THE PURPOSE OF

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
 MODULE OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates

should be able to:

• identify various purposes of writing a

research
• discuss the importance of research in
educational setting
• identify different types of research
designs
Educational research is the answer to all of the
above questions. Educational research uses the
scientific method to study best practices in
teaching. An educational research study can be
conducted to answer the question: Will students
learn better or worse when they are given positive
encouragement? To do this, the scientific method
will be employed to compare a group of students
who are given positive encouragement with a
group of students given negative criticism and a
control group of students given no
encouragement.
After receiving positive encouragement, negative criticism,
or no encouragement, individuals in these groups will then
be compared on important dependent learning variables
such as their performance, effort, and motivation. Once this
has been done, the data will provide a definitive answer
about whether positive encouragement, negative criticism,
or no encouragement results in the best academic
performance. Educational research that uses the scientific
method to collect scientific data can provide a definite
answer about best practices in teaching.
 The purpose of educational research is to develop new
knowledge about the teaching-learning situation to improve
educational practice. Educational research can address the
following variables:

Learning: How do students best learn various subjects?

Teaching: What are the best teaching practices to foster student
achievement?
Motivation: What are the best practices for teachers to motivate their
students to achieve?
Development: How do children and adults change over time, including
their cognitive, social, and emotional skills?
Classroom management: What classroom or school practices make the
classroom optimal for student learning?
By collecting scientific data about these
important topics in education,
educational research can establish the
best practices that teachers, counselors,
administrators, and students should use
to improve learning outcomes.
Therefore, educational researchers -
particularly researchers in Nigeria -
should focus on practical research
projects that will have significant
implications for education.
 For example, Siegler & Ramani (2009) conducted a
research study to examine best practices of teaching
number skills to young children. Maths teachers typically
teach number skills by asking pupils to recite the
number string (e.g., "Say after me: 1, 2, 3..."), count
objects (e.g., "How many beans are there?"), and name
numerals (e.g., "Which number is written on the
board?").
However, Siegler and Ramani looked at a theory of how
young children understand number and thought that they
could come up with a better and more engaging method
of teaching number skills. They developed a number
game that might look something like this:
The game simply requires a piece of paper with the
numbers 1 to 10 written across it, two markers (the
smiley faces - these can be bottle caps), and a
spinner with the numbers 1 and 2. (Alternatively, the
numbers 1 and 2 can be written on pieces of paper
and put into a cup). To play the game, the players
take turns spinning the spinner (or pick a number
from the cup) and move their marker that many
spaces, naming the numbers they land on. ("I am on
the number four. I picked the number two. I move
five, six."). Children at a school were randomly
placed in either a traditional maths group or the
game group.
Children in the traditional maths group
received normal maths instruction whereas
children in the game group played this
game. Both groups spent an equal amount
of time studying mathematics. After a few
weeks, all of the children were tested on
their maths skills. These researchers found
that on average, children in the game group
performed better than the traditional group
in maths estimation, comparing numbers,
and arithmetic!
Siegler and Ramani found a better and
more engaging way of teaching maths, and
they have scientific evidence based on the
children's maths test scores to support that
their way of teaching is more effective than
the traditional method. They can conclude
that teachers who use this game to teach
number skills will help their students do
better in mathematics.
 If you are conducting an educational
psychology research study, then your topic
will be primarily focused on individuals in an
educational context. The purpose of
psychological research is to study key
variables about a human being: how they
behave, think, feel, believe, etc. As such,
psychological research must examine
individual characteristics, not group
structures.
 Therefore, an educational psychology
study will examine student performance,
student motivation, student attitudes,
student beliefs, teachers' knowledge, etc.
However, an educational psychology study
will not examine school-level variables, such
as school facilities, government funding,
etc.
Therefore, develop a research study that
can have a significant impact on improving
the teaching-learning situation. Because
educational research can have significant
implications for the teaching-learning
situation, it is essential that educational
researchers complete their research projects
in good faith. Poorly conducted research can
cause further harm to the educational
process than no research at all.
 Consequently, under no circumstances should
an educational researcher "cut corners" to get
their project completed faster or easier.
Educational researchers also have a
responsibility to check and double check their
work to ensure that their methods are valid,
their calculations are correct, and their
conclusions accurately reflect the data that has
been collected. Careful, thoughtful, and
trustworthy research can go a long way in
improving education in Nigeria.
TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS
 MODULE OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates should be

able to:

• identify various purposes of writing a research

• discuss the importance of research in educational
setting
• identify different types of research designs
What is Educational Research?

Educational research is a type of systematic

investigation that applies empirical methods
to solving challenges in education. It adopts
rigorous and well-defined scientific processes
in order to gather and analyze data for
problem-solving and knowledge
advancement.
 J. W. Best defines The primary purpose of
educational research as that educational research is to
activity that is directed expand the existing body of
towards the development of a knowledge by providing
science of behavior in solutions to different problems
educational situations. The in pedagogy while improving
ultimate aim of such a science teaching and learning practices.
is to provide knowledge that Educational researchers also
will permit the educator to seek answers to questions
achieve his goals through the bothering on learner
most effective methods. motivation, development, and
classroom management.
 Characteristics of Education Research
While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches,
several characteristics define its process and approach. Some of them are
listed below:
1. It sets out to solve a specific 3. Educational research relies on
problem. empirical evidence. This results
2. Educational research adopts from its largely scientific approach.
primary and secondary 4. Educational research is
research methods in its data objective and accurate because it
collection process. This measures verifiable information.
means that in educational
research, the investigator
relies on first-hand sources
of information and secondary
data to arrive at a suitable
conclusion.
5. In educational research, the
researcher adopts specific 8. Many educational research
methodologies, detailed findings are documented for peer
procedures, and analysis to review before their presentation.
arrive at the most objective 9. Educational research is
responses interdisciplinary in nature
6. Educational research findings because it draws from different
are useful in the development of fields and studies complex factual
principles and theories that provide relations.
better insights into pressing
issues.
7. This research approach
combines structured, semi-
structured, and unstructured
questions to gather verifiable data
from respondents.
Types of Educational Research
Educational research can be broadly categorized into
3 which are descriptive research, correlational
research, and experimental research. Each of these
has distinct and overlapping features.

Descriptive Educational Research

In this type of educational research, the researcher
merely seeks to collect data with regards to the status
quo or present situation of things. The core of
descriptive research lies in defining the state and
characteristics of the research subject being
understudied.
 Because of its emphasis on the "what" of the situation,
descriptive research can be termed an observational
research method. In descriptive educational research, the
researcher makes use of quantitative research methods
including surveys and questionnaires to gather the required
data.
 Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in
solving a specific problem. Here are a few examples of descriptive
research:

• A reading program to help you understand student

literacy levels.
• A study of students' classroom performance.
• Research to gather data on students' interests and
preferences.
From these examples, you would notice that the
researcher does not need to create a simulation
of the natural environment of the research
subjects; rather, he or she observes them as they
engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is
not concerned with creating a causal relationship
between the research variables.
Correlational Educational Research
This is a type of educational research that seeks
insights into the statistical relationship between two
research variables. In correlational research, the
researcher studies two variables intending to establish
a connection between them.
Correlational research can be positive,
negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation
occurs when an increase in variable A leads to
an increase in variable B, while negative
correlation occurs when an increase in variable
A results in a decrease in variable B.
 When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a
succeeding change in the other, then the correlation is non-
existent. Also, in correlational educational research, the research
does not need to alter the natural environment of the variables;
that is, there is no need for external conditioning.

Examples of educational correlational research include:

• Research to discover the relationship between

students' behaviors and classroom performance.
• A study into the relationship between students' social
skills and their learning behaviors.
Experimental Educational Research
Experimental educational research is a research approach that seeks
to establish the causal relationship between two variables in the
research environment. It adopts quantitative research methods in
order to determine the cause and effect in terms of the research
variables being studied.
Experimental educational research typically involves two
groups – the control group and the experimental group.
The researcher introduces some changes to the
experimental group such as a change in environment or
a catalyst, while the control group is left in its natural
state.
 The introduction of these catalysts
allows the researcher to determine the
causative factor(s) in the experiment. At
the core of experimental educational
research lies the formulation of a
hypothesis and so, the overall research
design relies on statistical analysis to
approve or disprove this hypothesis.
Examples of Experimental Educational Research
• A study to determine the best teaching and learning
methods in a school.
• A study to understand how extracurricular activities
affect the learning process.
Based on functionality, educational research
can be classified into fundamental research,
applied research, and action research. The
primary purpose of fundamental research is to
provide insights into the research variables;
that is, to gain more knowledge. Fundamental
research does not solve any specific problems.
 Just as the name suggests,
applied research is a to
research approach that seeks
to solve specific problems.
Findings from applied
research are useful in solving
practical challenges in the
educational sector such as
improving teaching methods,
modifying learning curricula,
and simplifying pedagogy.
Action research is tailored
solve immediate
problems that are specific
to a context such as
educational challenges in a
local primary school. The
goal of action research is to
proffer solutions that work
in this context and to solve
general or universal
challenges in the
educational sector.
Importance of Educational Research
1. Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge
advancement across different fields of study.
2. It provides answers to practical educational
challenges using scientific methods.
3. Findings from educational research; especially applied
research, are instrumental in policy reformulation.
4. For the researcher and other parties involved in this
research approach, educational research improves
learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
5. Educational research improves teaching and learning
methods by empowering you with data to help you teach
and lead more strategically and effectively.
6. Educational research helps students apply their
knowledge to practical situations.
Educational Research Methods
Surveys/Questionnaires
A survey is a research method that is used to collect data from a
predetermined audience about a specific research context. It usually
consists of a set of standardized questions that help you to gain insights
into the experiences, thoughts, and behaviors of the audience.

Surveys can be administered physically using paper forms, face-to-

face conversations, telephone conversations, or online forms. Online
forms are easier to administer because they help you to collect accurate
data and to also reach a larger sample size. Creating your online survey
on data-gathering platforms like Form plus allows you to also analyze
survey respondent's data easily.
In order to gather accurate data via your survey,
you must first identify the research context and the
research subjects that would make up your data
sample size. Next, you need to choose an online
survey tool like Form plus to help you create and
administer your survey with little or no hassles.
 Interviews
An interview is a qualitative data collection method that helps you
to gather information from respondents by asking questions in a
conversation. It is typically a face-to-face conversation with the
research subjects in order to gather insights that will prove useful to
the specific research context.

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.

A structured interview is a type of interview that follows a
premeditated sequence; that is, it makes use of a set of
standardized questions to gather information from the research
subjects.
 An unstructured interview is a type of interview that is fluid; that
is, it is non-directive. During a structured interview, the researcher
does not make use of a set of predetermined questions rather, he
or she spontaneously asks questions to gather relevant data from
the respondents.
A semi-structured interview is the mid-point between structured
and unstructured interviews. Here, the researcher makes use of a
set of standardized questions yet, he or she still makes inquiries
outside these premeditated questions as dedicated by the flow of
the conversations in the research context.
Data from Interviews can be collected using audio recorders,
digital cameras, surveys, and questionnaires.
Observation
Observation is a method of data collection that entails
systematically selecting, watching, listening, reading, touching, and
recording behaviors and characteristics of living beings, objects, or
phenomena. In the classroom, teachers can adopt this method to
understand students' behaviors in different contexts.

Observation can be qualitative or quantitative in approach. In

quantitative observation, the researcher aims at collecting statistical
information from respondents and in qualitative information, the
researcher aims at collecting qualitative data from respondents.
 Qualitative observation can further be classified into
participant or non-participant observation. In participant
observation, the researcher becomes a part of the research
environment and interacts with the research subjects to
gather info about their behaviors. In non-participant
observation, the researcher does not actively take part in the
research environment; that is, he or she is a passive observer.
How to Create Surveys and Questionnaire with
Formplus

• Sign into Formplus account. Don’t have an

account, you can create one here.
• On your dashboard, choose the “create new
form” bbutton to access the form builder. You
can also choose from the available survey
templates and modify them to suit your need.
• Drag and drop preferred fields into your form.
• Save your online survey to access the form customization
section. Here, you can change the physical appearance of
your form by adding preferred background images and
inserting your organization’s logo.
• Copy your form link and share it with respondents. You
can embed your form into your website, share by email
invitation, or use the social media direct sharing buttons.
• Formplus has a form analytics dashboard that allows you
to view insights from your data collection process such as
the total number of form views and from submissions. You
can also use the reports summary tool to generate custom
graphs and charts from your survey data.
Steps in Educational Research
Like other types of research, educational research
involves several steps. Following these steps allows
the researcher to gather objective information and
arrive at valid findings that are useful to the
research context.
• Define the research problem clearly.
• Formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis is
the researcher's reasonable guess based on
the available evidence, which he or she seeks
to prove in the course of the research.
• Determine the methodology to be adopted.
Educational research methods include interviews,
surveys, and questionnaires.
• Collect data from the research subjects using one or
more educational research methods. You can collect
research data using Formplus forms.
• Analyze and interpret your data to arrive at valid
findings. In the Formplus analytics dashboard, you
can view important data collection insights and you
can also create custom visual reports with the
reports summary tool.
• Create your research report. A research report
details the entire process of the systematic
investigation plus the research findings.
Conclusion

Educational research is crucial to the overall

advancement of different fields of study and
learning, as a whole. Data in educational
research can be gathered via surveys and
questionnaires, observation methods, or
interviews – structured, unstructured, and semi-
structured.
 
ETHICAL ISSUES
 MODULE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates should
be able to:

• identify basic ethical considerations in

educational research
• discuss ethical considerations and issues in
research in Mathematics teaching and/or
learning Mathematics
 Ethics concern with all the human interaction, including human
research (Australian Vice-Chancellor’s committee, 2007).
Educational research is a part of human research which has
potential ethical problems. Therefore, “Each stage in the
research sequence may be a potential source of ethical problems
(Cohen, et.al, 2000, p.49). There are “three primary ethical
principles: (1)autonomy and self-determination, (2) beneficence,
(3) Justice” (Antle & Regehr, 2003, p.136). “Ethical concerns
arise in connection with core values the researcher holds, as in
the case of honesty or justice (Kakabadse, Kakabadse, &
Kouzmin, 2002, p.107).
Therefore, the researchers feel that the ethical rules will
limit their effectiveness doing research (Burns, 1996).
However, the ethics is the part important of the research
process. Therefore, in my research, I try to investigate it
carefully to cope with the ethical problems. There are
several ethical issues while I am conducting my research:
access and acceptance, informed consent, privacy and
confidentiality, misinterpretation and misrepresenting of
data.
 
 The first ethical issue is access and acceptance. “The
initial stage of research project-that of access to the
institution or organization where the research to be
conducted, and acceptance by those whose permission one
needs before embarking the task” (Cohen, et.al., 2000,
p.53). Furthermore, “access to personal records, both as a
primary or secondary source of data, must be approached
both ethically and legally (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998, p.21).
In this research, I will investigate the laboratory activities in
my university, interview my colleagues, analytical chemistry
lecturers, students, my assistants, and laboratory staff,
analyze some official documents such as a practicum book
and students’ experiment report. Therefore, I need to get the
permission from my head department to do this research. I
will inform the information about the aims, nature and
procedures of this research (Cohen, et.al., 2000).
I hope that the information will help me to get access and
acceptance to my research. Through this access and
acceptance, I can do the interviews which will be done
through the emails, and my assistant will send the
documents and the practicum book through mail. I also need
stories from others who help me apply green chemistry
approaches and metacognitive skills. Therefore, I need to get
access and acceptance. I realize that “achieving goodwill and
co-operation is especially important where the proposed
research extends over a period time” (Cohen, et.al., 2000,
p.54).
The informed consent (see appendix 1.)
will offer the information to the My research will involve the
participants about “the nature and the semistructured interviews such as
purpose of the research, the risks, and participants’ opionion, subjectivity,
benefits” (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998, relationship, and life story. I try to
p.18). Furthermore, “Informed consent is meet the ethics requirements
a central canon of research ethics policy (
through giving list of interview
Halse & Honey, 2005, p. 2148). According
to Anderson & Arsenault (1998), my questions for my participants (see
informed consent will involves the appendix 2 for interview protocol). I
purpose of the research, risks and also will give information of the time
discomfort, benefits, participant’s right consuming and the process of
and statement. I realize that my informed interviews.
consent have to “ensure the individual’s
mental capacity, disclose sufficient
information, provide suffiecient time and
privacy, provide the safeguard, ensure
the individual’s awareness” (Antle &
Regehr, 2003, p.137).
Privacy and confidentially need to
be addressed. I will explore the
phenomenon of my students’
opinions and behaviors when I
applied metacognitive skills and
green chemistry approaches.
Some stories will be related with
their personal experiences, such
as their misunderstanding.
Therefore, I have to respect their
individual privacy. “It is the duty
of researcher to protect the
identity of individuals, there is a
distinction between one’s public
role and private life” (Anderson &
Arsenault, 1998, p.21).
I also have to be aware with my
institution privacy, because I will
describe some of the weakness of the
laboratory in my department such as
safety and management. “ Having
emphaty can be beneficial in
research…if [the confidential
information is] not handle correctly,
can cause discomfort and even a job
loss” ( Goffee & Jones, 2000 as cited
in Kakabadse, Kakabadse, & Kouzmin,
2002, p.122). Keeping the participants
and institution as anonymous as
possible, using the promise of
confidential (Anderson & Arsenault,
1998; Cohen, et.al, 2000).
 I also have to protect my privacy which related with
my professional development. The risk that I will face
is investigating the background of applying green
chemistry approaches. I need to describe how the
weakness of safety and management in laboratory,
such as using the dangerous chemical substances. The
story will relate to the reputation of university and
some people who include in this story. It is also
related to my professional development as a lecturer
when I am back to my university.
 However, the story is very important because the
accident which caused me poisoned, motivated me to
improve the quality of the laboratory such as using green
chemistry approaches. Therefore, I need to use the
appropriate language to describe it properly. I also need
to protect the name and the way to access the private
information. In addition, I will use pseudonym through
changing my participants’ name. Hence, the information
will not be published or used for any other purposes from
this research.
 Adequate interpretation and representation of data must be
addressed. My subjectivity can influence the research process and the
possibility of interpretation and respresentation of data (Kakabadse,
Kakabadse, & Kouzmin, 2002). I realize that I have to remember my
experiences one year ago when I applied metacognitive skills and
green chemistry approaches. It is not only difficult for me to interpret
my experiences but also other peoples’ perspective and behaviour.
Therefore, I will ask them to write the stories on the same phenomena
to check my stories from a different perspective.
This form of member checking will be important to avoid the misinterpretation of my
stories. This collaboration will reduce “the potential gap between narrative told and
narrative reported” (Clandini & Connelly, 2000 as cited in Creswell, 2005, p. 483). The
narrative inquiry is the predominant method that I will use in this research. Therefore,
my stories and other people’s stories will be represented to answer my research
questions. I have to be aware that I cannot only focus to answer my research questions
but also I have to outweigh the risks and benefits to professional development, my
institution participants, and myself.
 Therefore, I will ask my participants to comment on
relevant parts of my report which represent their
perceptions, behavior and cultural context (Cohen, et.al,
2000). Therefore, I need to “be compassionate to
individuals and avoid language that discriminates on basis
of gender, sexual orientation, race or ethnic group”
(Creswell, 2005, p.11). The appropriate language will help
me to avoid this conflict.
FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH PROCESS
 MODULE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates should be able to:

• discuss the basic framework of fundamental/basic research process vs.

action research process • identify the procedure done in each step
based on the sample reported action research article • differentiate
research process between conducting fundamental/basic research and
action research
• identify research phenomena in the current teaching and learning
practices in Mathematics
• discuss the phenomena (issues/problems/practices) that can be
addressed by conducting research to improve teaching and learning
Mathematics
Differences between Fundamental Research and Action
Research Action Research
The Indian Educational Scenario
Indian educational system has undergone big changes in past few
decades. From shifting the focus to more vocational educational to use
of better methods and techniques in the teaching learning process, it
has come a long way through. However, with the changes made, the
developments and improvements done so far, there are still few
problems which remain unsolved like problems related to discipline or
absenteeism or fatigue or boredom related to particular subjects like
History, Science or Mathematics. Well these are not mysterious
problems which can’t be solved. But, it’s very true that in every class no
matter how efficient a teacher is, a few such cases are found which are
difficult to understand.
 Traditionally such students are referred to as back benchers or
failures or the anti class elements. But, giving a funny name to
such students and putting them into a certain category does not
bring an end to the duties and responsibilities of the teacher.
Why do we need a Research?

Generally in India, a curriculum is set up and given to

the teachers to follow in their teaching learning process
during a year. This curriculum is based on constant
researches and studies going on in the field of
education. Such researches are fundamental researches
which add to the existing facts in a certain field. The
problems related to syllabus, teaching methods,
adjustment of students, etc are few such areas which
can be taken up for fundamental researches.
Meaning of Action Research
Action Research is a kind of classroom research
taken up by the class teacher or subject teachers with a
view to find out what action can be taken to solve a
certain problem in the shortest possible time.
For instance, a student who performs very well in
written exams fails to give oral answers or a group of
students constantly miss a particular subject period.
There may be some reasons to all such problems, all
that is required is a certain more effort on the part of
the teachers to get involved and ask why, what and
how.
 Action Research is that one way which gives an
opportunity to the teachers to get involved in solving
their problems. No other researcher can help a teacher
solve such practical problems faced by him in his daily
classroom transactions, but the teacher himself.
Action Research is not concerned merely with
solving problems in a class but can also be conducted
to verify the consequences of new educational
decisions, teaching and leadership strategies, and many
more.
Differences between Fundamental Research and Action Research

1. Objectives: 3. Selection of a Problem:

Fundamental Research- Fundamental Research-Wide
Develop & test educational study is done to select a problem
theories. Action Research:Problems are
Action Research: Find identified by teachers in teaching
solutions to specific problems learning process.
in a situation. 4. Hypothesis:
2. Training: Fundamental Research:Highly
Fundamental Research- specific hypotheses is formed
Superior training is required Action Research: Action
in Research Methodology. Hypotheses are developed
Action Research: Limited
training is required.
5. Review of Literature:
Fundamental Research:
Extensive & thorough study of
literature.
Action Research:No such
thorough review is needed.
6. Sample:
Fundamental Research: Large
sample size is required.
Action Research:Teacher
takes the students of a class as
sample.
7. Analysis of Data:
Fundamental Research:
Complex analysis is done.
Action Research:Very simple
analysis is done.
8. Conclusions:
Fundamental Research:In
form of developing theories or
generalizations.
Action Research:In form of
specific results.
9. Application of Results:
Fundamental Research: Generalizations have broad
applicability.
Action Research: Results are implemented in classroom
situations to see the outcome
IDENTIFYING RESEARCH
PHENOMENA
 MODULE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates should be able to:

• discuss the basic framework of fundamental/basic research process vs.

action research process • identify the procedure done in each step
based on the sample reported action research article • differentiate
research process between conducting fundamental/basic research and
action research
• identify research phenomena in the current teaching and learning
practices in Mathematics
• discuss the phenomena (issues/problems/practices) that can be
addressed by conducting research to improve teaching and learning
Mathematics
Evaluating Qualitative Research

The purpose of this section is to:

• give more detail to help in your

• qualitative critique.
Statement of Phenomenon of Interest
The phenomenon is the concept being studied
(like pain, suffering, reactions) how does the
researcher make it clear what they are
describing? What indications (such as limited
research, subjective experience, etc) does the
researcher give for studying this concept in a
qualitative format? The philosophy may be
phenomenology, the wholistic nature of the
human experience, or such that makes the study
require a qualitative answer.
Purpose

The purpose should indicate a describing,

explaining etc. a phenomenon or cultural
response. The findings may help create
theories or improve thinking and
conceptualization in a given area.
Method
Talk about how the method of the
research (interview, observation, focus
group, etc.) was used to collect the data
and how it helped meet the above purpose.
Is an approach identified such as grounded
theory or constant comparative analysis
identified and applied? Are their indications
an interview format was used or certain
ways to direct the responses?
Sample
How did the researchers gain access
to their subjects? What sampling
method is used (purposive, theoretical
purposive, convenience) and how did
this method help capture the essence
of the phenomenon? Appropriateness
of subjects has to do with their
personal experiences being relevant
and broad enough selection of
participants to give a full picture.
Data Collection
Most of these questions are very
straightforward. Saturation is a concept that
researchers use (particularly in grounded
theory research) to indicate that they have
collected data from enough subjects no new
categories are arising and no additional
themes have been identified. In describing
their data collection procedures, it would be
useful to know the setting used, question
formats, and even follow-up strategies used
(to check or validate the data).
Data Analysis
Analysis of qualitative data may be by content analysis, constant
comparative analysis, or a variety of other methods that describe how
coding was accomplished, categories were formed, etc. The researcher
may list their strategies or cite a known person’s set of strategies. The
may say they used a software package in aiding the process.

Remaining true to the data has to do with incorporation of the

informants views only (not the researchers own). It is
demonstrated with how they tied their findings back to the
original interview/observation data.
As you learned in the web class, credibility has to do with
some method of validating the findings with the participants. Are
the findings accurate to those who lived the experience?
 Auditability has to do with how well the reader call follow what the
researcher has done from research question to the themes, findings given.
It may also include having other researchers in the field check their
processes to see if they come up with the same answers. Fittingness
relates to how well the findings were portrayed are they applicable or how
well to they fit others with the same experience? Can others draw meaning
form them?

The last question addresses does the analysis strategy

fit the purpose and methods used in other words
demonstrates consistency and flow of process and
ideas.
Findings
Are the findings presented within a context refers to a theory,
framework, etc. How are the findings organized to create a picture of
the new understanding? Is the reader able to experience in part what
the informants did has it helped you put yourself in that situation and
understand their experience?

The researcher’s conceptualizations are true to the data if

the themes/categories are supported by data from the
informants and the linkages are clear. You can give
examples to support this point.
Does the researcher tie their findings back to
other theories and research on the topic?

Conclusion, Implications and Recommendations

Does the reader understand how these findings may be

used? Are the conclusions clear from what you have read
again flow from the previous discussion and summarize it?
Last two questions are clear and important where do we go
from here in the researchers thinking.
RESEARCH QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT
 MODULE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates should be able to:

• generate possible research questions from the research

phenomenon identified • select relevant and appropriate
research questions that can be interest of study
• develop research questions(students) hold relating to the
research phenomenon identified • evaluate the theory to be
used as anchor theory of the research study
• discuss the relevance and appropriateness of the theoretical
perspectives the researchers
Developing research questions
It is likely that at some point during your degree you
will be required to create your own research question.
The research question states the specific issue or
problem that your assignment will focus on. It also
outlines the task that you will need to complete.
There is no universal set of criteria for a good
research question. Different disciplines have different
priorities and requirements. A good research
question for a history paper will differ from a good
research question for a biology paper. In general,
however, a good research question should be:
• Clear and focused. In other words, the question
should clearly state what the writer needs to do.
• Not too broad and not too narrow. The question
should have an appropriate scope. If the question is
too broad it will not be possible to answer it
thoroughly within the word limit. If it is too narrow you
will not have enough to write about and you will
struggle to develop a strong argument (see the
activity below for examples).
 • Not too easy to answer. For example, the question should
require more than a simple yes or no answer.
• Not too difficult to answer. You must be able to answer the
question thoroughly within the given timeframe and word
limit.
• Researchable. You must have access to a suitable amount of
quality research materials, such as academic books and
refereed journal articles.
• Analytical rather than descriptive. In other words, your
research question should allow you to produce an analysis of
an issue or problem rather than a simple description of it
(more on this below).
How to create a research question

1. Determine the requirements

2. Choose a topic
3. Conduct preliminary research
4. Narrow down your topic
5. Write your question
 Remember that you will need to keep the
purpose of your assignment in mind when
thinking about the wording of your question and
that the purpose will differ from discipline to
discipline (see 1: Determine the Requirements).
In general, however, a good research question
requires you to analyze an issue or problem.
How and why questions are therefore more
useful than what or describe questions.
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
DEVELOPMENT
 MODULE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson/s, the graduates should be able to:

• generate possible research questions from the research

phenomenon identified • select relevant and appropriate
research questions that can be interest of study
• develop research questions

• discuss the relevance and appropriateness of the theoretical

perspectives the researchers (students) hold relating to the
research phenomenon identified • evaluate the theory to be
used as anchor theory of the research study
Theories are developed by researchers to explain
phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In
the theoretical framework, you explain the theories that
support your research, showing that your work is grounded
in established ideas.
The goal of a theoretical framework
Before you start your research, you have to explore what theories
and models other researchers have already developed. The goal of
a theoretical framework is to present and explain this information.

There may be many different theories about your topic, so the

theoretical framework also involves evaluating, comparing, and
selecting the most relevant ones.

By “framing” your research within a clearly defined field, you make

the reader aware of the assumptions that inform your approach,
showing the rationale behind your choices.
 How to create a theoretical framework
To build your theoretical framework, follow these three steps.
1. Identify your key concepts
The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and
research questions. Concepts often have multiple definitions, so the theoretical
framework involves clearly defining what you mean by each term.

2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other
researchers have defined and drawn connections between these key concepts. As
you write the theoretical framework, aim to compare and critically evaluate the
approaches that different authors have proposed.

After discussing different models and theories, you establish the definitions that
best fit your research and justify why this is the case. In more complex research
projects, you might combine theories from different fields to build your own unique
framework.
3. Show how your research fits in
Apart from discussing other people’s theories, the theoretical
framework should show how your own project will make use of
these ideas.
You might aim to do one or more of the following:

• Test whether a theory holds in a specific context

• Use theory as a basis for interpreting your results
• Critique or challenge a theory
• Combine different theories in a new or unique way
• If relevant, you can also use the theoretical framework to
develop hypotheses for your research.
The structure of the theoretical framework
In a thesis or dissertation, the theoretical framework is
sometimes integrated into a literature review chapter, but it can
also be included as its own chapter or section. If your research
involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to
include a separate theoretical framework chapter.
There are no fixed rules for structuring a theoretical
framework. The important thing is to create a clear, logical
structure. One option is to draw on your research questions,
structuring each section around a question or key concept.
 As in all other parts of your thesis, make sure to properly cite
your sources to avoid plagiarism. The theoretical framework
defines the key concepts in your research, proposes relations
between them, and discusses relevant theories based on a
literature review. A strong theoretical framework gives your
research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain
and generalize from your findings.
Sample problem statement and research questions
Our problem statement, research questions and literature review will
serve as the basis for preparing your theoretical framework.

EXAMPLE: To investigate this problem, you have

Company X is struggling with the
problem that many online customers
do not return to make subsequent
purchases. Management wants to
increase customer loyalty and
believes that improved customer
satisfaction will play a major role in
achieving this goal.
identified the following problem statement,
objective, and research questions:
Problem: Many online customers do not
return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective: To increase customer loyalty
and thereby generate more revenue.
Research question: ‘How can the
satisfaction of company X’s online
customers be improved in order to increase
customer loyalty?’
Sub-Questions: ‘What is the relationship between customer
loyalty and customer satisfaction?’
‘How satisfied and loyal are company X’s
online customers currently?’
‘What factors affect the satisfaction and
loyalty of company X’s online customers?’
As the concepts of “loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” play a
major role in the investigation and will later be measured, they
are essential concepts to define within the theoretical
framework.
Sample theoretical framework
Below is a (simplified) example of how you can describe and compare
definitions and theories. In this example, we focus on the concept of
‘customer satisfaction.’
EXAMPLE 2.1 Customer satisfaction
Thomassen (2003, p. 69) defines customer satisfaction as “the perception
of the customer as a result of consciously or unconsciously comparing their
experiences with their expectations.” Kotler & Keller (2008, p. 80) build on
this definition, stating that customer satisfaction is determined by “the
degree to which someone is happy or disappointed with the observed
performance of a product in relation to his or her expectations.”
Performance that is below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer,
while performance that satisfies expectations produces satisfied customers.
Expectations being exceeded leads to a “very satisfied or even pleasantly
surprised customer” (Kotler & Keller, 2003, p. 80).
 The definition of Zeithaml and Bitner (2003, p. 86) is slightly different
from that of Thomassen: “Satisfaction is the consumer fulfillment response.
It is a judgement that a product or service feature, or the product of service
itself, provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment.”
Zeithaml and Bitner’s emphasis is thus on obtaining a certain satisfaction in
relation to purchasing.
Thomassen’s definition is the most relevant to the aims of this study,
given the emphasis it places on unconscious perception. Although Zeithaml
and Bitner, like Thomassen, say that customer satisfaction is a reaction to
the experience gained, there is no distinction between conscious and
unconscious comparisons in their definition. Company X claims in its mission
statement that it wants to sell not only a product, but also a feeling; as a
result, unconscious comparison will play an important role in the satisfaction
of its customers. Thomassen’s definition is therefore more relevant to the
current study.
 Thomassen’s Customer Satisfaction Model
According to Thomassen, both the so-called value proposition and other
influences have an impact on final customer satisfaction. In his satisfaction
model (Fig. 1), Thomassen shows that word-of-mouth, personal needs, past
experiences, and marketing and public relations determine customers’ needs
and expectations. These factors are compared to their experiences, and this
comparison between expectations and experiences determines a customer’s
satisfaction level. Thomassen’s model is important for this study: it allows us
to determine both the extent to which company X’s customers are satisfied
and where improvements can be made.
Of course, you could analyze the concepts more thoroughly and
compare additional definitions to each other. You could also discuss the
theories and ideas of key authors in greater detail and provide several
models to illustrate different concepts.