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medium and then low voltage local distribution systems [1]. Some DG technologies, such as wind turbines and solar
However, demands for more and higher quality power, along power, are very sensitive to weather variations, therefore
with the increasing concern about problems related to our their generation output is quite variable and with limited
environment, such global warming, are placing new predictability and only partially controllable. Models that
challenges to the power grid. Now the grid is more account for those features are needed to achieve a better
constrained and it is expected to perform better and be integration of renewable DG technologies; this work is on
“greener”. That can be only achieved taking advantage of that line.
new technological advances, such distributed generation A. Modeling of DG
(DG). DG applications in the vicinity of the load show great Billinton [10] performs reliability analysis including
operational and power-quality advantages, in addition to large-scale wind-farms to find the optimal reinforcement of
transmission losses reduction. They are very appropriate for the network, while using non-sequential montecarlo
simulation and some basic wind modeling, Vallee [11]
This work is supported in part by North China Electric Power provides some ideas for modeling wind power generation in
University (93301702), and Chilean Fondecyt project 2008-1080558. reliability research.
Hui Ren and Xiaojun Yu are with the Department of electrical
engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding, 071003, Given that in the distribution network, the output of DG
China. (email: hren@ncepubd.edu.cn). is generally much lower than 10MW [12] and the
David Watts is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, characteristics of now typical DG technologies, it is
Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Vicuna Mackena 4860, Macul,
reasonable to use a multi-capacity probability model as
Santiago, Chile (phone: 56-2-6864281; fax: 56-2-5522563; email:
dwatts@ing.puc.cl). given in (1). In this model, stochastic connection and output
2
small DG units. This allows us to account for the fact that PGk PDi U i U j (Gij cos ij Bij sin ij ) 0 (4)
ki j 1
limitations on the energy input (e.g. wind availability) n
establish dynamic limits on the installed capacity we can QGk QDi U i U j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) 0 (5)
ki j 1
take advantage of.
PG min PGi PG max (6)
P(Gidg M i1 ) S dgi p i1
QG min QGi QG max (7)
P(Gi M i ) S dgi p i
dg 2 2
wi a i PGi2 bi PGi c i ,
dg
M i2 0.5G , M i3 0.75G , M i1 G . G is taken to be 80KW traditional/conventional generators and DGs, and ai, bi and ci
in this paper. p1i, p2i, p3i, p4i are probabilities of the DG with are the coefficients of generators‟ cost functions. For DGs,
corresponding output. Sdgi is the connecting factor of DG to the coefficients in their cost functions (assumed to be
the system, establishing whether it is connected or not. quadratic) are taken to be a much smaller number, to account
1 p ps for DGs priority of connection to the system. The second
S dgi
term, wz C U i U j Gij cos ij Bij sin ij , represents the
(2) n n
0 p ps
i 1 j 1
B. The sitting of DFACTS cost of line losses. Parameters w1 and w2 are weights of
This paper proposes that by adding some controllability generator operation costs and the costs of the line losses,
to the transmission capacity of some distribution lines and while C is the unit price/cost of line losses. Eq.(4) and (5)
providing reactive power support to some buses, the are active and reactive power balance at each node, while
restriction on the location and capacity of DG connected to Eq.(6) to (8) are the constraints on generation of active and
the distribution system could be relaxed. reactive power output, and voltage at all nodes. Eq.(9) is the
Monte Carlo simulation is used to try multiple locations active power flow constraint at distribution lines.
and decide the optimal sitting of DFACTS. The flow chart The KKT optimality condition is,
l r
describing this process is given in Fig.1. f ( x) j hj ( x) igi ( x) 0 (10)
j 1 i 1
s.t
3
0.036
1.02 DFACTS
DFACTS DFACTS
0.99
EDNS 0.78% 0.13% 0.23%
LOLP 0.010 0.0085 0.0070
0.96
IV. CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK
0.93
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36
Distributed power technology has proven to be a
nodes
promising supplement to conventional power systems
technologies supplying everyday more demanding consumer
Fig. 3. Comparison of average voltage of system with DGs when DG‟s requirements. However, these technologies come with new
maximum capacity is increased to 240KW: with DFACTS (black); without challenges that need to be taken care of. In particular, DGs‟
DFACTS (grey).
capacity and location limitations sometime pose restrictions
Since wind power is very sensitive to wind speed on the potential usage of available renewable resources.
variation, and solar power, without considerable storage, to This paper proposes algorithms and simulation
sunshine changes, their power output are quite variable, and procedures to deal with the installation of the DFACTS in
strongly „fuel‟-limited. A higher DG outage rate is used to the distribution network, allowing better and higher
simulate this situation. The outage rates of some components penetration of DGs and the natural resources that sometimes
are listed in Tab. 2. feed them.
TAB.2 THE OUTAGE OF SYSTEM COMPONENT
We show that limitations on the position and penetration
capacity of those DGs can be effectively reduced using
High voltage Distribution DFACTs technologies. This early version of our algorithm is
side bus line
Outage rates 0.001 0.0001 already accounting for one important shortcoming of
traditional algorithms reconfiguring DGs (the assumption
Figure 4 gives a comparison of average voltages from that they are fully dispatchable). Here we account for the
different nodes of the system with 80KW DGs with and limited availability of DGs associated to renewable
without DFACTS. The only disturbances introduced are the resources and because of that the system does not fully count
changes on the sitting of DGs and their available capacity, as on them during system reconfiguration.
described by (1). As it shows in Fig.4, before installing This is ongoing research and future work includes more
DFACTS, the average voltages are reaching the lower limit, detailed modeling of each DG technology, and the nature of
and DFACTs effectively improve voltages at each node. their variability and availability, because different renewable
resources behave quite different. The algorithm for the
1.08 location can still be greatly refined by incorporating
1.05 economic variables to compare the different alternatives and
1.02 value their costs and benefits.
voltage (p.u.)
0.99
0.96
V. APPENDIX
0.93 IEEE-36 test system: distribution line data
0.9
0.87 Nodes Nodes resistance reactance
0.84 23 113 0.309 0.6743
113 114 0.0686 0.1498
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36
114 27 0.0373 0.2997
nodes 27 26 0.1201 0.2622
26 136 0.2918 0.6368
Fig. 4. Comparison of the average voltages with DGs, the maximum 136 137 0.0515 0.1123
capacity of DG is 80KW: with DFACTS (black); without DFACTS (grey). 137 25 0.309 0.6743
25 138 0.3261 0.7117
Aiming to get a measure of system reliability, EDNS and 138 139 0.2575 0.5619
LOLP are computed for the system without DGs and 139 24 0.0515 0.1123
DFACTS, with DGs but without DFACTS, and with both 25 142 0.2231 0.478
142 143 0.1716 0.3746
DGs and DFACTS, by using the method described in section 143 28 0.1546 0.3372
II-C. 28 144 0.3948 0.8616
It can be seen from Table 6 that the reliability of the 144 145 0.0858 0.1873
145 146 0.3261 0.7117
distribution system has been improved because of operation
146 29 0.4635 1.0114
of DG. This is usually the case because DGs can supply 27 115 0.2746 0.5994
power to some important users if there are failures in the 115 116 0.206 0.4495
distribution system. After installing DFACTS, line overload 116 30 0.1201 0.2622
30 117 0.0858 0.1873
is alleviated and DGs could operate at their maximum power 117 118 0.1716 0.3746
output, ensuring the power supply to some users, therefore 118 119 0.1716 0.3746
31 120 0.2231 0.487
5
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126 127 0.306 0.6743 1999.
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systems, 2004, pp. 1257-1262 Vol.2.
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devices for improved techno-economic operation of power systems,
Nodes KW MVAR Proceedings of the 7th IASTED on Power and Energy Systems, pp.
113 112.8 72.4 444-449, 2007.
114 181.8 144.1 [10] R. Billinton and W. Wangdee, Reliability-based transmission
136 19.1 14.5 reinforcement planning associated with large-scale wind farms, IEEE
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138 281.1 180.4 [11] F. Vallee, J. Lobry, and O. Deblecker, Impact of the Wind
139 187.5 138.3 Geographical Correlation Level for Reliability Studies, IEEE
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144 299.2 189.2 reliability of distributed generation with analytical techniques, IEEE
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120 131.4 99.8
121 155.5 102.1
122 136.8 97.5
VII. BIOGRAPHIES
124 58.9 44.8
123 18.3 12.2 Hui Ren is an associated professor with the Department of Electrical
Engineering at North China Electric Power University since 1997, and also
125 121.3 79.4
a Ph.D. student in NCEPU. She was a visiting scholar at the University of
126 180.3 147.6
Wisconsin USA in 2006. Her areas of interest include dynamic
performance analysis of power system, cascading failures and risk analysis
and FACTS application in power system.
VI. REFERENCES Xiaojun Yu received his B. S. degree from North China Electric Power
[1] A. Berg, S. Krahl, T. Paulun, Cost-efficient Integration of Distributed University (NCEPU) in 2007. Now he is a master student in Electrical
Generation into Medium Voltage Networks by Optimized Network Engineering Department in North China Electric Power University. His
Planning, CIRED Seminar, Frankfurt, June, 2008 research area is power system operation, analysis and control.
[2] T. Senjyu, Y. Miyazato, A. Yona, N. Urasaki, and T. Funabashi,
David Watts received his Ph.D (2007) and M.S. (2003) degrees in
Optimal Distribution Voltage Control and Coordination with
electrical engineering and master degree in applied economics (2006) from
Distributed Generation, IEEE Transactions on power delivery, vol. 23,
the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, and a M.S. degree (1998) in
no. 2, pp 1236-1242, 2008.
electrical engineering from Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile. He is
[3] J.H. Choi, J.C.Kim, S.H.Moon, Integration of Dispersed Generations
an assistant professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at
to Automated Distribution Networks for Network Reconfiguration",
Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile since 2000. His areas of interest
in IEEE Bologna PowerTech Conference, Jun 2003.
include pricing, operation and planning in power markets, and cascading
[4] M.A. Kashem, V. Ganapathy and G.B. Jasmon, Network
failures, risk analysis and FACTS applications in electric power systems.
Reconfiguration for Enhancement of Voltage Stability in Distribution
He also performs research on natural resource economics, applied game
Networks, in IEEE Gen. Trans. Distribution, vol. 147, No. 3, May
theory and market dynamics in power markets.
2000.