COURSE CODE:847 SEMESTER:AUTUMN

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ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Write in your own words the definition of adult education. Why we need adult
education? Also discuss scope of adult education for our society.
Only primary and secondary education, neither of which is compulsory, is offered in Pakistan.
Students seeking higher education must go abroad to a university. Pakistan has three types of
schools: Quranic schools, Dhivehi-language primary schools, and English-language primary and
secondary schools. Schools in the last category are the only ones equipped to teach the standard
curriculum. In 1992 approximately 20 percent of government revenues went to finance
education, a significant increase over the 1982 expenditure of 8.5 percent. Part of the reason for
this large expenditure results from recent increases in the construction of modern school facilities
on many of the islands. In the late 1970s, faced with a great disparity between the quality of
schooling offered in the islands and in Male, the government undertook an ambitious project to
build one modern primary school in each of the nineteen administrative atolls. The government
in Male directly controls the administration of these primary schools. Literacy is reportedly high;
the claimed 1991 adult literacy rate of 98.2 percent would make Pakistan the highest in South
Asia and the Indian Ocean region.
In Pakistan primary education comprises classes one through five, enrolling students in the
corresponding ages six through ten. Secondary education is divided between classes six through
ten, which represent overall secondary education, and classes eleven and twelve, which
constitute higher secondary education. In 1992 Pakistan had a total of 73,642 pupils in school:
32,475 in government schools and 41,167 in private schools.
Traditionally, education was the responsibility of religious leaders and institutions. Most learning
centered on individual tutorials in religious teachings. In 1924 the first formal schools opened in
Male. These schools were call edhuruge, and served as Quranic schools. Edhuruge were only
established on two other islands at this time. The basic primary school on the islands in the 1990s
is the makthab, dating from the 1940s. Primary schools of a slightly larger scale in terms of
curriculum, enrollment, and number of teachers, are called madhrasaa. During the 1940s, a
widespread government campaign was organized to bring formal schooling to as many of the
inhabited islands as possible. Enthusiastically supported by the islanders, who contributed a daily
allotment of the fish catch to support the schools, many one-room structures of coral and lime
with thatched roofs were constructed. The makthab assumed the functions of the traditional
edhuruge while also providing a basic curriculum in reading, writing, and arithmetic. But with
the death of reformist president Didi and the restoration of the sultanate in the early 1950s,
official interest in the development of education in the atolls waned.
Throughout the 1960s, attention to education focused mainly on the two government schools in
Male. In 1960 the medium of instruction changed from Dhivehi to English, and the curriculum
was reorganized according to the imported London General Certificate of Education. In the early
1990s, secondary education was available only in Male's English-medium schools, which had
also preschool and primary-level offerings. Dhivehi-medium schools existed, but most were
located in Male. These schools were private and charged a fee.
As of the early 1990s, education for the majority of Maldivian children continues to be provided
by the makthab. In 1989 there were 211 community and private schools, and only fifty
government schools. The results of a UN study of school enrollment in 1983 showed that the
total number in the new government primary schools on the atolls was only 7,916, compared
with 23,449 in private schools. In Male the number of students attending government schools
was 5,892, with 5,341 in private schools. Throughout the 1980s, enrollment continued to rise as
more governmentsponsored schools were constructed in the atolls. In 1992 the first secondary
school outside Male opened on Addu Atoll.
In 1975 the government, with international assistance, started vocational training at the
Vocational Training Center in Male. The training covered electricity, engine repair and
maintenance, machinery, welding, and refrigeration. Trainees were chosen from among fourth-
and fifth-grade students. In the atolls, the Rural Youth Vocational Training Program provided
training designed to meet local needs in engine repair and maintenance, tailoring, carpentry, and
boat building. On the island of Mafuri on Male Atoll, a large juvenile reformatory also offered
vocational training. Established by the Ministry of Home Affairs in 1979, the reformatory
provided training courses in electrical and mechanical engineering, carpentry, welding, and
tailoring, as well as a limited primary school academic curriculum.
International organizations enabled the creation of the Science Education Center in 1979 and an
Arabic Islamic Education Center opened in 1989. Japanese aid enabled the founding of the
Pakistan Center for Social Education in 1991. In the latter half of 1993 work began on the
Pakistan Institute of Technical Education to help eliminate the shortage of skilled labor. Q.2
Discuss the role of adult education in Bhutan and Maldives.
The Government of Bhutan is committed to providing lifelong learning opportunities to adult
learners. In 1991, the Non-Formal Education (NFE) Programme was created by the joint efforts
of the Dzongkha Development Authority (DDA) and the national Women’s Association of
Bhutan (NWAB). In 1996, the NFE Programme was taken over by the Ministry of Education and
it began growing rapidly. Currently, 953 NFE centres exist and more than 13 500 learners
participate in the NFE Programme annually. Despite this progress, Bhutan still faces a low
literacy rate. The NFE
Programme, therefore, occupies quite an important role in meeting Bhutan’s objective of lifelong
learning.
The Non-Formal and Continuing Education Division (NFCED) is a division within the
Department of Adult and Higher Education in the Ministry of Education.
The objectives of NFCED are:
• to provide quality literacy and numeracy education in Dzongkha, the
official language, to those who did not receive/complete a formal
education, in order to:
o promote Dzongkha
o increase the literacy rate (aiming to achieve 70% adult literacy by 2013 and
ultimately near 100% by 2015)
• to provide life skills and livelihood skills education  to provide
lifelong learning opportunities.
NFCED coordinates and facilitates the policy formulation, curriculum development and capacity
development for non-formal and continuing education programmes. District education officers in
20 districts in the country are then responsible for managing the NFE centres in their districts. At
community level, school principals who are mandated by the Ministry of Education, are
designated to supervise and provide support for the NFE centres and facilitators. Village elders
under the chairmanship of the village chiefs are also actively involved in the management of the
NFE in their communities.
• The basic literacy programme takes place over one and a half years, and is held for three
hours per day for five days a week at the NFE centres, usually housed in local schools. It
is offered in the official language. In addition to basic literacy and numeracy skills,
learners receive a livelihood skills education. Therefore, on the completion of the
programme, learners are not only expected to have basic skills in reading, writing and
calculations but also knowledge and skills related to health, sanitation, environment,
agriculture, livestock, early childcare and development, STD/AIDS prevention and other
relevant life skills. The average number of learners is 20 per class.
• The post literacy programme is a year-long programme. Learners meet for three hours per
day, five days a week at NFE centres. This programme is designed for learners who have
completed the basic literacy programme or for those with existing basic literacy skills.
The post literacy curriculum consists broadly of three levels. Each level is further divided
into seven thematic areas: health, environment and agriculture, income
generating/livelihood, social/cultural issues, early childhood development, good
governance, and disaster management. The learners also have the option to learn English
at this level. The average number of learners is 20 per class.
• The self-learning programme does not follow a set structure. The individual learner goes
to NFE centres to read and learn using materials of their choice which are available at the
centres. This programme was created to support continuous and lifelong learning. The
community learning centre (CLC) manager is there if needed to support the learner. The
CLC is usually a small, community building constructed through community
participation. Sometimes rooms in local schools, private houses, temples, or out-reach
clinics are used as CLCs. A CLC provides a number of activities for literacy education
 and life skills development and accommodates other community development
programmes and meetings. Two major activities that take place at CLCs are reading
(reading corners are provided where learners can find books of interest) and skills
training (such as tailoring, furniture making, souvenir making, and embroidery and
weaving). In some of the CLCs both basic literacy and post literacy courses are also
offered.
• The continuing education (CE) programme lasts for 10 months. It is held for two hours a
day on Monday to Fridays and four hours on Saturday. It is designed to create an avenue
for continuous and lifelong learning for people who could not complete their formal
studies. Currently the government and private higher secondary schools offer CE to adult
learners who are mostly government employees or from private organisations. The
learners follow the same curriculum of the formal system. The average number of
learners is 40 per class. CE candidates completing class XII are given the Bhutan Higher
Secondary Education Certificate examination (BHSEC) and those candidates completing
class X are given the Bhutan Certificate of Secondary Education examination (BCSE).
• In order to provide relevant content in NFE programmes, learners’ needs are identified
through surveys, seminars, workshops and interaction. Small surveys on literacy are
conducted by district education officers and other relevant sector heads, and seminars and
workshops are conducted for stakeholders such as local leaders, sector heads at the
districts, parent principals and NFE instructors. In addition, economic, social and cultural
needs, as well as other emerging issues in communities and the nation at large are also
considered. The current content is broadly based on seven thematic areas: health,
environment and agriculture, income generating/livelihood, social/cultural issues, early
childhood development, good governance and disaster management.
• The materials are developed through material development workshops which are attended
by all stakeholders at the national level, such as NFE instructors, parent principals,
programme coordinators from other relevant agencies, education officers from the
districts and programme coordinators from the NFCED. The draft materials are then pre-
tested for necessary adjustments. Often, international consultants are also involved to
ensure the quality of the materials.
 • The content of the teaching and learning materials is updated regularly to suit emerging
needs.
Traditionally children aged three and up in the Maldives were educated in traditional schools
known as "edhurge", generally using a single large room or the shelter of tree. The children learn
simple arithmetic, Dhivehi and some Arabic, and practice reciting the Qur'an. These private
schools no longer exist, as western style schools replaced them in the 1980s-1990s·
The first western-style school in the Maldives is the Majeediyya School, a secondary established
in 1927. The school was originally co-educational, but it was felt necessary to create a second
school for girls (Aminiyya School) in 1944.
Based on a study by educational advisors from UNESCO, the Government of Maldives began
implementation of the Educational Development Project on 6 October 1976. This Project
constituted a comprehensive programme of educational development comprising Expansion of
Primary Education, Teacher Training, Curriculum Development, Educational Radio, Community
Education Programme for Adult Education and Textbook Development and Printing. The first
School under this Project was opened in Baa Atoll Eydhafushi in March 1978 followed by
another in HDh. Kulhudhuffushi in March 1979. Schools construction was continued in all atolls
and was later complemented by Primary Schools construction project by Japan. Curriculum
Development began in 1976, while Teacher Training began in 1977. Simultaneously other
Programmes were introduced and continued through the 1970s and until the mid 1980s from
where on the First Ten Year Master Plan for Educational (1986-1995) began implementation.
Second Master Plan was implemented 1996-2005. These were the bases of educational
development in the Maldives begun by the government of President Nasir continued by President
Gayoom.
As of 2002, the President's Office claimed that universal primary education has almost been
achieved and the literacy rate had improved from 70 percent in 1978 to 98.82 percent. In 2005,
there were 106,220 students in schools, or 40% of the total population.
Q.3 what is role of Non-governmental Organizations or Private sector in promotion of
adult education? Also suggest the ways through which we can promote adult education in
our country.
NGOs have several strengths. First, they have a capacity for participatory planning; monitoring
and evaluation; and social transformation through grass-root interaction. Other strengths include
their ability to closely monitor the schools and teachers, and their capacity and willingness to
provide need based teacher training. The history of Pakistani NGOs goes back to partition in
1947, however, not referred to as NGOs at that time, many voluntary organizations were set up
to provide humanitarian aid to the refugees pouring into the country and to help victims. The
government of Pakistan has long recognized the importance of NGOs in terms of government’s
willingness to extend cooperation to NGOs. The experience of NGOs in recent years suggests
that at the level of policy planning.
Building the school is only half the story. In Pakistan what are the required ingredients to
transform a building into a school? Issues that need to be addressed include: How do you
encourage parents to send their kids to schools? How do you get and keep teachers? How do you
discourage student and teacher absenteeism? The provision of physical infrastructure needs to be
supplemented by other measures to make sure the schools function properly: that both teachers
and students attend regularly and that the education is of a high standard. Common
implementation problems encountered under each project include:
• weak implementation capacity;
• frequent staff turnover;
• inadequate recurrent budgets;
• implementation delays;
• weak project management and supervision;
• weak coordination of activities, and among government institutions;
• incomplete training components ;
• underutilization of loan funds for capacity building, procurement and consultants;
• inadequate focus on qualitative changes;
• delayed and inadequate staffing of facilities (schools etc); and
• weak monitoring and minimal impact assessment
Working towards a common goal of improving the situation of primary education among the
country’s populace, NGOs use a variety of strategies such as public-private partnership; Teacher
training; Family literacy; Community participation; Community supported schools; Adopt-
aSchool; Running non formal/community based schools with effective community participation;
and Developing human resources for the education sector.
NGOs are very clear about the fact that their role is not to replace the government but to ensure
that the government effectively covers educational needs, with respect to quality, accessibility,
affordability and equity in mind. NGOs assume several important roles such as advocacy, service
delivery, capacity building, grass root community mobilization, innovation, social
experimentation and research.
Most NGOs mobilize the community to acquire land, labor and capital for building the schools.
Communities also help in hiring teachers and monitoring the overall performance of the school.
This builds trust, and ownership, and it also removes any information asymmetries about the
intentions of the parties involved. Sustainability of institutions is dependent on the community
taking over, to an extent at least, and being involved with the institution.
To sum up, in spite of shortcomings, NGOs have an important role to play in meeting challenges
of quality, access and affordability of primary education in Pakistan. Their involvement and their
rapid growth spans over the last couple of decades, owing primarily to greater access to foreign
and local funds.
The future role of NGOs is going to be much more dynamic. NGOs are already playing an
important role in networking and creating partnerships. Their supportive role in the future will
include a shift towards formal education, from the current predominantly non-formal focus, and
greater involvement in both elementary and secondary education.
There is no doubt that progress has been made in the last few decades, but progress has been
slow, and universalization of primary education still remains a relatively distant goal. There are
also other issues that limit the progress. The state and society in Pakistan have, in many ways,
accepted the fact that they need the help of NGOs and the private sector to ensure better delivery.
The experiments of today, and especially the successes of today, can thus act as guides for
tomorrow.
• The level of instruction, environment and teaching has to go hand in hand with the raising
of education board standards. Treating the teachers with respect and endowing them with
the status of important team members creates an enabling environment for them. NGOs
should hire teachers from needy families who are not over qualified for the job.
 • The most important lesson shared for making the schools a success, is effective
surveillance of schools through a variety of mechanisms, including local surveillance
through community education committees and through NGOs’ community mobilizers.
• Donor dependency is the biggest challenge. Sustainability becomes hard to achieve once
time-bound funds are exhausted. However, there are donors who are NGO-dependent.
Careful planning and proper utilization of funds is the NGO’s responsibility as the donors
are not always development experts.
• The government must ensure that every person - child, youth and adult - shall be able to
benefit from educational opportunities designed to meet their basic learning needs.
• An expanded vision is needed to serve the basic learning needs, institutional structures,
curricula, and conventional delivery systems while building on the best in current
practices. New possibilities exist today which result from the convergence of the increase
in information and the unprecedented capacity to communicate. We must seize them with
creativity and a determination for increased effectiveness.
• Educational authorities have a unique obligation to provide basic education forall, but
they cannot be expected to supply every human, financial or organizational requirement
for this task. New and revitalized partnerships at all levels will be necessary: partnerships
among all sub-sectors and forms of education, recognizing the special role of teachers
and that of administrators and other educational personnel; partnerships between
education and other government departments, including planning, finance, labour,
communications, and other social sectors; partnerships between government and non-
governmental organizations, the private sector, local communities, religious groups, and
families.
Q.4 Distinguish between andragogy and pedagogy. If you have to teach adults, which
aspects of andragogy will you focus?
It’s not all Greek to us: When we’re talking about eLearning, the words “pedagogy” and
“andragogy” are often thrown around. Both of Greek origin, pedagogy literally translates to paidi
(child) and ago (guide). Andragogy, on the other hand, means andras (man) and ago (guide).
While both words refer to learning strategies, they each have their own distinct philosophies. By
understanding the difference between pedagogy vs andragogy, you’ll have a clearer idea of how
and why your subjects learn best.
It’s not all Greek to us: When we’re talking about eLearning, the words “pedagogy” and
“andragogy” are often thrown around. Both of Greek origin, pedagogy literally translates to paidi
(child) and ago (guide). Andragogy, on the other hand, means andras (man) and ago (guide).
While both words refer to learning strategies, they each have their own distinct philosophies. By
understanding the difference between pedagogy vs andragogy, you’ll have a clearer idea of how
and why your subjects learn best.
At a glance, andragogy refers to the methods and approaches used in adult education and is
directed towards self-actualization, gaining experience, and problem-solving. In contrast,
pedagogy is an education method in which the learner is dependent on the teacher for guidance,
evaluation, and acquisition of knowledge. The problem? Someone applying pedagogical theory
to a classroom full of professionals might find that their efforts read as child’s play.
Pedagogical Andragogical

Learner is dependent on the teacher.

Teacher is the one who evaluates
progress and assumes full responsibility Learner is depending on self. The method
for what is taught and its efficacy. requires self-evaluation and direction and
self takes responsibility for the process.

Learner comes to the table with little life
experience. Child-like learning comes
with a blank slate and the educator is one
of the most influential figures, as peers
likely have the same lack of experience.
Learner uses life experience as a
foundation. Instructors build on existing
knowledge and require an understanding
of diverse backgrounds. Adults learn from
the instructor, but also from one another.

Students advance once they have Learning is triggered by any number of

completed the necessary steps. Child life experiences and not necessarily led by
learners are told what they need to do to a designated instructor. Learners don’t
master a topic in order to move onto the advance to another topic, but rather fill
next one. knowledge gaps as where needed.
 Learning is prescribed by an instructor
and sequenced in a way that makes Learning is prescribed by self. Learners
logical sense. Topics are broken down see a problem or knowledge gap and
into content units. organize topics around life/work
solutions.

Learners are motivated by intrinsic

means: self-esteem, quality of life,
problemsolving, and the quest for
Learners are motivated by external
sources, such as parents and teachers. The recognition.
topic is completed by a pass or fail grade. Topics are completed by mastery.

Knowles’ Theory
Before 1950, pretty much everything we knew about learning methods was centered around the
way kids operated. After all, traditional schooling was pretty much how and where education
took place. Finally, adult educator and researcher Malcolm Knowles adopted the term
“andragogy” to refer to the unique motivators adult learners used. While children required more
extrinsic motivation and relied on instructor-led methods, Knowles noticed that adults were self-
directed and relied heavily on their past life experiences when they approached learning
opportunities. Knowles defined a theory about adult learners that helped educators receive better
insight into how/why adult learners learn, including:
• Adults are self-directed
• Adults use their past experiences as learning resources
• Adults are motivated to learn in relation to their social roles
• Adults prefer to learn solutions that can be applied in realistic situations
• Adults rely on intrinsic motivations
Adult Learning
It may seem like semantics, but understanding the differences between pedagogy and andragogy
could make a big difference between lackluster learning and ready, engaged adults. This doesn’t
mean that children and adults always learn differently (both, for example, have a positive
response to animation). The fact is, adults come to the table with different motivators. They
know what has worked in the past or have habits that affect the way they learn and receive new
information. Because of this, approaching new topics with a traditional pedagogical strategy
could leave them disengaged and uninterested.
Andragogy inspires instructors to do a better job connecting learning experiences to what adult
learners already know. Allowing for personal opinion, better pacing, and knowledge checks and
re-checks, help adults leverage what they already know against the new topics they are presented
with. Think of it as one of the fringe benefits of teaching adults: Andragogy leaves room for a
lifetime of learning.
Q.5 why vocational education and skills training is important for adults? Discuss with
reference to its benefits for Pakistan.
Global mega trends such as the rising role of technology, climate change, demographic shifts,
urbanization, and the globalization of value chains are changing the nature of work and skills
demands. To succeed in the 21st century labor market, one needs a comprehensive skill set
composed of:
1. Cognitive skills, which encompass the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt
effectively to the environment, learn from experience, and reason. Foundational literacy
and numeracy as well as creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving are cognitive
skills.
2. Socio-emotional skills, which describe the ability to navigate interpersonal and social
situations effectively, and include leadership, teamwork, self-control, and grit.
3. Technical skills, which refer to the acquired knowledge, expertise, and interactions
needed to perform a specific task, including the mastery of required materials, tools, or
technologies.
4. Digital skills, which are cross-cutting and draw on all of the above skills, and describe
the ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate, and create
information safely and appropriately.
The development of skills can contribute to structural transformation and economic growth by
enhancing employability and labor productivity and helping countries to become more
competitive. Investment in a high-quality workforce can create a virtuous cycle, where relevant
and quality skills enable productivity growth and foreign direct investment, which result in more
and better jobs for the current workforce and more public and private investment in the education
and training system. This, in turn, increases the employability and productivity for both the
current and future workforce.
Yet, most countries continue to struggle in delivering on the promise of skills development.
There are huge gaps in basic literacy and numeracy of working-age populations, as 750 million
people aged 15+ (or 18 percent of the global population) report being unable to read and write,
with estimates being nearly twice as large if literacy is measured through direct assessments.
Largescale international assessments of adult skills generally point to skills mismatches as well
as large variation in the returns to education across fields of study, institutions, and population
groups. Employers in many developing countries report that a lack of skilled workers is a major
and increasing bottleneck for their operations, affecting their capacity to innovate.
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the pre-crisis vision of equitable, relevant, and quality
skills development into sharper relief, adding unforeseen urgency to the calls for reform and
highlighting the huge costs of inaction.
The key issues countries need to tackle for skills development are:
• Access and completion. Across the world, investments in education and skills
development—from preschool through post-secondary education to vocational training—
have high returns. The wage penalty for low literacy is nine percentage points in
Colombia, Georgia and Ukraine, and 19 percentage points in Ghana. And the opposite is
also true: in Brazil, graduates of vocational programs earn wages about 10 percent higher
than those with a general secondary school education. Still, provision of equitable access
is a challenge in many low-income and middle-income countries. Furthermore, many
students who manage to enroll in education or training programs do not complete their
studies and miss out on obtaining formal qualifications, which can dramatically reduce
the return on the educational investments in terms of lifetime earning potential.
• Quality. Many young people attend schools without acquiring basic literacy skills,
leaving them unable to compete in the job market. More than 80 percent of the entire
working age population in Ghana and more than 60 percent in Kenya cannot infer simple
information from relatively easy texts. For those who access technical and vocational
training at secondary and post-secondary levels, returns can vary substantially by
specialization and institution. In particular, technical and vocational training (TVET)
 systems in many countries face challenges related to quality assurance, resulting in
perceptions of the vocational track being a second-best option compared to general
secondary or tertiary education.
• Relevance. Technical and vocational education and training —which can last anywhere
from six months to three years— can give young people, especially women, the skills to
compete for better paying jobs. Nevertheless, more needs to be done in terms of engaging
local employers to ensure that the curriculum and delivery of these programs responds to
labor market needs.
• Efficiency. Challenges related to governance, financing, and quality assurance also
impact the efficiency of skills development programs. The resulting unnecessarily high
costs can limit opportunities for disadvantaged youth and adults to access these programs.
The good news is that the evidence on what works and what does not in skills development, and
for whom, is growing. At the World Bank Group (WBG), we support governments around the
world in designing, implementing, and learning from reforms and programs aimed at addressing
the most fundamental challenges of skills development. Click on the "Solutions" tab to learn
more about our solutions to skills development challenges.