– INTRODUCTION

LECTURE 7: HISTORY OF TEACHER AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN

TANZANIA
By – Raphael Tumaini O’maitarya
0755340506/0655820165: Email - rafaeltumaini@gmail.com
___________________________________________________
Content:
 Introduction
 Teacher Education during colonial period 1890 – 1960
 Teacher Education in post-colonial Tanzania
 Teacher Education through ODL initiatives in Tanzania
 Historical development of Higher Education in east Africa
 Development of University Education in Tanzania
 Conclusion
________________________________________________________
What is teacher education? Discuss the situation of Teacher
Education during colonial period 1890 – 1960.
Introduction
Teacher education is both an academic and professional development
process which prepares and advances school graduates to become
teachers who facilitate teaching and learning in other sectors of formal
education including primary and secondary education.
- While in many countries’ teacher education is part of tertiary/
higher education, this is not the case in Tanzania.
- In Tanzania the definition of higher education is confined at the
level of tertiary and university education.
- In this lecture therefore, higher education is considered to refer to
universities, university colleges, and tertiary institutions.
Main body
Teacher Education during colonial period 1890 – 1960
During the colonial period teacher education was characterized by on-the-
job training.

Teacher education was initiated and managed by religion and colonial

government initiatives.
On- the-Job Training of Teachers
In previous lectures we learnt that as the missionaries advance
into Tanzania, like in other parts of East Africa.

- During their arrival, missionaries started schools where they taught

reading and writing.
- Many of the mission catechist village schools were established.
- This necessitated the training of teachers who would teach and
assist in routine administration of these schools.
- These teachers were trained hastily on-the-job to work as
catechists and teachers of bush schools and village schools.
- As numbers of village catechist schools expanded more catechist
and teachers were trained on-the-job.
- The approaches of teacher education training differed from one
religious group to the other.
- However, usually the more able pupils were called upon to train to
become teachers.
- Most of the teachers in this category, especially the bush school
teachers were semi-literate.

Formal Training of Teachers

During the colonial period, formal teacher education was provided within
and outside Tanzania depending on the grade of teachers and the level of
schools they were expected to teach.

- The early teacher training colleges were established as part the

schools or seminaries.
- For example, Minaki Teacher Training College was established in
the 1860s by the Mission to Central Africa (MCA).
- It was both a school and a college. During the German rule most
of the teachers in the model schools were trained in seminaries.

There were few changes during the British colonial rule.

- Teacher training continued to be conducted by the missionaries

and the government.
- The first teachers’ training college was inaugurated at Mpwapwa in
1926.
 - This was followed by Peramiho Teachers’ Training College which
was instituted in 1927.
- In the 10 years plan of 1945-1955 there was an emphasis on
improving the quality of teachers through making Grade II
teachers learn English.

Training of Graduate Teachers

Graduate teachers were trained overseas or at Makerere.

- In the 1940s and 1950s Makerere was the only higher education
institution in East Africa.
- In 1945 Makerere was offered a university status through special
arrangement with the University of London.
- Hence a department of education was established (Bokongo and
Otiende, 1986).
- The department awarded postgraduate diplomas and teaching
certificates.
- The graduate teachers taught in secondary schools.
Conclusion

3. Teacher Education in post-colonial Tanzania

(QNS: -- Present at least four challenges of training graduate
teachers in Tanzania).
By 1961 training of teachers in Tanzania was conducted in colleges
independent of secondary schools.
- Colleges for training grade C teachers, grade A teachers and
diploma teachers were established and some were expanded.
- The entry qualifications for each grades differed.
- The entry qualification for Grade C was a successful completion of
primary education.
- While entry qualifications for grade A was passing the Ordinary
level secondary education at least at division three.
- Grade C and Grade A teachers were expected to teach in primary
schools.
- Those who successfully completed form six but were not selected
for further education at the universities were recruited for the
Diploma in education program.
 - Teachers with Diploma in education were expected to teach in
secondary schools.

Training of graduate teachers continued to take place at Makerere

in Uganda.

- In 1962 the faculty of education started a Bachelor of Education

degree (B. Ed) to redress the problem of shortage of teachers
in East Africa.
- When the University of Dar es Salaam was established (1970)
Bachelor of Arts with Education and Bachelor of Science with
Education degrees were awarded in Tanzania.
- It was not until 1990s that another faculty of education was
established in Tanzania at The Open University of Tanzania.

4. Teacher Education through ODL initiatives in Tanzania

Like many other sub-Saharan African countries, Tanzania has been facing
challenges of the increased demand for teachers.

- Tanzania acknowledged the potential of ODL for enhancing

opportunity to quality education for all.
- Consequently. Tanzania has been taking various initiatives to
promote ODL in teacher training.
- The following is a brief overview of initiatives that have been
undertaken by Tanzania to deliver teacher education programs
through ODL.
- The programs include the following:

o Distance Teacher Education program (DTE),

o Primary Teacher Training by Distance (Elimu ya Ualimu
Kwa Masafa), and the
o Teacher Education Programs (TEP) offered by The Open
University of Tanzania.

4.1 The Distance Teacher Education Program (DTE)

The first major initiative in Teacher Education by ODL in Tanzania was The
Distance Teacher Education Program (DTE) which was launched in 1977 to
offset the shortage of teachers that resulted from the increased enrolment
of students in Primary Schools under the Universal Primary Education
(UPE) policy of 1974.

- Correspondence courses in this program were designed to support

the UPE teachers so that they could upgrade their education up to
the ordinary secondary education certificate level.
- The program focused on the subject content rather than the
teaching methodology. Within three years more than 37,000
teachers were trained by distance.

Although some research findings have indicated that the teachers who
were trained by this mode were not different from other grade C teachers.

Grade C teachers were those who undertook residential teacher education

programs after completing primary education.

It has been observed that the DTE program was more politically motivated
and was not well planned.

- Hence, this affected the quality of the teachers that were trained
under this scheme.
- Consequently, these teachers trained through DTE have been cited
as one of the factors that have undermined the UPE efforts
in Tanzania.
- The DTE was found to be inadequately planned.
- It lacked of proper infrastructure for supporting and assisting
student teachers in the schools.
- It lacks of appropriate mechanism for assessing and monitoring
their recruitment and progress.

In 1984 in-service program which was partly residential and partly distance
was introduced to upgrade the qualification of the primary school teachers
and their competencies.

In 1993 the residential phase was abruptly stopped because participating

teachers were displaced from their work place for a long time adding to the
problems of shortage of teachers in primary schools.
The Program was also not cost effective as many of the teachers in this
program failed the national ordinary secondary certificate examination.

4.2 Primary Teacher Education by Distance (Elimu ya Ualimu kwa

Masafa)
The first intake of 5,000 grade C/B teachers started their studies in July
2003.

- The aim of the program was to upgrade all grade C/B teachers to
grade A by 2007.
- The courses offered include both academic and pedagogical content
relevant to the primary school context.
- There were 16 modules of subject taught in primary schools
including cross-cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS, Environmental
Education, Family life Education and Children Rights.
- Primary teacher education by distance program was structured in
16 modules each divided in 26 units.
- The teaching involved distance learning and face-to-face sessions.
- Teachers were required to do exercises in the modules and submit
special assignments for marking.
- Face-to-face was conducted after every 6 months, mostly during
primary school vacations in Teacher Training Colleges or other
identified centres such as the Teacher Resource Centres (TRCs).
- Teaching practice was conducted once a year.
- Teachers sat for grade A National Examination.
- The programs were expected to be phased out in 2007 when the
participating teachers completed their studies.

4.3 The Teacher Training Programs at The Open University

of Tanzania
Open learning at tertiary levels is a more recent phenomenon in Tanzania.

- In 1992 the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) was established to

reach out to more Tanzanians who cannot access education in the
conventional, residential institutions of higher learning.
- It was also envisaged that more women would be able to
participate in the OUT programs.
 - Although the majority of OUT students are Tanzanians, some
students are from other parts of the globe.
- At the beginning OUT borrowed study materials from other
institutions of higher learning including the following:
o IGNO in India
o the University of Abuja in Nigeria,
o University of Nairobi in Kenya,
o Zimbabwe Open University.

Nowadays, while continuing collaboration with other institutions OUT is

increasingly producing study materials.

- The Open University of Tanzania enrolled a large number of

students in the teacher education courses.
- Initially the students in the program were practicing teachers
undergoing in-service professional development; increasingly more
pre-service students are enrolling in the programs.
- This study focused on the Teacher Education Undergraduate
programs offered by The Open University of Tanzania.

Due to the nature of teacher education programs all the faculties, with the
exception of the faculty of law, participate in one way or another in the
provision of teacher education programs.

- Teacher Education Undergraduate courses are offered to students

from the following faculties:

o Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences;

o Faculty of Business Management;
o Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental studies
and
o Faculty of Education

- Faculty of Education leading to the following degree programs;

o Bachelor of Arts with Education, B. A. (Ed),

o Bachelor of Business Administration with Education
BBA(Ed).
 o Bachelor of Commerce with Education, B. Com. (Ed),
o Bachelor of Science with Education, B. Sc. (Ed), and
o Bachelor of Education, B. Ed. respectively.

The Faculty of Education is the central faculty in the provision of the

Programs.

- Within the Faculty of Education, the teacher training programs

were organized in three parts.

o Part, One courses were intended to give students the

foundations on which education is built, including History,
Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology courses.
o Part Two courses were intended to provide the student with
knowledge and skills for handling teaching and learning in
different situations.
o Part Three courses intended to broaden students in further
aspects and specializations of education.

5. Historical development of Higher Education in East Africa

(QNS: - What were the challenges of development of higher
education in Tanzania since independence to recent time?)
Unlike primary and secondary education higher education in East Africa is
much younger and was run at inter-territorial level up to 1970.
- Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania were formally under the British rule
and constituted the original East African Community.
- Higher education in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania can be traced
back to 1922 when the then Makerere College in Uganda was
established as a small technical college which was then expanded to
meet the needs of the East African countries.
- There was no university education offered in East Africa until 1949
when the Makerere College in Uganda became
a university College of East Africa with three constituent colleges
in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam.
- However, the constituent colleges did not start offering degrees
until 1961.
- Thus, in the 1950s university education in East Africa was offered
only at Makerere under the auspices of the University of London.
 - The University of East Africa offered programs and degrees of
the University of London till 1966.
In 1963 attempts were made to merge (join together) the Dar es
Salaam, Nairobi and Makerere colleges into one Federal University of
East Africa.
- In 1970, the University of East Africa was dissolved to create three
autonomous universities of Nairobi, Dar es Salaam and Makerere.
- The University of Nairobi, University of Dar es
Salaam and Makerere University were thus established as the first
university in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda respectively.
- The break-up of the Federal University of east Africa was due to
the fact that the three states did not adhere to the agreement that
each college would specialize in different faculties.
Throughout the 1970s the government strengthened and expanded
the University of Dar es Salaam as a conscious effort to provide university
education to all qualified citizens and as a move to develop the necessary
human resource to cater for the private and public sectors.
- As years went by, the number of citizens seeking university
education exceeded the capacity of the university.
- In 1984 a second university, the Sokoine University of Agriculture
was established.
- Subsequently, more universities and tertiary institutions both public
and private were established.
- In 2010, forty years after the desolation of East African University in
1970 there are about 33 universities and university colleges
in Tanzania (TCU 2010).
Like in other African countries institutions of higher education in Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda have experienced challenges of globalization and the
move towards market-ization of education (knowledge economy). This was
driven by the following factors
- Developments in information and communication technology (ICT);
- High demand for education that outstrip capacity.
- Dwindling financial support.
- Competition resulting from proliferation of private
- Public institutions as well as cross-border provision of education.
Higher education institutions have responded by transformations either to
cope or manage.
- The move towards ODL is one of such coping/managing strategies.
 - In Tanzania a full-fledged open and distance learning university-
The Open University of Tanzania was established in 1992.
- In the other two countries ODL programs were offered as parallel
programs within the conventional universities thus, establishing a
dual mode of delivery.
6. Development of University Education in Tanzania
(QNS: - What were the challenges of higher education
in Tanzania at independence?)
Between 1963 and 1966 development in university education was noticed.

- In 1961 the University of Dar es Salaam started with fourteen

students in the Faculty of Law at Lumumba in TANU building
situated along Bibi Titi Mohamed Road in Dar es Salaam.
- The Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences was opened in 1964 and the
University moved to its new promises at Mlimani in the outskirts
of Dar es Salaam.
- In 1965 another faculty was opened and this was the Faculty of
Science. The enrolment increased from 14 to 1,239 students in
1966.
- Elitism (education superiority/wasomi) was intensified by politicians
who stressed for local human resource development and the
Africanisation of all sectors in terms of manpower.
- Two issues were raised to those received government bursary in
schooling:

o Five years contract in government service after the completion

of education.
o National service was made compulsory by law to all post
secondary education trainees.

This was initiated in 1966. The same year University students

demonstrated to the state house.

- As a result 80% of law and social science students, and a small

number of science and medicine students were expelled.
- This decision was changed and students resumed studies later.
- The outcome was the realization that class distinctions had
emerged.
 - The Arusha Declaration and especially education for self-reliance
focused on rescinding the process of class formation and
distinction through education.

4. Conclusion
In this lecture you have learnt about the historical development of teacher
education in Tanzania during colonial period and after independence. You
have explored the various approaches used to train teachers including on-
job training, formal training sharing premises with schools and later
teacher training colleges. You have also discussed teacher training through
open and distance learning initiatives which were instituted as mechanism
to cope with rapid demands for teachers after expansion of primary and
secondary education. Also this was an opportunity to upgrade teachers and
develop them professionally. You noted that during the colonial and
immediately after independence training for graduate teachers was
conducted in Uganda at Makerere College or overseas. Discussion on
higher education has indicated that during colonial period there were no
higher education institution in Tanzania and the initiative that were
undertaken by post-colonial states of East Africa and the government of
Tanzania to establish and develop university education.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS AND ANSWER TIPS

1. Explain the benefits and challenges of higher education

in post-colonial Tanzania.
Higher education in post-colonial Tanzania has
brought about various benefits and challenges. Let's explore both
aspects:
The following are the benefits of Higher Education in
Post-Colonial Tanzania:
Skilled Workforce: Higher education has contributed
to the development of a skilled and educated workforce in
Tanzania. Graduates from universities and higher education
institutions bring specialized knowledge and expertise to various
sectors of the economy, leading to increased productivity and
economic growth.
 Human Capital Development: Education at the
tertiary level has played a crucial role in developing human capital
in Tanzania. Graduates are equipped with critical thinking,
problem-solving, and analytical skills, which are essential for the
country's development and innovation.
Research and Innovation: Higher education
institutions have been centers for research and innovation.
Research activities have led to the development of new
technologies, solutions to societal challenges, and advancements
in various fields, contributing to the country's progress.
National Development: Higher education has been
instrumental in supporting Tanzania's efforts towards national
development. Graduates from various disciplines have been
involved in policymaking, planning, and implementation of
development initiatives across sectors such as healthcare,
agriculture, and infrastructure.
Social Mobility: Higher education has been a catalyst
for social mobility, allowing individuals from diverse backgrounds
to access opportunities for upward mobility. It has helped bridge
the gap between the privileged and less privileged by providing
access to quality education.
Challenges of Higher Education in Post-Colonial
Tanzania:
Access and Equity: Despite the expansion of higher
education institutions, access to higher education remains a
challenge for many Tanzanians, especially those from marginalized
regions and disadvantaged backgrounds. Affordability, distance to
institutions, and limited capacity are barriers to accessing higher
education opportunities.
Quality and Relevance: Some higher education
institutions face challenges related to maintaining high-quality
education and relevance to the job market. The curriculum may
not always align with industry needs, leading to a skills gap and
unemployment among graduates.
Infrastructure and Resources: Insufficient
infrastructure and limited resources, such as laboratories, libraries,
and research facilities, can hinder the quality of education and
research in higher education institutions.
 Brain Drain: Tanzania faces the challenge of brain
drain, where highly educated and skilled professionals leave the
country in search of better opportunities abroad. This trend
impacts the country's ability to retain its intellectual capital and
hinders the development of key sectors.
Language of Instruction: The use of English as the
primary language of instruction in higher education can be a
challenge for students whose first language is Kiswahili. Language
barriers may affect learning outcomes and limit access to higher
education for some individuals.
Funding and Sustainability: Ensuring adequate
funding and financial sustainability of higher education institutions
is essential. Limited funding can lead to challenges in providing
quality education, conducting research, and maintaining
infrastructure.
Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts
from the government, educational institutions, and stakeholders in
Tanzania. Increasing access, improving quality, enhancing
relevance to the job market, and investing in infrastructure and
research are critical steps towards harnessing the full potential of
higher education for national development and societal progress.

2. In-service training is not so important in teaching

profession. Discuss.

The statement "In-service training is not so important in

the teaching profession" is debatable, and it is essential to
consider both sides of the argument. While some educators may
believe that in-service training is not as crucial, there are several
reasons why it is, in fact, essential and beneficial for teachers.
Let's discuss the significance of in-service training in the teaching
profession:
Professional Growth and Development: In-service
training provides teachers with opportunities to enhance their
knowledge, skills, and teaching techniques. Continuous
professional development helps teachers stay updated with the
latest research, best practices, and innovative teaching methods.
This, in turn, improves their effectiveness in the classroom and
their ability to meet the diverse needs of students.
Adapting to Changing Educational Landscape:
Education is continuously evolving, with new teaching approaches,
technology integration, and curriculum changes. In-service
training equips teachers with the tools to adapt and thrive in a
rapidly changing educational landscape, ensuring that they remain
relevant and effective educators.
Addressing Specific Challenges: In-service training
can be tailored to address specific challenges faced by teachers in
their classrooms or schools. It can focus on topics like classroom
management, teaching students with special needs, or integrating
technology effectively. By targeting these challenges, teachers can
develop practical solutions to improve their teaching practices.
Improving Student Outcomes: Effective in-service
training translates into better teaching practices, which can lead to
improved student outcomes. When teachers are equipped with the
right skills and strategies, they can create engaging learning
experiences that enhance students' understanding and academic
performance.
Boosting Teacher Morale: In-service training
opportunities show that the education system values teachers'
professional development and growth. This recognition can boost
teacher morale and motivation, leading to increased job
satisfaction and retention in the profession.
Promoting Lifelong Learning: In-service training
encourages teachers to adopt a lifelong learning mindset.
Teachers who engage in continuous professional development are
more likely to seek out new knowledge, collaborate with
colleagues, and actively seek ways to improve their teaching over
time.
While in-service training is undoubtedly essential for the
teaching profession, its effectiveness relies on various factors.
Training programs need to be well-designed, relevant, and aligned
with teachers' needs and the specific context in which they work.
Additionally, educators must be encouraged and supported to
apply the knowledge and skills gained from in-service training in
their classrooms.
 Overall, in-service training plays a crucial role in
enhancing the quality of education and empowering teachers to
meet the diverse and evolving needs of students effectively. It is
an investment in the teaching profession that yields positive
outcomes for teachers, students, and the entire education system.

3. Explain how the changes in political policies have

affected teacher education.
Changes in political policies can have a significant
impact on teacher education, shaping the way teachers are
prepared, certified, and supported throughout their careers. Here
are some ways in which political policies influence teacher
education:
Curriculum and Standards: Political policies often
dictate the curriculum and standards for teacher education
programs. Changes in educational policies may lead to the
adoption of new teaching methods, content, and approaches to
teacher preparation. For example, shifts in policy may emphasize
the incorporation of technology in classrooms, multicultural
education, or social-emotional learning, which would require
adjustments in teacher education programs.

Teacher Certification and Licensure: Political

policies influence the requirements for teacher certification and
licensure. Changes in these policies may impact the qualifications
needed to become a teacher, including the level of education,
subject expertise, and required exams. Such changes can affect
the pipeline of new teachers and the diversity of educators in the
profession.
Accountability and Assessment: Political policies
often address accountability in education, and this extends to
teacher preparation programs. Governments may implement
performance-based assessments for aspiring teachers, requiring
them to demonstrate their teaching abilities before becoming
certified. These policies aim to ensure that new teachers are well-
prepared and capable of meeting the needs of students
effectively.
Funding and Resources: Political decisions on funding
allocation can influence the resources available for teacher
education programs. Adequate funding is essential to maintain
high-quality teacher education, including faculty development,
technology integration, and support services. Changes in funding
policies may impact the capacity of teacher education institutions
to produce highly qualified teachers.
Professional Development: Political policies shape
the approach to professional development for in-service teachers.
Governments may mandate specific training or workshops,
focusing on particular areas of instruction or student needs. The
availability and accessibility of professional development
opportunities can depend on the political priorities of the
education system.
Teacher Retention and Support: Political policies
can influence efforts to retain teachers in the profession and
provide ongoing support. Policies that prioritize teacher retention
may lead to the development of mentorship programs, career
advancement opportunities, and incentives for educators to
remain in the field. On the other hand, policies that neglect
teacher support and compensation may contribute to teacher
turnover.
Teacher Evaluation and Performance
Management: Political policies may introduce changes in teacher
evaluation systems, emphasizing performance metrics and
accountability. These policies can influence how teacher
effectiveness is measured, which can, in turn, affect hiring,
tenure, and promotion decisions.
Generally, changes in political policies have a profound
impact on teacher education, shaping the preparation,
certification, support, and professional development of teachers. It
is essential for policymakers to collaborate with educators and
stakeholders to create policies that prioritize high-quality teacher
preparation and ongoing support to ensure the success of
students and the overall improvement of education systems.
4. Explain the nature and purpose of teacher education
during the colonial period.
During the colonial period, teacher education had a
specific nature and purpose that aligned with the colonial powers'
objectives in the colonized territories. The primary goal of teacher
education during this period was to train teachers who would
serve as agents of colonial control and spread the values, culture,
and language of the colonizers. Here are the key aspects of the
nature and purpose of teacher education during the colonial
period:
Assimilation and Cultural Hegemony: The main
purpose of teacher education was to promote cultural assimilation
and impose the culture, language, and values of the colonial
powers on the indigenous population. Teachers were expected to
teach in the language of the colonizers, often neglecting or
undermining local languages and cultures.
Reproduction of Colonial Ideology: Teacher
education was geared towards reproducing the colonial ideology
and beliefs, aiming to create a loyal and compliant population that
accepted the dominance of the colonial power. This included
teaching a biased version of history and promoting the superiority
of the colonizers' civilization.
Religious Conversion: In many colonial territories,
education, including teacher education, was used as a tool for
religious conversion. Missionary schools were established to
educate native populations and introduce them to Christianity,
with the goal of converting them to Christianity and eradicating
traditional religious practices.
Limited Access for Natives: Teacher education was
often restricted to a select few from the colonized population.
Natives were given limited opportunities for higher education and
teacher training, which perpetuated social and economic
inequalities within the society.
Vocational Training: Teacher education focused on
providing practical skills to produce a workforce suitable for
performing clerical and administrative tasks that served the
colonial administration. The curriculum was often vocational, with
 an emphasis on teaching basic literacy, numeracy, and technical
skills.
Control and Surveillance: Teacher education was
used as a means of control and surveillance over the local
population. Teachers were expected to report any signs of
resistance or dissent among their students, reinforcing the colonial
authorities' grip on the population.
Limiting Critical Thinking: The nature of teacher
education during the colonial period discouraged critical thinking
and independent thought. Instead, it emphasized rote learning
and memorization to ensure obedience and conformity to colonial
rule.
To conclude, teacher education during the colonial
period served the interests of the colonizers, perpetuating their
control and dominance over the colonized population. It aimed to
produce teachers who would propagate colonial ideology,
suppress native languages and cultures, and support the colonial
administration's policies. As a result, the education system under
colonial rule was deeply exploitative and contributed to the
marginalization and disempowerment of the indigenous
population.

5. Analyze the different approaches to teacher

education.
Teacher education is a complex and multifaceted field
that encompasses various approaches aimed at preparing
educators to be effective in their roles. These approaches can
differ significantly based on the educational context, cultural
factors, and the goals of the education system. Here are some
different approaches to teacher education:

Traditional/Conventional Approach:
 This approach to teacher education typically follows a
structured and prescriptive model. It often involves a
standardized curriculum with a focus on theoretical
knowledge and pedagogical techniques.
  The traditional approach may include lectures, textbook-
based learning, and classroom observations as the primary
methods of instruction.
 Emphasis is placed on mastering subject content and
teaching methods, often with limited practical experience in
real classrooms.
Progressive Approach:
 The progressive approach to teacher education emphasizes
student-centered learning and hands-on experiences.
 It encourages teachers to be reflective practitioners and adapt
their teaching methods to meet the needs and interests of
individual students.
 The progressive approach may incorporate experiential
learning, collaborative projects, and inquiry-based methods.
Reflective Approach:
 This approach focuses on developing teachers' ability to
critically analyze and evaluate their teaching practices and their
impact on student learning.
 Teachers engage in reflective practices to identify strengths
and areas for improvement in their teaching methods.
 Reflective approaches often involve journaling, peer
observations, and group discussions.
Competency-Based Approach:
 The competency-based approach seeks to identify specific skills
and competencies that teachers should possess and assesses
their proficiency in these areas.
 Teacher education programs may use competency frameworks
to guide curriculum development and assessment.
 Competency-based approaches aim to ensure that teachers are
equipped with the necessary skills to address the diverse needs
of their students effectively.
Integrated Approach:
 The integrated approach to teacher education combines
multiple elements from various approaches to create a
comprehensive and balanced program.
 It may incorporate theoretical knowledge, practical
experiences, reflection, and competency-based assessments.
  The integrated approach recognizes that effective teaching
requires a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Induction and Mentoring Programs:
 Some teacher education approaches include induction and
mentoring programs for new teachers entering the profession.
 These programs provide support and guidance to novice
teachers as they transition into their roles in the classroom.
 Induction and mentoring programs are designed to enhance
teacher retention and professional growth.
Online and Technology-Enhanced Approaches:
 With the advancement of technology, teacher education
programs increasingly incorporate online learning platforms
and digital resources.
 Online approaches offer flexibility and accessibility, allowing
teachers to engage in professional development and training
remotely.
In practice, teacher education programs may integrate
elements from multiple approaches to meet the diverse needs of
aspiring educators and the requirements of the education system.
The effectiveness of a particular approach depends on the
context, goals, and priorities of the education system and the
learners it serves.

6. Explain the nature and purpose of Higher education

in Tanzania.
The nature and purpose of higher education in Tanzania
are shaped by the country's social, economic, and political context.
Higher education in Tanzania is characterized by a blend of
academic and practical approaches aimed at fostering human
capital development, research, and national development. The
following points highlight the nature and purpose of higher
education in Tanzania:

Human Capital Development: Higher education

institutions in Tanzania aim to develop a skilled and educated
workforce that can contribute effectively to the country's socio-
economic development. Through higher education, students gain
specialized knowledge and expertise in various fields, preparing
them for professional careers and leadership roles.
Research and Innovation: Higher education
institutions play a crucial role in fostering research and innovation.
They conduct research that addresses local and global challenges,
contributes to knowledge advancement, and provides solutions to
societal problems. Research output from higher education
institutions in Tanzania contributes to national development and
informs policy decisions.
Academic and Vocational Education: Tanzanian
higher education offers a mix of academic and vocational
programs. While universities focus on academic disciplines,
polytechnics and technical colleges provide vocational and
technical training to meet the demands of the labor market and
promote entrepreneurship.
National Development: The purpose of higher
education is closely linked to Tanzania's national development
agenda. Graduates are expected to contribute to various sectors,
including agriculture, health, engineering, education, business,
and public administration, to support the country's growth and
progress.
Cultural Preservation and Promotion: Higher
education institutions in Tanzania promote the preservation and
promotion of the country's cultural heritage. This is achieved
through research, cultural studies, and the integration of
indigenous knowledge in relevant fields.
Fostering Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving:
Higher education aims to develop students' critical thinking,
analytical, and problem-solving skills. Graduates are expected to
be independent thinkers who can analyze complex issues and
contribute to evidence-based decision-making.
Social Cohesion and Inclusivity: Higher education
plays a role in fostering social cohesion and inclusivity. It provides
opportunities for students from diverse backgrounds to interact
and learn together, promoting mutual understanding and
cooperation.
 International Collaboration: Tanzanian higher
education institutions engage in international collaboration and
partnerships with other universities and research institutions. This
collaboration facilitates knowledge exchange, enhances research
capabilities, and exposes students to global perspectives.
Professional Development and Lifelong Learning:
Higher education contributes to the professional development of
individuals and encourages a culture of lifelong learning. It equips
students with skills that can be continually refined and adapted to
address emerging challenges.
Overall, the nature and purpose of higher education in
Tanzania are multifaceted, with a strong emphasis on human
capital development, research, national development, and the
promotion of critical thinking. The country's higher education
system aims to produce skilled, innovative, and socially
responsible graduates who can contribute positively to the well-
being and progress of Tanzanian society.

7. Identify the relationship between developments in

education in Africa in primary and secondary
education and developments in teacher and higher
education
The relationship between developments in education in
Africa at the primary and secondary levels and developments in
teacher and higher education is interconnected and mutually
influential. Each level of education impacts the other, and
advancements or challenges in one area can have repercussions
on the others. Here are some key relationships between these
levels of education:
 Teacher Education and Quality of Primary and
Secondary Education:
The quality of teacher education directly affects the
quality of instruction at the primary and secondary levels. Well-
trained and qualified teachers are more likely to deliver effective
and engaging lessons, leading to improved learning outcomes for
students.
 Investments in teacher education, including
professional development, mentorship, and ongoing support,
contribute to the overall improvement of primary and secondary
education.
Curriculum Alignment:
 The development of a coherent and well-aligned
curriculum at the primary and secondary levels requires
collaboration and coordination with higher education institutions
that provide teacher education programs.
 Teacher educators must be aware of the curriculum
requirements and teaching methods in primary and secondary
schools to ensure that pre-service teachers are adequately
prepared to implement the curriculum effectively.
Research and Innovation:
 Advancements in teacher education and higher
education can lead to innovative teaching practices and
educational research that informs improvements in primary and
secondary education.
 Teacher educators and researchers in higher
education institutions can collaborate with primary and secondary
schools to develop and test new teaching strategies and
educational technologies.
Teacher Preparation and Specialization:
 Developments in primary and secondary education,
such as the introduction of new subjects or teaching
methodologies, may necessitate specialized training for teachers.
Higher education institutions can offer specialized programs to
address these needs.
 Conversely, teacher education programs can adapt
based on changes in primary and secondary education to ensure
that pre-service teachers are adequately prepared for the evolving
needs of students.
Capacity Building and Professionalization:
 Capacity building in teacher education and higher
education is essential to improve the quality of education at all
levels. Adequate training and professional development for
teachers and educators contribute to the professionalization of the
teaching profession.
 A strong emphasis on teacher professionalization in
higher education can foster a sense of pride and commitment
among teachers at the primary and secondary levels.
Educational Policies and Reforms:
 Education policies and reforms that aim to improve
primary and secondary education often have implications for
teacher education and higher education institutions.
 Policy changes may require adjustments in teacher
education curricula, admission requirements, or the development
of new programs to meet the needs of the evolving educational
landscape.
Overall, developments in education in Africa at the
primary and secondary levels are closely intertwined with
developments in teacher education and higher education. A
comprehensive and well-coordinated approach is necessary to
ensure that advancements at each level positively impact the
entire education system, leading to improved learning outcomes
and the overall growth of the education sector in the region.