Module 1 Materials Selection

Design Evaluation Assessment
for Natural Gas Transport

Systems
Colegio de Ingeneiros del Peru
- Capitulo de Ingenieria Quimica
- May 24th - 26th 2017
Dr Alan Murray P Eng FASME

Calgary ,AB
Canada
Alan Murray 2017 1

Suggestions for a Successful
Learning Experience
• Relax!
• Make notes
• Actively participate and share your thoughts/experiences
• Be respectful of others
• There are no stupid questions , so ask at any time. Write them down if
you are really shy!
• Whatever else works for you.
2
Alan Murray 2017
Introduction and Course Objectives
• Provide an introduction to the current best
practices in the structural Design of a modern
Pipeline.
• Provide background to some of the key issues in
developing an approach to strain based design
• Provide a good source of reference material for
future use
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Design Evaluation Assessment
for Natural Gas Transport
Systems
Module 1
Pipeline Materials
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Outline
Pipeline materials
Working Stress Design
Geotechnical Considerations
Where are we?
Limit States Design
Regulatory Oversight of Strain Based Design
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What we will learn in this Module:
Objectives : To learn how pipe is made, primarily from polyethylene in the case of
Distibution Systems and steel for Transmission systems.
We will learn:
How clean,high strength steel is made.
The four main methods of Pipe manufacture.
The importance of material properties such as strength, ductility and
toughness and how they are measured.
The steady growth in steel strength and its impact on reducing cost.
The effect of defects on material performance
The importance of considering Fracture in Gas Pipeline Operations
The importance of considering Fatigue in Liquid Pipeline Operations
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All Of the Pipeline Codes and Standards
have Section on Materials
Often they will reference as Specific material Standard such as API 5L for Line Pipe
or a NACE Standard for Coatings etc;
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Pipeline Materials
• Steel is most commonly used for large diameter

energy pipelines
• Polyethylene (PE) or aluminum can be used for
smaller diameter gathering lines
• 95% of new Distribution lines within
neighbourhoods worldwide are generally PE . PVC
which had formerly been used is found to
embrittle
• Wood is still used very effectively for water lines
8
Wooden Stave Pipelines
British Columbia
Fredonia New York 1825 Penstock 1998
Source: Glenn
Outline
Pipeline materials
Part A Distibution Pipe

Where are we?
Part B Transmission Pipe
10
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Pipeline Materials
• Steel is most commonly used for large
diameter energy pipelines
• Polyethylene (PE) or aluminum can be
used for smaller diameter gathering lines
• 95% of new Distribution lines within
neighbourhoods worldwide are generally
PE . PVC which had formerly been used is
found to embrittle
• Wood is still used very effectively for water
lines
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Materials
Polyethylene (PE) Pipe
Distribution systems are typically constructed of steel and

polyethylene (PE) pipe and materials.
PE pipe and materials are commonly used in sizes 219 mm.
Steel materials are used in sizes >219 mm. Current experience
has shown that the combined installation and material costs
are lower for PE than steel in this size range.
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Materials
PE pipe is the most common type of pipe being installed in natural gas
distribution systems throughout the world. The AGA estimates that more
than 95% of new distribution pipelines are polyethylene.
Manufacture of Polyethylene Resin
To make polyethylene, high-purity ethylene gas is required. Ethylene may

be a petroleum refinery by-product or it may be manufactured from natural
gas.
The figure on the following slide shows the major steps in the process of PE
resin manufacture.
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Materials
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Materials
When using natural gas as a raw

material, an extraction unit first
removes a mixture of hydrocarbons.
This mixture is further fractioned into
different components such as propane,
butane, ethane and gasoline. The
ethane is then split into hydrogen and
ethylene. The ethylene is purified to
remove any traces of impurities which
may affect the physical properties of the
material. Normal purity is 99.9%.
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Materials
Under the influence of heat, pressure, reaction time, and particularly a catalyst, ethylene gas is
polymerized into long chain molecules to become a white powdery substance called
polyethylene.
There are various commercial reaction methods, based on the type of end polyethylene
product required and its application. Since properties are modified by chain length and the
introduction of small quantities of co-monomers (butene, hexene and propylene), the
polyethylene resin can essentially be tailor-made for its application.
Polyethylenes can be characterized by density, melt flow, molecular weight and additives. The
additives incorporated in the pipe are normally antioxidants, ultraviolet stabilizers and
pigments.
ASTM D3350 provides a standard method for identifying the characteristics of polyethylene for
plastic pipe and fittings. This standard describes a cell classification system for PE materials.
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Materials
Extrusion Process
PE pipe is made using a process called extrusion. In

extrusion, the PE resin material is continuously fed to an
extruder where large auger type screw mechanically works
the material inside a heated barrel.
The screw is designed to give continuous uniform mixing and

melting of the material. The melted material is then forced
out through a die at a constant rate. The die shapes the
melted material into a plastic tube slightly larger than the
finished pipe. The pipe passes through a sizer and is then
cooled with water. A puller controls the speed of the pipe as
it is drawn through the sizing and cooling processes.
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Materials
Speed control on the machine is critical. For a given

extruder screw speed, the rate at which the pipe is
pulled determines the wall thickness of the finished
pipe; increased speed reduces the wall thickness of
the finished pipe; reduced speed increases the wall
thickness.
The extrusion process is shown on the following

page.
In modern pipe mills, the wall thickness is

continuously monitored using ultrasonic
transducers.
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Materials
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Materials
All pipe meeting American Society for Testing Material (ASTM) and
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) specifications is identified by
continuously indent printing on the pipe:
– date of production;
– manufacturer's name;
– size of the pipe;
– wall thickness of the pipe expressed as a series number
or SDR number;
– type of PE material; and
– codes the pipe is certified to meet (ASTM D2513 or CSA
B137.0)
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Materials
Specification
In North America, all polyethylene pipe intended for use in natural gas
service is manufactured to ASTM D2513 or CSA B137.0.
Gas pipe is typically either designated as PE2406 or PE3408. These numbers

are taken from recommendations made by the Plastic pipe Institute.
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Materials
PE2406
– the PE indicates that the type of plastic is polyethylene;
– the grade of PE is P24 (medium density);
– the final two numbers (06) refer to the hydrostatic design stress for the pipe, which is the
maximum tensile stress in the pipe wall that can be applied continuously without causing
pipe failure. This number is obtained by multiplying the hydrostatic design basis by a
service factor.
PE 2406 has the following attributes according to D3350:
Density: 2
Melt Index: 1,2, or 3
Flexural Modulus: 3 or 4
Tensile Strength: 3 or 4
Environmental Stress Crack resistance: 3
HDB: 3
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Materials
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Materials
PE 2406 has the following attributes according to D3350:
Density: 2
Melt Index: 1,2, or 3
Flexural Modulus: 3 or 4
Tensile Strength: 3 or 4
Environmental Stress Crack resistance: 3
HDB: 3
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Materials
PE2406
The hydrostatic design basis refers to the pressure at which

tensile stress in the wall of the pipe, applied continuously,
will cause failure of the pipe at 100 000 hours (about 11
years) at 23°C. This figure is defined at 8.62 MPa for the 06
classification, and 11.03 MPa for the 08 classification, and is
used to calculate the pipe design pressure.
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Materials
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Materials
Design Pressure
The design pressure for PE pipe as specified in Canadian Standard CSA

Z662-15, Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems is:
P = 2S x 1000 x 0.4
R-1
Where:
P = design pressure (kPa)

S = hydrostatic design basis (HDB) at 23°C (8.62 MPa for 2406 )
R = SDR
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Materials
US Code of Federal Regulations 192 Sec. 192.121 Design of plastic pipe.

Subject to the limitations of Sec. 192.123, the design pressure for plastic pipe is
determined in accordance with either of the following formula:
P = 2S x 1000 x 0.32
SDR-1
Where: P=Design pressure, gauge, kPa (psig);
S=For thermoplastic pipe, the long-term hydrostatic strength
determined in accordance with the listed specification at a temperature equal
to 73 deg.F (23deg.C), 100 deg.F (38 deg.C), 120 deg.F (49 deg.C), or 140 deg.F
(60 deg.C);
SDR=Standard dimension ratio,
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Materials
SDR (Standard Dimension Ratio)
The SDR is equal to the outside diameter of the pipe

divided by the wall thickness.
For a given resin, design pressure is a function of SDR. The

greater the SDR the less the allowable design pressure.
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Materials
Tracer Wire
To facilitate locating PE pipe underground after burial, wire (called tracer

wire) is installed along with the pipe. An electromagnetic field can be
generated on the wire, and so the pipe can be located using pipe locating
equipment. Typically #14 AWG (American Wire Gauge) is used.
This size is selected because smaller sizes tend to break easily, and larger
sizes are not as flexible. The wire is coated with a 0.8 mm layer of PE to
prevent corrosion.
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Materials
Storage and Handling
PE pipe must be handled and supported in a manner which

prevents pipe damage or deterioration. Poor handling techniques
may result in gouges, scratches, cuts, punctures, permanent
deformation and loss of strength.
PE pipe should be handled in accordance with these

requirements:
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Materials
– During transport, continuously support PE pipe in a manner which minimizes movement
between the pipe and its support.
– Do not carry supplies or equipment on top of PE pipe because of possible damage from
sharp edges and other projections.
– Cap open ends on coils during shipment to prevent the entry of foreign material. Coils and
reels 26.7 mm and up should be pressurized.
– During storage in warehouse or during construction, store PE pipe in coils or lengths on a

flat, clean surface, free from rocks or other sharp objects which could damage the pipe.
– Do not unload PE pipe, fittings and accessories by mechanical means, unless suitably
crated. Do not drop, drag, or subject the pipe to rough use.
– In warehouse yards, store joints of PE pipe neatly on storage racks, with supports having a
bearing face not less than 8 cm, and at intervals not exceeding 1 m.
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Materials
PE fittings intended for installation by fusion are made from the same
resin used in the manufacture of PE pipe. The resin is injected under
high pressure at high temperature into moulds.
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Materials
PE fittings must be:
– as uniform as commercially practical;

– free from visible cracks, holes, foreign inclusions or
other defects;
– able to withstand outside storage for at least one
year without significant property loss; and
– compatible for fusion with PE pipe.
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Materials
Where size permits, PE fittings are marked, in order, with:
– the manufacturer's name or trademark;

– the CSA designation B137.4;
– the size (outside diameter x wall thickness);
– generic plastic type (PE); and
– resin name or code (2406).
Smaller fittings may show only part of this information, but the container in
which they are shipped will provide all of the required information.
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Materials
BUTT/SOCKET FUSION FITTINGS
Butt and socket fusion fittings include elbows (ells), reducers, full flow tees, caps,
transition fittings and socket fusion couplings.
Conventional PE fittings installed in-line with a piping system are joined using either
the butt fusion or the socket fusion process. A butt fusion is achieved when the
open ends of pipe sections or fittings are joined. A socket fusion is achieved by
forcing the open pipe end into the fitting socket. Socket fusion fittings are used to
join lengths of 15.9 mm and 26.7 mm PE pipe, and to join pipe made from dissimilar
PE resin.
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Materials
Ells are used where changes in pipe alignment are required. Ells are normally not
required for pipe <60.3 mm, because the flexible PE pipe can be bent to
accommodate an alignment change. Verify allowable bend radii for PE with the pipe
manufacturer.
Reducers are used to join PE pipe of unequal size. Small diameter sizes are socket
fusion instead of butt fusion.
Full flow tees are used for pipeline branch connections on new piping systems.
Caps are installed at the end of mains.
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Materials
Socket fusion couplings are used to join lengths of small diameter PE
pipe.
Branch saddles can be used to connect new PE mains to live PE mains
without disrupting service of existing customers. .
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Materials
PE service tees are used to permit the connection of a new service line to
a live gas main. After the service tee has been fused to the main, the
internal cutter in the tee is used to tap into the main to allow gas to flow
into the service line. PE service tees are also used to depressurize isolated
sections of piping, and to provide a bypass around an area to be isolated
as required during construction.
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Materials
STEEL TO PE FITTINGS
Steel pipe is still used in distribution however PE materials are not

suitable for above grade installations. It is often necessary to join PE
pipe to steel pipe. These joints are called transitions.
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Materials
Transition fittings are combination steel/PE fittings that allow steel and
PE pipe to be joined. Transition fittings are available virtually any size.
PE ends are socket in sizes 15.9 mm and 26.7 mm, and butt in sizes >60
mm.
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Materials
Service risers are installed on the exterior of the customer's building at the
location where the piping rises above ground to make the connection to the gas
meter.
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Materials
Many companies now use what is called a “flex end

riser”. These risers are anodeless construction but
incorporate a flex joint where the pipe direction
changes from vertical to horizontal.
This flex joint allows the installation to stand up to

differential settlement which is often associated
with the construction of new buildings.
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Materials
ELECTROFUSION FITTINGS
Electrofusion fittings are a type of fitting in which copper wire is

embedded in the region of the fitting which is to be fused to the
pipe. By connecting a current generating device to the fitting, the
PE material can be heated as a result of electrical resistance in the
wire, and fused to the pipe in this manner.
Electrofusion fittings used in Canada are typically made by either

Central Plastics or Innogaz.
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Materials
Electrofusion couplings are used to join lengths of PE pipe where they

cannot practically be joined by butt fusion.
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Materials
Electrofusion couplings are used to join lengths of PE pipe

where they cannot practically or economically be joined by
butt fusion.
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Materials
Electrofusion tees are more expensive than conventional

saddle fusion fittings, but the quality of fusion is considered
to be more repeatable than a saddle fusion, especially when
the work is done by personnel without extensive experience
with saddle fusion
The major advantages of electrofusion over
conventional fusion include:
– less skill intensive;

– less operator dependent; and
– fast.
.
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Materials
VALVES
A valve suitable for use in natural gas

distribution systems must have these operating
characteristics:
•complete shutoff for tie-in work and

repairs; and
• reliable operation.
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Materials
VALVES
In addition, the following issues should be considered:
• maintenance requirements;
• cost;
• gas industry usage;
• standards approval; and
• manufacturer should have a quality assurance
program.
Review and testing of existing and new valves is an

ongoing process.
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Materials
VALVES
In Canada, valves are governed by the following codes:
• CSA Z245.15, Steel Values for Oil and Gas Pipeline

Systems
• ANSI B16.34, Valves Flanged, Threaded and

Welding End
• ANSI B16.40, Manually Operated Thermoplastic Gas

Shutoffs and Valves in Gas Distribution Systems
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Materials
Valve Types
Valves have various configurations depending on their

intended use. Valve types which are found to have
the characteristics suitable for use in distribution
systems are:
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Materials
GATE
The valve is operated by raising and lowering a gate inside the

body of the valve. The main advantage of gate valves is that no
maintenance is required. The main disadvantage is that
contaminant particulates in the gas stream can collect in the
bottom of the valve in the gate recess, with the result that the
gate might not fully close. However, if the gate is partially
opened, the throttling action is considered to remove the
sediment from this area.
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Materials
PLUG
The valve is operated by rotating a slotted plug in the valve

body. Most types of plug valves require injection of a
lubricating sealant to ensure their operation and to obtain the
seal. Sizes larger than 168 mm must be gear operated, which
increases the cost of these valves. The valves used on service
risers are based on a no-maintenance plug design.
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Materials
BALL
The valve is operated by rotating a slotted ball in the body of the
valve. There are two typical ball valve designs. In the floating ball
design, the floating ball is connected to the valve stem on top and
is free to move on the bottom. The seal is achieved by the
pressure on one side forcing the ball against the seat on the other
side. In the trunnion mounted design, the ball is secured at the
top and bottom, and the seal is obtained by the pressure forcing
the seat against the ball rather than the ball against the seat as in
the floating ball design.
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Materials
BUTTERFLY
These valves have been installed in distribution systems in the

past because they are the most inexpensive type of on-off
valve; however, they have been found to provide neither
complete shutoff nor reliable operation, so they are no longer
installed by most distributors.
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Materials
PE Valves
Two types of PE valves were approved for use in CWNG:
• PE ball valves made by Nordstrom

• PE plug valves made by Kerotest
PE valve ends are joined by butt fusion.
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Materials
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Materials
When more than one valve is to be installed in close proximity, such as at

the branch connection of two feeder mains, the preferred installation is to
install valves in separate valve housings rather than together in one vault.
This minimizes the number of installations which are difficult to enter and
exit by operations personnel, and mitigates confined space entry
considerations.
For condominium and townhouse sites, the valve does not require gauge
connections on either side, nor access for maintenance; therefore a
manufactured valve box is typically specified. These valve boxes are just
large enough to contain the valve.
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Materials
Valve Location
The following items should be considered when specifying the location of valves:
• PE valves are not to be used above ground as ultraviolet light will
deteriorate polyethylene.
• Valve manholes should not be installed in low areas which will collect
water. This will make access to the valve difficult, especially in winter
when the valve could become encased in ice, as it is not advisable to
apply direct heat to melt the ice as the PE materials may become
damaged.
• Valve manholes should be installed in areas where they can be easily

found, especially in the winter.
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Materials
Valve Sizing
Valve sizes specified are typically the same size as the main on which
they are installed. However, in the large sizes of steel valves, some
companies will install a valve which is one size smaller than the main
to reduce installation cost. Verify the valve capacity before specifying
a reduced size.
Valve Numbers
All valves, except valves to condominium sites, should be assigned a

number for identification and maintenance. Ensure that the number is
shown on all records.
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Outline
Pipeline materials
Part A Distibution Pipe

Where are we?
Part B Transmission Pipe
61
Alan Murray 2017 61

Pipeline trends Pipeline trends
transportation transportation
efficiency efficiency
large diameter large diameter
high pressure high strength

severe heavy wall thickness
environment
high toughness
deep water (high energy)
high toughness
Arctic region
(low FATT)
corrosive high resistance

oil/gas to SSCC
high resistance
wet H2S
to HIC
high resistance
wet C02
to CO2 corrosion
corrosive
oil/gas
high resistance
slurry
to erosion
LNG alloy steel
{
weldability
accuracy
general requirements
elimination of
defects
62
Steel Pipe Manufacture
There are four principal methods for making
steel pipe:
Seamless tubing
Electric resistance welded
Spiral formed
Roll Bending “UOE”
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Iron & Steel Production
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Iron & Steel Production
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Rolling
Most pipe is made from rolled plate or coil
• The first stages of rolling are done hot, above the

recrystallization temperature of the steel
• Controlled cooling and rolling done at lower

temperatures are used to establish the final
microstructure and steel properties
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Hot and Cold rolling
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Flat Rolling Process
Metal slab or ingot enters the roll gap
The thickness is reduced in size by the metal rolls
The exiting velocity of the material is a function of the thickness reduction
Factors that affect the rolling process
- Friction
- Roll Force and Power Requirement
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Additions to the molten metal:
Steel Production
• Oxygen and Phosphorus
- to reduce levels of Si, Mn, S and P
- removed as a slag
• Manganese and Silicon
- to remove dissolved oxygen and
nitrogen
- form oxides which are removed as slag
• Aluminium
- to remove nitrogen
- form aluminium nitride particles
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Steel Pipe Manufacture
There are four principal methods for making
steel pipe:
Seamless tubing
Electric resistance welded
Spiral formed
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Seamless Pipe
• A solid round billet of steel is heated to 2200 to
2300 oF and rotated while it is pierced by a
mandrel to form a cylinder
• The cylinder is usually pierced again to further
reduce the pipe wall thickness
• The pipe is reheated and hot rolled or hot
formed several times to obtain the proper pipe
size and wall thickness
• This type of pipe is used in process piping rather
than pipelining
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Rotary Piercing
Double-Tapered
Rolls
Mandrel Steel Billet
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Seamless Pipe - Manufacturing Routes
• Rotary forging (125-450mm diameter pipe)
• Plug mill (50-150mm diameter pipe)
• Extrusion (small diameter tubes only)
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ERW Pipe
• Cold form hot rolled steel strip to a circular shape
• Heat abutting edges with electric current
• Mechanically force molten or near-molten edges together to bond
them
• No filler metal is added to weld joint
• Low frequency - typically 60 to 360 Hz
• High frequency – RF (400 KHz)
Break Down Rolls
Break Down Rolls
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Concave-Convex Roll Forming
74
ERW Process
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Electrical Resistance Welded Pipe ERW
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Coiled Plate
Note POSCO Korea supplies a lot of the World demand for high grade steel plate used for pip
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Uncoiling and Edge
Preparation
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Forming
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Low Frequency Welder
Rotary Electrodes
Weld
Weld Rolls
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Tube Forming
Continuous
Process Monitoring
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High Frequency Welder
Squeeze Roll
Cluster
Heated
Edges
Longitudinal Seam Weld

Sliding Contact Electrodes
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Edge Welding Temperature control
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ERW Joint Detail
Weld Line Flash Heat-

Affected
Zone (HAZ)
After Welding and Before Trimming
After Trimming and Normalizing
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Heat Treatment of the Weld Seam
Seam Heat Treatment Seam Annealing
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Heat Treatment of the Pipe Body
Refined Microstructure (left)

Conventional Heat Treatment (right)
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Electrical Resistance Welded Pipe ERW
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Spiral Pipe Production
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Spirally Welded Pipe - Manufacturing Route
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Spiral Pipe Production
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DSAW Pipe
• Large diameter, typically 16 to 64 inches
• Edges of steel plate trimmed, planed, or
beveled to prepare them for welding
• Plate cold-formed into a cylinder
• One machine first welds on inside, then
another machine welds on outside
• Filler metal added during welding
• Pipe usually cold-expanded after welding
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Roll Bending / UOE Forming
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“O” Pressing
The O press is used to obtain uniformity in the circumferential

length, appropriate seam gap, low peaking and uniform curvature.
Cold end Expansion
The expansion radio is up to 1.5 percent (maximum) of the original diameter. The pipe
is mechanically expanded to remove off residual stress produced by thermal effects
of submerged arc welding and removal of local strains generated during UO forming
improving roundness, straightness and diameter. Recovery of mechanical strength
lowered by the Bauschinger effect generated during “UO” Forming.
Longitudinal SAW Pipe - Manufacturing Route
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97
Detail of DSAW Joint
V-Bevels with Land at Mid Wall Before Welding
HAZ Next to
Weld Metal Weld Metal
Joint After Welding
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Comparison of LSAW & HSAW Pipes
Description LSAW HSAW

Method of UOE/3 roll bending Formed by Twisting of Coil
Manufacture
Weld Length Equal to pipe joint length Approximately 1.5 to 2 times the
length of pipe joint
Position of weld Longitudinal – positioned in upper Spiral – present all around the
quadrant during construction pipe
Corrosion Coating Specified thickness throughout Thickness normally increased all

entire body. over the body, resulting in
Weld seam is tracked to ensure proportional increase in coating
coating thickness on weld seam cost by 15-20%
Geometry Controlled to the desired level with Controlled during forming only
cold expansion and no cold expansion is carried
out
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Non Destructive Testing
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Hydrotesting for Leaks

Pipe Inspection

Materials for Sour Service
• Sour fluids are those containing hydrogen
sulphide
• Even in very small amounts hydrogen
sulphide has a major effect on steel
• Effects include modifying the behaviour of
corrosion inhibitors; initiating intergranular
cracking and pitting corrosion; hydrogen
cracking and internal blistering

Materials for Sour Service
• Hydrogen sulphide is highly toxic (death occurs
inside 30 mins with exposure to 700ppm in the
air
• Safety precautions start at 5-10 ppm as the H2S
is heavier than air & can collect in low spots
• The risk of sulphide cracking occurs when the
partial pressure exceeds 0.345 kPa
• Above this critical partial pressure hydrogen
sulphide susceptible steel is liable to crack by
hydrogen embittlement

The push for high strength steels
• Need for higher pressures and throughput over longer distances
– Pressure increase
• 1920s - 100 psi (700 kPa)
• 1999 - > 1700 psi (11700kPa)
• 2005- >2500 psi (17200 kPa)
– Economic savings of 20 %
• Challenge
– can not compromise safety
and reliability
– Use current manufacturing
and construction
techniques

Steel Grades
Strength (MPa) Source: Kevin Prosser: Macaw Engineering – MSc Pipeline Engineering, Newcastle University
800
700
600
500
y ield s trength
400
tens ile s trength
300
200
100
0
B X52 X65 X80
X42 X60 X70 X100
A PI 5L linepipe grade

Effect of Pipeline grade on Installed Cost
(NPS 16, design pressure 10200 kPa)
110 940 200.00

1000
920 180.00
Total Pipe Material Cost x 1000

Cost $/Ton (FOB Delivered)
160.00
Price per kilometre 100 900
140.00
880 120.00
Pipe price ($/km)
($/KM)
Price ($/ton)
900
Price per ton 860 Cost/Ton 100.00
90
840 Wall Thickness mm 80.00

Cost/Km (FOB Port) 60.00
800 820
80 40.00
800 20.00
12
11
9.7
7.8
.05
.19
9
780 0.00
3
700 70 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
Grade (API) 5L GRB 5X-X42 X56 X65 X70
WT (mm) 14.3 12.7 9.5 8.7 7.1 API 5LX grade

Material savings though use of HSS

Specified Minimum Yield Stress
• API/EN/ISO strength grades are minimum specified grades
• In order to guarantee the specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) the
pipe manufacturer has to account for the variations in pipe strength
within an order, due to variations in steel composition, plate rolling
conditions and pipe manufacturing conditions
• The pipe manufacturer normally obtains a normal distribution of
strength values, with a maximum strength up to 120MPa (about 17ksi)
higher than the SMYS
SUTS
SMYS
Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Strength

Evolution of Pipeline Steel Strength
Steady progression in commercial

development
Need to balance strength with toughness,
ductility
Practical considerations such as forming,
• Larger pipes designed for high operating
pressures require high strength levels to
minimize wall thickness and pipe weight. To
meet the need for both high strength and
enhanced toughness, we use steels with
particularly fine-grained microstructures. These
ferritic-bainitic or pure bainitic microstructures
are obtained by thermomechanical rolling with
additional cooling.

• Only exceptionally clean, high-strength low-alloy steels with low carbon contents
will do.
After hot metal desulphurisation, the steel is made by the top-blown oxygen
process. This is followed by ladle metallurgy – further desulphurisation and
calcium treatment – normally carried out in a vacuum in basic-lined ladles to
fine-tune the chemical composition of the steel. The white-hot metal is then cast
in a continuous caster.

Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Carbon Equivalency

Developing strength
• Before World War II, strength in hot-rolled low alloy steels was
achieved by the addition of carbon up to 0.4% and manganese up
to 1.5%, giving yield stresses of 350-400 MPa. However, such
steels are essentially ferrite pearlite aggregates, which do not
possess adequate toughness for many modern applications.
Indeed, the toughness, as measured by the ductile/brittle
transition decreases dramatically with carbon content, i.e. with
increasing volume of pearlite in the steel. Furthermore, with the
introduction of welding as the main fabrication technique, the
high carbon contents led to serious cracking problems, which
could only be eliminated by the use of lower carbon steels. The
great advantage of producing in these steels a fine ferrite grain
size soon became apparent, so controlled rolling in the austenitic
condition was gradually introduced to achieve this.

Developing strength
Obtaining fine ferrite grain sizes in the finished steel is found to be greatly expedited
by the addition of small concentrations (< 0.1 wt %) of grain refining elements
such as niobium, titanium, vanadium and aluminum. On adding such elements to
steels with 0.03-0.08% C and up to 1.5% Mn,
In this way it became possible to produce fine-grained material with yield strengths
between 450 and 550 MPa, and with ductile/brittle transition temperatures as
low as -70°C. Such steels are now referred to as high strength low alloy steels
(HSLA), The primary grain refinement mechanism in controlled rolling is the
recrystallization of austenite during hot deformation, known as dynamic
recrystallization. This process is clearly influenced by the temperature and the
degree of deformation, which takes place during each pass through the rolls

Evolution of Pipe Grades Mechanisms to
Increase Strength
•Alloys
•Cleaner steels and
more alloying
•Processing
techniques such as
Quench and
Temper and
Thermo-
Mechanical
– grain
refinement
Glover
2004 Alan Murray 2017 117
Pipeline Steel Developments
• 1970’s onwards : Controlled rolled (or

‘TMCP’) steels
Si killed, Al treated, and microalloyed with Nb and/or V. Plate rolled
at temperatures down to 700degC. These steels have high strength,
good toughness and low CEV (good weldability).
• 1990’s onwards : Accelerated cooled
steels
To achieve even higher strength (X80-X100) without compromising
CEV, it was necessary to control roll and fast cool the plate by water
quenching.

TMCP
• In a thermomechanical rolling process,
supported by state-of-the-art process control,
the plate is rolled at precisely defined
temperatures and with exactly controlled
amounts of reduction. The required fine-
grained, homogeneous microstructure boasting
optimum strength and toughness is obtained
through recrystallisation, transformation and
precipitation. This process, which combines
thermomechanical rolling with the possibility of
accelerated cooling, produces steel plate of
extremely high strength, toughness and sour gas
resistance

Controlled Rolling of
Steel Plate
Source: Kevin Prosser: Macaw Engineering – MSc Pipeline Engineering, Newcastle University

Ferrite
Controlled Rolling Grain Refinement
• Rolling at lower
temperatures breaks
down austenite grains
Increasing yield strength

• Fine austenite grains
transform to fine ferrite
grains
• Controlled deformation
at rolling stage
• Controlled finishing
temperature ~900°C
Decreasing grain size

Controlled Rolled Steels
• Controlled rolled steels:
– High strength
• small grain size
• degree of cold work
• microalloying precipitates
– Excellent toughness
• small grain size
• freedom from non-metallic inclusions
– Good weldability
• low carbon equivalent

Accelerated Cooling

Accelerated Cooling
Two stage accelerated cooling process
Enhances ferrite
grain refinement
Prevents
pearlite
Source: Kevin Prosser: Macaw Engineering – MSc Pipeline Source: Hillenbrand, H-G et al - Europipe “Development and production formation
of high strength pipeline
Engineering, Newcastle University steels”, Niobium 2001, Orlando, Florida

Thermomechanical Controlled Processing
1400
Recrystallized Austenite
1000 Tnr
TEMPERATURE, °C
Pancaked Austenite
800 Ar3
600 Accelerated F
Cooling P
AF (or B)
Ms
400
F - Ferrite
200 P - Pearlite
B - Bainite
AF - Acicular Ferrite
TIME
Grade 550 (X80)
• Grade 550 (X80) has been in

production since 1994
• Chemistry (wt %)
C Mn Mo Ti Nb
0.035 1.70 0.25 0.020 0.09
• Nitrogen typically 100 ppm

Line Pipe Microstructure
Courtesy D. Ivey, U of Alberta

North America Pipe Production
• X80 now widely accepted for construction throughout North

America
• Spiral pipe is also now widely accepted;
– construction of a number of new mills
• Safety factor of 0.8 has been employed in Canada for many

years.
• US has employed safety factor of 0.72, but now granting
waivers for 0.8
– Slab macro etch test to identify inclusions that may form centreline
segregations; acceptance criteria of at least 2 on the Mannesmann
scale
– 50% inspection of the plate or pipe surface
– Vickers Hardness (Hv10) max of 280 on pipe seam welds
New Field Welding Technology
• Dual Torch Technique
preferred due to more
efficient welding process
Single Torch
Temp.
Time
Photo courtesy of CRC-Evans

New Field Welding Technology
• Dual Torch Technique
preferred due to more
efficient welding process
Single Torch
Second Torch
Temp.
Time
Photo courtesy of CRC-Evans

Welding X80
Welding performance
trials done using
multi-pass dual torch
welding procedure
Effect of Welding Technique
Single Torch Prior Austenite Grain Size Distribution

Dual Torch Prior Austenite Grain Size Distribution
70
140
60
120
50
100
Number
40
Number
80
30
60
40 20
20 10
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Grain size (micron) Grain size (micron)
Effect of Welding Technique
350
300
250
Charpy
Energy (J)
Impact
200 ST
Energy
150 DT
(J)
100
50
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40
Temperature (C)
Accelerated Cooling
X60 X80
ferrite - pearlite ferrite - bainite
Source: Hillenbrand, H-G et al - Europipe “Development and production of high strength pipeline steels”, Niobium 2001, Orlando,
Florida

Alloys
•Carbon 700
600
500
Strength MPa
– increases 400
300
strength 200
100
– Interstitial 0
Carbon Content
140 atoms frictional

120
100 resistance to Too much carbon
Toughness J
80
60 dislocations – Reduces
40
20 toughness
0
Carbon Content – Strain aging
Source :Alan Glover 2004 – Hardness,
weldability
Actual trend
800
Yield Strength MPa

600
Achieve increasing 400
strength with
200
reducing Carbon
Achieve increased 0
0.03-0.06 0.24
toughness with Carbon Content

increasing yield
Source :Alan
Glover 2004

High Strength Steels:
At what cost to ductility?
• Higher the strength the less
percent strain or ductility
•15% decrease in strain at
ultimate
•Y/T ratio approaching 1.0
•Issues with strain based
designs
•Formed material has higher
strength than plate
•Microstructures changed as
strength increased

Round Bar and Flattened Strap Test Specimens

Measuring Strength – Tension Test
• Consider applying an increasing tensile load uniaxially along the axis of a

specimen
• Instantaneously measure the applied load and the resulting extension
• Results plotted as a stress-strain curve
Source: Callister, W.D.,”Fundamentals of Materials Science & Engineering
Alan Murray 2017
Slide 140
Measuring Strength – Tension Test
• Consider a pipe - strength measurement

required in the hoop direction h
• Specimen usually taken in circumferential
direction and flattened
P
Alan Murray 2017
Slide 141
TENSILE PROPERTIES: Yield Strength and
Tensile Strength
• Stresses in the pipeline must not exceed yield strength.
• Some designs allow yielding (‘strain-based design’) but this is usually limited
to special applications (permafrost, ‘reeling’, etc.).
STRESS, (N/mm^2)
800
700
Ultimate tensile strength
600
500
400 Yield strength

300
200 Failure
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
STRAIN, %
142
Alan Murray 2017

Line Pipe : Ductility from
•
Tensile Testing
Ductility has two roles:
• To ensure the line pipe can deform, for bending, etc.
• Sufficient ductility is ensured by specifying elongation and ‘Y/T’ limits in API 5L.
Stress ()
ultimate
tensile ‘T’
strength
‘Y’
yield
strength
Strain () or
Elongation
• To ensure any defect that failures will do so in a ductile manner.
• We use the ‘DWTT’ specimen for this.
143
Alan Murray 2017

Line Pipe: Ductility and Brittleness
• Materials can be described as ‘ductile’ or ‘brittle’.
• Ductile materials can strain (elongate, bend, etc.)
extensively before failing.
• Brittle materials cannot tolerate large strains.
• Bones are strong, but brittle.
The conventional
measures of ductility are:
•the engineering strain at
fracture (usually called the
‘elongation’); and
•the reduction of area at
fracture.
Line Pipe : Ductility and Brittleness
• Line pipe needs to

be ductile to be
able to withstand
deformation.
• Line pipe will need
to bend (e.g. ‘field
bends’), and also
may occasionally
Alan Murray 2017 be dented and 145
permanently
deformed.
Line Pipe : Toughness
• ‘Toughness’ is a measure of the ability of a
material to withstand the presence of a crack,
or crack-like defect.
– Low toughness material (such
as glass) cannot tolerate cracks,
and can fail in a ‘brittle’ manner.
– Materials such as aluminium,
can withstand large cracks and
are high toughness.

• ‘Toughness’ and ‘ductility’ have much in common;
for example, both decrease as temperature
decreases.
• But a material may be ‘ductile’ (it can deform
extensively before failure) but it may not be ‘tough’.
– For example some steels are very
tough in thin sections, but very
brittle in thick sections.
– Also, some steels can be ductiile at
a low temperature, but fail in a
birttle manner if there is a defect
causing the failure. Image from: http://www.ndt-ed.org

1. Line pipe has to be tough to be able to withstand defects
that will inevitably be in the pipeline.
2. For example, a pipeline will corrode as it ages:

For more than a century the Charpy test has been employed as an acceptance test
characterizing the impact toughness
of a material. The original parameter is the energy consumed during breaking a
standard notched specimen with net cross-section of 80 mm2 . If this energy is plotted
versus temperature, many steels show small values at low temperatures which rise in a
transition regime and enter a plateau at elevated temperatures (upper-shelf
toughness).
Safe operation of a structure or component is only possible if the operating
temperature is well above the transition regime. The unexpected breaking-apart of
liberty ships operating in cold polar seas during World War Two could later be
explained by the fact that for the steel used to build the hull had a transition
temperature

Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing

Line Pipe : Toughness in Material
Specifications
• Many material specifications require a certain toughness level.
• In pipelines, we measure toughness by a small test called a ‘Charpy’ test.
– This is a small impact specimen.
– A full size specimen is 10mm x 10mm:
10
10
– If our pipeline steel is too thin, we use a ‘subsize’ (⅔) specimen of 10mm x 6.7mm:
mm
mm
10
10
mm mm 6.7
– The toughness is measured in ‘Joules’ (or ft. lbs.).

Toughness Units: 1J=0.738ftlb
Line Pipe : Charpy Test
• A sample is cut from the line pipe and

machined as a Charpy specimen.
• The specimen is put in a Charpy test
machine.
Charpy
Top images taken from Engineers Inc. Website.

Bottom image from D Jones Newcastle University
MSc Course notes
Line Pipe : Effect of temperature on toughness
• Both the energy absorbed (toughness), and the ductility (‘shear area’), or brittleness (‘cleavage’)
on the fracture surfaces are measured at different temperatures.
Toughness
(Energy upper shelf (DUCTILE)
Absorbed)
0 percent shear
Pipeline steels usually
operate on this ‘upper’
shelf, and so are ductile.
Percentage
Shear
Area
100 percent shear

lower shelf (BRITTLE)
Temperature
DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION
Some materials undergo a transition from ductile to brittle behaviour, under conditions of
decreasing temperature, or increasing loading rate.
Most glassy materials and some engineering materials such as mild steel show this transition.
Three basic factors contribute to brittle fracture:
DUCTILE
energy absorbed
1. tri-axial state of in impact test upper
stress (e.g. a notch), shelf
lower
2. low temperature (i.e.
shelf
below the transition
temperature), and
3. a high strain rate.
BRITTLE
temperature

Line Pipe : Ductility using the
DWTT
• We ensure our line pipe is ductile in any failure by the Drop Weight Tear Test
“DWTT’ impact test.
• The drop weight tear test (DWTT) specimen is a full thickness test specimen
with a 5 mm deep pressed notch in the centre of the span.
falling weight
B
percentage shear
area evaluated in
76 mm central part of
fracture specimen
B
pressed notch
254 mm
305 mm

DWTT: Test Machine
• The specimen is fractured in a single impact by a falling weight.
• This type of specimen is sometimes known as a pressed-notch DWTT
specimen.
Charpy
DWTT
Images from http://www.worldoftest.com/dwtt.htm
DWTT: Measuring ‘Ductility’
• The DWTT specimen is inspected after the test, to determine its ‘shear area’ (or ‘% ductility’,
or ‘% shear area’) on the fracture specimen.
• If the DWTT’s fracture surface is mainly ductile, the line pipe will behave in a ductile manner.
-80C
10% shear
-60C
30% shear %Shear Area
100
-40C
95% shear 0
Temperature
% ‘shear’ area decreases with decreasing temperature

DWTT: Test Machine
• Example of DWTT Curve:
100%
90%
80%
Percentage Shear Area (%)

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Test Temperature (ºC)
0% 100%
Indentation Simulation

Full Scale Testing

Deep crack in Bending
Verified that measurements of high strength steels
are acceptable up to 80% of machine capacity
(ASTM E23) for
• Experimental medium toughness steel, and
• Commercial bainite/ferrite high-toughness steel
Manual shieded metal arc
Mechanised gas metal arc
The width of the weld joint has been found to be critical and
therefore must be considered an essential variable for welding
procedure specifications.
10 Operating, Maintenance, and Upgrading 10.8.3 Weld Imperfections in Field
Circumferential Welds …It shall be permissible to accept such welds, provided that the welds
are judged to be acceptable on the basis of an engineering critical assessment involving
consideration of service history and loading, anticipated service conditions …, imperfection
dimensions, and weld properties (including fracture toughness properties)…. …
“With the permission of Canadian Standards Association, material is reproduced from CSA
Standard, Z662-03, which is copyrighted by Canadian Standards Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd.,
Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3, www.csa.ca. While use of this material has been authorized, CSA
shall not be responsible for the manner in which the information is presented, nor for any
interpretations thereof”.
Annex K (informative) Standards of Acceptability for Circumferential Pipe Butt Welds Based
on Fracture Mechanics Principles K.1 Introduction K.1.1 Purpose This annex provides the
analytical methods that are used to derive standards of acceptability for weld imperfections,
…. The standards of acceptability that are derived are based on engineering critical
assessment and include consi
Material Testing Issues for HSS
Toughness
1. DWTT Fracture Ductility Testing with Modern High
Toughness and Q&T Steels – Ductile v. Brittle initiation
2. Fracture Arrest models’ applicability to modern high
toughness steels
3. SEN test specimen preparation and test procedures
Tensile
1. Yield Strength Determination in Large OD pipes
2. Weld tension specimens
3. Curved wide plate tension

Toughness Testing
1. DWTT Fracture Ductility Testing with Modern High
Toughness and Q&T Steels – Ductile v. Brittle initiation
Issues:
Many DWT tests from materials with high CVN energy returning invalid and
not always conservative transition temperature results due to inability to
simulate a brittle initiated running fracture
May not be able to receive valid test for some steels (e.g., Q&T) possibly
due to geometric effects.
Actions:
Fundamental research initiated with ERPG (DWTT), API (approved) and
PRCI (MATH 8-1) first to evaluate problem, and then define a course
forward.
“West Jefferson” (vessel) burst

test on 48”
x 1.25” X65 pipe that shattered
with 5 to 10% shear area at -30F.

Toughness Testing
2. Fracture Arrest models’ applicability to modern high toughness
steels
Issue:
• For modern, high toughness lower strength ≤ X70 steels, full-
scale burst test correlations to CVN toughness based on
historical correlations may be non conservative as they behave
more like X100 steels. Upper-shelf energy measurement
may require use of DWTT-type specimen rather than
Charpy specimen to measure fracture resistance energy

Toughness Testing
3. Single Edge Notch Tension [SEN(T)] test specimen
preparation and test procedures
Issue:
CTOD may be overly conservative for some analysis. The SEN(T) as it is a
more realistic test for girth welds loaded in tension and results in increased
toughness and greater accuracy
SEN(T) procedures have been developed in the industry but they need to be
converted into recommended practice for industry-wide application so that
SENT data from different testing facilities can be considered comparably

Tensile Testing
1. Yield Strength Determination in Large OD pipes
Issues:
The various tension test specimens (Flattened Strap, Round Bar, Ring
Expansion) give different yield strength responses due to Bauschinger and
other effects.
• Many crucial sample preparation, flattening, and testing procedure
components are experiential in industry and these are not in public standards.

Tensile Testing
• 2. Weld tension specimens
• Issue:
• Round Bar SAW tension specimens sample only small cross-section of weld
• Action:
• Consider full-section rectangular weld specimen developed with PRCI (MATH-1)
• Institute specimen in standards

Priority:
• DWTT fracture testing sample preparation and testing
• protocols
• Issues:
• Potential safety issue with modern steels as DWTT results
• may be non-conservatively giving lower ductile transition
• temperatures – may fail in brittle mode.
• A modified specimen and test protocol may be capable of
• measuring fracture energy to also address fracture arrest
• energy measurement.
• This issue has already been identified, budgeted and work
• initiated within EPRG, PRCI and API groups but costs may
• be in millions to develop test correlations to full-scale burst
• tests

TOUGHNESS VALUES IN OLDER
•
PIPELINES
The toughness of older line pipe in USA has 80
1/1 Charpy impact energy, ft.lbf

been estimated as shown here**: minimum
70
average
• USA line pipe should be representative of older 60 maximum
steels in our business.
50
• USA system is one of the 40
oldest in the world, and most 30
of the older systems around 20
the world used USA 10
specifications and technology. 0

B X42 X52 X60 X70
grade
Remember this average toughness level of ≥30ft

lbs [⅔Charpy ≥ 20ft lbs]
*See B Leis, T Thomas, ‘Linepipe Property Issues in Pipeline Design and Re-establishing MAOP’, International Congress on Pipelines, PEMEX, Merida, Mexico, Paper ARC-17, November 2001
**These are approximate values. See R J Eiber et al ‘Fracture Control Requirements for Gas Transmission Pipelines’, 3 rd Pipeline Technology Conference, Brugge, May 2000, p. 437

Fracture propagation – Event tree
Part wall defect introduced
Stable Through-wall defect
Leak Rupture
Brittle Ductile
Propagate Arrest
Crack arrestors
required

FRACTURE MECHANICS
 The presence of a
crack or notch can
reduce the failure
stress to below the
Yield Strength of a
material having no Stress
defects Concentration
 FRACTURE MECHANICS
is the scientific
framework for no
defect
defect
Estimating the strength
of a flawed material

Loads and Defects

The effect of Defects

Evolution of Pipeline Steel Toughness
• Toughness has not matched higher
strength steel improvements
•Safety considerations
•Fracture initiation and propagation
•Mitigation by crack arrestors

Crack arrestor options
Composite Reinforced Linepipe

Fatigue
• Many structures operate at a Stress
‘static’ (constant) stress. Liquids Static Stress
Pipelines do not.
• ‘Fatigue’ occurs under cyclic Time
Stress
(changing) stress of any kind, and Cyclic Stress
can lead to failure.

• These stresses can be below the
ultimate tensile strength, or the Time
Cycle
yield strength of the material, but
can still lead to failure.

Fatigue
• The term “fatigue” is based on Stress Cyclic Stress
the concept that a material
becomes “tired” and fails at a
stress level below the nominal Cycle
Time
strength of the material.

• Failure is caused by ‘fatigue
cracking’ resulting from the
repeated cyclic stresses.

Fatigue
• ‘Metal fatigue’ was reported by
railroad engineers in the 1880s.
• A number of accidents involving
failed train axles led engineers to
describe the parts as being "tired“,
or "fatigued”.
• Today, ‘fatigue’ is defined as* ‘the
damage of a structural part by the
initiation and gradual propagation of
a crack or cracks caused by repeated Image from: http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/jol/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/31994r-small.jpg
applications of stress.’
*See BS 7608.

Fatigue: Cracking
• Fatigue cracking occurs when we have:
– A loading pattern with minimum and maximum peak values
with large enough variation or fluctuation.
– The peak stress levels must be of sufficiently high value. If the
peak stresses are too low, no crack initiation will occur.
– A sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress.
Stress
Cyclic Stress
Peak stress
Number of cycles (Time)

Fatigue: ‘Life’
• The fatigue ‘life’ of a component can be expressed as the
number of loading cycles required to initiate a fatigue crack and
to propagate the crack to a ‘critical’ (cause failure) size:
STRESS Fatigue history
Failure
X
Fatigue life TIME

(number
of cycles)

Fatigue: In a pipeline
• The load (stress) in a pipeline can be
constant (‘static’) or can vary (‘cyclic’).
• In pipelines this cycling is usually caused by internal
pressure or temperature fluctuations.
Pressure Time
Or
Load

Fatigue: From pressure variations in liquid line
Example of pressure fluctuations (Dp) from an operational liquid line:
•1000
•900
•800
PRESSURE, psi
•700
•600
50
•500
to
•400 975
•300 psi
•200
(Dp = 67 bar)
•100
•0
•0 •10 •20 •30 •40 •50 •60 •70 •80 •90 •100 •110 •120 •130 •140 •150 •160 •170 •180
Days

FATIGUE: From pressure variations in gas line
Pipeline pressure does not usually vary significantly in a gas line:
Pressure,
bar
These lines are instrument trips, etc.,

and are ignored

Fatigue: In pipelines
• Fatigue is not usually a problem in pipelines,
but… Stress
Cyclic Stress
• Some gas lines experience large and

frequent pressure cycles due
to changing customer demands.
Time
• Oil pipelines can see some large pressure
cycles; e.g., batching.
• Laying pipelines offshore can introduce
large cyclical stresses.

Fatigue: Why Failures?
• Cyclic loads (fatigue) in pipelines can cause
existing defects (often cracks or sharp
defects in welds) in the structure to grow to
Existing
failure. defect
ainitial
afinal
ainitial = initial defect size

afinal = final defect size
Fatigue causes
defect to grow

• Here is an example of a fatigue failure

at a weld in a 34” crude oil line in 2002.
• Failure was from a fatigue crack that
initiated along the seam weld during
transportation* of the pipe in 1966/7,
and it grew to failure during service.
Overstress
Region
Fatigue
regions
Image from NTSB Accident Report NTSB/PAR-04/01

Fatigue
initiation at weld toe
*For ‘railroad cracking’ see A T Attenbury, ‘Stresses During Shipping, Handling and Laying Thin Walled Pipe’, Pipeline News, December 1962. pp 44-47, and API RP 5L1
• The fatigue can also help stress corrosion cracks to form/grow, and
also cause failures in damage such as dents, etc..
Pipeline failure
from fatigue
cracking
initiated at
gouges
Image from: www.ntsb.gov/Publictn/2007/PAB0702.htm

Fatigue: Assessment using ‘S-N’ curves
• If there are large and frequent cyclic stresses, we usually use ‘S-N’
(cyclic stress versus number of cycles) curves to ensure no failure at
the design stage.
Pressure,
Stress load
range
or stress Time
Δσ, or Stress
S (log range S1
scale)
Slope of stress-cycles curve = m
Allowable
number of
cycles N1 at
Stress
Stress range
range S2
S1
Allowable number
of cycles N2 at Stress range
N S2 N2
Number of cycles to failure N (log scale)
1
• S-N curves are published in the literature; for example:
STRESS Fatigue
history
Failure
Cyclic Stress Range
Fatigue life
Number of Cycles
• S-N curves vary, depending on the structure.
• For example, differing welds (differing ‘classes’) have differing S-
N curves:
Weld ‘class’ or type

For example, at a
stress range of 200
N/mm2, the fatigue
life is…
~15,000 cycles

Fatigue: How large is the problem?
• ‘CONCAWE’ collects failure data for onshore liquid lines in Europe (www.concawe.be):
– It reports very few (if any) pipelines are believed to
suffer from deterioration due to throughput related
effects, for example, metal fatigue.
• Fatigue failures do sometimes occur when pipelines have suffered some
construction fault or subsequent damage such as dents.
– These are relatively infrequent causes of spillage.
• However, fatigue failures do occur,
particularly from defects in
longitudinal seam welds*.
Gas lines: BS PD 8010-1 states that a fatigue analysis is

not required if the maximum cyclic hoop stress is 35
N/mm2
*M Ledezma et al. ‘Refurbishment Of A 230 Km Oil Pipeline With Longitudinal Seam Weld Fatigue Cracking Problem’, International pipeline
conference, Canada 2002, IPC 2002-27065
Fatigue: Assessment of Pre-existing Defects
• Fatigue life is made up of the time for crack initiation, time for crack propagation,
and the short time required for final failure.
• The presence of a defect or a ‘stress concentration’ (e.g. a hole), or a weld, can
reduce fatigue life dramatically.
Structure Fatigue life at a stress
range of 180 N/mm2
Plain plate Infinity
Plate with 3 mm 106 cycles

diameter hole
Plate with fillet 2x105 cycles
welds
Plate with 2 mm 105 cycles
deep notch

Fatigue: Assessment using Fracture Mechanics
• If we have an existing defect, we use fracture mechanics, not ‘S-N’
curves, to calculate fatigue life.
• API 579 or BSI 7910 give guidance on the fracture mechanics
assessmentStress
of an existing defect:
Stress Cycles
a
Stress a’
+ =
Stress Time
Stress is measured in ‘stress Cyclic stress is measured in Failure occurs at a critical value
intensity, ‘K’. K is a function of ‘cyclic stress intensity, ‘DK’. of K, related to the material’s
defect size and shape, stress, Growth is related to DK. toughness, or a critical stress
and structure geometry. related to the material’s
Alan Murray 2017 201 strength.
Module Summary
• Steady evolution in steel strength
• Toughness and ductility are important parameters
• Thermo-mechanical processing has enabled grain refinement and a
large increase in strength
• Commercial development of higher strength X100 and + steels is
possible and field trials have been completed
• Challenges such as Y/T ratio, anisotropic properties and toughness
may limit strain based design usage
• Fracture needs to be considered in Gas and NGL Pipeline operation
• Fatigue needs to be considered in Liquids Pipeline operation

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Design Evaluation Assessment

for Natural Gas Transport

Dr Alan Murray P Eng FASME

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The importance of considering Fatigue in Liquid Pipeline Operations

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• Steel is most commonly used for large diameter

Part A Distibution Pipe

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Polyethylene (PE) Pipe

Distribution systems are typically constructed of steel and

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Manufacture of Polyethylene Resin

To make polyethylene, high-purity ethylene gas is required. Ethylene may

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When using natural gas as a raw

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PE pipe is made using a process called extrusion. In

The screw is designed to give continuous uniform mixing and

Speed control on the machine is critical. For a given

The extrusion process is shown on the following

In modern pipe mills, the wall thickness is

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Gas pipe is typically either designated as PE2406 or PE3408. These numbers

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The hydrostatic design basis refers to the pressure at which

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The design pressure for PE pipe as specified in Canadian Standard CSA

P = design pressure (kPa)

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US Code of Federal Regulations 192 Sec. 192.121 Design of plastic pipe.

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The SDR is equal to the outside diameter of the pipe

For a given resin, design pressure is a function of SDR. The

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To facilitate locating PE pipe underground after burial, wire (called tracer

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PE pipe must be handled and supported in a manner which

PE pipe should be handled in accordance with these

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– During storage in warehouse or during construction, store PE pipe in coils or lengths on a

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PE fittings must be:

– as uniform as commercially practical;

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Where size permits, PE fittings are marked, in order, with:

– the manufacturer's name or trademark;

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BUTT/SOCKET FUSION FITTINGS

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