ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

THE SHIP OF THOUGHT

Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning

Edited by Duncan Barford

E N C Y C L O P A E D I A OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

The Ship of Thought

Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning

edited by

Duncan Barford

Karnac Books
First published in 2 0 0 2 by
H. K a r n a c (Books) L t d ,
118 Finchley R o a d ,
London N W 3 5 H T

© 2 0 0 2 Duncan Barford to the edited collection, and the individual authors to their
contributions

All rights reserved. N o part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
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ISBN: 9 7 8 1 8 5 5 7 5 2 8 6 3

www.karnacbooks.com

P r i n t e d and b o u n d b y A n t o n y R o w e L t d , E a s t b o u r n e
The books that help y o u most are those which make you think the
most. The hardest way of learning is that of easy reading; but a great
book that comes from a great thinker is a ship of thought, deep
freighted with truth and beauty.
— Theodore Parker
 CONTENTS

Foreword 7
Notes on Contributors 9
1 Introduction
Duncan Barford 11
2 Psychoanalytic Research on L e a r n i n g : A n A p p r a i s a l a n d Some
Suggestions
Alison Hall 17
3 Is A n y t h i n g M o r e Interesting than Sex? The F r e u d i a n
Perspective o n L e a r n i n g and Teaching
Duncan Barford 41
4 L e a r n i n g : A Jungian Perspective
Sylvia Cohen 64
5 O n ' L e a r n i n g ' a n d ' L e a r n i n g A b o u t ' : W.R. B i o n ' s Theory of
T h i n k i n g a n d E d u c a t i o n a l Praxis
Jean White 84
6 The H a z a r d s of C u r i o s i t y : A K l e i n i a n Perspective o n L e a r n i n g
Linda Buckingham 106
7 The D o g ' s Temper: A n Essay o n the Vicissitudes of L e a r n i n g
Kirsty Hall 136
8 F r o m the Desire for K n o w l e d g e to the Jouissance of Learning:
A n A p p r o a c h to Lacan's Theory
Teresa Celdran 156
9 P s y c h o l o g i c a l Problems of Writer Identity: Towards a
Horneyan Understanding
Celia Hunt 175
10 W i n n i c o t t a n d E d u c a t i o n
Val Richards 192
11 L i f e l o n g U n l e a r n i n g
Trevor Pateman 212
Appendix: Quotations and Aphorisms 224
Bibliography 230
Index 240
 FOREWORD

T h e t i m e is s h o r t l y before C h r i s t m a s 1994 a n d three d r e a m e r s are

e n s c o n c e d i n the c o m f o r t a b l e leather a r m c h a i r s of the staff b a r at
U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , L o n d o n . T h e d r e a m e r s are K i r s t y H a l l , O l i v e r
R a t h b o n e a n d S h a r o n M o r r i s . W e l i k e the i d e a of s t a r t i n g a p u b l i s h i n g
c o m p a n y . S i n g l e a u t h o r e d b o o k s , w e calculate, w i l l take three m o n t h s
to p r o d u c e . E d i t e d c o l l e c t i o n s are a little m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , w e note,
a n d so m i g h t take u p to s i x months... O u r abject i g n o r a n c e is a k i n d
m i d w i f e to o u r project... Yet n o w o u r o r i g i n a l i d e a has f i n a l l y f l o w e r e d .
The Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis has b e e n b o r n . A n d , despite a l l the
d e l a y s a n d setbacks, o u r v i s i o n is s t i l l intact.
S i n c e the e a r l y d a y s , R e b u s has n o w b e c o m e p a r t of a larger enter­
p r i s e , K a r n a c B o o k s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the s a m e i d e a l s are s t i l l b e i n g p u r ­
s u e d . K a r n a c is a n o n - p a r t i s a n p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y W e a i m to b r i n g a
r a n g e o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas to a w i d e r e a d e r s h i p , n a m e l y : the e x p e ­
r i e n c e d p s y c h o a n a l y s t o r p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ; the s t u d e n t , i n the g u i s e of
either c l i n i c i a n or a c a d e m i c ; a n d , last b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t least, the inter­
ested p e r s o n i n the street. W e p o s e the q u e s t i o n : are the o r i g i n a l ideas
w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s b r o u g h t to the w o r l d n o w d e a d , or are t h e y a l i v e
a n d k i c k i n g i n the w o r k of s u b s e q u e n t w r i t e r s , w a i t i n g to be b r o u g h t
f o r w a r d afresh a n d a n e w for each g e n e r a t i o n o f readers? I n t u r n , w e
h o p e that t h r o u g h The Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis, K a r n a c w i l l s t i m ­
ulate the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n to take u p the b a t o n a n d p r o d u c e further cre­
ative t h i n k i n g .
The Encyclopaedia series does n o t set o u t to tell p e o p l e w h a t to t h i n k .
It e n c o u r a g e s readers to be fascinated, l u r e d i n t o r e a d i n g 'just one
m o r e c h a p t e r ' , to p u z z l e o v e r c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w a n d , o n o c c a ­
s i o n , to g r a p p l e w i t h d i f f i c u l t a n d c o m p l e x ideas. W h y ? W e l l , i f p s y ­
c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s e n c o u n t e r the B y z a n t i n e c o m p l e x i t y
of h u m a n s u f f e r i n g i n their d a i l y w o r k , t h e n o u r v i e w is that the p r a c ­
t i t i o n e r w i l l f i n d assistance i n this s u p r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t task b y b e i n g
g e n t l y h e l p e d to t h i n k for h i m or herself. B e i n g t o l d w h a t to t h i n k a n d
w h a t to d o does n o t p r o d t i c e g o o d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s or g o o d p s y ­
c h o t h e r a p y , a n d it seems there is far too m u c h ' i n s t r u c t i o n ' of this k i n d
already i n circulation.
I w i s h to t h a n k a l l o u r c o n t r i b u t o r s to the Encyclopaedia series—past,
present a n d future. A s t h e y h a v e d i s c o v e r e d — o r , i n d e e d , w i l l d i s c o v e r
i n d u e c o u r s e — t h i s series is u n i q u e . W e d o n o t settle for statements
s u c h as: ' f o l l o w i n g M e l a n i e K l e i n it is clear that../ o r 'as Jacques L a c a n
h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d . . / W e insist o n explanation, wherever possible. A s a
result m a n y of the p e o p l e w h o h a v e w r i t t e n for this series h a v e h a d
long, passionate, interesting, a n d — v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y — a c r i m o n i o u s
d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t their p a p e r s w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l editors of o u r b o o k s
a n d w i t h m e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e r e ideas d o s e e m unclear, this is often
b e c a u s e it is the i n t e n t i o n of the a u t h o r to l e a v e the reader i n d o u b t .
D o u b t can be a p r o d u c t i v e p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h to c a r r y out a n a n a l y ­
sis of o n e ' s o w n t h o u g h t , or a n assessment of one's o p i n i o n a b o u t a
b o o k a n d — i n d e e d — i s r e g a r d e d b y s o m e as the o n l y v i a b l e p o s i t i o n
f r o m w h i c h to c o n d u c t g o o d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s or p s y c h o t h e r a p y . . .
T h e Encyclopaedia series has a consistent format. In m o s t of the
b o o k s y o u w i l l f i n d p a p e r s w h i c h are i n f o r m e d b y F r e u d i a n , J u n g i a n ,
K l e i n i a n , L a c a n i a n a n d Object Relations p e r s p e c t i v e s . Y o u m a y also
f i n d p a p e r s w h e r e the p e r s p e c t i v e of the a u t h o r is h a r d to p i n d o w n . . .
G o o d ! K e e p the ' d o u b t / w o r k i n g ! In e a c h v o l u m e w e attempt to offer a
w i d e r a n g e of o p i n i o n , a n d the m a j o r i t y of p a p e r s h a v e b e e n s p e c i a l l y
c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d w r i t t e n for the series. In a f e w cases, w e h a v e p u b ­
l i s h e d w o r k w h i c h has a l r e a d y a p p e a r e d elsewhere b u t p e r h a p s i n a
f o r m a t w h i c h has n o t b e e n easily accessible. In s o m e instances a p a p e r
has a p p e a r e d i n another l a n g u a g e , a n d has b e e n s p e c i a l l y translated
for this series.
T h e a i m of the Encyclopaedia is to present a coherent b o d y of ideas,
yet w i t h i n a structure sufficiently loose to a l l o w the reader to interpret
the p a p e r s for h i m or herself. W e are h o p i n g a n d a i m i n g for a w i d e ­
r a n g i n g r e a c t i o n to the contents of these v o l u m e s . F e e d b a c k , c o n s t r u c ­
tive c r i t i c i s m , ideas for future projects i n the series, possible p a p e r s for
f u t u r e i n c l u s i o n — a l l of these a n d m o r e are m o s t w e l c o m e .

Kirsty Hall MA
Commissioning Editor
e-mail k.hall@mdx.ac.uk
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

D U N C A N B A R F O R D s t u d i e d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a p o s t g r a d u a t e stu­
d e n t at the U n i v e r s i t y of K e n t , i n C a n t e r b u r y . H e has g a i n e d e x p e r i ­
ence of t e a c h i n g f r o m w o r k i n g w i t h a w i d e range of a d u l t learners, a n d
has l e c t u r e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s at M i d d l e s e x U n i v e r s i t y , a n d i n the
C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at Sussex U n i v e r s i t y .

LINDA BUCKINGHAM is a Consultant Child and Adolescent

P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , w o r k i n g i n a n N H S clinic i n L e w i s h a m . She is a m e m ­
ber of the A s s o c i a t i o n of C h i l d P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , a n d of the G u i l d of
Psychotherapists. S h e has a n a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d i n P h i l o s o p h y ,
which informs her understanding of the philosophical traditions
u n d e r l y i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories.

TERESA C E L D R A N is a Professor at the A u t o n o m a U n i v e r s i t y of

M a d r i d . H e r research interests i n c l u d e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories of g e n ­
d e r a n d sexuality.

S Y L V I A C O H E N started out her p r o f e s s i o n a l life as a p s y c h o l o g i s t ­

o r i g i n a l l y w o r k i n g i n p s y c h i a t r y . H a v i n g taught i n Junior, F u r t h e r , a n d
A d u l t E d u c a t i o n she t r a i n e d as a n E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g i s t . Whilst
working for ILEA she began training with the Guild of
P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , a n d is n o w i n f u l l - t i m e p r i v a t e practice, a n d a m e m ­
ber of the G u i l d ' s T r a i n i n g C o m m i t t e e .

ALISON HALL is Principal Lecturer in Psychology and

Psychoanalysis i n the S c h o o l of A p p l i e d Social Sciences at Leeds
M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y . She also w o r k s p r i v a t e l y as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t .
She is c u r r e n t l y r e s e a r c h i n g g u i l t a n d gender. She c a n be c o n t a c t e d at
A.J.Hall@lmu.ac.uk.

K I R S T Y H A L L has b e e n o n the r e c e i v i n g e n d of s t r u c t u r e d l e a r n i n g
experiences i n the fields of business, careers g u i d a n c e a n d b o t h the
c l i n i c a l a n d theoretical m o d a l i t i e s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c psychotherapy
a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . S h e is the M a n a g i n g D i r e c t o r of R e b u s Press, lec­
tures p a r t - t i m e at M i d d l e s e x U n i v e r s i t y , a n d has a p r i v a t e practice. She
c a n be c o n t a c t e d at K . H a l l @ m d x . a c . u k
C E L I A H U N T is L e c t u r e r i n C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y of
S u s s e x C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n , w i t h s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for
creative w r i t i n g . S h e is also A s s o c i a t e F e l l o w at the U n i v e r s i t y ' s
Institute of E d u c a t i o n , where she teaches a n M A i n C r e a t i v e W r i t i n g ,
the A r t s , a n d E d u c a t i o n .

TREVOR PATEMAN (b. 1947) was Reader i n E d u c a t i o n at the

U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex f r o m 1985 to 2000, a n d is n o w at w w w . t r e v o r ­
p a t e m a n . c o . u k . H e is the author of m a n y articles a n d s e v e r a l b o o k s ,
i n c l u d i n g Key Concepts: A Guide to Aesthetics, Criticism and the Arts in
Education (Falmer Press 1991).

V A L R I C H A R D S is a t r a i n i n g s u p e r v i s o r a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t i n p r i ­
v a t e practice. She is a teacher a n d clinical s e m i n a r leader for v a r i o u s
a n a l y t i c a l t r a i n i n g organisations a n d a f o r m e r A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r of the
S q u i g g l e F o u n d a t i o n . She has e d i t e d t w o m o n o g r a p h s for Winnicott
Studies a n d has a u t h o r e d n u m e r o u s p a p e r s a n d r e v i e w s . She is also the
i n a u g u r a t o r of the Winnicott and Playworkers Project.

J E A N W H I T E is a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , s u p e r v i s o r a n d lec­
turer. A f t e r w o r k i n g i n several e d u c a t i o n a l , N H S , a n d c o m m u n i t y ­
b a s e d settings, for the last ten years she has w o r k e d p r i m a r i l y i n f u l l ­
t i m e p r i v a t e practice i n L o n d o n .
 INTRODUCTION

Duncan Barford

L e a r n i n g is like p a y i n g a visit to the g y m .

I b e l i e v e that l e a r n i n g is p r o b a b l y best c o n c e i v e d as s o m e t h i n g v e r y
s i m i l a r to physical fitness. C e r t a i n l y , I d o n o t t h i n k w e a d v a n c e v e r y far
i f — a s t e a c h e r s — w e e n v i s a g e l e a r n i n g as s i m p l y the p a s s a g e of i n f o r ­
m a t i o n f r o m the h e a d of o n e p e r s o n into the h e a d of another. Deep
d o w n w e k n o w i n s t i n c t i v e l y that there is m u c h m o r e to teaching t h a n
this. A n d s h o u l d w e ever forget, it w i l l not be l o n g before w e are
r e m i n d e d forcefully that t e a c h i n g is n o t a matter of s i m p l y telling the
other p e r s o n w h a t w e w o u l d like t h e m to l e a r n .
L e a r n i n g , like p h y s i c a l fitness, is not s o m e t h i n g w e c a n be s a i d to
'possess'. Sadly, w e c a n n o t ' p u t ' fitness into o u r b o d i e s . Instead, fitness
is the n a t u r a l response of o u r b o d i e s to the c o n d i t i o n s (the a d v e r s e c o n ­
ditions) to w h i c h w e subject ourselves w h e n w e exercise a n d l i v e a n d
eat healthily. L i k e w i s e , l e a r n i n g is o u r response to w h a t e v e r happens
w h e n w e c o m e i n contact w i t h a teacher; it is not a discrete ' t h i n g '
w h i c h , it m i g h t be s a i d , the teacher c a n ' g i v e ' us.
T h e best teachers p e r f o r m a role a k i n to that of a g o o d c o a c h or p e r ­
s o n a l trainer. T h e best teachers are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h facilitat­
i n g o u r i n c l i n a t i o n to l e a r n , w i t h s t i m u l a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g o u r
interest a n d e n t h u s i a s m , rather t h a n w i t h ' t r a n s m i t t i n g ' their k n o w l ­
e d g e to us.
L e a r n i n g siiggests a n a n a l o g y w i t h 'fitness' not o n l y i n the e v e r y ­
day physiological sense of the word, but also i n its specialised
D a r w i n i a n sense. T h e a d a p t a t i o n of l i v i n g creatures to their ever­
c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s is the e m b o d i m e n t i n the l i v i n g w o r l d of a c o n ­
stant, n a t u r a l ' l e a r n i n g process'. E v o l u t i o n b y n a t u r a l selection sees to
it that l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s b e c o m e 'fitter', o t h e r w i s e they cease to be l i v ­
i n g o r g a n i s m s . E v o l u t i o n offers the p o s s i b i l i t y that l i v i n g things m i g h t
b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x , sophisticated, resilient. C o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d the
i n g e n u i t y of the h u m a n intellect seem to b e the p r o d u c t s of this l e a r n ­
i n g process inherent i n life itself, a l t h o u g h it m u s t be b o r n e i n m i n d
that e v o l u t i o n a n d n a t u r a l selection operate ' b l i n d l y ' , w i t h n o p r e d e ­
t e r m i n e d a i m , a n d that e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l is c o n s t r a i n e d b o t h b y a
creature's e n v i r o n m e n t a n d its genetic inheritance.
12 Introduction

T h e instinctive, aimless, a n d directionless nature o f this process, b y

w h i c h l i v i n g creatures nevertheless may b e c o m e fitter, o u g h t to r e m i n d
us that a l t h o u g h ' r e a s o n ' a n d 'intelligence' are p o t e n t i a l o u t c o m e s of
l e a r n i n g , the l e a r n i n g process itself (like e v o l u t i o n ) n e e d not b e r e g a r d ­
e d as ' r a t i o n a l ' , o r as h a v i n g a l o g i c a l l y d i s c e r n i b l e m e a n i n g or l o n g ­
term goal.
T h i s is the p o i n t at w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s enters the debate o n the
n a t u r e of l e a r n i n g . It o p e n s u p n e w perspectives o n w h a t l e a r n i n g is
a n d o n w h a t teachers d o . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is able to d o this because,
m o r e t h a n a n y other d i s c i p l i n e , it is w e l l - p l a c e d to r e m i n d us that w i l l ­
i n g n e s s a n d ability to l e a r n are s h a p e d b y influences f a r - r e m o v e d f r o m
conscious a n d rational motives.

** *

M y o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n to this c o l l e c t i o n of essays o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d
l e a r n i n g d e v e l o p e d f r o m s o m e research I u n d e r t o o k w h i l s t o n a c o u r s e
to d e v e l o p m y o w n teaching skills. I w a s p u z z l e d b y the a p p a r e n t
absence of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s f r o m the syllabuses o f the m a i n teacher­
t r a i n i n g courses i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g are p r e ­
s e n t e d to trainee teachers as a debate b e t w e e n the c o m p e t i n g d i s ­
c o u r s e s of behaviourism, cognitivism a n d humanism. It s e e m e d to m e that
the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h is quite distinct f r o m e a c h of these. I n m y
p a p e r , t h e n , I t r y to a d d a f o u r t h c o r n e r to this f o r m e r l y t h r e e - s i d e d
debate. I describe w h a t m i g h t be r e g a r d e d as the differences b e t w e e n
the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g a n d the other three d i s c o u r s e s ,
a n d p r o p o s e s o m e k e y a x i o m s for a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
l e a r n i n g , d r a w i n g u p o n classical F r e u d i a n theory.
I have been extremely lucky i n persuading some h i g h l y experienced
teachers a n d c l i n i c i a n s to contribute to this collection, a n d I a m v e r y
grateful to all of t h e m . I n d e e d , m a n y of the a u t h o r s w h o s e w o r k
a p p e a r s i n these p a g e s h a v e e n j o y e d years of experience b o t h as teach­
ers a n d as p r a c t i s i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s . T h e ideas
p r e s e n t e d here are the fruit of m a n y c o m b i n e d years of t e a c h i n g p r a c ­
tice, g a i n e d across a l l sectors of e d u c a t i o n — f r o m schools, colleges a n d
u n i v e r s i t i e s , to p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g organisations.
A l i s o n H a l l o p e n s the b o o k w i t h a historical s u r v e y of the d e v e l o p ­
m e n t of theories of l e a r n i n g , p r o v i d i n g a context w i t h i n w h i c h it is p o s ­
sible to situate the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h . She offers a c r i t i q u e of
s o m e c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e precepts ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n the u n i v e r s i t y
 Duncan Bar ford 13

sector), a n d suggests h o w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n be u s e d to o p e n u p s o m e
f u n d a m e n t a l l y fresh p e r s p e c t i v e s o n the nature of l e a r n i n g . She also
o u t l i n e s s o m e of the p o t e n t i a l l y d i s t u r b i n g consequences the p s y c h o ­
a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h m i g h t h a v e for c u r r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l praxis.
T r u e to its i n c l u s i o n i n the Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis, this b o o k
also a i m s to p r o v i d e a r a n g e of c o n t r a s t i n g ideas f r o m across the m a n y
strands of thought w i t h i n psychoanalysis. A l t h o u g h C a r l Jung wrote
little e x p l i c i t l y o n the t o p i c of l e a r n i n g , S y l v i a C o h e n teases out f r o m
his w r i t i n g s a w i d e r a n g e o f ideas, c o n s t r u c t i n g w h a t c a n be r e a d as a n
i m p l i c i t l y J u n g i a n a p p r o a c h to o u r t h e m e . L i n d a B u c k i n g h a m a n d Jean
W h i t e p e r f o r m a s i m i l a r service, w i t h respect to the w r i t i n g s of t w o
other m a j o r p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h i n k e r s — M e l a n i e K l e i n a n d W i l f r e d B i o n .
L i n d a presents s o m e e x t r e m e l y v i v i d case m a t e r i a l w h i c h p o w e r f u l l y
i l l u m i n a t e s the K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g . S h e examines K l e i n ' s
p r o p o s a l of a n innate ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l instinct', a n d illustrates setbacks
to l e a r n i n g a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for g r o w t h i n the lives a n d phantasies of
her patients. Jean W h i t e , m e a n w h i l e , presents a n e x t r e m e l y l u c i d e x p o ­
s i t i o n o f s o m e salient tenets of the w o r k of B i o n . A l t h o u g h B i o n ' s w o r k
is less w e l l k n o w n t h a n — a n d d e e p l y i n d e b t e d t o — t h e w o r k o f K l e i n ,
Jean argues that B i o n ' s a p p r o a c h offers the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a truly r a d i c a l
e d u c a t i o n a l p r a x i s , a n d she m a k e s s o m e s t i m u l a t i n g a n d p r o v o c a t i v e
l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d the w r i t i n g s of P a o l o F r e i r e — a n a m e
p e r h a p s m o r e i n s t a n t l y recognisable t h a n that of B i o n to those w o r k i n g
i n a n e d u c a t i o n a l context.

Teresa C e l d r a n a n d V a l R i c h a r d s are o u r a m b a s s a d o r s for two major

figures of (respectively) F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — J a c q u e s
L a c a n a n d D o n a l d W i n n i c o t t . L a c a n ' s w o r k is f a m o u s for its c o m p l e x ­
ity, for b e i n g ' d i f f i c u l t ' , Teresa, h o w e v e r , keeps her eye f i r m l y o n q u e s ­
tions s u c h as: H o w is ' k n o w l e d g e ' constructed? W h a t is the role of
desire i n l e a r n i n g ? W h a t m a k e s a n effective teacher? She s h o w s h o w
L a c a n ' s insistence o n the centrality o f l a n g u a g e i n h u m a n affairs offers
a d i s t i n c t a n d u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e o n these issues. W i n n i c o t t ' s relation
to the f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n is p e r h a p s m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s . A m o n g
the aspects o f his w o r k p r e s e n t e d b y V a l R i c h a r d s is his f a m o u s n o t i o n
of 'the t r a n s i t i o n a l object', a n object w h i c h — f o r the i n f a n t — l i e s neither
w h o l l y i n the external n o r the i n t e r n a l w o r l d . V a l demonstrates h o w
W i n n i c o t t ' s w o r k offers the e d u c a t i o n a l practitioner tools for u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g the v i t a l role o f the l e a r n e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creativity i n the
e d u c a t i o n a l process, a n d the p a r t the teacher c a n p l a y i n m a x i m i s i n g
the d e v e l o p m e n t o f these.
14 Introduction

T h r e e p a p e r s i n this b o o k a p p r o a c h the subject of l e a r n i n g f r o m out­

side m a i n s t r e a m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a d d r e s s i n g a m o r e s p e c i a l i s e d range
of e d u c a t i o n a l themes.
In o r d e r to a v o i d the trap of r e g a r d i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a d i s c i ­
pline s o m e h o w 'above' educational discourse, K i r s t y H a l l turns the
tables a n d c o n s i d e r s the sticky q u e s t i o n of h o w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s itself
s h o u l d be taught to trainee analysts a n d therapists. Setting out s o m e of
the p a r t i c u l a r difficulties c o n c e r n i n g the t r a n s m i s s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t ­
ic t h e o r y a n d practice, K i r s t y laments the current state of p s y c h o a n a ­
lytic t r a i n i n g i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d elsewhere. D r a w i n g o n the
w o r k of d i v e r s e figures s u c h as L a c a n , K a r l P o p p e r , a n d R a y m o n d
W i l l i a m s , she presents s o m e possible solutions.
C e l i a H u n t , o n the other h a n d , d r a w s o n her extensive experience
as a teacher of creative w r i t i n g , to explore the fascinating intersection
of e d u c a t i o n a l a n d therapeutic issues c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n this
f i e l d of w o r k . C e l i a engages w i t h the ideas of p i o n e e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t
K a r e n H o r n e y , as a m e a n s of e x p l o r i n g p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d b y w r i t ­
ers w h o are l e a r n i n g to ' f i n d their v o i c e ' .
F i n a l l y , it falls to T r e v o r P a t e m a n to deconstruct the v e r y n o t i o n of
l e a r n i n g . T r e v o r h i g h l i g h t s the p a r a d o x that m o s t o f w h a t w e com­
m o n l y r e g a r d as l e a r n i n g is i n fact ' u n l e a r n i n g ' of one k i n d or a n o t h ­
e r — f o r instance, the forgetting or r e p u d i a t i o n of o l d ideas c a n h a v e
u p o n us effects i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m the l e a r n i n g a n d a d o p t i o n o f
n e w ideas. W i t h n o s m a l l degree of w i t , he sketches a t a x o n o m y of
'types of u n l e a r n i n g ' , w h i c h w r y l y satirises many contemporary
n o t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the v a l u e of e d u c a t i o n .

* if *

T h i s b o o k takes its title f r o m a q u o t a t i o n attributed to T h e o d o r e Parker,

a 19th c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n c l e r g y m a n a n d c a m p a i g n e r against slavery. I
w a s struck b y the majestic i m a g e of 'the s h i p of t h o u g h t ' , weighed
d o w n w i t h its p r e c i o u s cargo of truth a n d beauty, a n d P a r k e r ' s i m p l i c ­
it s u g g e s t i o n that l e a r n i n g is a v o y a g e — p o s s i b l y p e r i l o u s , b u t also
potentially i m m e n s e l y rewarding.
I w a s also i n t r i g u e d , h o w e v e r , b y the remarkable d e a r t h of s e n s u ­
ous i m a g e r y w h i c h otherwise characterises the great m a j o r i t y of q u o ­
tations a n d p r o v e r b s o n l e a r n i n g . (See the a p p e n d i x , i n w h i c h I h a v e
a s s e m b l e d s o m e of the m o r e substantial quotations I encountered.) T h e
faintly s h r i l l , m o r a l i s t i c tone of m a n y of these witticisms also attracted
 Duncan Bar ford 15

m y attention. It w a s as i f aphorists d o w n t h r o u g h the ages h a d c h o s e n

to s h i r k the direct q u e s t i o n — ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g — a n d h a d o p t e d i n s t e a d
7

for a cheaper, easier s w i p e at w h a t t h e y r e g a r d e d as ' l e a r n i n g for l e a r n ­

i n g ' s s a k e ' , o r at a n y o n e w h o m i g h t d a r e to take s e r i o u s l y w h a t they
believed they h a d learned.
I h o p e w e h a v e a v o i d e d these t w i n pitfalls i n this b o o k . A c o m m o n
r e f r a i n i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n m y s e l f a n d the c o n t r i b u t o r s w a s : 'I
n e v e r r e a l i s e d just h o w hard it is to w r i t e about l e a r n i n g ' . I n d e e d , this
has c e r t a i n l y b e e n m y experience. L e a r n i n g is the v e r y m e a n s b y w h i c h
w h a t w e c a l l ' e x p e r i e n c e ' becomes w h a t w e call ' m i n d ' ; i t is the k e y
process b y w h i c h w e b e c o m e w h o w e are. T h e r e a s o n for the lack or
f a i l u r e o f i m a g e r y , w h e n it comes to w r i t i n g about l e a r n i n g , seems to
m e the d i f f i c u l t y of f i n d i n g a m e t a p h o r large e n o u g h . W h a t i m a g e is
there w h i c h is b o t h b i g a n d d e t a i l e d e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s the v e r y
n o t i o n of the m i n d a n d a l l its w o r k i n g s ? F a c e d w i t h the task of c o n ­
c e p t u a l i s i n g the v e r y process b y w h i c h w e c o m e to c o n c e p t u a l i s e , it is
i n d e e d easier to d o d g e the q u e s t i o n altogether, a n d i n s t e a d e x t o l — o r
d e n i g r a t e — t h e v i r t u e s of ignorance.
T h e p e r s o n w h o approaches the q u e s t i o n of l e a r n i n g f r o m a p s y ­
c h o a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e is u n a b l e to let t h e m s e l v e s off the h o o k so eas­
ily. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e s a l a n g u a g e (or a set of ' m e t a p h o r s ' , i f y o u
l i k e ) for c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g the nature o f the m i n d a n d its w o r k i n g s . N o
m a t t e r h o w one regards this c o n c e p t u a l l a n g u a g e — w h e t h e r it refers to
entities w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d s o m e h o w ' r e a l ' or m e r e l y ' v i r t u ­
a l ' — t h e w a y of t a l k i n g a b o u t the m i n d offered b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is
absolutely unique. A d o p t i n g a psychoanalytic approach, m i n d need
n o t be o b s c u r e d b e h i n d a m i s t of a b s t r a c t i o n , n o r erased b y p l a c i n g the
e m p h a s i s e n t i r e l y u p o n manifest b e h a v i o u r . There is c e r t a i n l y n o ' l a c k
of i m a g e r y ' i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g .
E q u a l l y , because it is a m e t h o d of e n q u i r y b a s e d u p o n p a y i n g care­
f u l a t t e n t i o n to h o w i n d i v i d u a l s express themselves, h o w p e o p l e s i t u ­
ate t h e m s e l v e s i n the w o r l d w h i c h t h e y i n h a b i t , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s does
n o t p r e s u m e to j u d g e ( i n a n y absolute sense) w h a t l e a r n i n g m i g h t be
s a i d to be ' w o r t h ' . W i t h o u t d o u b t , l e a r n i n g is a p a r t of o u r constant,
d a i l y s t r u g g l e to l i v e o u r l i v e s as c o n t e n t e d l y as p o s s i b l e . T h e a n s w e r
to the q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g ' is, therefore, as v a r i a b l e a n d as c o m ­
p l e x as the range of s o l u t i o n s p e o p l e h a v e f o u n d to the f u n d a m e n t a l
p r o b l e m of b e i n g h u m a n . T h e a n s w e r is r o o t e d i n the h i s t o r y of o u r
e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d i n o u r dreams.
16 Introduction

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

M o s t of a l l , m y t h a n k s are d u e to the contributors to this b o o k for all

the h a r d w o r k that w e n t into the p r o d u c t i o n of their p a p e r s , a n d for
their p a t i e n c e .
I w o u l d also like to thank C e l i a H u n t a n d M i k e Boice, of the C e n t r e
for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex, for their s u p e r ­
v i s i o n a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t of the w o r k w h i c h l e d to m y o w n c o n t r i b u ­
t i o n . T h a n k s also to K i r s t y H a l l , f o r p e r s u a d i n g m e that this b o o k w a s
a g o o d i d e a , a n d to J u n e O l l i v e r — a t B r i g h t o n C o l l e g e of T e c h n o l o g y —
b e c a u s e it's true: y o u never forget a g o o d teacher!

A NOTE O N TEXTS

A l l references to F r e u d ' s w r i t i n g s are based o n The Standard Edition of

the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (24 v o l u m e s ) , trans­
lated b y James Strachey, p u b l i s h e d b y H o g a r t h Press a n d the Institute
of P s y c h o - A n a l y s i s (1961).
 PSYCHOANALYTIC RESEARCH O N LEARNING: A N
APPRAISAL A N D SOME SUGGESTIONS

Alison Hall

I n this chapter I s h a l l argue that ideas f r o m different strands of p s y ­

c h o a n a l y s i s c a n p r o v i d e the basis for n e w k i n d s of research into l e a r n ­
ing.
A l t h o u g h I h a v e attempted to discuss ' l e a r n i n g ' i n a generic sense,
m y o w n experience as a teacher lies i n the f i e l d of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n .
T h i s p r o b a b l y m e a n s that s o m e of the things I s a y a b o u t l e a r n i n g are
m o r e relevant to the U n i v e r s i t y , a l t h o u g h I h o p e that m a n y of the
p o i n t s I m a k e c a n be a p p l i e d m o r e generally.

Identifying the problem

W h a t is learning? W h e n w e try to e x a m i n e this q u e s t i o n , the first t h i n g

w e d i s c o v e r is that a lot w h i c h is w r i t t e n a b o u t l e a r n i n g d o e s n ' t tell us
m u c h about l e a r n i n g as s u c h b u t addresses, i n s t e a d , a r a n g e of issues
linked to l e a r n i n g .
A l t h o u g h a v a s t a r r a y of literature p u r p o r t s to be a b o u t ' l e a r n i n g ' or
a b o u t ' t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g ' , it r a r e l y attempts to g r a p p l e w i t h the
n a t u r e or processes of l e a r n i n g . If w e l o o k c l o s e l y at the extensive lit­
e r a t u r e o n e d u c a t i o n , w e f i n d that the d i s c o u r s e s a r o u n d t e a c h i n g a n d
l e a r n i n g are a c t u a l l y d o m i n a t e d b y p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l issues. D i s c u s s i o n
has t e n d e d to centre o n the relative merits of m o r e or less n o v e l p e d a ­
gogical styles—for instance: l e a r n i n g i n g r o u p s , s t u d e n t - l e d discus­
s i o n , i n d e p e n d e n t project w o r k , l e a r n i n g contracts or w h a t e v e r the
c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e t e c h n i q u e is.
In e d u c a t i o n a l literature one r a r e l y finds a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a
d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h e x a m i n e s the actual process of l e a r n i n g . It seems,
t h e n , that it is p e r f e c t l y possible for p e o p l e to l e a r n a n d to teach w i t h ­
o u t h a v i n g a n a r t i c u l a t e d t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g , yet it strikes m e as c u r i ­
o u s that so little attention is g i v e n to this p r o b l e m . O r p e r h a p s it is n o t
so s u r p r i s i n g after a l l , because the m o r e I h a v e entered i n t o a n effort to
t r y to u n d e r s t a n d t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , the m o r e p e c u l i a r l y difficult
a n d intractable the p r o b l e m s e e m s to be.
If w e take a l o o k at the m a i n trends i n p e d a g o g i c a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l
t h i n k i n g , w e c a n m a k e a p r e l i m i n a r y assessment of the extent to w h i c h
18 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

this q u e s t i o n o f l e a r n i n g as such is dealt w i t h . A s u r v e y o f c u r r e n t p e d ­

a g o g i c a l research reveals a c o n c e r n p r i m a r i l y w i t h the conditions under
w h i c h l e a r n i n g a p p e a r s to b e o p t i m i s e d o r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d — f o r instance,
it a d d r e s s e s questions s u c h as: ' w h e r e are there g e n d e r differences i n
l e a r n i n g ? ' , ' w h i c h m e t h o d o f teaching r e a d i n g w o r k s best?', ' w h i c h
l e a r n i n g m e t h o d s d o students prefer?', ' d o e s active p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k
better t h a n p a s s i v e a b s o r p t i o n ? ' T h i s is i n d e e d v e r y p r a c t i c a l a n d often
v e r y v a l u a b l e research, a n d there is n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t h it, b u t n e v e r ­
t h e l e s s — a s I h a v e a r g u e d — i t addresses technical questions a n d is n o t
r e a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h how l e a r n i n g takes p l a c e .

A historical overview of theories of learning

O f c o u r s e , there h a v e b e e n m o r e explicit theories o f l e a r n i n g . Plato's

r e n d e r i n g o f t h e Socratic i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e t h o d , for instance, i n c o r p o ­
rates a thesis o n the nature o f l e a r n i n g a n d teaching. T h e m e t h o d o p e r ­
ates b y a s k i n g for definitions of f a m i l i a r concepts to elicit c o n t r a d i c ­
t i o n s . It is b a s e d o n the i d e a that p e o p l e a c t u a l l y k n o w m o r e t h a n they
t h i n k t h e y k n o w . B y teasing o u t responses, b y e n c o u r a g i n g r e s p o n ­
d e n t s to e x p l o r e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of their a r g u m e n t s , i n h e r e n t c o n t r a ­
d i c t i o n s o r absurdities w i l l b e c o m e a p p a r e n t a n d , i n this w a y , r e s p o n ­
d e n t s w i l l l e a r n b o t h a content a n d — c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , b u t c r u c i a l l y — a
n e w stance o f h u m i l i t y i n the face o f their o w n i g n o r a n c e .
Ideas a b o u t e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n the Scholastic t r a d i t i o n w h i c h f o l ­
l o w e d — a n d w h i c h , arguably, has h a d a significant i n f l u e n c e o n p e d a ­
g o g i c a l practice u n t i l c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y — o w e d a great d e a l to the
r e l i g i o u s context i n w h i c h t e a c h i n g o c c u r r e d . R o t e - l e a r n i n g i n p a r t i c u ­
lar, w i t h its reliance u p o n repetition, c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d m e n t a l r i g o u r ,
e m p l o y e d m e t h o d s d e s i g n e d to s h i e l d the p o t e n t i a l s i n n e r f r o m m e n ­
tal w a n d e r i n g . If w a n d e r i n g d i d occur, t h e n syllogistic reasoning
w o u l d l e a d the w a n d e r e r b a c k to the right(eous) p a t h . Interpretation,
i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creativity w e r e not e n c o u r a g e d . T h e q u a l i t y of l e a r n ­
i n g w a s n o t i n q u e s t i o n ; rectitude, o b e d i e n c e a n d quantity of learning
w e r e w h a t m a t t e r e d . H o w e v e r , f r o m the Scholastic t r a d i t i o n e m e r g e d
a l s o the i d e a o f the ' n o v i t i a t e ' , w h o later b e c a m e the apprentice.
T h e classical e d u c a t i o n o f the R e n a i s s a n c e — w i t h a h u m a n i s t rather
t h a n a theist e m p h a s i s — p r o p o s e d a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f M a n , his d i g n i t y
a n d ideals. F i c i n o ' s ' k n o w t h y s e l f , b a s e d o n a m i x t u r e o f r e v i v e d
P l a t o n i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , b e c a m e a central d i c t u m . T h i s w a s later
e c h o e d b y A l e x a n d e r P o p e i n An Essay on Man:
 Alison Hall 19

K n o w t h e n thyself, p r e s u m e n o t G o d to scan;
T h e p r o p e r s t u d y of m a n k i n d is m a n . (Pope 1733-34: 516)

D u r i n g the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , R o u s s e a u ' s n o v e l Emile p r o v e d h i g h l y

i n f l u e n t i a l I n this w o r k R o u s s e a u presented a p i c t u r e of a n i d e a l e d u ­
c a t i o n b a s e d far less o n f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n a n d c e n t r e d i n s t e a d o n
l e a r n i n g b y experience i n a n a t u r a l a n d u n r e s t r i c t e d c h i l d h o o d e n v i ­
r o n m e n t . T h i s a p p r o a c h w a s w i d e l y a n d actively p u t into practice b y
e n l i g h t e n e d ( a n d s o m e t i m e s R o m a n t i c ) parents, e s p e c i a l l y between
1766 (the y e a r i n w h i c h R o u s s e a u c a m e to E n g l a n d ) a n d the 1830s.
Rousseau's ideas were further developed b y F r o e b e l i n his Die
Menschenerziehitng (1826). It w a s F r o e b e l w h o o r i g i n a t e d the
Kindergarten m o v e m e n t i n the e a r l y nineteenth century.
J o h n L o c k e ' s t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e p r o p o u n d e d i n the late s e v e n ­
teenth c e n t u r y c e n t r e d o n the i d e a that the m i n d is a tabula rasa or clean
slate. T h i s i d e a w a s further d e v e l o p e d b y H e l v e t i u s i n De VEsprit (1758)
w h e r e h e a r g u e d that e v e r y t h i n g that a p e r s o n is p r o c e e d s f r o m the
i n f l u e n c e s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n h e has b e e n subject t o — e d u c a t i o n alone is
w h a t m a k e s the difference b e t w e e n o n e p e r s o n a n d another. H i s ideas
w e r e f a m o u s l y p u t i n t o practice b y James M i l l i n the e d u c a t i o n of h i s
s o n J o h n Stuart M i l l . T h i s e d u c a t i o n consisted i n intense i n s t r u c t i o n
f r o m a v e r y y o u n g age a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e p r i v a t i o n of social a n d
e m o t i o n a l contact, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h peers. J o h n Stuart M i l l w a s h a i l e d as
a p r e c o c i o u s g e n i u s b u t suffered m e n t a l b r e a k d o w n a n d d e p r e s s i o n i n
his twenties. H e d i d , h o w e v e r , recover a n d l e a d a v e r y p r o d u c t i v e life
d u r i n g w h i c h h e h e l p e d p r o p a g a t e liberal ideas o n e d u c a t i o n ( i n c l u d ­
i n g , i n the face of c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n , a d v o c a t i n g e d u c a t i o n for
women).
T h e first a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y to l e a r n i n g b e g a n
i n the 1880s, w i t h E b b i n g h a u s ' s tests o n the ability to m e m o r i s e lists of
w o r d s a n d h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the efficacy of l e a r n i n g b y repetition. In
1916, h o w e v e r , J o h n D e w e y p r o p o s e d a p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h , w h i c h
envisaged l e a r n i n g as c o m p o s e d of four c o m p o n e n t s : 'experience',
' d a t a for reflection', ' i d e a s ' a n d ' f i x i n g w h a t h a s b e e n l e a r n e d ' . It is
D e w e y w h o m w e c a n t h a n k (or castigate) for the o r i g i n s o f 'process­
o r i e n t e d ' e d u c a t i o n (that is, as o p p o s e d to 'task' or ' c o n t e n t ' - o r i e n t e d
e d u c a t i o n ) . A further alternative a p p r o a c h to m a i n s t r e a m t h i n k i n g o n
l e a r n i n g w a s also d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d this time b y R u d o l f Steiner, w h o
20 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

emphasised the n e c e s s i t y — a s he s a w i t — f o r a resuscitated s p i r i t u a l

dimension within education.
I n contrast, the p e r i o d w h i c h f o l l o w e d w a s characterised b y increas­
ing psychological experimentation—in particular u p o n animals.
E d u c a t i o n a l research w a s epitomised b y studies s u c h as those by
P a v l o v u p o n dogs, b y T h o r n d i k e , W a t s o n , a n d L a s h l e y u p o n rats, cats
a n d p i g e o n s , a n d b y K o h l e r u p o n c h i m p s . H o w e v e r , the p r o b l e m s p r e ­
sented b y the s t u d y of h u m a n l e a r n i n g t u r n e d out to be m u c h m o r e
c o m p l e x t h a n this t y p e of e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y h a d e n v i s a g e d a n d
v e r y little of this w o r k enjoys a real, c o n t i n u i n g influence u p o n p e d a ­
g o g i c a l theory a n d practice. I n d e e d , R o u s s e a u ' s p r o m o t i o n of l e a r n i n g
as a f o r m of n a t u r a l g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h the a d d i t i o n of
D e w e y ' s e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y — v a l u i n g practice a n d e m o t i o n a n d
r e c o m m e n d i n g that l e a r n i n g takes place i n a real e n v i r o n m e n t a n d is
b a s e d o n reflective t h i n k i n g — a r e m u c h m o r e easily discernible i n c u r ­
rent t h i n k i n g . T h i s p o i n t is e m p h a s i s e d b y B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l , w h o
themselves e x e m p l i f y the current, d o m i n a n t t r e n d i n t h i n k i n g about
learning in Higher Education.

T h i s a p p r o a c h [the currently fashionable one] values the inter­

ests, rights a n d n e e d s of the learner. E x a m s a n d tests are less
i m p o r t a n t , w i t h practice, l e a r n i n g b y d o i n g a n d the significance
of e m o t i o n b e i n g e m p h a s i s e d . T h e teacher here is i d e n t i f i e d , not
as a n expert, b u t as a d e v e l o p e r a n d facilitator of the n a t u r a l
process of g r o w t h . (Brockbank & M c G i l l 1998: 24)

Contemporary approaches

T h e w o r k of D o n a l d S c h o n o n reflective practice has also p r o v e d h u g e ­

l y i n f l u e n t i a l i n recent years. It is focused u p o n the specific types of
l e a r n i n g experience of p r a c t i s i n g professionals across a w i d e v a r i e t y of
fields, a n d is often a d o p t e d as a n u n q u e s t i o n e d credo b y teachers i n the
v o c a t i o n a l sector. S c h o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h how
1
professionals learn.
E v e n t h o u g h the t r a i n i n g of professionals m i g h t be v i e w e d as o n l y a
v e r y p a r t i c u l a r f o r m of l e a r n i n g , the fact that S c h o n identifies the how
of l e a r n i n g as a p r o b l e m makes h i m a n interesting a n d u n u s u a l c o m ­
mentator:
 Alison Hall 21

W e are i n n e e d of i n q u i r y into the e p i s t e m o l o g y of practice. W h a t

is the k i n d of k n o w i n g i n w h i c h c o m p e t e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s engage?
(Schon 1983: 8)

S c h o n goes o n to explore the w a y i n w h i c h artful professionals

d e v e l o p their k n o w l e d g e . T h e processes b y w h i c h this is a c h i e v e d — h e
s u g g e s t s — m a y be u n c o n s c i o u s , or m a y o c c u r so r a p i d l y that 'they
c o u l d n o t be a n a l y s e d b y the p e r s o n s i n w h o s e b r a i n t h e y take place'
(Schon 1987: 52). S c h o n d e v e l o p s a thesis o n 'reflective p r a c t i c e ' w h i c h
attempts to a c c o u n t , at the l e v e l of i n t r a p s y c h i c d y n a m i c s , for the w a y
i n w h i c h l e a r n i n g takes place. A p a r t f r o m there b e i n g little e v i d e n c e to
s u p p o r t S c h o n ' s rather l i m i t e d m o d e l of p s y c h i c a l life, h o w e v e r , the
t y p e of l e a r n i n g h e explores i n e v i t a b l y leaves o u t of a c c o u n t the ques­
t i o n of the i n t e r v e n t i o n s m a d e b y a teacher.
E v e n so, S c h o n ' s w o r k f o r m s p a r t of a m o r e general c u r r e n t trend
t o w a r d s interest i n ' l e a r n i n g w h i l s t d o i n g ' . T h e r e has b e e n a r e v i v a l of
interest i n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d m e n t o r i n g — f o r instance, Jean L a v e a n d
E t i e n n e W e n g e r ' s w o r k o n ' s i t u a t i n g l e a r n i n g i n c o m m u n i t i e s of p r a c ­
tice' (1991) w h i c h w a s developed f r o m a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l studies of
l e a r n i n g a trade or p r o f e s s i o n . T h e s e authors d e m o n s t r a t e h o w l e a r n ­
i n g o c c u r s as a c o n s e q u e n c e of 'legitimate p e r i p h e r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' —
that is, i n v o l v e m e n t i n a s k i l l e d practice w h i c h begins as ' l o o k i n g o n '
a n d progresses t h r o u g h greater p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e n d i n g — h o p e f u l l y — i n
f u l l acceptance of the learner as a s k i l l e d practitioner. B a s e d o n studies
of practices as a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a r y as b u t c h e r y a n d m i d w i f e r y , they
a r g u e that i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g transfer c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d
as ' s i t u a t e d social practices' ( L a v e & W e n g e r 1991).
N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y u n d e r s t a n d s l e a r n i n g as a p r o b l e m of a) i n f o r m a ­
t i o n storage, a n d b) varieties of n e u r o n a l c o n n e c t i o n . A t the l e v e l of
b r a i n structure a n d chemistry, n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y p r o v i d e s a n o t u n r e a ­
s o n a b l e set of m o d e l s a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o m p u t e r i m a g i n g for d e p i c t ­
i n g n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l change. H o w e v e r k n o w i n g that b r a i n c h e m ­
istry changes w h e n l e a r n i n g takes place d o e s n ' t p r o v i d e a n explanation
of l e a r n i n g a n d — l i k e their predecessors, the a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s —
n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i s t s operate w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d a n d s i m p l i s t i c c o n c e p ­
tions of l e a r n i n g .
A s m e n t i o n e d earlier, t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n a l research has
c o n c e r n e d itself w i t h ( a m o n g other things) questions s u c h as that of
gender difference. S o m e f e m i n i s t e d u c a t i o n a l research has passed
b e y o n d the issues of technique i n o r d e r to e n g a g e w i t h questions c o n ­
22 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

c e r n i n g the how of e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g styles.

G i l l i g a n (1982), for e x a m p l e , h a s a r g u e d that b o y s a n d girls r e s p o n d
differently to the s a m e material a n d that therefore, i n o r d e r to optimise
their l e a r n i n g , m o r e gender-sensitive m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g s h o u l d be
e m p l o y e d . W h i l e this w o r k d o e s attempt to a d v a n c e k n o w l e d g e of the
processes of l e a r n i n g , it still fails to really g r a p p l e w i t h the q u e s t i o n of
h o w l e a r n i n g takes place. It is also, incidentally, criticised b y other f e m ­
inists for a p p e a r i n g to rely u p o n essentialist n o t i o n s of gender.
E v e n quite explicit attempts to theorise l e a r n i n g t u r n o u t , o n closer
e x a m i n a t i o n , to d e a l instead w i t h a range of issues, b u t n o t w i t h theo­
ries of l e a r n i n g as s u c h . A s B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l note, a p r o l i f e r a t i o n
of t a x o n o m i e s w h i c h p u r p o r t to be about T e a m i n g ' are r e a l l y about:

a) Categories of learning. T h e q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g ? ' is, i n

effect, r e p l a c e d w i t h ' w h a t appears to be h a v e b e e n l e a r n e d ? ' (cf.
B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: 34 )

b) Orientations to learning. Instead of l e a r n i n g , it is the p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l s t u d y of the motivation to l e a r n w h i c h is f o r e g r o u n d e d —
for instance, the t a x o n o m y of interests a n d desires e l a b o r a t e d b y
A b r a h a m M a s l o w (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: 35)

c) Learning strategies and approaches. Instead of w h a t l e a r n i n g is

a n d h o w it is b r o u g h t about, attention is f o c u s e d i n s t e a d o n the
s u p p o s e d 'style' of l e a r n i n g m a n i f e s t e d — f o r instance, w h e t h e r
s o m e o n e learns 'step b y step' ('serialist') or 'deals w i t h the over­
a l l v i e w ' ('holist'); or w h e t h e r s o m e o n e e n g a g e s i n ' d e e p ' or ' s u r ­
face' l e a r n i n g (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: 36)

A great d e a l h i n g e s u p o n the process of l e a r n i n g , yet it is a process

w h i c h — I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n — n o b o d y seems to u n d e r s t a n d . 'There is
little agreement a m o n g researchers about w h a t l e a r n i n g i s ' , c o n c l u d e
B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l (Brockbank & M c G i l l 1998: 32) In this respect, at
least, l e a r n i n g a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s have m u c h i n c o m m o n .

Psychoanalysis and learning

P s y c h o a n a l y s i s has b e e n l i n k e d to l e a r n i n g i n three w a y s . It has b e e n

a p p l i e d to questions about (i) the m o d e of d e l i v e r y a n d reception of
 Alison Hall 23

l e a r n i n g ; (ii) the learner h i m or herself; a n d (iii) the f u n c t i o n i n g of the

class o r g r o u p . I s h a l l c o n s i d e r e a c h of these aspects i n t u r n .

(i) The mode of delivery and reception of learning

V a r i o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e e n t h u s e d to a greater or lesser extent o n

the i n s i g h t p r o v i d e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s into the i n a d e q u a c y a n d s o m e ­
times h a r m f u l effects of repressive a n d u n e n l i g h t e n e d m e t h o d s of
i n s t r u c t i o n . F r e u d h i m s e l f w a r n e d of the p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y p o o r
e d u c a t i o n i n the f i e l d of sexuality, a n d called for m o r e enlightened
approaches ( F r e u d 1907). H o w e v e r , Freud does not suggest that
i m p r o v e d p e d a g o g i c a l practices w o u l d necessarily l e a d to a r e d u c t i o n
i n levels o f n e u r o s i s , a l t h o u g h this w a s a r g u e d b y s o m e of his f o l l o w ­
ers i n their e a r l y a n d s o m e t i m e s n a i v e e s p o u s a l of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
ideas. ( C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e , F r i t z Wittels' Set the Children Free!
[1932]). T h e y o u n g M e l a n i e K l e i n ' s early e n t h u s i a s m i n f l u e n c e d her
w o r k w i t h her o w n s o n , E r i c h , w h o w a s effectively her first patient:

She s o u g h t a b o v e all to protect h i m i n a d v a n c e f r o m all d a n g e r

of intellectual i n h i b i t i o n , g i v i n g h i m the k i n d of education
w h i c h , f o l l o w i n g the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas of the p e r i o d , she
b e l i e v e d w o u l d ensure the f u l l use of his intellectual faculties...
she s o u g h t to liberate the c h i l d as m u c h as possible, a n d a b o v e
all to free h i m f r o m the r e p r e s s i o n of sexual curiosity, c o n s i d e r e d
to b e the source of all d e n i a l s of intelligence. (Petotl979: ix)

K l e i n ' s a r c h r i v a l i n the field of c h i l d a n a l y s i s , A n n a F r e u d , t r a i n e d

first as a teacher. She a r g u e d that teachers o u g h t to be a n a l y s e d :

I h o l d w e are r i g h t i n d e m a n d i n g that the teacher or e d u c a t o r

s h o u l d h a v e learnt to k n o w a n d to c o n t r o l his o w n conflicts
before h e b e g i n s his e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k . If this is n o t so, the p u p i l s
m e r e l y serve as m o r e or less suitable material o n w h i c h to abre­
act his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d u n s o l v e d difficulties. (A. Freud
1949: 107)

W h o — e i t h e r f r o m the p o s i t i o n of p u p i l or s t u d e n t — c a n n o t r e c o u n t
s o m e e p i s o d e f r o m their e d u c a t i o n i n w h i c h , it a p p e a r e d , the teacher's
' o w n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d u n s o l v e d difficulties' p l a y e d a part. Yet it seems
24 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

to m e that v e r y f e w teachers w o u l d be w i l l i n g to a c k n o w l e d g e this ten­

d e n c y i n their t e a c h i n g practice.

(ii) The learner

O n e of better k n o w n contributions of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is its theories o n

intellectual a n d creative i n h i b i t i o n . F r e u d p r o v i d e d the m o d e l for this,
t h r o u g h his o w n self-analysis, a n d then his short analysis of the c o m ­
p o s e r G u s t a v M a h l e r (Jones 1961). M a n y e a r l y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s exam­
i n e d the l i n k b e t w e e n p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y a n d creativity, w h i c h l e d to a
t r e n d t o w a r d s ' p s y c h o b i o g r a p h y ' , p e r h a p s best e x e m p l i f i e d b y M a r i e
B o n a p a r t e ' s s t u d y of E d g a r A l l a n P o e (Bonaparte 1949).
M a n y of K l e i n ' s first cases w e r e c h i l d r e n w i t h l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s .
K l e i n , b a s e d o n h e r experience w i t h E r i c h , f a v o u r e d c h i l d r e n u n d e r g o ­
i n g a n a l y s i s as a p r e l u d e to e d u c a t i o n . In this w a y — s h e b e l i e v e d — c h i l ­
d r e n c o u l d resolve their most p r i m i t i v e c o m p l e x e s a n d anxieties a n d
t h e r e b y reach a p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h they w e r e able to take i n l e a r n i n g .
D i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to K l e i n , A n n a F r e u d b e l i e v e d c h i l d r e n s h o u l d
receive analysis after e d u c a t i o n , because psychoanalysis

...as a m e t h o d of practical treatment, i n the analysis of c h i l d r e n

. . . e n d e a v o u r s to repair the injuries w h i c h are inflicted u p o n the
c h i l d d u r i n g the process of e d u c a t i o n . ( F r e u d , A . 1949: 104)

W h a t A n n a F r e u d is referring to here is not just the ' f o r m a l process­

es' of e d u c a t i o n , b u t e v e r y f o r m of restraint p l a c e d o n the c h i l d ' s
i n s t i n c t u a l life.
F r e u d h i m s e l f s u g g e s t e d that curiosity w a s i n v a r i a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m
i n f a n t i l e c u r i o s i t y about sexual matters, o r g a n i s e d a r o u n d certain basic
q u e s t i o n s s u c h as ' W h e r e d o babies c o m e f r o m ? ' H e a r g u e d that the
c h i l d ' s experiences w h i l s t p u r s u i n g these questions w o u l d p a v e the
w a y for further intellectual e n d e a v o u r — o r not (Freud 1905a). O t h e r
psychoanalysts t o o k u p this theme, i n c l u d i n g those w h o h a d p r e v i ­
ously been teachers—for instance A n n a F r e u d a n d Ella Freeman
S h a r p e . T h i s classical v i e w of intellectual i n h i b i t i o n focused u p o n the
i d e a that castration anxiety interfered w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s capacity
for s u b l i m a t i o n .
M e l a n i e K l e i n d e v e l o p e d her ideas o n intellectual i n h i b i t i o n i n tan­
d e m w i t h her ideas o n s a d i s m . In 1931 she d i s c u s s e d the basis for i n t e l ­
lectual inhibition i n men:
 Alison Hall 25

...one c a n see c o n f i r m e d i n e v e r y m a n ' s a n a l y s i s , that his d r e a d

of the w o m a n ' s b o d y as a p l a c e f u l l of d e s t r u c t i o n m i g h t be one
of the m a i n causes of i m p a i r e d potency. T h i s anxiety is also,
h o w e v e r , a basic factor i n i n h i b i t i o n s of the desire for k n o w l ­
e d g e , since the i n s i d e of the m o t h e r ' s b o d y is the first object of
this i m p u l s e ; i n p h a n t a s y it is e x p l o r e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d , as w e l l
as a t t a c k e d w i t h a l l the sadistic a r m o u r y , i n c l u d i n g the p e n i s as
a d a n g e r o u s offensive w e a p o n , a n d this is a n o t h e r cause of s u b ­
s e q u e n t i m p o t e n c e i n m e n : p e n e t r a t i n g a n d e x p l o r i n g are to a
great extent s y n o n y m o u s i n the u n c o n s c i o u s . ( K l e i n 1931: 240)

In 1935 K l e i n e x t e n d e d her a n a l y s i s of s a d i s m , p e r s e c u t o r y anxiety

a n d e p i s t e m o p h i l i a to i n c l u d e the effects of d e p r e s s i o n a n d s u g g e s t e d
that d e s p a i r a n d g u i l t o v e r d a m a g e d objects w e r e also a source of intel­
l e c t u a l i n h i b i t i o n . K l e i n — a n d , later, M e l i t t a S c h m i d e b e r g — p r o v i d e d
a n e x t e n d e d a n d d e v e l o p e d theoretical f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g
i n t e l l e c t u a l i n h i b i t i o n , a l o n g w i t h a w e a l t h of c l i n i c a l c a s e - s t u d y mate­
r i a l , i n c l u d i n g e l a b o r a t e d d i s c u s s i o n s of the o r a l significance of i n t e l ­
l e c t u a l m a t e r i a l a n d its ' i n c o r p o r a t i o n ' (cf. S c h m i d e b e r g 1938).
T h e nearest t h i n g w e h a v e to a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c attempt to understand
learning came from Fenichel:

It is this e m o t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e of self-esteem that b e c o m e s the

vehicle of all ' m o r e subtle' ways of education... The child
a c q u i r e s a readiness to sacrifice certain of h i s interests i n o r d e r to
secure the s u p p l y of necessary affection. I n g e n e r a l , this is the
p s y c h o l o g y of sacrifice w h i c h is a l w a y s a lesser e v i l a c c e p t e d
v o l u n t a r i l y i n o r d e r to a v o i d a greater o n e . ( F e n i c h e l 1945: 284-5)

F e n i c h e l identifies '...the three basic m e a n s of all e d u c a t i o n — d i r e c t

threat, m o b i l i s a t i o n of the fear of l o s i n g l o v e , a n d the p r o m i s e of spe­
cial r e w a r d s ' . He provides case m a t e r i a l to illustrate h i s points
( F e n i c h e l 1945: 284). H e also argues that it is t h r o u g h the m e c h a n i s m of
'identification 7
that l e a r n i n g c a n take p l a c e ( F e n i c h e l 1945: 286).
F e n i c h e l w e n t far further t h a n other p s y c h o a n a l y t i c contributors to this
d i s c u s s i o n . Rather t h a n s i m p l y e x p o s t u l a t i n g o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c fac­
tors a p p a r e n t l y associated w i t h l e a r n i n g , or c o n s i d e r i n g the potential
theoretical relation o f e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , F e n i c h e l l o o k e d
26 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

at w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y t i c concepts a n d m e t h o d s c o u l d be e m p l o y e d i n
providing explanations of h o w l e a r n i n g c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d at a l l .
H o w e v e r , the m a i n p r o b l e m , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of e d u c a t i o n ,
w i t h these k i n d s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas is that t h e y operate o n l y at the
l e v e l of the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s is the n o r m i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b u t not i n
e d u c a t i o n . M o s t teachers, for m o s t of the t i m e , h a v e to w o r k w i t h
g r o u p s of students a n d so are severely h a n d i c a p p e d w h e n it c o m e s to
r e l a t i n g to t h e m i n d i v i d u a l l y .
M u c h current e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g p r o m o t e s a culture i n w h i c h stu­
dents themselves are e n c o u r a g e d to c o n s i d e r h o w best they l e a r n , a n d
to evaluate w h e r e their p a r t i c u l a r strengths a n d difficulties m i g h t lie.
T h i s is rather difficult to achieve to a n y m e a n i n g f u l degree o n one's
o w n . It is e n c o u r a g e d — a t least i n p r i n c i p l e — b y m e t h o d s s u c h as k e e p ­
i n g ' p e r s o n a l records of a c h i e v e m e n t ' , a n d b y i n v i t i n g students to
reflect o n their own l e a r n i n g . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the d e c e i v i n g n a t u r e of the
ego u s u a l l y prevents p e o p l e f r o m seeing v e r y m u c h further t h a n the
v e r s i o n of events w h i c h is m o s t p l e a s i n g to the ego. It w a s precisely
b e c a u s e of the l i m i t s of self-analysis that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w a s d e v e l ­
o p e d . T e a c h i n g m e t h o d s w h i c h rely o n s o m e k i n d of 'self-analysis' are
l i k e l y to p r o v e s i m i l a r l y l i m i t e d .

(Hi) Focussing on the functioning of the class group

T h e i d e a that the d y n a m i c s a n d f u n c t i o n i n g of h u m a n g r o u p s c a n be
u n d e r s t o o d u s i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p r i n c i p l e s b e g a n w i t h F r e u d ' s Group
Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921). T h e i d e a that a g r o u p of
patients c a n b e treated p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y together w a s m u c h more
c o n t e n t i o u s , a n d arose d u r i n g the S e c o n d W o r l d War, s p a w n e d specif­
i c a l l y b y the n e e d to f i n d a n efficient m e t h o d of treating large n u m b e r s
of t r a u m a t i s e d soldiers.
W i l f r e d B i o n , S . H . F o u l k e s a n d , later, D o r o t h y Stock-Whitaker's
v a r i e d g r o u p therapeutic w o r k has i n f l u e n c e d e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g
about class-management (Bion 1959; Foulkes 1965; Whitaker &
L i e b e r m a n 1965). H o w e v e r , it is arguable to w h a t extent the w o r k , o n
g r o u p s , of e a c h of these theorists is p s y c h o a n a l y t i c . It is also clear that
their ideas b e c o m e m u c h m o d i f i e d i n practice a n d — a d d i t i o n a l l y —
that, i n practice, they are frequently c o m b i n e d w i t h elements of n o n ­
psychoanalytic 'encounter-group' psychology.
Teachers' staff-room discussions frequently i n c l u d e o b s e r v a t i o n s o n
the differences i n ' c h a r a c t e r ' b e t w e e n one c l a s s - g r o u p a n d another.
 Alison Hall 27

Teachers are n o w expected to b e c o m e ' g r o u p facilitators'. W h e r e a s for­

m e r l y a trainee teacher s t r u g g l e d o n l y to l e a r n h o w to d e v e l o p the
r e q u i r e d a u t h o r i t y a n d d i s c i p l i n e o v e r a class, n o w student teachers
m u s t s h o w that they u n d e r s t a n d w h a t k i n d s of ' d y n a m i c s ' are operat­
i n g i n a c l a s s r o o m situation. A t the v e r y least, teachers m u s t h a v e 'ice­
b r e a k i n g ' techniques for e n c o u n t e r i n g n e w g r o u p s . S t u d e n t s ' e m o t i o n s
h a v e b e c o m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d teachers are e n c o u r a g e d to articulate
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m .
Recent w o r k has attempted to i m p o r t the c o n c e p t of 'transference'
from the clinical setting into the classroom (cf. E i f e r m a n n 1993).
A l t h o u g h this i n v o l v e s use of the t e r m 'transference' the r i c h a n d c o m ­
p l e x issues i m p l i e d b y the term are r e d u c e d to c o m m o n - s e n s e p l a t i ­
tudes a b o u t students b e i n g affected b y anxiety w h i c h i n t u r n m i g h t
affect their w o r k . T h e title of a p a p e r b y Steff B o r n s t e i n (1937),
'Missverstandnisse in der psychoanalytischen Padagogik'
('Misunderstandings in the Application of Psychoanalysis to
P e d a g o g y ' ) , w o u l d suggest that I a m not the first to r e m a r k o n this
phenomenon.

Suggestions for future research

C a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s contribute a n y t h i n g further to d i s c u s s i o n of l e a r n ­
i n g a n d teaching? A s I see it, p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c e r t a i n l y c a n frame s o m e
of the p r o b l e m s of l e a r n i n g i n u s e f u l a n d p o t e n t i a l l y m o r e fruitful
w a y s . I suggest here four strands of p o t e n t i a l research.

(i) Attuned learning

T h e w o r k of D a n i e l S t e r n has p r o v i d e d a v o c a b u l a r y for t a l k i n g a b o u t
i n t e r p e r s o n a l exchanges w h i c h , it s e e m s to m e , m a y be u s e f u l i n e x a m ­
i n i n g certain issues of p e d a g o g y . Stern's c o n c e r n is w i t h b r i n g i n g
together d a t a f r o m recent e x p e r i m e n t a l research i n t o the p s y c h o l o g y of
infants a n d the insights he has g a i n e d i n the course of his clinical p r a c ­
tice as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t . H e focuses o n 'the i n t e r p e r s o n a l w o r l d of the
i n f a n t ' — a s the title of his b e s t - k n o w n w o r k (Stern 1985) m a k e s c l e a r —
a n d , i n particular, o n the infant's g r o w i n g sense of self. H e d e v e l o p s a
n u m b e r of h y p o t h e s e s about the d e v e l o p m e n t of a sense of self, i n p a r ­
ticular, w h e r e this relates to the i n t e r p l a y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n ,
typically, the m o t h e r a n d infant. H o w e v e r , it is his i d e a of 'affect
28 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

a t t u n e m e n t ' w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y r a d i c a l a n d w h i c h p r o v o k e d a great
d e a l of interest.
S t e r n notes that w h e n babies reach the age of about n i n e m o n t h s ,
their m o t h e r s b e g i n to treat t h e m differently i n some v e r y specific
w a y s . F o r instance, if a b a b y b a n g s a toy r h y t h m i c a l l y , t h e n the m o t h ­
er r e s p o n d s to the b a b y b y m i m i c k i n g the r h y t h m . W h a t is notable
after the n i n e - m o n t h w a t e r s h e d is that the mother uses a different mode of
expression—for e x a m p l e , she m i g h t m a k e r h y t h m i c vocal s o u n d s . O r , to
take a n e x a m p l e f r o m Stern:

An eight-and-one-half-month-old boy reaches for a toy just

beyond reach. Silently, he stretches toward it, l e a n i n g and

e x t e n d i n g a r m s a n d fingers out fully. Still short of the toy, he

tenses his b o d y to squeeze o u t the extra i n c h he needs to reach it.

A t that m o m e n t , his m o t h e r says, " u u u u u h . . . u u u u u h ! " w i t h a

c r e s c e n d o of v o c a l effort, the e x p i r a t i o n of air p u s h i n g against

h e r tensed torso. T h e m o t h e r ' s accelerating v o c a l - r e s p i r a t o r y

effort matches the infant's accelerating p h y s i c a l effort. (Stern

1985: 140)

S t e r n p r o v i d e s a n u m b e r of s i m i l a r examples w h i c h demonstrate
different k i n d s of matched actions—with b o t h m o t h e r a n d c h i l d u s i n g
the r a n g e of actions w h i c h babies of this age c a n m a n a g e (or almost
m a n a g e ) s u c h as expressive p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t s like w a v i n g , c l a p ­
p i n g , s w a y i n g , n o d d i n g , d r u m m i n g or just tensing or e x t e n d i n g l i m b s ,
v o c a l a n d v e r b a l expressions, e x p i r a t o r y variations, a n d facial expres­
sions. H e e m p h a s i s e s that this s h o u l d not be c o n f u s e d w i t h m i m i c r y or
i m i t a t i o n because the m o t h e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n switches the matched
a c t i o n into another mode. F o r e x a m p l e , if the c h i l d engages i n a p h y s i c a l
a c t i o n the m o t h e r engages i n a v o c a l one; if the c h i l d b o u n c e s u p a n d
d o w n i n a r h y t h m i c w a y the m o t h e r claps her h a n d s or taps her fingers
to the s a m e beat. Stern's e x a m i n a t i o n of ' c r o s s - m o d a l e x c h a n g e s ' s u c h
as these, b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d infant, p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e basis u p o n
w h i c h to pose s o m e questions c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g .
Stern's o w n d e f i n i t i o n of affect attunement is:

T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of b e h a v i o u r s that express a q u a l i t y of feeling

of a shared affect state w i t h o u t i m i t a t i n g the exact b e h a v i o u r a l

e x p r e s s i o n of the i n n e r state. (Stern 1985: 142)

30 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

a n d h o w t h e y b e h a v e d . T h i s , of c o u r s e , is m e r e l y a m o r e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ,
m o r e d i r e c t e d a n d m o r e intense v e r s i o n of w h a t , a r g u a b l y , g o e s o n i n
a n y h u m a n e n c o u n t e r . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d i r e c ­
t i o n a n d i n t e n s i t y w h i c h o r g a n i s e a n d c o n s t r u c t it as p a r t o f a p r o f e s ­
s i o n a l activity.
T h e r e is a l o n g h i s t o r y to the p r o b l e m , i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , of the
s p e c i f i c i t y of e a c h a n a l y s i s . I n d e e d , o n e c o u l d characterise a v e r y large
p r o p o r t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r i s i n g as r e p e a t e d attempts to talk
a b o u t w h i c h t h i n g s m a y b e c o m m o n to a l l a n a l y s e s — o r , at least, to cer­
tain t y p e s of a n a l y s e s (for instance, w i t h obsessives as o p p o s e d to h y s ­
terics, o r w i t h p h o b i c s as o p p o s e d to m e l a n c h o l i e s ) — a n d w h i c h things
are specific to e a c h a n a l y s i s . F r e u d (1912) a t t e m p t e d to d e a l w i t h this
p r o b l e m b y describing h o w a n analyst might a p p r o a c h each patient b y
t r y i n g to s u s p e n d , i n as m u c h as it is p o s s i b l e , a l l p r e v i o u s k n o w l e d g e .
L a c a n t r i e d to t h i n k t h r o u g h a n d to f o r m a l i s e this i n his d i s c u s s i o n s of
the p r a c t i c e of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d t h e scientificiry of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
H e c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that w h a t differentiates psychoanalysis
f r o m o t h e r f o r m s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y is its e m p h a s i s o n the subject as a
' o n e ' . H i s i d e a is that w h i l s t it is i n d e e d p o s s i b l e to articulate stages i n
a n a n a l y s i s vis a vis a p a r t i c u l a r d i a g n o s i s , as w e l l as the g e n e r a l strat­
e g y to b e a d o p t e d a n d the p o s s i b l e tactics w h i c h m i g h t ' w o r k ' i n rela­
t i o n to this p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of case, e v e n so, the d e t e r m i n i n g factor i n
the c o n d u c t of a n a n a l y s i s is e a c h n e w a n a l y s a n d . T h u s it is i m p o s s i b l e
to s p e c i f y the t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a n y a n a l y s i s i n a d v a n c e ( L a c a n
1966: 323-362, 585-645), O t h e r p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s f r e q u e n t l y c l a i m to b e
able to d o p r e c i s e l y this. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f this a n d other l i n k e d for­
m u l a t i o n s , L a c a n p o s i t s the i d e a o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a ' c o n j e c t u r a l s c i ­
e n c e ' — b y w h i c h h e m e a n s that t h e m e t h o d o l o g y of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
p r o c e e d s v i a conjecture ( L a c a n 1989).
It is this attempt to t h i n k t h r o u g h w h a t is the s a m e for a l l a n a l y s e s ,
or for e a c h t y p e o f a n a l y s i s , a n d w h a t is specific to the a n a l y s a n d that
I f i n d u s e f u l for t h i n k i n g a b o u t t e a c h i n g . S o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g this
w a y of t h i n k i n g c a n also b e f o u n d i n S c h o n ' s d i s c u s s i o n s o f the p r o c e ­
d u r e s i n v o l v e d i n reflecting:

A p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s reflection c a n s e r v e as a corrective to o v e r - l e a r n ­

i n g . T h r o u g h reflection, h e c a n surface a n d criticise the tacit
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s that h a v e g r o w n u p a r o u n d the repetitive e x p e ­
riences of a s p e c i a l i s e d practice, a n d c a n m a k e n e w sense o f the
 Alison Hall 29

S t e r n c o n s i d e r s that this b e h a v i o u r enacts a n e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n ,

a l t h o u g h he d o e s n ' t a c t u a l l y a d d v e r y m u c h b e y o n d this, because he is
m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f e m o t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n e v i ­
d e n t l y i m p o r t a n t feature of this e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n is that it i n t r o d u c e s
a n d s u p p o r t s new f o r m s of r h y t h m i c a l i t y i n t o the life of the c h i l d . 2

W h a t h a p p e n s to this t y p e a n d l e v e l of b e h a v i o u r i n later l e a r n i n g ?
S h o t i l d w e a s s u m e that because the loftier r e a l m s of l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e ­
tence h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d that l e a r n i n g b e c o m e s s o l e l y a n d s i m p l y 'the
a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s ' ? T h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g b y m e a n s of c e r t a i n
t y p e s o f e n c o u r a g i n g , s u p p o r t i n g o r i n d u c i n g b e h a v i o u r o n the p a r t of
the teacher is a p r o m i s i n g f i e l d for research. T h e s t u d y of r h e t o r i c
s h o w s that l a n g u a g e operates, at least i n part, v i a tropes d e s i g n e d to
p e r s u a d e or i n d u c e change, a n d there m a y be u s e f u l p a r a l l e l s to this i n
the ' c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ' of m o t h e r s w i t h t h e i r n i n e - m o n t h o l d c h i l d r e n .
R e s e a r c h i n t o the n o n - l i n g u i s t i c m o d e s of p e r s u a s i o n or e n c o u r a g e ­
m e n t o p e r a t i v e i n l e a r n i n g — f o r i n s t a n c e , the r o l e p l a y e d i n l e a r n i n g b y
'manipulation', 'inspiration', 'seduction', 'identification', 'love' and a
h o s t o f o t h e r terms w h i c h m i g h t be u s e d to d e s c r i b e aspects of the m u l ­
t i p l e x r e l a t i o n s w h i c h exist b e t w e e n teachers a n d s t u d e n t s — c o u l d fur­
n i s h u s w i t h a m u c h m o r e n u a n c e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l e a r n i n g process­
es.
S o m e teachers, u s u a l l y the better ones, are a l r e a d y q u i t e w e l l a w a r e
of these d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l a t i n g , a n d it i s u s u a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d that
g o o d teachers are the ones w h o are able to generate a c e r t a i n k i n d of
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h their students. T h e r e has b e e n a great d e a l of d i s c u s ­
s i o n a b o u t ' t e a c h i n g styles' i n recent debates, b u t , I w o u l d argue, this
has b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n l i m i t e d a n d u s u a l l y s u p e r f i c i a l terms. I w o u l d
s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r , that a r i c h s e a m o f research c o n c e r n i n g the r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n teachers a n d students w o u l d b e o p e n e d u p b y a p p l y i n g
S t e r n ' s w o r k w i t h infants to the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g .
W h e n I reflect o n t e a c h i n g sessions I note t h a t — a l o n g s i d e , o r i n
t a n d e m w i t h t h i n k i n g h a r d a b o u t the content o f s t u d e n t s ' w o r k — I
e n g a g e i n a n o t h e r process, w h i c h s e e m s to m e e v e n m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l
for the success of t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . T h i s process i n v o l v e s m e i n
a c t i v e l y a s s u m i n g a n a c u t e l y p e r c e p t i v e state i n w h i c h I a m l o o k i n g
c o n t i n u o u s l y for cues a n d clues a b o u t the students. These cues a n d
c l u e s are of t w o m a i n types: (a) v e r b a l — w h a t the students said, w h a t
the s t u d e n t s d i d not say, how the s t u d e n t s s a i d w h a t t h e y s a i d , a n d so
o n . . . a n d (b) v i s u a l — w h a t I r e a d f r o m the s t u d e n t ' s b e h a v i o u r , their
d e m e a n o u r , the resonance—or o t h e r w i s e — b e t w e e n w h a t t h e y s a i d
 Alison Hall 31

s i t u a t i o n s of u n c e r t a i n t y or u n i q u e n e s s w h i c h h e m a y a l l o w
h i m s e l f to experience. (Schon 1983: 61)

And:

In e a c h instance, the practitioner a l l o w s h i m s e l f to experience

s u r p r i s e , p u z z l e m e n t , or c o n f u s i o n i n a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h he f i n d s
u n c e r t a i n o r u n i q u e . (Schon 1983: 68)

W h e t h e r it b e analysis or e d u c a t i o n , the subjectivity of the p a r t i c i ­

p a n t s a l w a y s b r i n g s s o m e t h i n g u n i q u e to the e n c o u n t e r , s o m e t h i n g
which it is i m p o s s i b l e to theorise i n advance. Consequently, an
u n k n o w n element, a n ' X ' , has to b e s o m e h o w a c c o m m o d a t e d i n the
p r a c t i c e o f t e a c h i n g , a n d h a s to be a c c o u n t e d for i n theories of l e a r n ­
i n g — e v e n if o n l y as a n u n s p e c i f i e d ' s o m e t h i n g ' a r o u n d w h i c h a l l else
m u s t b e o r g a n i s e d . T h e r e is a n o n u s o n the teacher, like the analyst, to
k n o w s o m e t h i n g of his or h e r o w n subjectivity, a n d the effects of h i s or
her a c t i o n s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s — e v e n at a m i c r o - l e v e l . H o w e v e r the s u b ­
jectivity o f e a c h s t u d e n t w i l l a l w a y s b r i n g n e w a n d u n i q u e challenges
to the w o r k .
T h e r a n g e of tactics a n d strategies a d o p t e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ses­
sions also offers a n interesting c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the c o n d u c t of teach­
i n g . F o r i n s t a n c e — a s I n o t e d a b o v e — I use v e r b a l a n d v i s u a l clues to
a t t e m p t to m a k e s o m e reasonably w e l l - f o u n d e d j u d g e m e n t s about s t u ­
dents. H o w e v e r , I c l e a r l y d o n o t engage i n a n y k i n d of f u l l - b l o w n p s y ­
c h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f the student b u t s i m p l y try to m a k e r e a s o n ­
a b l y i n f o r m e d assessments of the student's f r a m e of m i n d — f o r e x a m ­
p l e , c o n c e r n i n g the student's level of c o n f i d e n c e a b o u t their w o r k . If I
c a n m a k e reasonable j u d g e m e n t s about s t u d e n t s ' c o n f i d e n c e , I c a n
m a k e better j u d g e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g the extent to w h i c h I n e e d to
e n c o u r a g e t h e m i n relation to p a r t i c u l a r elements of their w o r k , o r —
a l t e r n a t e l y — d e f l a t e their o v e r - c o n f i d e n c e if they are a t t e m p t i n g to d o
s o m e t h i n g b e y o n d their current capabilities.
C u r r e n t s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d t h i n k i n g e m p h a s i s e s the i m p o r t a n c e of the
s t u d e n t i n the l e a r n i n g process. A central a s s u m p t i o n of this w a y of
t h i n k i n g is that the q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s d e p e n d s l a r g e l y o n
the a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d b y the learner h i m or herself. T h i s , i n t u r n , is
r e g a r d e d as d e p e n d e n t u p o n the c o n c e p t i o n o f l e a r n i n g h e l d b y the
learner, w h a t he or she k n o w s about h i s or h e r o w n l e a r n i n g , a n d the
strategies that she o r h e chooses to use (cf. M o r g a n 1993). Interestingly,
32 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

this is sometimes referred to as a process i n w h i c h students' choice of

h o w to d o their l e a r n i n g m a y be i n f o r m e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s p h e n o m e n a
( N i g h t i n g a l e & O ' N e i l 1994: 61). It seems f r o m this that s o m e w r i t e r s
o n e d u c a t i o n are o p e n to the i d e a that ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' processes may
p l a y a p a r t i n l e a r n i n g — t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is surely that if one w a n t s to
u n d e r s t a n d m o r e a b o u t l e a r n i n g one w i l l have to attempt to u n d e r ­
s t a n d m o r e about ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' p r o c e s s e s — w h i c h are, of course, the
central c o n c e r n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
T h e issue raised above c o n c e r n i n g confidence is one w h i c h is c o m ­
m o n across all students. T h e r e is a l w a y s a generic issue of getting the
b a l a n c e r i g h t i n terms of degrees of criticism, e n c o u r a g e m e n t , defla­
t i o n , a n d c o n f i d e n c e - b o o s t i n g . H o w e v e r , the specificity of the student's
personality, the stage they are at i n the e d u c a t i o n process, a n d , i n d e e d ,
h o w w e l l or h o w b a d l y other aspects of their life are p r o c e e d i n g o n the
p a r t i c u l a r d a y of the s e s s i o n — a s s u m i n g I h a v e access to this i n f o r m a ­
t i o n — w i l l feed into the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process a n d w i l l i n f o r m h o w
I act i n relation to the student's confidence. T h i s is o n l y one e x a m p l e of
the k i n d of e v a l u a t i o n a n d strategising w h i c h I t h i n k needs to be
e m p l o y e d i n t e a c h i n g ; a s i m i l a r process s h o u l d also be u s e d across a
r a n g e of other a x e s — f o r instance: m a n a g i n g the b o u n d a r i e s a r o u n d the
t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g relationship; negotiating intellectual a n d other c o n ­
flicts; a c k n o w l e d g i n g the d i f f e r i n g ideas about teaching a n d l e a r n i n g
a n d h o w to d o it h e l d b y the student a n d the teacher; a n d t a k i n g
a c c o u n t of the strengths a n d limitations of b o t h student a n d teacher.
In a p p r o a c h i n g a tutorial session I h a v e u s u a l l y received the s t u ­
d e n t ' s w o r k i n a d v a n c e . I w i l l h a v e e x a m i n e d it a n d m a d e critical c o m ­
m e n t s i n the m a r g i n s a n d o n the text. T h e actual content a n d style of
these c o m m e n t s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d b y m y experience of the s t u d e n t
w h o w i l l receive t h e m . T h i s is another e x a m p l e w h e r e the specificity of
the s t u d e n t is a factor. M y professional skill as a n educator has (at least)
t w o strands. O n e of these is c o n c e r n e d w i t h m y relation to the m a t e r i ­
a l — a r e the a p p r o p r i a t e ideas b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , a n d are they b e i n g c o n ­
s i d e r e d i n fruitful w a y s ? A r e relevant m e t h o d s b e i n g e m p l o y e d , a n d
are they b e i n g e m p l o y e d correctly? W h e r e are the contradictions, s l i p ­
p a g e s , non sequiturs i n the argument?
T h e s e c o n d s t r a n d concerns m y relation to the student. T h i s is h a r d ­
l y a o n e - s i d e d affair. Students, generally, like to k n o w w h o w i l l be
m a r k i n g their w o r k , so that they c a n try to second-guess w h i c h slant
they s h o u l d p u t o n their w r i t i n g . A l l s c r i p t s — e v e n the m o s t arcane of
a s s i g n m e n t s — a r e a d d r e s s e d to a reader, a n d m o s t are the p r o d u c t of a
 Alison Hall 33

self-conscious author who has tried—however unreliable the

p r o c e s s — t o c o n s i d e r w h o she or he is w r i t i n g for.
M y p r o f e s s i o n a l concerns i n this f i e l d i n e v i t a b l y l e a d m e to think
a b o u t m y u n c e r t a i n attempts at s o c i a l i s i n g m y t w o c h i l d r e n . A t least
s o m e of the time I felt that I w a s t r y i n g to i n t r o d u c e certain constraints
a n d c o n s e q u e n t frustrations into m y c h i l d r e n ' s lives, yet w i t h o u t w a n t ­
i n g to cause t h e m to t u r n off so m u c h that they w o u l d be too d i s c o u r ­
a g e d to try things a g a i n . So, for e x a m p l e , I w o u l d w a n t to p r e v e n t t h e m
f r o m r u n n i n g i n t o the r o a d , b u t i n a w a y that w o u l d n o t d i s c o u r a g e
t h e m f r o m e n j o y i n g r u n n i n g a r o u n d i n a safe e n v i r o n m e n t . E q u a l l y , I
w o u l d w a n t to e n c o u r a g e t h e m to spell w o r d s p r o p e r l y , b u t w i t h o u t so
d e s t r o y i n g their c o n f i d e n c e i n their infantile efforts that t h e y w o u l d be
d i s i n c l i n e d to t r y w r i t i n g a g a i n . T h i s k i n d of d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n
a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f the potential effects of one's i n t e r v e n t i o n s leads us
b a c k a g a i n to Stern's account of the processes operative i n the e d u c a ­
tive f u n c t i o n of e a r l y m o t h e r h o o d . H i s ideas o n a t t u n e m e n t i m p l y that
i n the early r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the m o t h e r a n d her infant, the m o t h e r is
able constantly to a d a p t her b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s the c h i l d to take
a c c o u n t of its d e v e l o p m e n t a l needs, a n d that the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p e r ­
a t i n g b e t w e e n m o t h e r s a n d infants i n v o l v e s a k i n d of i n c r e a s i n g l y
c o m p l e x n e g o t i a t i o n o n b o t h sides. T h i s f r a m e w o r k also places m u c h
of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , for m a n a g i n g the e n c o u n t e r w i t h the s t u d e n t , onto
m e , as the ' p r o f e s s i o n a l / m o t h e r ' .

H o w e v e r , if I s e r i o u s l y take into account the specificity of e a c h s t u ­

d e n t , a n d act t o w a r d s e a c h student differently, t h e n this affects a n u m ­
b e r of d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c a l a n d p e d a g o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d practices. F o r
i n s t a n c e , r e s p o n d i n g to students differently as a c o n s e q u e n c e of m y
p e r c e p t i o n that t h e y require different i n t e r v e n t i o n s f r o m m e sits a w k ­
w a r d l y w i t h E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s policy. I m a y d e c i d e that o n e student
r e q u i r e s m a n y h o u r s of patient cajoling a n d e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i l s t a n o t h ­
er requires his o r her pretensions p u n c t u r i n g to set t h e m o n a better
c o u r s e of action. T h i s gives a n i n d i c a t i o n of w h y s o m e k i n d s of ' e q u a l
o p p o r t u n i t y ' i n the field of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are so risible, a n d w h y the
issue also n e e d s careful c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n .
A n o t h e r issue emerges f r o m this d i s c u s s i o n , c o n c e r n i n g ideas a b o u t
m o t h e r i n g . M i g h t this m e a n that p e o p l e w i t h experience of m o t h e r i n g
m a k e better teachers? O r that p e o p l e w i t h better a t t u n i n g antennae
a n d s k i l l s — w h e t h e r or not they are m o t h e r s — m a k e better teachers?
C l e a r l y , s o m e p e r s o n a l i t y traits a n d skills m a k e for better or w o r s e
34 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

t e a c h i n g . T h i s is a n area w h e r e m u c h m o r e research is necessary a n d

w h e r e ideas f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y p l a y a useful part.

(it) Metapsychology

L a c a n ' s w o r k of the 1950s, o n the centrality of s p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e

for p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , i m p l i e s a certain stance o n ' l e a r n i n g ' . T h e w h o l e
q u e s t i o n of ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' is a d e c e p t i o n of the ego because ' k n o w l ­
e d g e ' exists o n l y i n the l a n g u a g e s y s t e m a n d the i d e a that p e o p l e h a v e
or h o l d k n o w l e d g e is d e l u s o r y (cf. H a l l 1996). ' K n o w l e d g e ' is to be c o n ­
trasted with ' t r u t h ' ; the latter can emerge via psychoanalysis.
'Knowledge' a n d ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' — o n the other h a n d — a r e not the
g o a l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
If e d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g are i n d e e d functions of the c i r c u l a t i o n of
signifiers, t h e n p e d a g o g i c a l research m i g h t be u n d e r t a k e n to d e m o n ­
s t r a t e — t h r o u g h case s t u d i e s — h o w the t r i g g e r i n g effect of signifiers
constitutes o r p r o d u c e s l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , if the signifier c a n i n d e e d
be c o n c e i v e d of as m a k i n g all the m o v e s , as d o i n g all the t h i n k i n g a n d
s p e a k i n g w h i l s t the subject is t h o u g h t a n d s p o k e n , then w e still require
a t h e o r y of the relation b e t w e e n the subject a n d the signifier i n the e d u ­
c a t i o n a l f i e l d . L a c a n ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n of a t a x o n o m y of social b o n d s — h i s
t h e o r y of the ' f o u r discourses', w h i c h i n c l u d e s a ' d i s c o u r s e of the
U n i v e r s i t y ' ( L a c a n 1991)—fails to d e l i v e r here because it is b a s e d o n
the p r e m i s e that U n i v e r s i t i e s operate w i t h a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t c o n c e p ­
t i o n of science, t h i n k i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e . M a n y p e o p l e w o r k i n g i n
U n i v e r s i t i e s w i s h that this w a s the case. Instead, t o d a y ' s U n i v e r s i t i e s
are d o m i n a t e d b y ideas l a r g e l y i m p o r t e d f r o m the business w o r l d .
T h e q u e s t i o n of l o v e a n d its r e l a t i o n to k n o w l e d g e is p e r t i n e n t here.
It is w i d e l y accepted that transference is l i n k e d to l o v e . However,
L a c a n is at p a i n s to demonstrate that transference is transference to
knowledge ( L a c a n , 1999: 67). L a c a n also states:

...what is i m p o r t a n t i n w h a t has b e e n r e v e a l e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y t ­
ic d i s c o u r s e . . . is that k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h structures the b e i n g w h o
s p e a k s o n the basis of a specific c o h a b i t a t i o n , is closely related to
love. All love is b a s e d o n a certain relationship b e t w e e n two
u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e s . ( L a c a n 1999: 144, m y e m p h a s i s )

P e r h a p s w e n e e d to g o further a n d suggest that l o v e is l o v e of

k n o w l e d g e . C o n s i d e r : the w o r s t t h i n g that c a n h a p p e n i n a love rela­
 Alison Hall 35

t i o n s h i p is that s o m e o n e leaves a n d y o u don't know w h y . T h e p a i n of

n o t k n o w i n g w h y s o m e o n e left is, it seems, w o r s e t h a n the p a i n of
k n o w i n g they left because they p r e f e r r e d s o m e o n e else. It is a p r o b l e m
of k n o w l e d g e . If the search for k n o w l e d g e is l i n k e d to l o v e , w h a t m i g h t
this i m p l y about l e a r n i n g ?
W h i l e love p r o v i d e s o n e m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l route to a s t u d y of
l e a r n i n g , p a r a n o i a p r o v i d e s another. F r e u d m a k e s the f o l l o w i n g c o m ­
m e n t w h e n c o m p a r i n g the operations of 'conscience' to features of
paranoia:

...the activity of the m i n d w h i c h has t a k e n o v e r the f u n c t i o n of

conscience h a s also placed itself at the service of i n t e r n a l
research, w h i c h furnishes p h i l o s o p h y w i t h the m a t e r i a l for its
intellectual o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s m a y h a v e s o m e b e a r i n g o n the char­
acteristic t e n d e n c y of p a r a n o i a c s to construct s p e c u l a t i v e sys­
tems. ( F r e u d 1914: 96)

C a n this 'characteristic t e n d e n c y ' of p a r a n o i a c s p r o v i d e s o m e clues

a b o u t intellectual e x p l o r a t i o n i n general? F r e u d , a n d L a c a n after h i m ,
c e r t a i n l y t h o u g h t that there w a s a p a r a n o i a c t e n d e n c y i n the o r d i n a r y
f u n c t i o n of the e g o . If this is the case, then the s t u d y of the c o n s t r u c t i o n
of ' s p e c u l a t i v e s y s t e m s ' o n the p a r t of p a r a n o i a c s m i g h t p r o v i d e v a l u ­
able clues as to the m e c h a n i s m s o p e r a t i n g i n intellectual w o r k . T h e
ego's p e n c h a n t for false c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d the f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n ten­
d e n c y to fill p s y c h i c a l v a c u u m s — w h i c h w e c o u l d l i n k to the p r o b l e m
of loss o f l o v e , a b o v e — m a y also h e l p to e x p l a i n aspects of the desire to
'take i n ' k n o w l e d g e a n d to construct n a r r a t i v e sequences, l o g i c a l struc­
tures a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l systems. T h i s a g a i n offers r i c h potential i n
terms o f e x p l a i n i n g aspects of intellectual life a n d the processes of
intellectual creativity w h i c h are l i n k e d to l e a r n i n g .
T h e r e is a h u g e theoretical g a p i n the m e t a p s y c h o l o g y o f intellectu­
al life w h i c h c o g n i t i v e science is i l l - e q u i p p e d to fill. A n y d e v e l o p e d
t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g m u s t itself rest u p o n a d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y of intellect.
I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n here that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s offers s o m e r a d i c a l f o u n ­
d a t i o n s for research into m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l aspects of intellect a n d
learning.
36 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

(Hi) The 'experience' of learning

M u c h recent p e d a g o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n s the ' e x p e r i e n c e ' of the

learner. E m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n the l e a r n e r ' s i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e , fears,
d i s c o m f o r t s , sense of i n a d e q u a c y , lack of c o n f i d e n c e , w i l l i n g n e s s to
s u s p e n d beliefs, to g o into a space of lack of c o n t r o l , or to a l l o w t h e m ­
selves to be o p e n to influences, changes, etc.
A recent p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e x a m p l e of this is a n article b y Joanne
B r o w n a n d H e a t h e r P r i c e i n w h i c h they i n t r o d u c e a ' p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
m o d e l of l e a r n i n g w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s the i m p o r t a n c e of l e a r n i n g f r o m
e x p e r i e n c e ' ( B r o w n & Price 1999: 89). T h e y d r a w o n the w o r k of Isca
S a l z b e r g e r - W i t t e n b e r g (1983) w h i c h , i n t u r n , is b a s e d o n a n e o - K l e i n i a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p s y c h i c a l life. B r o w n a n d P r i c e p o i n t o u t that e a r l y
l e a r n i n g is u n d e r t a k e n i n the context of a m o t h e r - i n f a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
a n d refer us to the i d e a of ' m e m o r y i n f e e l i n g ' w h i c h they attribute to
K l e i n , r e m i n d i n g u s that w e n e e d to c o n s i d e r the ' e m o t i o n a l aspects of
l e a r n i n g ' . T h e y state:

...new l e a r n i n g situations c a n e v o k e p o w e r f u l m e m o r i e s (in feel­

ing) r e g a r d i n g o u r capacity to t h i n k , to be d e p e n d e n t , to k n o w ,
to be creative, to i n t r u d e , to steal or to v a n d a l i s e knowledge.
L e a r n i n g f r o m experience, h o w e v e r , i n v o l v e s us b e i n g o p e n to
these e m o t i o n a l or b o d i l y states a n d fantasies, w h i c h w e m i g h t
f i n d easier to split off, repress, smother, etc. ( B r o w n & P r i c e 1999:
89)

T h i s w a y of t h i n k i n g is b e c o m i n g m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n e d u c a t i o n a n d ,
l i k e the g r o u p - t h e r a p e u t i c t h i n k i n g to w h i c h it is closely related, its
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c heritage often gets v e r y s e r i o u s l y lost.
H o w e v e r this p o s t - K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h — a r g u a b l y n o w o w i n g little
to K l e i n ' s o w n i d e a s — i s far r e m o v e d f r o m the l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t as
c o n c e i v e d i n the L a c a n i a n w o r l d . T h e p o s t - K l e i n i a n m o d e l is b a s e d o n
g r o u p s n o t i c i n g a n d actively r e s p o n d i n g to m i n u t e v a r i a t i o n s i n a n x i ­
ety levels a n d to a n y change i n m o o d . T h e L a c a n i a n s , m e a n w h i l e , d o
n o t a l l o w that at the l e v e l of the c l a s s r o o m issues of ' g r o u p d y n a m i c s '
a n d ' a n x i e t y - l e v e l s ' are w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . L a c a n i a n i n s t r u c t i o n
(for that is w h a t it is) is based o n charismatic d i s p l a y s of e x c e l l e n c e —
w h o c a n argue best, w h o c a n r e m e m b e r the obscure reference h e a v i l y
d i s g u i s e d i n a n a s i d e i n the Ecrits, w h o k n o w s that at this p o i n t i n his
w o r k L a c a n is (covertly) referring to C h r e t i e n de T r o y e s , A r i s t o t l e ' s
 Alison Hall 37

causes, or s o m e m a d g e n i u s m a t h e m a t i c i a n . . . It is a J o y c e a n g a m e of
references a n d associations w h i c h one is i n v i t e d to j o i n , or, m o r e often,
to w i t n e s s — l i k e b e i n g part of a p u l s a t i n g c r o s s - w o r d .
In this setting n o t h i n g w h i c h m i g h t be c o n c e i v e d as the ' d y n a m i c s '
of l e a r n i n g is taken into account. S o m e o n e gives a ' b r i l l i a n t lecture' or
a ' c l e v e r p e r f o r m a n c e ' ; there is a split b e t w e e n speaker a n d a u d i e n c e
b a s e d o n h i e r a r c h y a n d d i d a c t i c i s m w h i c h p r o b a b l y o w e s its o r i g i n s
p r i n c i p a l l y to the a n a c h r o n i s t i c e l i t i s m of the F r e n c h e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m .
P e o p l e leave these s e r m o n s w i t h a sense that s o m e t h i n g clever a n d
i n t e r e s t i n g has b e e n s a i d . ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g ' is not the g o a l here, because
this is seen as antithetical to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ; to leave the session w i t h
m o r e questions t h a n a n s w e r s is m o r e the s o u g h t o u t c o m e . A transfer­
ence to a v e i l e d a n d e n i g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e is generated.
In contrast, the p o s t - K l e i n i a n w o r l d is obsessed with dynamics.
E v e r y sneeze a n d s t o m a c h r u m b l e is a m e a s u r e of the g r o u p ' s regres­
s i o n , its l e v e l of anxiety, or its phantasies. A s e m i n a r b a s e d a r o u n d a
p a r t i c u l a r issue or text q u i c k l y b e c o m e s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f w h i c h c o n ­
cepts a n d f o r m u l a t i o n s generate w h i c h k i n d of anxiety a n d l i n k to
w h i c h p r i m i t i v e feelings. T h e intellectual content of the ideas at stake
is s o o n sacrificed at the altar of subjective feeling-states.
W h a t I a m s u g g e s t i n g is that each of these a p p r o a c h e s lacks s o m e ­
t h i n g that the other possesses. O n one l e v e l it is a b s u r d to suggest that
there is a n y t h i n g i n L a c a n i a n i s m w h i c h c o u l d be ' s u p p l e m e n t e d ' by
p o s t - K l e i n i a n i s m , a n d v i c e v e r s a — b e c a u s e they operate w i t h s u c h dif­
ferent conceptions of m e n t a l life, phantasy, anxiety a n d so o n . E v e n so,
i n a m o r e practical sense I t h i n k s o m e l e a r n i n g f r o m each other's p r a c ­
tice c o u l d be v e r y fruitful. C o n s i d e r , for a m o m e n t , the p o s i t i v e c h a n g e
w h i c h m i g h t c o m e about if L a c a n i a n s a t t e n d e d m o r e closely to the
d y n a m i c s i n the c l a s s r o o m , a n d if p o s t - K l e i n i a n s took greater p a i n s to
c o n s i d e r the intellectual content a n d heritage of ideas. Surely, p s y c h o ­
analysis could only gain.
T h e split b e t w e e n these t w o a p p r o a c h e s is s o m e w h a t r e m i n i s c e n t of
a g e n d e r d i v i d e . L a c a n i a n i s m is often r e g a r d e d as u n h e l p f u l l y p a t r i a r ­
c h a l , a n d K l e i n i a n i s m as t h r e a t e n i n g l y m a t r i a r c h a l . T h i s is certainly
e v i d e n t i n the styles of t e a c h i n g they e m p l o y i n the t r a n s m i s s i o n of
their i d e a s a n d practices. T h e s e styles s e e m to c o r r e s p o n d — o n the one
h a n d — t o father's abstract, difficult to u n d e r s t a n d h e c t o r i n g , remote
a n d distant, a n d — o n the other h a n d — t o m o t h e r ' s i n t r u s i o n into e v e r y
c o r n e r of o u r i n t e r n a l w o r l d , p r o v i n g far too close for comfort.
38 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

T h e r e is a n a r g u m e n t here for a far-reaching r e - c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the

r e l a t i v e lack o f intellectual r i g o u r of K l e i n i a n w o r k , a n d the relative
l a c k o f self-consciousness i n L a c a n i a n w o r k . T h e a p p a r e n t g e n d e r split
b e t w e e n t h e m also requires e x a m i n a t i o n . T h i s raises issues of p a r t i c u ­
lar i m p o r t a n c e for those w i t h i n the field of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : it m i g h t be
p o s s i b l e to a r r i v e at a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l e a r n i n g processes i n
g e n e r a l if w e u n d e r s t o o d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y the peculiarities of the sys­
t e m s w e o u r s e l v e s rely o n for the t r a n s m i s s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .

(iv) Intellectual enjoyment

In 1905, F r e u d n o t e d that:

...it is a n u n m i s t a k a b l e fact that concentration o f the attention

u p o n a n intellectual task a n d intellectual strain i n general p r o ­
d u c e a c o n c o m i t a n t sexual excitation i n m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e as
w e l l as a d u l t s . ( F r e u d 1905a: 204)

T h i s s e x u a l excitation, l i n k e d to intellectual effort, f o r m s a basis for

all m a n n e r of p s y c h o p a t h o l o g i e s , a l t h o u g h F r e u d h i m s e l f d i d n o t m a k e
a specific s t u d y o f the forms this c o u l d take. F r e u d i n t r o d u c e s the c o n ­
cept o f ' f o r e - p l e a s u r e ' s h o r t l y after the passage q u o t e d above ( F r e u d
1905a: 210-212). T h i s t e r m refers to a 'lesser f o r m o f p l e a s u r e ' w h i c h
m a k e s p o s s i b l e a greater source of satisfaction. A l t h o u g h F r e u d does
n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y l i n k fore-pleasure a n d intellectual w o r k , w e c o u l d
hypothesise that the m e c h a n i s m s of fore-pleasure c a n be u s e d to
e x p l a i n the l i b i d i n a l i s e d satisfactions associated w i t h intellectual w o r k .
A t t h e s a m e time as h e w a s w r i t i n g Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality (1905a) F r e u d w a s also at w o r k o n Jokes and Their Relation to
the Unconscious (1905b) i n w h i c h h e elaborates o n the role o f f o r e - p l e a ­
sure i n r e l a t i o n to jokes. H o w e v e r , the o r i g i n a l G e r m a n title of this
w o r k — D e r Witz Und Seine Beziehung Zum Unbewussten—could have
been translated more f a i t h f u l l y as 'Wit a n d its r e l a t i o n to t h e
U n c o n s c i o u s ' . W i t , m o r e t h a n jokes, i m p l i e s a degree of intellectual
w o r k . I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the m e c h a n i s m s associated w i t h the o p e r a ­
t i o n o f w i t , F r e u d s h o w s h o w m u c h intellectual effort goes into a p p r e ­
c i a t i n g a joke. Jokes, m o r e t h a n m o s t p h e n o m e n a , illustrate the w a y i n
w h i c h a p s y c h i c a l content c a n b e a source o f b o d i l y sensation, i n the
f o r m o f laughter. A research p r o g r a m m e w h i c h a i m e d to l o o k at the
 Alison Hall 39

b o d i l y effects of intellectual w o r k c o u l d further o u r k n o w l e d g e of b o t h

l e a r n i n g a n d the relation b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m i n d .
E d w a r d L i s s d r e w attention to 'the p h e n o m e n o n of l e a r n i n g as a n
erotic, s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e (Liss 1941: 520). H e p r o v i d e d a selection of
7

c l i n i c a l vignettes d e m o n s t r a t i n g the extent to w h i c h he b e l i e v e d that

sadistic a n d m a s o c h i s t i c i m p u l s e s p l a y a p a r t i n the p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y
of i n d i v i d u a l subjects i n their r e l a t i o n to intellectual w o r k (Liss 1940).

F o r s o m e students the i m p l i c a t i o n that the contents o f the l e a r n ­

i n g process are s e x u a l , suffuses that activity w i t h s u c h taboo
i m p l i c a t i o n s that the a c q u i s i t i o n of facts is e n d o w e d w i t h i n o r d i ­
nate g u i l t a n d u l t i m a t e l y accentuated anxiety. (Liss 1941: 520)

L i s s discusses a t y p e of l e a r n i n g w h i c h h e designates 'essentially

o b s e s s i o n a l ' . T h i s t y p e of (non) l e a r n i n g ,

...manifests itself i n a m e t i c u l o u s l y repetitive e v a l u a t i o n o f sen­

tence a n d w o r d contents, w i t h a s t e r e o t y p e d , c i r c u l a r intensive
i n q u i r y w h i c h n e e d s repeated i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d , w h e n inter­
p r e t e d , leads to i n t e r m i n a b l e review. T h e obsessive a b s o r p t i o n of
these y o u n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n their a c q u i s i t i o n o f factual m a t e r i a l ,
w i t h their i n t e r m i n a b l e insistence o n detail, e n d s i n a t i m e - c o n ­
s u m i n g p r o c e d u r e w h i c h procrastinates t o m o r r o w ' s task a n d
leaves t o d a y ' s task u n c o m p l e t e d . T h e s u m total w o r k f i n i s h e d is
o u t of a l l p r o p o r t i o n to the effort a n d e n e r g y e x p e n d e d a n d the
e n d result is a p r o n o u n c e d l a g i n the l e a r n i n g t e m p o , a b o g g i n g
d o w n . . . T h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e are p o t e n t i a l p e d a n t s a n d one c a n
a p p r e c i a t e t h r o u g h t h e m the m o r e clearly the genesis of certain
aspects of s c h o l a s t i c i s m . (Liss 1941: 522)

T h a t this m a y b e s y m p t o m a t i c o f obsessional neurosis is s u p p o r t e d

b y the case s t u d y of the m o s t f a m o u s p r o c r a s t i n a t o r i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ,
F r e u d ' s ' R a t M a n ' , w h o , a m o n g s t other s y m p t o m s , h a d a n 'obsession
for u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' w h i c h r e q u i r e d m e m b e r s of h i s social circle to
e x p l a i n a g a i n a n d a g a i n w h a t h a d just b e e n s a i d a n d its exact m e a n ­
i n g — m u c h to e v e r y o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a n n o y a n c e ( F r e u d 1909:190).
Freud's commentary o n the ' R a t M a n ' , a n d L i s s ' s comments on
s c h o l a s t i c i s m , serve to r e m i n d u s that 'intensive i n q u i r y ' m a y i n fact be
p a t h o l o g i c a l , a n d m a y l e a d u s to c o n s i d e r carefully the degree of p s y ­
c h o p a t h o l o g y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a l l research or intellectual w o r k .
40 Psychoanalytic Research on Learning

L a c a n ' s c o n c e p t of jouissance c a n be b r o u g h t to bear o n this p r o b l e m .

A n e x p l o r a t i o n of the b o d i l y ' e n j o y m e n t ' associated w i t h , t r i g g e r i n g or
t r i g g e r e d b y i n t e l l e c t u a l effort, m a y offer a m e a n s to theorise w h i c h
k i n d s of i n t e l l e c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t generate excitement and anxiety;
w h e r e a n d u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s w e recoil f r o m i d e a s that are too
w a y w a r d o r d i s t u r b i n g ; h o w ideas a n d o u r u n c o n s c i o u s e n j o y m e n t of
t h e m are p l a y e d out, i n a n d t h r o u g h the b o d y ; a n d w h a t the p a r a m e ­
ters of these processes are.

***

A t t e m p t s to b r i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas a n d l e a r n i n g together i n the

p a s t h a v e b e e n q u i t e l i m i t e d a n d h a v e often r e l i e d o n w h a t are n o w
rather o u t d a t e d ideas of l e a r n i n g or o n v e r y w a t e r e d - d o w n v e r s i o n s of
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c concepts.
If a p r o b l e m as substantive a n d f u n d a m e n t a l as l e a r n i n g is n o t w e l l
u n d e r s t o o d p e r h a p s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas c a n offer s o m e m e a n s for
i n v e s t i g a t i n g it further. I h o p e that I h a v e s h o w n that there is n o short­
age of p o t e n t i a l a v e n u e s for research.

Notes

1 A lecturer i n N u r s i n g , a t t e n d i n g a m e e t i n g o n e d u c a t i o n a l research at w h i c h I w a s present,

p r o c l a i m e d i n r e l a t i o n to her a n d her colleagues w o r k w i t h student nurses: ' S c h o n is o u r
bible'!
2 T h e c h i l d ' s i n d u c t i o n i n t o a n d i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o r a t i o n of expressive r h y t h m i c a l i t y p r o v i d e s
the basis for entry i n t o a s y m b o l i c a n d differentiated w o r l d — o n e i n w h i c h discrete u n i t s of
s p e e c h (signifiers) c a n be e x c h a n g e d . T h e c r o s s - m o d a l exchanges s u p p o r t a crucial l a n g u a g e
f u n c t i o n — t h a t of the s u b s t i t u t i o n of one t h i n g for another (akin to m e t a p h o r ) . Persistent
r h y t h m i c a c t i v i t y — f o r instance, r o c k i n g , as frequently encountered i n autistic c h i l d r e n — m a y
be i n d i c a t i v e of a f a i l u r e i n c r o s s - m o d a l s u b s t i t u t i o n .
 IS A N Y T H I N G M O R E I N T E R E S T I N G T H A N S E X ? T H E
FREUDIAN PERSPECTIVE O N LEARNING A N D TEACHING

Duncan Barford

'I a m a l w a y s r e a d y to l e a r n a l t h o u g h I d o not a l w a y s like b e i n g t a u g h t /

—Winston Churchill

A c c o r d i n g to F r e u d , w h e n it c o m e s to l e a r n i n g w e are all like W i n s t o n

C h u r c h i l l . W e are eager e n o u g h to take i n w h a t the w o r l d presents, b u t
o n l y as l o n g as this meets u s o n o u r o w n terms. If instead the w o r l d
d e m a n d s that w e c h a n g e o u r s e l v e s or alter o u r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s , then,
p u g n a c i o u s to the v e r y e n d , the m i n d refuses to surrender.
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g is thus d e e p l y
p r o b l e m a t i c , because the p i c t u r e of the m i n d p a i n t e d b y F r e u d s u g ­
gests that human nature is f u n d a m e n t a l l y at o d d s w i t h reality.
E v e r y d a y c o n s c i o u s t h i n k i n g is c o n c e i v e d as a fragile superstructure
rising tenuously from origins i n primitive, unconscious mental
processes. T h e r e is n o n o t i o n i n F r e u d ' s p s y c h o l o g y of a learner w i t h a
d i s i n t e r e s t e d c u r i o s i t y about reality for its o w n sake; rather, the h a l l ­
m a r k of all p s y c h i c a l activity is u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, p r i m a r i l y of a
self-centred a n d s e x u a l n a t u r e .
T h i s raises s o m e c o n v o l u t e d questions. If l e a r n i n g is the r e c o g n i t i o n
a n d acceptance of aspects of reality, of the ' n o n - s e l f , then h o w c a n
l e a r n i n g ever be s a i d to occur, g i v e n that this goes against the f u n d a ­
m e n t a l i n c l i n a t i o n of m i n d ? C o n v e r s e l y , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the
teacher, w h a t c o n d i t i o n s h a v e to be i n place to e n c o u r a g e the student
to go against the n a t u r a l tendencies of m i n d a n d b e g i n to learn?
M a r k T e n n a n t c o m m e n t s that:

P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is n o t a b l y absent f r o m the literature o n a d u l t

t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . T h i s is difficult to u n d e r s t a n d , especially
g i v e n the i m p o r t a n c e a d u l t e d u c a t o r s attach to the e m o t i o n a l c l i ­
m a t e of the c l a s s r o o m a n d the anxieties, fears a n d hopes of l e a r n ­
ers. (Tennant 1988: 25)

B u t p e r h a p s it is not really so difficult to u n d e r s t a n d after a l l , c o n ­

s i d e r i n g that the h y p o t h e s e s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a p p e a r so 'strange' to
a d u l t e d u c a t o r s . T h e e m p h a s i s p l a c e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s u p o n the
42 7s Anything More Interesting than Sex?

p r i m i t i v e a n d i r r a t i o n a l aspects of m e n t a l life d o e s i n d e e d a d d r e s s the

issue of the ' e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e ' of the c l a s s r o o m , but w i t h a n intensity
that is p r o b a b l y u n c o m f o r t a b l e for the majority.
T h e ' u n u s u a l ' n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g a d v a n c e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has
h a d a n effect u p o n the literature o n the t h e m e of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d
l e a r n i n g . Firstly, m a n y writers seem k e e n to p r o m o t e l i n k s b e t w e e n
psychoanalytic views of l e a r n i n g a n d m o r e orthodox approaches.
T h e s e w r i t e r s are d r i v e n b y a n e e d to ' d i l u t e ' the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
e m p h a s i s , or to l e n d it credence b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g its s i m i l a r i t y to m o r e
e m p i r i c a l , o r t h o d o x a p p r o a c h e s (cf. Wolff 1960). Secondly, p s y c h o a n a ­
lytic w r i t i n g o n l e a r n i n g tends to a d o p t a therapeutic, r e m e d i a l o r i e n ­
tation. Less is m a d e of the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of l e a r n i n g t h a n of the
a p p l i c a t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s to l e a r n i n g situations. T h e p r i m a r y c o n ­
1

c e r n here is w i t h the use of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a clinical tool for over­

c o m i n g v a r i o u s k i n d s of l e a r n i n g difficulties.
T h e first of these a p p r o a c h e s obscures the u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n p s y ­
c h o a n a l y s i s c a n m a k e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g , a n d the s e c o n d
shifts the focus of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a w a y f r o m l e a r n i n g onto therapy. T h e
existing psychoanalytic literature o n l e a r n i n g a p p e a r s daunting
because it i m p l i e s that only psychoanalysts c a n e m p l o y the necessary
techniques to a r r i v e at a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g sit­
uations.
To trainee teachers, theories of l e a r n i n g are often p r e s e n t e d as
b e l o n g i n g to one of three b r o a d orientations—behaviourism, cognitivism
a n d humanism. It is expected that teachers w i l l be able to i d e n t i f y a n d
use m e t h o d s f r o m e a c h of these traditions. H o w e v e r , the literature o n
w h i c h these theories of l e a r n i n g are based does not q u e s t i o n the p r o ­
fessional c o m p e t e n c e of the teacher to the s a m e extent as the p s y c h o ­
a n a l y t i c literature. E d u c a t o r s d o not seem to s p e n d time w o r r y i n g over
w h e t h e r they n e e d to be a ' q u a l i f i e d ' cognitive p s y c h o l o g i s t i n order to
use cognitive teaching methods. In contrast, consider the heavy
d e m a n d m a d e o n the professional capacity of the teacher i n the fol­
l o w i n g passage f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c text:

T h e task of the teacher m a y be thought of as r e s e m b l i n g the

p a r e n t a l f u n c t i o n : that is, to act as a t e m p o r a r y container for the
excessive anxiety of his students at points of stress. It w i l l m e a n
that he w i l l experience i n h i m s e l f s o m e of the m e n t a l p a i n c o n ­
n e c t e d w i t h l e a r n i n g , a n d yet set a n e x a m p l e of m a i n t a i n i n g
c u r i o s i t y i n the face of chaos, love of truth i n the face of terror of
 Duncan Barford 43

the u n k n o w n , a n d h o p e i n the face of despair. If he is able to d o

this h e is p r o v i d i n g the c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h w i l l foster i n the s t u ­
d e n t a n a b i l i t y to tolerate the uncertainties c o n n e c t e d w i t h learn­
i n g . (Salzberger-Wittenberg et a l . 1983: 60)

T h e a i m of the present s t u d y is to steer a p a t h b e t w e e n these ten­

d e n c i e s , a n d to concentrate u p o n w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n contribute
to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the nature of l e a r n i n g . A n attempt w i l l be
m a d e to m a p out s o m e g e n e r a l outlines of a n a p p r o a c h w i t h i n classi­
cal p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is a distinct b r a n c h of p s y ­
c h o l o g y , w i t h a u n i q u e object of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d m e t h o d s of i n q u i r y .
A c c o r d i n g l y , a n attempt w i l l be m a d e to v i e w the psychoanalytic
a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g o n a p a r w i t h b e h a v i o u r i s t , cognitivist and
h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h e s , a n d to d r a w attention to s o m e significant s i m i ­
larities a n d differences b e t w e e n the f o u r orientations.

It is n o t o n l y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s w h o a d v o c a t e that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n
m a k e a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n to theories of l e a r n i n g . J e r o m e B r u n e r ' s
classic c o g n i t i v i s t text, Toward a Theory of Instruction, contains a chapter
e n t i t l e d ' O n C o p i n g a n d D e f e n d i n g ' . It explores a p a r t i c u l a r type of
l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n c h i l d r e n , a n d is r e m a r k a b l e for its p s y c h o d y n a m ­
ic t e r m i n o l o g y , a l t h o u g h B r u n e r stops short of e m p l o y i n g explicitly
psychoanalytic hypotheses.
B r u n e r suggests that at the root of s o m e l e a r n i n g difficulties is w h a t
he terms a ' p r e - e m p t i v e m e t a p h o r ' . H e argues that e a r l y l e a r n i n g is
d o m i n a t e d b y w a y s of a p p r e h e n d i n g the w o r l d w h i c h are not entirely
effective i n s e p a r a t i n g k n o w l e d g e f r o m the e m o t i o n a l a n d m o t i v a t i o n ­
al context i n w h i c h it is a c q u i r e d . A p r e - e m p t i v e m e t a p h o r is an o r g a n ­
i s a t i o n of associated ideas i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y l i n k e d to a n affective c o n ­
cept. B r u n e r gives the e x a m p l e of a b o y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the issue of
' t h i n g s that c a n h u r t m e ' . In m a t h s lessons, e v e n t h o u g h the subject­
matter p r e s e n t e d to the b o y w a s p u r e l y abstract a n d s y m b o l i c , it n e v ­
ertheless s e r v e d as fuel to this u n d e r l y i n g e m o t i o n a l issue. T o the boy,
fractions a s s u m e d the significance of m u t i l a t e d , c u t - u p n u m b e r s ; alge­
b r a i c c a n c e l l a t i o n m e a n t e r a d i c a t i o n a n d k i l l i n g . A s t u d e n t u n d e r the
i n f l u e n c e of the ' c a n c e r o u s g r o w t h of a p r e - e m p t i n g m e t a p h o r ' (Bruner
1966: 138) ceases to c o p e w i t h l e a r n i n g , a n d begins to d e f e n d against it.
Instead of r e s p e c t i n g the d e m a n d s of p r o b l e m s , the learner begins to
44 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

fear t h e m , a n d begins to e m p l o y m e a n s of e s c a p i n g c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h
t h e m . T h i s is c o m m o n l y a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o u r a n d a
s e e m i n g ' i n a b i l i t y ' to l e a r n .
I n v e s t i g a t i o n of b l o c k a g e s i n l e a r n i n g d r e w B r u n e r onto u n m i s t a k ­
a b l y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c territory. T h e c h i l d d e s c r i b e d is p r e s u m e d by
B r u n e r to be subject to p o w e r f u l unconscious phantasies. T h e l e a r n i n g
s i t u a t i o n threatens to b r i n g these i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s , so (as a s a f e g u a r d
against this) the act of l e a r n i n g itself is subjected to repression. T h e
' l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y ' is, f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view, sympto­
matic, a n d possesses the structure of a neurosis. T h e c h i l d ' s d i f f i c u l t y
has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a deficient I Q , b u t e v e r y t h i n g to d o with
i n t r a p s y c h i c conflict.
P r a g m a t i c a l l y , B r u n e r advocates ' t h e r a p y ' or a ' s u p p o r t i v e t u t o r i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p ' as a r e m e d y for this k i n d of difficulty. T h e tutor is a d v i s e d
to a s s u m e a role w h i c h w i l l e n c o u r a g e the learner to i d e n t i f y w i t h h i m
or her. I n this w a y , the tutor w i l l h a v e ' p r o v i d e d a n e w m o d e l of c o p ­
i n g b y s h o w i n g that p r o b l e m s are b o t h s o l u b l e a n d n o t d a n g e r o u s — o r ,
w h e n not s o l u b l e , at least not the s o u r c e of either disaster or p u n i s h ­
m e n t ' (Bruner 1966: 146).
So, despite a p p r o a c h i n g the issue f r o m a different theoretical start­
i n g - p o i n t , the c o g n i t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t e n d s b y u s i n g a s i m ­
ilar l a n g u a g e a n d a d v o c a t i n g the s a m e r e m e d i e s as the e x p l i c i t l y p s y ­
c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of v i e w q u o t e d a b o v e (Bruner 1966: 42-3).
T h e c o n c u r r e n c e of e d u c a t i o n a l i s t a n d analyst has m u c h to d o w i t h
the t y p e of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y that B r u n e r has i d e n t i f i e d . N e u r o t i c
l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s — t h e i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n as a defence against e m e r ­
gence of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s i e s — a r e l e g i o n i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c lit­
erature o n l e a r n i n g . E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e : a b o y w h o s e o n l y c o n c e r n is
w i t h the 'erotic' content of lessons d u e to p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h h i s
father's s e x u a l life ( A n t h o n y 1989: 121); a g i r l u n a b l e to l e a r n h e r 8x
table b e c a u s e of the p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n c e of 'eight' a n d 'ate'; t w o c h i l ­
d r e n u n a b l e to recognise the letter ' c ' because of its resemblance to a
b i t i n g m o u t h ( C o h l e r 1989: 64); a b o y w h o b e c o m e s u n a b l e to r e a d a
s t o r y w h i c h i n v o l v e s a d o g , because it is c o n n e c t e d i n his m i n d w i t h
m e m o r i e s of a lost d o g , a lost teacher, a n d fears of l o s i n g his m o t h e r
( B l a n c h a r d 1946: 177).
W h e r e Bruner a n d psychoanalysis part company, however, con­
cerns the degree of significance a s s i g n e d to the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s i e s
w h i c h l e a d to n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g difficulties. B r u n e r writes:
 Duncan Barford 45

W h a t e v e r 'the u n c o n s c i o u s ' m e a n s , these c h i l d r e n w e r e o p e r a t ­

i n g b y its d i r e c t i o n . In effect, it a m o u n t s , I s u p p o s e , to a set of
c o g n i t i v e o p e r a t i o n s that p r e v a i l i n the absence of c o n s c i o u s c o n ­
trols... it is the absence of the c o n s c i o u s or ' l o g i c a l ' c h e c k that
p e r m i t s a d e f e n s i v e m e t a p h o r to g r o w b y a c a n c e r o u s metastasis.
(Bruner 1966: 144)

T h o s e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s a r o u n d the w o r d ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' speak v o l ­

u m e s . F o r B r u n e r , the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' is m e r e l y a m o d e of t h i n k i n g
w h i c h obtains i n the absence of r a t i o n a l , c o n s c i o u s thought. This
i m p l i e s that ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' is a p r o d u c t of the absence of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
rather t h a n a c o n s t a n t l y present a n d self-sufficient aspect of m e n t a l
f u n c t i o n i n g . It also i m p l i e s that r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s t h i n k i n g , or a ' l o g i ­
cal c h e c k ' , is a l l that is r e q u i r e d to p u t the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' to flight.
B r u n e r c o n t i n u e s i n this v e i n :

It is too often t a k e n for g r a n t e d that the processes that l e a d to

effective c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g are m e r e extensions of u n c o n ­
scious d r e a m w o r k a n d association. I d o not b e l i e v e this to be the
case, a n d a close r e a d i n g of F r e u d c e r t a i n l y indicates that he d i d
not b e l i e v e so. (Bruner 1966: 147-8)

I believe it is difficult to d e f e n d this interpretation. F r e u d seems to

be quite clear i n his o p i n i o n that r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s
f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l processes, a n d cannot be c o n s i d e r e d as w h o l ­
l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e m :

T h i n k i n g . . . is essentially a n e x p e r i m e n t a l k i n d of acting... It is
p r o b a b l e that t h i n k i n g w a s o r i g i n a l l y u n c o n s c i o u s . . . a n d that it
d i d n o t a c q u i r e further qualities, perceptible to c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
u n t i l it b e c a m e c o n n e c t e d w i t h v e r b a l residues. ( F r e u d 1911: 221)

F r e u d suggests that u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g o n l y b e c a m e split off

f r o m c o n s c i o u s , r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t as a result of e v o l u t i o n a r y
p r e s s u r e s — t h a t is, it s o o n b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t to a p r i m i t i v e m i n d that
p h a n t a s y a n d h a l l u c i n a t i o n t e n d not to p r o d u c e results a n d satisfaction
to the s a m e degree as r a t i o n a l , r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n (cf.
F r e u d 1911: 219). H o w e v e r , this does n o t i m p l y that l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g
c o m p l e t e l y replaces u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c the­
o r y of m i n d rests v e r y m u c h o n the a s s u m p t i o n that u n c o n s c i o u s
46 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

m o d e s of t h i n k i n g are constantly active w i t h i n u s , a n d constitute a

l e v e l of c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g w h i c h is w o r t h y of attention e q u a l to c o n ­
scious, l o g i c a l t h o u g h t .
F o r the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y - i n f o r m e d educationalist, therefore, the
k i n d of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g w h i c h gives rise to n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g
difficulties is w h o l l y consistent w i t h the nature of the h u m a n m i n d . It
is n o t to b e v i e w e d — l i k e B r u n e r s u g g e s t s — a s a m o r b i d , ' c a n c e r o u s '
p r o l i f e r a t i o n of u n r e a s o n , a consequence of insufficient ' l o g i c a l checks'.
A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t the process o f l e a r n i n g m i g h t
entail b e g i n s w i t h the i r r a t i o n a l phantasies of the learner.

T h e p r o b l e m of l e a r n i n g is n o t specifically a d d r e s s e d b y F r e u d . T h e
t r a d i t i o n a l concerns of classical p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — d r e a m s , slips of the
t o n g u e , screen m e m o r i e s , etc.—focus m o r e u p o n the m i n d ' s refusal
a n d e v a s i o n of reality t h a n its a s s i m i l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , g i v e n the atten­
t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p a y s to the m i n d ' s ' n o n - l e a r n i n g ' , it is possible to
trace the outlines of a converse process.
B r u n e r a n d the p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h share the n o t i o n that a
learner c a n b e c o m e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h a n u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, a n d
that l e a r n i n g difficulties w i l l arise i f the learner reacts d e f e n s i v e l y to
m a t e r i a l w h i c h threatens to b r i n g the u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy into
awareness. T h e F r e u d i a n contention that the m i n d at its most f u n d a ­
m e n t a l l e v e l is i r r a t i o n a l , i m p l i e s that all learners are p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h
u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies to a n extent. Therefore, learners experience
difficulties not p r i m a r i l y d u e to the kind of p h a n t a s y to w h i c h they are
subject, b u t a c c o r d i n g to the degree to w h i c h p h a n t a s y is able to exert
an influence over thinking:

Because e v e r y t h i n g w e experience evokes u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n ­

tasies, e v e r y topic discussed... stirs u p images i n the depths of
the m i n d . If these are p o w e r f u l l y present a n d of a d i s t u r b i n g
n a t u r e , they w i l l t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y interfere with
l e a r n i n g . . . S o m e topics like v o l c a n o e s frequently arouse great
excitement a n d considerable anxiety because they are closely
associated w i t h phantasies about b o d y cavities a n d their d a n ­
gerous contents. (Salzberger-Wittenberg et al. 1983: 71)
 Duncan Barford 47

L e a r n i n g , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , i n v o l v e s n e g o ­
t i a t i o n a n d i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n ' i n s i d e a n d ' o u t s i d e ' . A n aspect of the
7

self is p r e s u m e d to m e d i a t e b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies w i t h ­

i n the learner, a n d messages f r o m the external w o r l d — b e t w e e n secret
fears of ' d a n g e r o u s b o d y cavities' a n d a lecture o n ' v o l c a n o e s ' . In clas­
s i c a l p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , the ego is e n v i s a g e d as p e r f o r m i n g this f u n c t i o n . 2

A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory of l e a r n i n g r e v o l v e s a r o u n d the nature of the

ego.
F r e u d p o s t u l a t e d that the m i n d f u n c t i o n e d i n its earliest stages
a c c o r d i n g to the ' p r i m a r y process', p r o d u c i n g the t y p e of i r r a t i o n a l ,
p r e - l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g w h i c h is characteristic of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy.
U n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the p r i m a r y process, a p a r t i c u l a r i d e a w i l l t e n d
to g i v e w a y q u i c k l y a n d easily to other ideas w h i c h — f o r a n y r e a s o n —
are associated w i t h it. If a n i d e a is associated w i t h a p r e v i o u s e x p e r i ­
ence of p l e a s u r e or satisfaction, then it is especially l i k e l y to c o m e to
m i n d if the o r g a n i s m is i n a state w h i c h calls for that satisfaction (cf.
L a p l a n c h e & P o n t a l i s 1988: 339). C o n s i d e r the e x a m p l e of a h u n g r y
b a b y w i s h i n g for the breast of its mother. In this i l l u s t r a t i o n the basic
s u r v i v a l v a l u e of ' p r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g ' c a n be a p p r e c i a t e d , b u t
also s o m e s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s . A s e n s a t i o n of h u n g e r m a y e v o k e i n the
b a b y ' s m i n d the a p p r o p r i a t e i d e a of the breast, a n d m a y also initiate
s u c k i n g actions, b u t the m e r e h a l l u c i n a t i o n of the breast a n d the i s o ­
l a t e d a c t i o n of s u c k i n g cannot i n themselves p r o d u c e satisfaction w i t h ­
o u t the presence of the breast i n reality.
P r i m a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g is a k i n d of ' s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d ' c o g n i t i o n .
Ideas arise i n the m i n d , a n d are c o n n e c t e d creatively to one another,
b u t n o t i n a g u i d e d or o r d e r e d f a s h i o n , a n d w i t h o u t t a k i n g reality i n t o
account. L o g i c a l , reality-oriented t h i n k i n g — o r 'secondary process'
t h i n k i n g — d e v e l o p s later.
P r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g initiates phantasies, w h i c h serve the f u n c ­
t i o n of l i n k i n g n e e d s w i t h h a l l u c i n a t i o n s of satisfaction. Secondary
process t h i n k i n g , o n the other h a n d , takes the d e m a n d s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s
of r e a l i t y i n t o account. It is a m o r e i n h i b i t e d a n d d r a w n - o u t f o r m of
c o g n i t i o n , w h i c h serves the f u n c t i o n of l i n k i n g n e e d s w i t h thoughts
about h o w t h e y m i g h t be satisfied (cf. F r e u d 1900: 602).
T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m p r i m a r y process to s e c o n d a r y process occurs i n
s y n c h r o n y w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego. T h i s is h o w F r e u d first
a t t e m p t e d to d e s c r i b e the b i r t h of the ego:
48 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

...an o r g a n i s a t i o n has b e e n f o r m e d i n * F w h o s e presence inter­

3

feres w i t h passages [of quantity]... T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n is called the

'ego'. It c a n easily b e d e p i c t e d i f w e c o n s i d e r that the r e g u l a r l y
r e p e a t e d r e c e p t i o n of e n d o g e n o u s Qr\ [quantities]... a n d the facil­
itating effect p r o c e e d i n g thence w i l l p r o d u c e a g r o u p of n e u ­
r o n e s w h i c h is constantly cathected... a n d thus c o r r e s p o n d s to
the v e h i c l e of the store r e q u i r e d b y the s e c o n d a r y f u n c t i o n . . .
T h u s the e g o is to b e d e f i n e d as the totality of *F cathexes at the
g i v e n time; i n w h i c h a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d
f r o m a c h a n g i n g one. ( F r e u d 1950: 323)

D e s p i t e the o p a q u e l a n g u a g e o f ' n e u r o n e s ' a n d 'quantities' that

F r e u d uses i n this text, the ego is e n v i s a g e d as a s i m p l e o r g a n i s a t i o n i n
terms of its structure a n d f u n c t i o n .
F r e u d is p r o p o s i n g that associations w h i c h accrue b e t w e e n ideas
a n d sensations of p a i n a n d pleasure ('repeated reception of e n d o g e ­
n o u s quantities') f o r m e n d u r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s i n the m i n d . O n c e these
are i n p l a c e , a n ' a r e a ' begins to d e v e l o p w h i c h possesses a h i g h e r
d e g r e e of structure a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a n its s u r r o u n d i n g , a n d w h i c h
c a n m a i n t a i n itself i n response to s t i m u l i i n a m o r e consistent f a s h i o n .
T h e s t i m u l i the ego has to d e a l w i t h m a y vary, a n d m a y i n t r o d u c e n e w
c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t the d e v e l o p i n g structure w h i c h processes the s t i m u l i
r e m a i n s essentially s t a b l e — h e n c e : ' a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n ­
g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g one'.
T h e e g o , then, is i n essence a n aspect of the m i n d w h i c h is stable
a n d consistent, i n relation to the rest. I n this v e r y f u n d a m e n t a l sense
w e are able to describe the e g o as p o s s e s s i n g ' i d e n t i t y ' . F o r m e r l y the
condition of w a s d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g to i m p i n g e m e n t s m a d e u p o n
it b y the o u t s i d e w o r l d , or b y the i n t e r n a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e m a n d s o f the
o r g a n i s m . B u t , as the f l e d g l i n g e g o p r o c e e d s to g r o w f r o m the c o n t i n ­
u e d association of ideas w i t h sensations of p a i n a n d pleasure, it
acquires the ability to act a c c o r d i n g to p r e v i o u s experience, rather t h a n
reacting inconsistently to w h a t e v e r s t i m u l i present themselves. T h e
ego b e c o m e s a specialised part of *F. Its stability rests u p o n its g r o w i n g
ability to i n h i b i t s t i m u l i (internal a n d external) w i t h i n certain l i m i t s .
F r o m this capacity emerges the p o t e n t i a l for s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k ­
i n g (cf. L a p l a n c h e & Pontalis 1988: 339).
T h e s e h i g h l y abstract f o r m u l a t i o n s c a n b e related to concrete e x p e ­
rience. ' E g o ' m e a n s T ; the m o s t salient characteristic of the experience
of T is quite e v i d e n t l y its 'stability' a n d ' c o n t i n u i t y ' . F o r e x a m p l e , i f I
 Duncan Barford 49

leave o n e r o o m a n d go into another, e v e n t h o u g h m y p e r c e p t i o n s a n d

o r i e n t a t i o n h a v e c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d , there r e m a i n s the sense it is I
w h o h a v e m a d e the transition. T h i s applies also to i n t e r n a l p h y s i o l o g ­
ical c h a n g e s . If the w a y I feel changes d r a m a t i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h I feel
c o m p l e t e l y u n l i k e h o w I w a s the m o m e n t before, there r e m a i n s the
sense that it is the s a m e I w h i c h feels differently. T h e n o t i o n of the sta­
b i l i t y of ego, a n d its ability to i n h i b i t s t i m u l i i n o r d e r to m a i n t a i n its
constancy, has s t r o n g roots i n the subjective e x p e r i e n c e of self. 4

* * *

T h r o u g h e x a m i n i n g the nature a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego w e c a n

c o n c l u d e that a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g recognises t w o k i n d s
of c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g . O n the one h a n d there is p r i m a r y process
p h a n t a s y i n g , a n d o n the other s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g . T h e s e c o n d
d e v e l o p s f r o m the first, as a c o n s e q u e n c e of the g r o w i n g c a p a c i t y of the
ego to stabilise a n d i n h i b i t the p r i m a r y process. Because it entails
o b s e r v a n c e of the d e m a n d s a n d limitations of reality, rather t h a n s i m ­
p l y e x p r e s s i n g i m m e d i a t e n e e d s a n d desires of the o r g a n i s m , sec­
o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g facilitates w h a t w e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d as
'learning'.
H o w e v e r , a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g w i l l also a d h e r e to the
n o t i o n that t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g c a n n e v e r escape the i n f l u e n c e of p r i ­
m a r y process p h a n t a s y . It w o u l d also h o l d that it is not a desirable e d u ­
c a t i o n a l objective to attempt to d o so. T h e o r g a n i s m a n d its m i n d are
i n d i s s o l u b l y b o u n d . A l t h o u g h t h i n k i n g takes i n t o a c c o u n t external
reality, a n d c a n p r o d u c e o b v i o u s r e w a r d s to the i n d i v i d u a l as a result,
p h a n t a s y r e m a i n s the p r i m e representative of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n e r
life. T h e o v e r - e m p h a s i s of t h o u g h t at the e x p e n s e of p h a n t a s y is a
d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e . T h e e m o t i o n a l a n d p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n of existence
5

p r o d u c e s o u r m o s t t r a u m a t i c a n d u n s e t t l i n g experiences, yet it is also

the m o s t i m m e d i a t e a n d authentic aspect of life, a n d the source of o u r
m o s t p o w e r f u l pleasures a n d m o t i v a t i o n s . P h a n t a s y — a s another w o r d
for the w o r k i n g s of the p r i m a r y p r o c e s s — i s the chief e m b o d i m e n t i n
the m i n d of this s i d e of life.
T h i r t y years after his o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s F r e u d r e t u r n e d to these
s a m e issues a n d cast a little m o r e light o n the w a y h u m a n l e a r n i n g i s —
b y d e f i n i t i o n — s t a m p e d w i t h the h a l l m a r k of the p r i m a r y process.
F r e u d t u r n e d h i s attention to h o w the ego, i n its e a r l y stages of d e v e l ­
o p m e n t , m a k e s judgements c o n c e r n i n g the n a t u r e of p e r c e p t i o n s :
50 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

T h e f u n c t i o n of j u d g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d i n the m a i n w i t h t w o
sorts of d e c i s i o n s . It affirms or disaffirms the p o s s e s s i o n b y a
t h i n g of a p a r t i c u l a r attribute; a n d it asserts or d i s p u t e s that a
p r e s e n t a t i o n has a n existence i n reality. T h e attribute to be d e c i d ­
e d about m a y o r i g i n a l l y h a v e been g o o d or b a d , useful or h a r m ­
f u l . E x p r e s s e d i n the l a n g u a g e of the o l d e s t — t h e o r a l — i n s t i n c ­
t u a l i m p u l s e s , the j u d g e m e n t is: T s h o u l d like to eat this', or 'I
s h o u l d like to spit it out'; a n d , p u t m o r e generally: T s h o u l d like
to take this into m y s e l f a n d to keep that out...' [T]he o r i g i n a l
p l e a s u r e - e g o w a n t s to introject into itself e v e r y t h i n g that is g o o d
a n d to eject f r o m itself e v e r y t h i n g that is b a d . W h a t is b a d , w h a t
is a l i e n to the ego a n d w h a t is external are, to b e g i n w i t h , i d e n t i ­
cal. ( F r e u d 1925: 236-7)

T h i s i m p l i e s that the transition f r o m p h a n t a s y to t h o u g h t , f r o m

' p l e a s u r e - e g o ' to 'reality-ego', is a c c o m m o d a t e d b y the c a p a c i t y of the
e g o to j u d g e presentations a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they are real (rational
t h o u g h t ) , as w e l l as s i m p l y a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they are good ( p h a n ­
tasy). T o r e t u r n to the e x a m p l e of the h u n g r y b a b y w i s h i n g for the
breast, it is n o t e n o u g h for the b a b y to ascertain that the breast is g o o d
a n d to i m a g i n e its goodness, it m u s t also w o r k out w h e t h e r the breast
is there i n the external w o r l d .
T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o types of j u d g e m e n t is n o t u n i q u e to
p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . D a v i d K o l b ' s use of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n ' a p p r e ­
h e n s i o n ' a n d ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' is a close p a r a l l e l . K o l b v i s u a l i s e s these
t w o attitudes t o w a r d s the outside w o r l d as the two e n d - p o i n t s of a n
axis, against w h i c h it is possible to plot a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s h a b i t u a l style

of l e a r n i n g ( K o l b 1984:42). ' A p p r e h e n s i o n ' i m p l i e s a n attitude t o w a r d s

t h i n g s w h i c h consists of a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e m for their o w n sake, a n d is
b a s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y u p o n interest i n things rather t h a n a p r o p e n s i t y
to evaluate t h e m . ' C o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , o n the other h a n d , is a m o r e reflec­
tive attitude t o w a r d s the w o r l d . To c o m p r e h e n d s o m e t h i n g is to criti­
cise it to a degree, to attempt to place it i n s o m e k i n d of context a n d
estimate its ' v a l i d i t y ' ( K o l b 1984:103-4).
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h suggests that one of these capacities
d e v e l o p s o u t of the o t h e r — t h a t c o m p r e h e n s i o n follows o n f r o m a p p r e ­
h e n s i o n . If the b a b y is to j u d g e whether the breast exists i n the external
w o r l d it c a n d o so o n l y because it already h a s a n i d e a of the breast, d u e
to a p r i o r j u d g e m e n t that the breast was g o o d . Because the j u d g e m e n t s
 Duncan Barford 51

of the p l e a s u r e - e g o p r e c e d e those of the r e a l i t y - e g o , the p s y c h o a n a l y t ­

ic a p p r o a c h suggests that w e c a n o n l y p a s s j u d g e m e n t s o n w h a t is real
if w e h a v e a l r e a d y j u d g e d s o m e t h i n g as g o o d . W h a t is j u d g e d as b a d
b y the p l e a s u r e - e g o i s — a s F r e u d p u t i t — ' s p a t o u t ' . It is n e v e r c o m p r e ­
h e n d e d because it w a s n o t a p p r e h e n d e d .
T h e true a i m of reality-testing or ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' i s — f r o m the p s y ­
choanalytic point of v i e w — ' n o t to find a n object i n real p e r c e p t i o n . . .
b u t to refind s u c h a n object, to c o n v i n c e oneself that it is still there'
( F r e u d 1925: 237-8). T h e b a b y m a y i n d e e d d i s c o v e r that the breast
exists i n reality a n d is n o t just a n h a l l u c i n a t i o n created b y its o w n
phantasy, b u t it w i l l h a v e b e e n m o t i v a t e d to l o o k because once before
it h a d f o u n d that the b r e a s t — r e a l o r u n r e a l — w a s g o o d . P e r h a p s the
b a b y l o o k s a n d d i s c o v e r s that the breast is n o t a v a i l a b l e i n reality. It
m a y c o m e to accept a n d act o n the reality of this s i t u a t i o n also, but,
once a g a i n , this r e c o g n i t i o n of reality w i l l h a v e c o m e about because the
b a b y w a s s e e k i n g to r e - f i n d i n reality s o m e t h i n g it h a d a l r e a d y f o u n d
to b e g o o d i n phantasy.
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g h o l d s that for a p r e s e n t a t i o n
to g a i n a d m i s s i o n to the m i n d it m u s t first of all be p e r c e i v e d as g o o d ,
because all c o g n i t i o n d e v e l o p s out of the p r i m i t i v e activity of the e a r l y
p l e a s u r e - e g o . I n o r d e r to o p e n oneself u p to experience a n d b e g i n
l e a r n i n g i n a full, r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d f a s h i o n , the learner m u s t expect to
r e f i n d i n the external w o r l d s o m e t h i n g that he o r she has once a l r e a d y
f o u n d i n phantasy, a n d w h i c h p r o d u c e d satisfaction.
It is for this reason, p e r h a p s , that the l a n g u a g e o f a c q u i r i n g i n f o r ­
m a t i o n is also the l a n g u a g e of appetite, c o n s u m p t i o n a n d d i g e s t i o n . It
seems n a t u r a l to speak of a n a u d i e n c e of learners T a p p i n g u p ' k n o w l ­
e d g e , o r ' s w a l l o w i n g it w h o l e ' . A m o r e tentative a u d i e n c e m i g h t be
s a i d to ' c h e w things o v e r ' . ' T o r u m i n a t e ' m e a n s 'to c h e w ' , b u t also 'to
t h i n k ' , as if t h i n k i n g w e r e to l e a r n i n g as c h e w i n g is to s w a l l o w i n g . It is
c o m m o n for s o m e o n e r e a d i n g to r e a c h a u t o m a t i c a l l y for s o m e t h i n g to
eat, as i f i m b i b i n g f o o d facilitated the process of a s s i m i l a t i n g i n f o r m a ­
tion. T h e f r e n z y of e a t i n g w h i c h often a c c o m p a n i e s ' t a k i n g i n a f i l m ' is
often e v e n m o r e p r o n o u n c e d , p e r h a p s d u e to the b o u n d a r y - d i s s o l v i n g
d a r k n e s s o f the c i n e m a , a n d the large size of the s c r e e n - i m a g e .
A p p a r e n t l y , the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g a n d eating, o r b o d i l y
i n c o r p o r a t i o n , is v e r y basic to the w a y w e v i s u a l i s e w h a t happens
w h e n w e assimilate k n o w l e d g e . W h e t h e r it is s o m e h o w literally true
that w e 'take s o m e t h i n g i n ' w h e n w e l e a r n is o p e n to q u e s t i o n . In fact,
the i d e a that l e a r n i n g is l i k e e a t i n g is a phantasy—precisely the k i n d o f
52 7s Anything More Interesting than Sex?

p r i m a r y process p h a n t a s y w h i c h has b e e n u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , a n d
w h i c h is l i k e l y to s t i m u l a t e a n d u n d e r p i n r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d l e a r n i n g . If
the l e a r n e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y equates the attentive r e c e p t i o n of i n f o r m a ­
t i o n w i t h ' a g o o d f e e d ' , then this w i l l bolster m o t i v a t i o n a n d increase
receptivity. 6

A n o t h e r p h a n t a s y w h i c h u n d e r p i n s l e a r n i n g is the n o t i o n o f l e a r n ­
i n g as a k i n d of l o v i n g . L e a r n i n g tends to take p l a c e i n the context of a
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n learner a n d teacher, a fertile a r e n a for a p h a n t a s y
of c o u r t s h i p , a n i n t i m a t e process of g i v e a n d take b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . 7

T h i s a p p l i e s n o t o n l y to the c l a s s r o o m , b u t also to the s e l f - m o t i v a t e d

l e a r n i n g o f the i n d e p e n d e n t scholar, w h e r e it is c o m m o n to t a l k of a n
i n d i v i d u a l ' s ' p a s s i o n ' or ' o b s e s s i o n ' w i t h his or h e r subject-matter. T h e
l a n g u a g e w e use to describe the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n teacher a n d
learner, a n d b e t w e e n learner a n d subject, is also the l a n g u a g e o f part­
n e r s h i p , o f s e x u a l intercourse a n d the t o r r i d love-affair. 8

T h e l a n g u a g e of l e a r n i n g betrays the v a r i o u s u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n ­
tasies b y w h i c h l e a r n i n g is u n d e r p i n n e d . A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of
l e a r n i n g s h o w s h o w these phantasies m a y f o r m the basis of a p o w e r ­
f u l m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n , o r — w h e r e the content of the p h a n t a s y is per­
c e i v e d as t h r e a t e n i n g b y the i n d i v i d u a l ego—a f o r c i b l e d i s i n c e n t i v e .

A t this p o i n t it seems i m p o r t a n t to address s o m e p o s s i b l e objections to

a n d l i m i t a t i o n s of the ideas w h i c h h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d so far.
T h e p a r a d o x i c a l n o t i o n that l e a r n i n g — t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d accep­
tance o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n i n r e a l i t y — i s a c t u a l l y the r e - d i s c o v e r y o f a pre­
s e n t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y p r o d u c e d satisfaction, raises a n u m b e r of
questions.
F i r s t l y , is ' a d m i s s i o n i n t o the m i n d o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n ' r e a l l y a n ade­
quate d e f i n i t i o n of l e a r n i n g ? W h e n w e c o n s i d e r the range of a c t i v i t y
the t e r m ' l e a r n i n g ' c o v e r s — f o r e x a m p l e : a c q u i r i n g the c a p a c i t y to per­
f o r m a c t i o n s ; to appreciate the b e a u t y of w o r k s o f art; to criticise
abstract s y s t e m s of t h o u g h t — t h e n the a n s w e r has to be ' n o ' .
T h e process w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, b y
w h i c h a p p e r c e p t i o n o f reality is facilitated t h r o u g h the exercise of
u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, p e r h a p s deserves a n a m e s u c h as familiarisation
rather t h a n ' l e a r n i n g ' . A t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g requires s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n
o n the w a y the m i n d deals w i t h presentations once it has d e c i d e d to
' a d m i t ' t h e m . S e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g e v i d e n t l y entails a d i m e n ­
 Duncan Barford 53

s i o n o f ' t r u t h ' a n d ' v a l i d i t y ' , w h i c h this s t u d y has n o t a d d r e s s e d i n a n y

depth.
H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h ' f a m i l i a r i s a t i o n ' m a y n o t be s y n o n y m o u s w i t h
the f u l l process of l e a r n i n g , the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c n o t i o n that l o g i c a l ,
d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g , dictates
that this process is a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i m p o r t a n t p a r t of a l l l e a r n i n g
activity. A s p e c i a l c o n c e r n w i t h this aspect of the l e a r n i n g process—the
e m o t i o n a l , ' i r r a t i o n a l ' e n d of the c o g n i t i v e s p e c t r u m — i s w h a t charac­
terises the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h .
A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y c o n c e r n s the n o t i o n of w h a t the j u d g e m e n t of a
p r e s e n t a t i o n as ' g o o d ' m i g h t be s a i d to e n t a i l . E v i d e n t l y , w e are able to
l e a r n a b o u t a l l m a n n e r o f u n p l e a s a n t t h i n g s w i t h little a p p a r e n t diffi­
culty. Therefore, w h a t is the j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this n o t i o n that things
m u s t s e e m ' g o o d ' i n o r d e r for us to l e a r n them?
A g a i n , this q u e s t i o n arises f r o m the p a r a d o x of l e a r n i n g v i e w e d as
the re-finding o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the j u d g e m e n t s m a d e b y the
p r i m i t i v e pleasure-ego r e v o l v e a r o u n d the g o o d n e s s of presentations,
this d o e s n o t a p p l y d i r e c t l y to those m a d e later b y the reality-ego.
P r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g entails that s o m e t h i n g m u s t be g o o d i n order
to be c o g n i s e d ; s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g a i m s to ascertain w h e t h e r
that g o o d n e s s c a n be r e d i s c o v e r e d i n reality. S o m e t i m e s it c a n n o t — b u t
this m e a n s o n l y that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n has r e a c h e d a negative conclusion,
n o t that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e v e r t o o k p l a c e .
I n a l l the e x a m p l e s of n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y that h a v e b e e n p u t
f o r w a r d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y the l e a r n e r is r e f u s i n g to recognise s o m e t h i n g
they already know i n the u n c o n s c i o u s . J u d g i n g that s o m e t h i n g is not
g o o d i n s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g , a n d t h e n c h o o s i n g n o t to
a c k n o w l e d g e it (whether c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) , does not
e n t a i l a cessation of c o g n i t i o n , m e r e l y its negation or repression. A t the
m o r e p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of the pleasure-ego, h o w e v e r , there is n o r e c o g n i ­
t i o n of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the subjective a n d the real. C o g n i t i o n
( p h a n t a s y i n g ) occurs e n t i r e l y o n the basis of w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g is
g o o d or not. If s o m e t h i n g is j u d g e d as n o t g o o d at this l e v e l , t h e n c o g ­
n i t i o n does i n d e e d cease altogether, for there is n o other register i n
w h i c h it m i g h t c o n t i n u e .
A n o t h e r w a y to a p p r o a c h this is f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of the p s y ­
c h o l o g i c a l t r u i s m that d e p r i v a t i o n i n i n f a n c y leads to difficulties later
i n life. W e h a v e seen h o w l e a r n i n g c a n be u n d e r p i n n e d b y basic p h a n ­
tasies to d o w i t h e a t i n g a n d w i t h l o v i n g . T h e l e a r n e r w h o r e - d i s c o v e r s
i n l e a r n i n g a close p a r a l l e l w i t h s a t i s f y i n g , e a r l y experiences of e a t i n g
54 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

a n d l o v i n g , is l i k e l y to be w e l l - m o t i v a t e d a n d receptive. W h a t is r e - d i s ­
c o v e r e d i n the subject matter of the l e a r n i n g is t h e n less l i k e l y to u n d e r ­
m i n e this positive experience. H o w e v e r , the learner w h o has been
d e p r i v e d of satisfying experiences of eating a n d l o v i n g is u n a b l e to
r e d i s c o v e r t h e m i n the l e a r n i n g situation, a s — b e c a u s e they w e r e not
good—they were n e v e r i n c o r p o r a t e d b y the p l e a s u r e - e g o . Another
t y p e of p h a n t a s y m u s t u n d e r p i n their l e a r n i n g (perhaps of a n aggres­
sive or p a r a n o i d type), or else l e a r n i n g cannot o c c u r . 9

It is possible to r e n o u n c e , negate or tolerate the loss of s o m e t h i n g

w e o n c e possessed. T h e loss w h i c h is i m p o s s i b l e to s u r m o u n t is the
loss of w h a t w e n e v e r possessed. T h e p e r s o n w i t h o u t p o s i t i v e p h a n ­
tasies to u n d e r p i n l e a r n i n g can o n l y seek r e p e a t e d l y to a c h i e v e the
basic satisfactions u p o n w h i c h those phantasies d e p e n d . A t this stage,
g a i n i n g the experience of satisfaction is m o r e u r g e n t t h a n l e a r n i n g
a b o u t reality. F o r those learners w i t h the ability to phantasy, the i d e a l
of a g o o d n e s s they once possessed forms the subjective point-of-refer­
ence for a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h external r e a l i t y . 10
W h a t is then d i s c o v e r e d
m i g h t r e - a w a k e n a phantasy, or negate it, or h a v e n o b e a r i n g u p o n it.
W h a t is significant is that all these r e a c t i o n s — i n contrast to the learner
w i t h o u t p h a n t a s y — i m p l y a continuation of c o g n i t i o n , w h e t h e r c o n ­
scious or u n c o n s c i o u s . It is as if the ability to p h a n t a s y kick-starts a
process of c o g n i t i o n w h i c h is then d i f f i c u l t — i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e — t o halt
c o m p l e t e l y . H o w e v e r useful it m i g h t be to e n v i s a g e t h o u g h t as o r i g i ­
n a t i n g i n the experience of f i n d i n g s o m e t h i n g ' g o o d ' , a n d as b e i n g
m a r k e d i r r e v o c a b l y b y these b e g i n n i n g s i n i n s t i n c t u a l s t r i v i n g , it is e v i ­
d e n t t h a t — a s t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s — i t acquires the c a p a c i t y to tolerate
a n d represent a m u c h w i d e r range of experience.
A n o t h e r p o i n t of contention concerns the n a t u r e of the ego a n d its
s u p p o s e d role i n the process of l e a r n i n g . T h e concept of the e g o has a
long and controversial history in psychoanalytic thought (see
L a p l a n c h e & Pontalis 1988: 130-43). F o r this reason, the v e r s i o n of the
ego e m p l o y e d here is f r o m one of F r e u d ' s earliest, m o s t basic f o r m u l a ­
t i o n s — ' a n organisation... w h o s e presence interferes w i t h passages [of
q u a n t i t y ] ' ( F r e u d 1950: 323).
S o m e theorists v i e w the d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego as t e n d i n g t o w a r d s
greater ' a u t o n o m y ' , a n d 'neutralisation of the d r i v e . . . [ w h i c h thus
a l l o w s ] the ego to b e c o m e a n o r g a n of l e a r n i n g ' ( A n t h o n y 1989: 108-9).
O t h e r s a d o p t a r a d i c a l l y different perspective w h i c h v i e w s the ego
itself as the net result of p r i m i t i v e phantasies of i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d
identification. Jacques L a c a n ' s t h e o r y of the ' m i r r o r stage' proposes
 Duncan Barford 55

that the basis of the ego is the infant's j u b i l a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h its

reflection. T h i s identification is p r o m p t e d b y g r a n d i o s e phantasies of
m a s t e r y a n d w h o l e n e s s , w h i c h d i s g u i s e the fact of the c h i l d ' s essential
helplessness ( L a c a n 1977: 4). B o t h p o i n t s o f v i e w f i n d s o m e e n d o r s e ­
m e n t i n F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l theories.
In s u p p o r t of the L a c a n i a n v i e w , there is a n interesting s i m i l a r i t y
b e t w e e n F r e u d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the e g o a n d of the ego's m e a n s of j u d g ­
i n g presentations. In the e g o ' a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d
f r o m a c h a n g i n g o n e ' ( F r e u d 1950: 323)—that is, a n u n d e r l y i n g stabili­
ty c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the v a r i a b l e s t i m u l i w h i c h are p r o c e s s e d
i n the e g o f r o m m o m e n t to m o m e n t . F r e u d t h e n goes o n to suggest that
w h e n the e g o judges a presentation to see if it p r o m i s e s satisfaction, it
breaks it d o w n into t w o aspects: 'the constant p e r c e p t u a l component
[neurone a] ... a n d the inconstant c o m p o n e n t [neurone b] ... it [lan­
g u a g e ] w i l l call n e u r o n e a the t h i n g a n d n e u r o n e b its activity or
a t t r i b u t e — i n short its predicate' ( F r e u d 1950: 328).
A s J e a n L a p l a n c h e has n o t e d , this is 'to posit w i t h i n p e r c e p t i o n a
structure a n a l o g o u s to that of the e g o ' ( L a p l a n c h e 1976: 65). It seems
w e m u s t bear i n m i n d the p o s s i b i l i t y that the ego's a p p r e h e n s i o n of
reality is characteristically distorted b y a self-referential circularity.
L a p l a n c h e is s u g g e s t i n g that p e r c e p t i o n , f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the
ego, is a k i n d o f constant ' m i r r o r stage', i n w h i c h the f o r m of the e g o
a n d the p r e s e n t a t i o n are constantly, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , r e - a f f i r m i n g o n e
another.
T h i s i d e a m i g h t f o r m the basis o f a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y s o m e
learners experience n e u r o t i c difficulties i n l e a r n i n g a n d others d o not.
If the e g o is a n ' a u t o n o m o u s o r g a n of l e a r n i n g ' , t h e n this q u e s t i o n is
h a r d to a n s w e r other t h a n i n genetic, d e v e l o p m e n t a l terms. If, h o w e v ­
er, the l e a r n e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n is constantly s h a p e d a c c o r d i n g to the struc­
ture of their e g o , it b e c o m e s possible to u n d e r s t a n d w h y a learner
m i g h t b e c o n s t a n t l y c o n f r o n t e d i n the l e a r n i n g situation w i t h their o w n
u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies. F o r e x a m p l e , the b o y w h o i n s i s t e d o n seeing
algebraic c a n c e l l a t i o n as ' m u r d e r ' : i n this situation the e g o is n o n e u ­
tral ' w i n d o w of the m i n d ' onto reality, b u t is the e n d u r i n g L a c a n i a n
infant, w h o m a k e s a m i r r o r of reality a n d sees h i s o w n phantasies,
d e t e r m i n e d b y the structure of his o w n e g o , reflected b a c k f r o m it.
As a countermeasure, R i v k a E i f e r m a n n proposes the f o l l o w i n g
approach:
56 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

W h e n t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . . . one is i n e v i t a b l y met w i t h p r e ­
c o n c e p t i o n s , m i s c o n c e p t i o n s , h i g h expectations a n d h o p e s , as
w e l l as anxieties. T h e s e are neither altered n o r d i m i n i s h e d b y
m e a n s of fore w a r n i n g s . . . I c o n t e n d that, as i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
p r o c e s s itself, these c a n a n d s h o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d into the
e n c o u n t e r rather t h a n be treated as difficulties interfering w i t h
l e a r n i n g . . . ( E i f e r m a n n 1993: 1006)

T h e phantasies of the learner i n the l e a r n i n g situation are thus

a s s i g n e d a p i v o t a l role. E i f e r m a n n ' s a p p r o a c h is a k i n d of ' p h a n t a s y
management'. E i f e r m a n n takes advantage of the 'double-edged'
n a t u r e of p h a n t a s y . O n the one h a n d , its role i n l e a r n i n g difficulties is
r e c o g n i s e d ; y e t — o n the other h a n d — E i f e r m a n n is a w a r e of its creative
p o t e n t i a l . If p h a n t a s y c a n be ' i n c o r p o r a t e d into the e n c o u n t e r ' it c a n be
u s e d to f o r m the basis of deeper m o t i v a t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n the
learner.
It m i g h t be a r g u e d that, because E i f e r m a n n is a t r a i n e d p s y c h o a n a ­
lyst, t h e n this is not a n a p p r o p r i a t e a p p r o a c h for the majority of a d u l t
e d u c a t o r s w h o l a c k s p e c i a l i s e d t r a i n i n g . H o w e v e r , the p o i n t s at w h i c h
E i f e r m a n n ' s a p p r o a c h differs f r o m the a n a l y t i c a l situation s h o u l d also
be b o r n e i n m i n d . T h e a p p r o a c h m a y sound like p e r s o n a l p s y c h o t h e r a ­
py, b u t this is e v i d e n t l y not the case once w e c o n s i d e r that it is the
p h a n t a s i e s of the w h o l e g r o u p of learners w h i c h are b e i n g a d d r e s s e d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h the a i m of the p s y c h o a n a l y s t m a y be to inter­
pret the a n a l y s a n d ' s phantasy, E i f e r m a n n quite clearly e s p o u s e s a
p u r e l y e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e — t o enable students to l e a r n . T h e a i m is
not to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t phantasies m e a n i n the lives of i n d i v i d u a l s ,
b u t to c o m p r e h e n d t h e m i n the light of the l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n a n d of the
topic u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .

* * it-
It s e e m s to m e v e r y l i k e l y that m a n y a d u l t e d u c a t o r s — r e g a r d l e s s of
their s u b j e c t - a r e a — a r e already, instinctively, u s i n g a p p r o a c h e s s i m i l a r
to E i f e r m a n n ' s . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g d e m a n d s the
a d o p t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r attitude o n the p a r t of the tutor, a n d the i n c o r ­
p o r a t i o n of this attitude into the d e s i g n of the c u r r i c u l u m . E a c h of the
t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g is b a s e d u p o n a f u n d a m e n t a l atti­
t u d e of this t y p e , a set of a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the nature of the r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p b e t w e e n tutor, learner, a n d k n o w l e d g e .
 Duncan Barford 57

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of this, e a c h a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g is also strongly

associated w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of l e a r n i n g , o r ' l e a r n i n g d o m a i n '
(Reece & W a l k e r 1994: 61). B e h a v i o u r i s t theory a n d t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s
s e e m e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d to l e a r n i n g i n the psychomotor d o m a i n , cogni­
tivist m e t h o d s to the cognitive d o m a i n , a n d h u m a n i s m to the affective
domain. 1 1
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g , h o w e v e r , does not fit
easily into this t a x o n o m y . F r o m the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view,
l e a r n i n g is a c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y process,
b e t w e e n p h a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h i n k i n g . Because it assumes
the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of rationality a n d p r i m i t i v e emotionality, the p s y ­
c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g is g e a r e d t o w a r d s l e a r n i n g situations i n
w h i c h ideas a n d feelings are i n d i s s o l u b l y l i n k e d a n d m u t u a l l y e v o c a ­
tive. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g seems to
p o i n t t o w a r d s a u n i q u e l e a r n i n g d o m a i n w h i c h is neither ' c o g n i t i v e '
n o r 'affective' b u t a c o m p o u n d of b o t h .
R i c h a r d Jones argues for the u n i o n of e m o t i o n a n d t h o u g h t i n e d u ­
c a t i o n , a n d p o i n t s o u t the benefits w h i c h this alliance c a n create:

T h e p o w e r of e m o t i o n to generate interest a n d i n v o l v e m e n t i n
subject matters that w o u l d otherwise f i n d . . . [learners] u n i n t e r ­
ested a n d u n i n v o l v e d lies i n their d e e p p e r s o n a l f a m i l i a r i t y —
s u c h f a m i l i a r i t y b e i n g a consequence of e m o t i o n h a v i n g been
i n t e g r a l to e v e r y p h a s e of p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m i n f a n c y
o n . T h e v a l u e of e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n the l e a r n i n g process
thus lies i n its p o t e n t i a l for a i d i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n of n e w or remote
experiences... (Jones 1972:148)

It m i g h t be a p p r o p r i a t e to call this u n i q u e d o m a i n of l e a r n i n g ,
w h e r e objective ideas a n d subjective e m o t i o n s are j o i n e d together, the
imagined d o m a i n (cf. W o o l 1989: 762). T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory of
l e a r n i n g is e s p e c i a l l y geared t o w a r d s l e a r n i n g i n this i m a g i n a l d o m a i n ,
w h i c h i n v o l v e s the learner i n a n e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n subjective e x p e r i ­
ence a n d the i d e a s w h i c h constitute w h a t w e call ' c u l t u r e ' . 12
Subjects
s u c h as p o l i t i c s , literature a n d p h i l o s o p h y — w h i c h are neither p r e ­
d o m i n a n t l y ' c o g n i t i v e ' n o r 'affective'—are situated i n this d o m a i n . So
too, of course, is p s y c h o a n a l y s i s itself, w h o s e chief c o n c e r n is w i t h the
fragile interface b e t w e e n h u m a n subjectivity a n d reality.
In the i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , t h i n k i n g a n d p h a n t a s y i n g enjoy a n espe­
c i a l l y i n t i m a t e alliance. C o n s i d e r the d i s c i p l i n e s listed a b o v e : a l t h o u g h
e a c h has its authorities, traditions a n d r u l e s of t h i n k i n g , it is often dif­
58 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

ficult to d e c i d e w h e r e the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n ' t h e o r y ' a n d ' i m a g i n a ­

t i o n ' m u s t be s a i d to be d r a w n . Excellence i n these d i s c i p l i n e s d e p e n d s
u p o n a c o m b i n a t i o n of objective k n o w l e d g e a n d i n d i v i d u a l i m a g i n a ­
tion. W h e n teaching i n the i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , the p r o v i s i o n of o p p o r t u ­
nities for learners to p l a y a n d exercise their creativity is necessary for a
m o r e c o m p l e t e i m m e r s i o n i n the nature of the subject.

* * *

O n page 59 is a d i a g r a m w h i c h attempts to refine further the w a y s i n

w h i c h the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of l e a r n i n g differs f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l
approaches.
In the classical F r e u d i a n t h e o r y w e e n c o u n t e r e d the i d e a that the
ego, i n o r d e r to j u d g e the nature of a presentation, splits it into t w o
aspects (see a b o v e , p. 55). T h e s e are the object (or the ' i d e a ' ) , a n d its
predicate (or its ' q u a l i t y ' ) . M u c h w a s m a d e of F r e u d ' s c o n t e n t i o n that
the pleasure-ego, w h i c h operates o n the basis of p r i m a r y process p h a n ­
tasy, concerns itself solely w i t h the predicate of the presentation, i n
order to ascertain w h e t h e r the presentation is ' g o o d ' . In contrast the
reality-ego, w h i c h operates o n the basis of s e c o n d a r y process, r a t i o n a l
thought, focuses o n the object or the i d e a , i n order to ascertain w h e t h e r
it c a n be r e d i s c o v e r e d i n reality. T h i s 'object-predicate' dichotomy
f o r m s the vertical axis of the d i a g r a m . A p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g c a n be
classified a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they s h o w a greater p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h the quality of the presentation m a d e to the learner b y the teacher,
or w i t h the intrinsic nature and structure of the presentation itself.
B e h a v i o u r i s m a n d the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h share a special c o n ­
c e r n w i t h the quality of w h a t is p r e s e n t e d to the learner. In b e h a v ­
iourism, conditioning—especially where positive reinforcement is
involved—encourages the learner to perceive the presentation as
'good', thus f a c i l i t a t i n g its acceptance. Negative reinforcement
achieves the s a m e result i n a converse m a n n e r . If the presentation is not
accepted b y the learner p u n i s h m e n t is a d m i n i s t e r e d . Therefore the p r e ­
sentation is still m a d e to s e e m ' g o o d ' to the learner, b y contrasting it
w i t h the p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h w i l l result if the presentation is not
accepted.
 Duncan Barford 59

Fsydioa&aiytk

€ "^H H 11 OT* ' A c r o n i 11=10 d ft tic* O r i w n U ^1 i 6M*c A ( T u r n 1 '3KK1& $1 in\

of ih£ Predicate •of the Uiflect

Means: by making t J » Me. t i n s : % m a k i n g , lihe

i a:fi km ra»nprefrgm;ibift

Orientalism: Assimilation
0* the F ^ l i e a l e •aCthe Ubpect

M e a n s ; by m a k i n g the >an$:fey m a k i n g the

presEntaitofi attractive

D i a g r a m . Four approaches to learning 13

W e m i g h t t e n d to a s s u m e that b e h a v i o u r i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s —
with their respective emphases u p o n behaviour and psyche—are
w o r l d s a w a y f r o m o n e another. H o w e v e r , their s h a r e d c o n c e r n w i t h
the q u a l i t y of presentations offered to the learner suggests s o m e inter­
e s t i n g lines of s i m i l a r i t y (cf. G i l l e t 1996). 14
F r e u d w a s a w a r e that the
w o r k o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c o u l d o n l y p r o c e e d w h e r e a comfortable r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p w i t h the patient w a s established. T h i s a m o u n t s — i n effect—to
a b e h a v i o u r i s t t e c h n i q u e : a g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the analyst is a p o s ­
itive r e i n f o r c e m e n t of the p a i n f u l , difficult w o r k of analysis. A s i m i l a r
p a r a d o x has b e e n n o t e d i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . A f r i e n d l y , l i b e r a l a t m o s ­
p h e r e created b y the tutor w i t h i n the c l a s s r o o m , causes the students
feel m o r e free a n d at ease, yet s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l l o w s the tutor to exer­
cise m o r e c o n t r o l o v e r their b e h a v i o u r (cf. Jarvis 1995: 61).
T h e h o r i z o n t a l axis o f the d i a g r a m c o n c e r n s w h a t effect the p r e s e n ­
tation is i n t e n d e d to h a v e u p o n the e g o of the learner. ' A s s i m i l a t i o n '
60 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

a n d ' a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' are t w o concepts taken f r o m Piaget. Assimilation

is the t e n d e n c y of the o r g a n i s m — o r , f r o m the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of
view—the ego of the organism—to take i n a n d absorb an idea.
Accommodation, o n the other h a n d , refers to the c a p a c i t y of the o r g a n ­
i s m to c h a n g e a n d a d a p t its o w n structure i n response to a n i d e a , thus
m a k i n g itself m o r e r e s p o n s i v e a n d o p e n to future experiences (cf. Wolff
1960: 23-4).
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory places e m p h a s i s u p o n a d d r e s s i n g the
l e a r n e r ' s i n t e r n a l phantasies f r o m the outset, as a m e a n s of facilitating
acceptance of the presentation. Therefore, accommodation takes prece­
d e n c e here, as it does i n c o g n i t i v i s m , w h e r e i m p o r t a n c e is attached to
e q u i p p i n g the learner w i t h m e n t a l skills necessary for c o m p r e h e n d i n g
the k n o w l e d g e o n offer. 15
Psychoanalysis a n d cognitivism both assume
that k n o w l e d g e is t a k e n i n b y the learner o n l y to the extent that the
learner is able to adapt to the i n f o r m a t i o n o n offer i n the first i n s t a n c e . 16

H u m a n i s t i c l e a r n i n g , o n the other h a n d , is c o n c e i v e d as b e g i n n i n g
w h e n the learner opens h i m or herself to experience. T h e h u m a n i s t i c
tutor facilitates this process b y d e v i s i n g l e a r n i n g situations w h i c h take
the learner as the m o d e l for the nature of the presentations w h i c h w i l l
be o f f e r e d . 17
A s i n b e h a v i o u r i s m , techniques for g u a r a n t e e i n g the s i m ­
p l e r e c e p t i v i t y of the learner are the p r i m e c o n c e r n . T h i s c a n be
a c h i e v e d either f o r c e f u l l y — t h r o u g h c o n d i t i o n i n g — o r m o r e easefully,
t h r o u g h the s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d , experiential a p p r o a c h . In either case,
a s s i m i l a t i o n is g i v e n precedence o v e r a c c o m m o d a t i o n . 18

***

T h e o p p o s i t i o n i n the d i a g r a m b e t w e e n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d the

h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h e s raises s o m e interesting questions. Is the p s y c h o ­
a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g opposed to the h u m a n i s t ethos? C a n a
psychoanalytically-informed curriculum appropriately incorporate
learner-centredness into its d e s i g n ?
' Y o u c a n trust the student', argues C a r l Rogers. ' Y o u c a n trust h i m
to desire to l e a r n i n e v e r y w a y w h i c h w i l l m a i n t a i n or enhance self; y o u
c a n trust h i m to m a k e use of resources w h i c h w i l l serve this e n d ; . . . y o u
c a n trust h i m to g r o w p r o v i d e d the atmosphere for g r o w t h is available
to h i m ' (Rogers 1965: 427).
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h has n o e q u i v a l e n t to R o g e r s ' n o t i o n of
' s e l f . Instead, the aspect of the m i n d m o s t e v i d e n t i n the business of
l e a r n i n g is the ego. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s h o l d s that the ego d e v e l o p e d out of
 Duncan Barford 61

the m o s t p r i m i t i v e k i n d of m e n t a l processes, a n d that it still bears the

h a l l m a r k of these. W h e r e the e g o e n c o u n t e r s s o m e t h i n g i n reality
w h i c h p r o m i s e s to threaten its integrity, it w i l l resort to d e f e n s i v e m e a ­
sures. Therefore, w h a t a p p e a r s to ' e n h a n c e s e l f m a y , f r o m the p s y c h o ­
analytic p e r s p e c t i v e , m e r e l y e n h a n c e ego. Because the ego is r e s p o n s i ­
ble also for the refusal of l e a r n i n g , then ' e n h a n c i n g e g o ' c a n be tanta­
m o u n t to reducing the l e a r n e r ' s degree of contact w i t h reality. F r o m a
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of v i e w , R o g e r s ' s trust i n the l e a r n e r ' s ego is f u n ­
damentally misplaced.
S o m e writers h a v e d e c i d e d that the a i m s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d of
t e a c h i n g i n g e n e r a l are f u n d a m e n t a l l y at o d d s w i t h o n e another.
A m o n g t h e m , A l i s o n H a l l argues that:

T h e a i m s of e d u c a t i o n r u n c o n t r a r y to those of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
E d u c a t i o n i m p l i c a t e s fixity of m e a n i n g a n d the i l l u s i o n of m a s ­
tery associated w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . E d u c a t i o n a l w a y s a i m s to
fill a g a p a n d is f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r e d i c a t e d o n the a s s u m p t i o n
that all g a p s are fillable, w h i l e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a i m s to h e l p y o u
l i v e w i t h the i n e v i t a b l e g a p at the centre of y o u r existence. T h e
b u i l t - i n d y n a m i c of the a n a l y s a n d ' s desire subverts the e d u c a ­
tional project w h i l e the r e q u i r e m e n t for closure i n e d u c a t i o n a l
d i s c o u r s e forecloses desire. T h u s are they antithetical. ( H a l l 1996:
78)

T h i s attitude f i n d s s o m e s u p p o r t i n F r e u d ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t that

e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are b o t h ' i m p o s s i b l e p r o f e s s i o n s ' ( F r e u d
1937: 248). H o w e v e r , the v i e w that e d u c a t i o n necessarily i m p l i e s ' f i x i ­
ty of m e a n i n g ' , a n d that the business of the teacher is s i m p l y to 'pass
signifiers f r o m teacher to s t u d e n t ' (Verhaeghe 1996: 42) suggests a v e r y
l i m i t e d m o d e l of l e a r n i n g . T h e r e seems to be a covert a s s u m p t i o n here
that to teach is to lecture.
F r e u d m a y h a v e v i e w e d t e a c h i n g as a n ' i m p o s s i b l e p r o f e s s i o n ' , b u t
he also d e s c r i b e d the task of the teacher as steering a course b e t w e e n :
'the S c y l l a of n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d the C h a r y b d i s of f r u s t r a t i o n ' ( F r e u d
1933: 149). This view of teaching as—necessarily—a compromise
b e t w e e n the t w o m o n s t e r s of student-centredness a n d teacher-direct­
e d n e s s , c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as a n i n j u n c t i o n u p o n the teacher to a d o p t a
variety of roles a n d a p p r o a c h e s . T h i s m a y n o t be the perfect s o l u t i o n ,
b u t p e r h a p s it enables us to c o n t i n u e the o d y s s e y b y a v o i d i n g the evils
of b o t h extremes.
62 Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?

Notes

1
For example: '[Psychoanalysis may be less relevant in understanding the development of

mechanisms of learning than in understanding the child's particular experience of going to

school, including sense of self-esteem and capacity to participate with zest in learning'

(Cohler 1989: 29).

2 [T]he ego is an agency of adaptation which differentiates itself from the id on contact with

external reality' (Laplanche & Pontalis 1988:130).

3 The Greek letter psi is used by Freud in this text as a label for the mind or psyche conceived

as a whole.

^ It is important to bear in mind, however, that ego cannot be taken for granted.

Psychoanalytic observation of psychotics draws on the notion that in psychosis primary

process thinking has reasserted its dominance, and consequently ego-identity is distorted.

Many other relatively common states of mind such as sleep, dreaming, and intoxication can

be described in similar terms.

5 On this theme see Corrigan & Gordon 1995.

6 The converse also seems to hold: 'Bettleheim... discussing the education of culturally dis­

advantaged youngsters, notes the many problems these children encounter in having to learn

on an empty stomach, feeling hungry and depleted at a time when they are expected to learn

new material' (Cohler 1989: 64).

^ The teacher-student relationship establishes the requirements for a mutually satisfying

work experience. The relationship is based on love in the broadest sense of the word, which

includes natural antagonism and aspects of anger when the relationship proves unreward­

ing' (Ekstein 1989: 86).

8 In classical Freudian terms, the phantasy of 'learning as loving'—compared with the phan­

tasy of 'learning as eating'—represents a development from concern with instinctual satis­

faction at the primitive oral stage, to the more developed genital stage.

9 Sandor Ferenczi offers some fascinating formulations which extend this line of thought

begun by Freud and highlights the possible role of the death-instinct in this process. See

Ferenczi 1926: 371.

10 This should not to be taken to imply that there are two types of 'people'—'learners' and

'non-learners'—but that phantasies, life-histories and learning situations interact in complex

combinations, to produce a spectrum of positions.

H This is, of course, tending towards over-simplification. The choice of teaching methods

rests upon a host of other factors besides the nature of the topic. For example: the size of the

group and the characteristics of learners within it. Nevertheless, the nature of the topic—psy­

chomotor, cognitive, affective—will tend to push the tutor in the direction of the correspond­

ing teaching methods.

1 2
Cf. the work of D.W. Winnicott, especially Winnicott 1953,1967.

13 'A person learns significantly only those things which he perceives as being involved in the main­

tenance of, or enhancement of, the structure of self (Rogers 1956: 389). The basic assumption of

the humanist approach seems to be that a presentation is accepted to the extent it can be

made by the teacher to reflect the nature of the subject's own ego. 'To make the presentation

identifiable' (as the diagram expresses this) calls upon the teacher to make the presentation,

as far as possible, something with which the learner can identify, something in which he or

she can readily see their own ego. This is the very essence of the student-centred approach,

which entails setting up learning situations that reflect and address the specific needs and

characteristics of the learner. Rogers's emphasis upon 'significant learning' entails also that it

is with the intrinsic nature of ideas that the humanist teacher is primarily concerned. The prime

 Duncan Barford 63

objective of the teacher is to make the presentation significant to the learner, rather than sim­
ply 'good . The psychoanalytic perspective opens up the possibility of a far-reaching critique
7

of the humanist approach, which can only be touched upon here.

1 4
Gillet draws on more recent developments in behaviourism to argue that: 'Intrapsychic
conflicts may be caused by Pavlovian conditioning' (Gillet 1996: 701).
1 5
'Bruner's [cognitivist approach] is the psychology of alloplastic development, of the forms
in which knowledge can best be brought into the human mind' (Jones 1972: 93).
16 'Although the learner is seen to be active rather than passive, the activity itself is con­
trolled by the inherent structure of knowledge itself... teacher and learner are faced by some­
thing which is bigger than both of them, something to which they must adapt themselves'
(Rogers 1996: 98).
1 7
'[W]e permit the student... to be in real contact with the relevant problems of his existence,
so that he perceives problems and issues which he wishes to resolve... [T]he task of the
teacher is to create a facilitating classroom climate in which significant learning can take
place' (Rogers 1967: 286-7).
All learning necessarily involves both assimilation and accommodation. It is a contrast in
emplmsis between the theories which is being highlighted here.
 LEARNING: A JUNGIAN PERSPECTIVE

Sylvia Cohen

O n e m i g h t ask a b o u t the f u n c t i o n of l e a r n i n g — w h y w e bother, so to

speak.
E . J . A n t h o n y (1989), i n a p a p e r d i s c u s s i n g the relationship b e t w e e n
p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g , puts f o r w a r d t w o m o d e l s of the h u m a n
b e i n g 'as a l e a r n e r ' . T h e first of these is that w e are passive i n the
w o r l d , a n d w a i t for k n o w l e d g e to be p u t into us. In other w o r d s , w e
are b o r n ' e m p t y ' , r e a d y to be ' f i l l e d ' . T h i s is a p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h it
f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y that infants, c h i l d r e n — a n d p e r h a p s e v e n a d u l t s — a r e
f o r m e d b y the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s a p p r o a c h also i m p l i e s that l e a r n i n g is
s o m e t h i n g thrust u p o n us, because w e need to learn certain things i n
o r d e r to s u r v i v e i n the w o r l d . L i k e a dose of bitter m e d i c i n e , l e a r n i n g
is therefore ' g o o d ' for us. O u r m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n , then, is p r e d i c a t e d
o n the need for l o v e a n d a p p r o v a l , rather t h a n u p o n love a n d a p p r o v a l
for their o w n sakes.
T h e r e is a n o p p o s i t e view, h o w e v e r , w h i c h h o l d s that w e are active
rather t h a n p a s s i v e i n the w o r l d . C o n s e q u e n t l y w e are constantly scan­
n i n g events a n d things a r o u n d us for their o w n m e a n i n g s . T h i s v i e w
i m p l i e s that w e a c t i v e l ywant to k n o w a n d to l e a r n . (What w e want to
l e a r n a n d w h a t w e are required to l e a r n m a y i n d e e d be i n conflict, b u t
that is a slightly different issue.) F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e it follows that
m u c h of the time w e apperceive rather t h a n perceive. In other w o r d s , w e
p u t s o m e t h i n g of ourselves into e v e r y t h i n g w e observe, w e form
h y p o t h e s e s , a n d test t h e m out i n the real w o r l d , thus (if w e are o p e n to
refutation) l e a r n i n g as w e go. T h e g a i n i n g of k n o w l e d g e , the w o r k i n g
o u t of p u z z l e s or p r o b l e m s , is of interest i n itself, as w e l l as (possibly)
e n a b l i n g us to take steps towards the a c h i e v e m e n t of d e s i r e d goals.
T h e s e t w o perspectives are i n o p p o s i t i o n to one another, a n d w o u l d
s e e m — o n the face of i t — t o be m u t u a l l y exclusive w a y s of v i e w i n g the
h u m a n b e i n g . H o w e v e r , one of the most basic p a r a d i g m s of J u n g i a n
t h o u g h t or a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , is that of a 'dialectic b e t w e e n o p p o ­
sites'. I n other w o r d s , w e s h o u l d consider that it m i g h t be possible to
set u p a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n conflicting theories, ideas, a n d emotions,
a n d i n this w a y a r r i v e at a n o v e r - a r c h i n g d i m e n s i o n , b y exercising (as
J u n g calls it) 'the transcendent f u n c t i o n ' (Jung 1916/60). T h i s m a y p r o ­
v i d e a ' t h i r d w a y ' — a s o l u t i o n , p e r h a p s , or a different perspective.
 Sylvia Cohen 65

Consequently, although analytical p s y c h o l o g y m i g h t propose a p a r ­

ticular v i e w of the essence of h o w it is to b e h u m a n , there m a y yet b e
w i t h i n the t h e o r y itself a w a y of a c c o m m o d a t i n g aspects of the o p p o ­
site v i e w , if this seems u s e f u l or a p p r o p r i a t e . A n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y
a b o u n d s w i t h p a r a d o x e s , a n d w e w i l l h a p p e n u p o n other levels of
dialectical conflict as w e w e n d o u r w a y t h r o u g h the p l e t h o r a of c o m ­
plex theories p r o d u c e d b y a n d since J u n g . It is i m p o r t a n t to bear i n
m i n d t h r o u g h o u t this chapter that there is a l w a y s a p o s s i b i l i t y of d i a ­
l o g u e b e t w e e n opposites. I w a n t to e m p h a s i s e the constant, p o t e n t i a l
creativity o f conflict.
To r e t u r n to w h a t w e m i g h t call the ' n a t u r e / n u r t u r e controversy, as
7

it was presented above, analytical psychology since Jung has

a d d r e s s e d this issue i n v a r i o u s w a y s , a n d has l a i d e m p h a s i s o n o n e or
the other s i d e of the debate to d i f f e r i n g degrees. M i c h a e l F o r d h a m , for
instance, has e l a b o r a t e d i n far m o r e detail t h a n J u n g h i m s e l f a t h e o r y
of c h i l d h o o d d e v e l o p m e n t , i n w h i c h h e p a y s close attention to e n v i ­
r o n m e n t a l factors ( F o r d h a m 1973).
J u n g h i m s e l f f o u n d p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y a n d the s t o r y of c h i l d h o o d to
b e of less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n the present, existential story. T h i s is n o t to
say that h e d i s m i s s e d the former. I n d e e d , he f r e q u e n t l y a c k n o w l e d g e d
the v a l u e of a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y a n d of w h a t , i n h i s terms, h e
called the repressed, 'personal' unconscious (Jung 1931/54a).
H o w e v e r , h i s a p p r o a c h to the n a t u r e / n u r t u r e c o n t r o v e r s y l a i d m u c h
m o r e e m p h a s i s o n the activity rather t h a n the receptive p a s s i v i t y o f the
h u m a n being.
F o r J u n g , w e are b o r n u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t i n c o r p o r a t i n g

...an a priori factor... n a m e l y , the i n b o r n , p r e c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n ­

scious i n d i v i d u a l structure of the p s y c h e . T h e p r e c o n s c i o u s p s y ­
c h e — f o r e x a m p l e , that of a n e w - b o r n i n f a n t — i s n o t a n e m p t y
vessel i n t o w h i c h , u n d e r f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , p r a c t i c a l l y a n y ­
t h i n g c a n b e p o u r e d . (Jung 1938/59: 151)

H e goes o n to e m p h a s i s e the i n d i v i d u a l character of e v e n the first

r u d i m e n t a r y signs of p s y c h i c life.
T h e h u m a n b e i n g is n o t o n l y u n i q u e , of course, b u t also shares a
c o m m o n a l i t y w i t h other h u m a n s . W e are collective a n d social b e i n g s ,
s t r u c t u r e d to p e r c e i v e the w o r l d i n h u m a n w a y s . T h e structures that
i n c o r p o r a t e o u r h u m a n i t y J u n g n a m e d 'archetypes'. T h e s e are r e p r e ­
sentations or f o r m s w h i c h
66 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

. . . m i g h t p e r h a p s be c o m p a r e d to the axial s y s t e m o f a c r y s t a l ,
w h i c h , as it w e r e , p r e f o r m s the crystalline structure i n the m o t h ­
er l i q u i d , a l t h o u g h it has n o m a t e r i a l existence o f its o w n . (Jung
1 9 3 8 / 5 9 : 155)

A r c h e t y p e s are 'fleshed o u t ' b y o u r experiences of the e n v i r o n m e n t ,

b u t affect o u r p e r c e p t i o n s , a n d thus the w a y w e d e a l w i t h the w o r l d .
Consequently a paradox emerges: w e are b o t h collective a n d
u n i q u e , g e n e r a l l y h u m a n yet especially i n d i v i d u a l , p r e y to the e n v i ­
r o n m e n t b u t (potentially at least) able to affect it. J u n g , I t h i n k , begins
to a d d r e s s the u n d e r l y i n g m e a n i n g of this p a r a d o x i n h i s t h i n k i n g o n
the d e v e l o p m e n t of consciousness a n d the ego (Jung 1948/59).
F o r J u n g , there is n o ego at the b e g i n n i n g , o n l y unconsciousness
s t r u c t u r e d b y the archetypes, a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g d r i v e s w h i c h c o m p e l
u s to r e a c h o u t to the e n v i r o n m e n t for satisfaction. Consciousness
d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h clashes w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t , e n c o u n t e r s w i t h the
real w o r l d , w h i c h shock us into awareness. A s these m o m e n t s of
a w a r e n e s s coalesce, the e g o begins to f o r m — i n i t i a l l y w e a k , a n d p r e y to
stronger, a d u l t e g o s — b u t it g r o w s i n strength t h r o u g h o u t c h i l d h o o d .
Y o u n g c h i l d r e n , then, are i n d e e d to a degree p r e y to the e n v i r o n m e n t —
often, J u n g suggests, to the p o i n t of c a r r y i n g i n themselves symptoms
of a p o o r p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r the u n f u l f i l l e d , u n c o n s c i o u s f a n ­
tasies of the m o t h e r o r father (Jung 1931/54b). C h i l d r e n also c a r r y
w i t h i n t h e m , h o w e v e r , the seeds o f their o w n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w a y s
of b e i n g , their o w n m e a n i n g , w h i c h J u n g calls 'the S e l f . T h i s process
of g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t is also the process d e s c r i b e d b y J u n g as
'individuation', namely the o n g o i n g attempt to attain a balance
b e t w e e n the d e m a n d s of the real w o r l d , a n d the d e m a n d s (not o n l y of
the d r i v e s ) b u t of the Self; i n other w o r d s , f i n d i n g ' o n e ' s p a t h i n life'.
H o w e v e r , at present w e w i l l c o n c e r n ourselves w i t h the d e v e l o p ­
m e n t o f the e g o — a n i m p o r t a n t concept, as regards l e a r n i n g . M i c h a e l
F o r d h a m (1973), t h r o u g h observations o f infants a n d y o u n g c h i l d r e n ,
locates e g o d e v e l o p m e n t m u c h earlier t h a n d i d J u n g . F o r d h a m bases
h i s c o n c l u s i o n o n his c o n t e n t i o n that signs of p e r c e p t i o n , c o n t r o l l e d
motility, a n d general responsiveness denote ego activity. H e posits a
p r i m a r y u n c o n s c i o u s self w i t h w h i c h the infant is b o r n a n d f r o m w h i c h
it reaches o u t — i n its o w n p a r t i c u l a r w a y — t o the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s
' r e a c h i n g o u t ' F o r d h a m terms deintegration. O n c e the infant's n e e d is
m e t (or not) it reintegrates the part that reached o u t , i n o r d e r to absorb
 Sylvia Cohen 67

the e x p e r i e n c e a n d take i n a p a r t of the real w o r l d . T h i s constitutes a

r u d i m e n t a r y process o f l e a r n i n g . I n m y o p i n i o n , F o r d h a m addresses i n
a m o r e coherent f a s h i o n t h a n J u n g the p a r a d o x of the i n f a n t — t h a t is,
the w a y i n w h i c h the infant is b o t h p r e - s t r u c t u r e d , yet nevertheless
affected b y the responses of those a r o u n d h i m .
It m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d that a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , b y its nature, w a s
s i m p l y b i a s e d t o w a r d s the 'active' t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , not
o n l y are w e — a s J u n g e m p h a s i s e d — m o v e d b y o u r a r c h e t y p a l structur­
i n g to m a k e h u m a n sense o f the w o r l d , b u t also, as F o r d h a m c l a i m s ,
f r o m the b e g i n n i n g w e p l a y a n active p a r t i n o u r interaction w i t h the
e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d o u r d e v e l o p m e n t . Yet, b e a r i n g i n m i n d the w a y i n
w h i c h a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y a b o u n d s w i t h p a r a d o x e s , w e s h o u l d be
p r e p a r e d for the p o s s i b i l i t y that things are n o t quite so s i m p l e , a n d that
w e m a y h a v e to recognise a further d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n these t w o a r g u ­
ments.

** *

It is difficult if n o t i m p o s s i b l e to start t h i n k i n g about l e a r n i n g w i t h o u t

first o f all t h i n k i n g a b o u t thinking.
J u n g distinguishes two kinds of thinking: 'directed' a n d 'undirect­
e d ' . It is the f o r m e r w h i c h , ostensibly, seems m o s t closely related to
l e a r n i n g (Jung 1911-12/52). H o w e v e r , as I h o p e to d e m o n s t r a t e , this is
n o t so s i m p l y the case. J u n g writes that d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g

...or l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g is r e a l i t y - t h i n k i n g , a t h i n k i n g that is a d a p t ­
e d to reality, b y m e a n s of w h i c h w e imitate the successiveness of
objectively real things, so that the i m a g e s i n s i d e o u r m i n d f o l l o w
o n e another i n the same strictly c a u s a l sequence as the events
t a k i n g place o u t s i d e it. (Jung 1911-12/52: 11).

T h i s t h i n k i n g is b a s e d o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s — a n act of w i l l , i n a s e n s e —
a n d because of this it is, as J u n g says, f a t i g u i n g . It leaves b e h i n d ' a cor­
r e s p o n d i n g state of e x h a u s t i o n , l i k e a n y other v i t a l a c h i e v e m e n t ' (Jung
1911-12/52: 11).
T h u s , as w e c a n see, d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g (because of its r e l a t i o n s h i p to
c o n s c i o u s effort) is d e p e n d e n t to a great degree o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
the ego, w h o s e f u n c t i o n it is to h e l p the g r o w i n g c h i l d a d a p t to the
d e m a n d s of the real w o r l d , a n d thus w h o s e j o b — f r o m the b e g i n n i n g —
has m u c h to d o w i t h l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d , t h r o u g h its interaction w i t h
68 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

others, a n d t h r o u g h the responses of the e n v i r o n m e n t , learns w h a t is

acceptable a n d h o w to c o m m u n i c a t e — i n essence, h o w to s u r v i v e i n the
f a m i l y a n d society into w h i c h h e or she h a s b e e n b o r n . N o t o n l y i n
e a r l y y e a r s is this the case, b u t , a c c o r d i n g to J u n g : T h e w h o l e l a b o r i ­
ous a c h i e v e m e n t of o u r lives is a d a p t a t i o n to reality, p a r t o f w h i c h c o n ­
sists i n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g ' (Jung 1911-12/52: 11).
T h e r e is a n intricate relationship b e t w e e n d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t a n d lan­
guage, a n d this has a p r i m a r y b e a r i n g u p o n the processes of l e a r n i n g .
J u n g quotes James M a r k B a l d w i n w h o describes the d e v e l o p m e n t o f
t h o u g h t as o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h trial a n d error, t h r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n
with meaning.

N o w the d e v e l o p m e n t of thought... is b y a m e t h o d essentially of

trial a n d error, of e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , of the use of meanings as worth
more than they are as yet recognised to be worth. The individual must
use h i s o l d t h o u g h t s , h i s established k n o w l e d g e , h i s g r o u n d e d
j u d g e m e n t s , for the e m b o d i m e n t of his n e w i n v e n t i v e c o n s t r u c ­
tions. H e erects h i s thought... ' s c h e m a t i c a l l y ' — . . . p r o j e c t i n g into
the w o r l d a n o p i n i o n still p e r s o n a l to himself, as if it w e r e true.
Thus all discovery proceeds . . . B y this e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n b o t h t h o u g h t
a n d l a n g u a g e are together a d v a n c e d . . . M o s t of the t r a i n i n g of the
self... [in] s o u n d j u d g e m e n t , comes t h r o u g h the u s e of s p e e c h .
W h e n a c h i l d speaks, he lays before the w o r l d his s u g g e s t i o n for
a g e n e r a l or c o m m o n m e a n i n g ; the reception it gets c o n f i r m s or
refutes h i m . In either case h e is instructed. ( B a l d w i n , c i t e d i n
J u n g 1911-12/52: 15).

T h e d u a l i t y of o u r p r i v a t e a n d o u r c o l l e c t i v e — o r s o c i a l — e x i s t e n c e ,
to w h i c h J u n g refers m a n y times, parallels the d u a l i t y w h i c h B a l d w i n
p r o p o s e s , b e t w e e n social a n d p r i v a t e m e a n i n g . I n b o t h cases there is a
w o r k i n g - o u t o f the d u a l i t y , a r e s o l u t i o n , w h i c h is m e d i a t e d b y the e g o .
F r o m the m o m e n t the c h i l d ' s c r y is m e t w i t h a response the e x p e r i m e n t
of t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g proceeds. A s the e g o d e v e l o p s i n strength, it
b e c o m e s n o t o n l y a m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n d r i v e s a n d the d e m a n d s o f the
collective, b u t also a director or organiser of conscious t h i n k i n g , l a n ­
g u a g e , a n d l e a r n i n g . P r o g r e s s i v e l y w e b e c o m e m o r e able n o t o n l y t o
' d e l a y g r a t i f i c a t i o n ' — l e t us s a y — b u t also to think i n s t e a d of a c t i n g
( w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e ) . M o r e cogently, i n terms of l e a r n i n g w e b e c o m e
m o r e able to assimilate further k n o w l e d g e , a n d to use o u r e g o - s t r e n g t h
as a m e a n s o f f o c u s s i n g a n d d i r e c t i n g o u r t h i n k i n g .
 Sylvia Cohen 69

D i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is not o n l y b o u n d to a n d m o d i f i e d b y c o n s e n s u a l
m e a n i n g , b u t also affects it i n t u r n . J u n g a d d s yet another d i m e n s i o n to
h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i n k i n g — t h e contrast b e t w e e n 'extraverted' a n d
' i n t r o v e r t e d ' t h i n k i n g . T h i s contrast is b a s e d o n J u n g ' s o w n theory of
p s y c h o l o g i c a l types (Jung 1921). T h i s t y p o l o g y of p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r ­
acteristics is too c o m p l e x to enter into m u c h detail here. It is also
f r a u g h t w i t h d a n g e r s of s t e r e o t y p i n g a n d p i g e o n h o l i n g , if u s e d w i t h ­
o u t d u e care a n d attention. H o w e v e r , J u n g ' s e x p o s i t i o n of the differ­
ence b e t w e e n e x t r a v e r s i o n a n d i n t r o v e r s i o n is of relevance to us.
It is the real w o r l d , a n d the other p e o p l e w i t h i n it, w h i c h are of
p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e to the extravert's relationships a n d h i s or her w a y of
being. He or she is 'turned outwards'—so to s p e a k — i s oriented
towards others a n d relies o n t h e m for c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d a p p r o v a l .
C o n v e r s e l y , the introvert is m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the ' i n n e r ' w o r l d ,
w i t h p s y c h i c a l reality, rather t h a n s e e k i n g to c o n f i r m h i m or herself
t h r o u g h relations to other p e o p l e . T h e d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d
r e l a t i o n s h i p for the introvert is ' i n w a r d ' rather t h a n ' o u t w a r d ' .
B u t h a v i n g s a i d this, it is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t w o things. T h e
first is that w h a t w e face here is, a g a i n , a dialectic, and not two mutual­
l y e x c l u s i v e w a y s of b e i n g . W h e r e J u n g refers to a ' t y p e ' , h e is p r o p o s ­
i n g a predominant or preferred m o d e of b e i n g i n the w o r l d , rather t h a n
r i g i d l y d e f i n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r 'category' of p e r s o n . O u r p o t e n t i a l for
b e i n g extravert is i n constant d i a l o g u e w i t h o u r t e n d e n c y to be i n t r o ­
v e r t (and vice versa), a n d either m a y c o m e to the fore i n different s i t u a ­
tions.
T h e s e c o n d t h i n g to r e m e m b e r is that directed t h i n k i n g is a l w a y s
c o m m u n i c a b l e a n d l a n g u a g e - r e l a t e d . T h u s , the extra v e r t e d / i n t r o v e r t ­
e d axis, w h e n c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e g a r d to t h i n k i n g , d o e s n o t necessarily
d e s c r i b e the d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n the w a y it tends to w h e n
w e c o n s i d e r p e r s o n a l i t y types. Instead, i n t r o v e r s i o n a n d e x t r a v e r s i o n
refer here to the criterion of judgement o n w h i c h the t h i n k i n g is b a s e d .
A l t h o u g h there m a y be a t e n d e n c y i n e a c h of us to v e e r m o r e t o w a r d s
o n e p o l e of the axis t h a n the other, J u n g e m p h a s i s e s a n e e d for a b a l ­
a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o m o d e s , if d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is to be effective.
E x t r a v e r t e d t h o u g h t is (as one m i g h t guess) t u r n e d o u t w a r d . It is
reliant for its progress o n observable d a t a a n d , p e r h a p s m o r e i m p o r ­
tantly, o n a g r e e d m e a n i n g s a r i s i n g f r o m the observations of those data.
In other w o r d s , the criterion of j u d g e m e n t is collective a n d consensvi­
a l — i t is ' o u t s i d e ' of the p e r s o n ' s p s y c h e . T h e extraverted t h i n k e r m i g h t
b e effective, for instance, w h e r e the structure of rules a n d p r o c e d u r e s
70 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

are clear, a n d w h e r e the t h i n k i n g c a n b e m o n i t o r e d a n d c h e c k e d

t h r o u g h a g r e e d criteria a n d c o m m o n l y r e c o g n i s e d facts. T h i s is a n
i m p o r t a n t t y p e o f t h i n k i n g i n exercises s u c h as the classification of
species, g i v i n g rise to a k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e that m i g h t t h e n be u s e d for
further l e a r n i n g o r e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n .
I n t r o v e r t e d t h i n k i n g , o n the other h a n d , is t u r n e d i n w a r d s . A g a i n , I
w a n t to e m p h a s i s e that this d o e s n o t m e a n that the p e r s o n t h i n k i n g
a l o n g the i n t r o v e r t e d axis d o e s n o t w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e his t h o u g h t s
at s o m e p o i n t . T h e reference-point o f i n t r o v e r t e d t h o u g h t s is d e r i v e d
f r o m criteria ' i n s i d e ' rather t h a n ' o u t s i d e ' the p s y c h e . W h a t p r e v a i l i n
this m o d e o f t h i n k i n g are n e w ideas rather t h a n n e w facts. I n t r o v e r t e d
t h i n k i n g f o r m u l a t e s questions a n d creates theories. I n terms of J u n g ' s
structure o f the p s y c h e , the ideas a n d theories d e r i v e their p o w e r f r o m
a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s r i s i n g f r o m the collective u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h are
then directed into logical, conscious thought.
T h e i n t r o v e r t e d thinker, then, relies less o n agreed a n d c o n s e n s u a l
m e a n i n g s o r v a l u e s t h a n u p o n o n his own r e c o g n i t i o n o f the l o g i c o f his
t h o u g h t . It is n o t that this t h i n k i n g ignores data o r o b s e r v a t i o n s , b u t it
d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y fall i n w i t h a g r e e d m e a n i n g s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
I n d e e d , s u c h m a y b e the p o w e r of a n i d e a ' s ' i n t e r n a l ' l o g i c o r v a l i d i t y
that o n c e it is c o m m u n i c a t e d a p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d t h e o r y m a y w e l l b e
altered b y i t — f o r instance, E i n s t e i n ' s t h e o r y o f relativity, a m o n g s t
m a n y others.
It s h o u l d b e clear f r o m this e x p o s i t i o n of the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the e g o
a n d d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t that, for J u n g , l e a r n i n g is initiated p r e t t y m u c h at
the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f life. A s w e h a v e seen, the b a b y is b o r n s t r u c t u r e d
b y archetypes w i t h the p o t e n t i a l to b e h u m a n , into a n e t w o r k of e x p e c ­
tations a n d a c u l t u r e that is i n t u r n s t r u c t u r e d b y l a n g u a g e . T h e first
m o m e n t s o f R e i n t e g r a t i o n ' for the b a b y are its r u d i m e n t a r y forays i n t o
the w o r l d . T h e s e are d r i v e n b y its n e e d for satisfaction, b u t are n e v e r ­
theless still ' f o r a y s ' . T h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t to the b a b y ' s
e x p l o r a t i o n s b e g i n s to set u p m o d e s of interaction, the ' f l e s h i n g o u t ' o f
a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s . A k i n d o f feedback l o o p is therefore set u p b e t w e e n
the a r c h e t y p a l ( w h i c h , w e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r , is i n i t i a l l y formless) a n d
the e n v i r o n m e n t . E a c h affects the other. F o r instance, to the degree that
the a r c h e t y p a l expectations s u r r o u n d i n g the m o t h e r are met, o r fail to
be met, the i m a g e o f a ' g o o d ' o r ' b a d ' m o t h e r begins to b e f i l l e d i n . T h i s
i m a g e w h i c h , b e i n g a r c h e t y p a l , is extreme, a n d i n i t i a l l y has little r e l a ­
t i o n to the r e a l m o t h e r , b u t is d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m the c h i l d ' s a p p e r ­
c e p t i o n , is projected o n t o the mother. It is as if the c h i l d sees the m o t h e r
 Sylvia Cohen 71

only t h r o u g h glasses of a p a r t i c u l a r h u e . However, as the child

b e c o m e s able to experience the ' r e a l - m o t h e r ' s ' responses to h i s actions,
the a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n d i m i n i s h e s , a n d she b e c o m e s m o r e h u m a n .

* * *

T h i s r e c i p r o c i t y b e t w e e n c h i l d a n d e n v i r o n m e n t touches u p o n another
i m p o r t a n t p a r a d i g m of J u n g i a n t h i n k i n g , w h i c h is a g a i n related to the
n o t i o n o f dialectical opposites.
J u n g p a y s v e r y little attention to d e v e l o p m e n t s o c c u r r i n g i n the
e a r l y y e a r s of l i f e — b o t h i n his m o d e l of the h u m a n m i n d , a n d i n his
e x p o s i t i o n s of the processes of t h e r a p y a n d the therapeutic encounter.
E v e n w h e n he d o e s choose to c o n s i d e r it, i n m a r k e d contrast to the
K l e i n i a n p o i n t of v i e w h e p a y s n o attention to i m a g e s of f e e d i n g , a n d
n e v e r uses the l a n g u a g e of i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d introjection.
I n s t e a d , J u n g b a s e d his n o t i o n of the a n a l y t i c e n c o u n t e r o n the
p r o c e s s e s of alchemy. H i s justification for this is that to u n d e r s t a n d the
p r o c e s s of the p s y c h e o b s e r v i n g itself w e m u s t step outside of the time
a n d p l a c e i n w h i c h w e f i n d ourselves:

J u n g t h o u g h t that alchemy, l o o k e d at f r o m a s y m b o l i c a n d not a

scientific eye, c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as one of the p r e c u r s o r s of m o d ­
e r n s t u d y of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , of a n a l y t i c a l
interest i n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of personality... the alchemists...
h a d t w o interrelated a i m s , [one of w h i c h was] to alter or trans­
form base materials into something more valuable... The
a l c h e m i s t w o u l d carefully choose elements o n the basis of a
s c h e m a o r g a n i s e d i n terms of opposites. T h i s w a s because the
attraction of opposites led to their e v e n t u a l conjunction...
( S a m u e l s et a l . 1986: 12)

M o r e o v e r , the alchemist not o n l y b r o u g h t a b o u t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

of the elements w i t h w h i c h he w o r k e d , b u t w a s h i m s e l f affected b o t h
spiritually a n d emotionally b y his experiments.
In analysis m u c h the same applies. T h e analyst, for J u n g , is not
m e r e l y a n interpretative observer of the other, b u t is p a r t of w h a t is
h a p p e n i n g i n the analysis. T h e d y n a m i c of transference a n d counter­
transference is a k i n to the 'coniunctio' of elements i n alchemy. T h i s is a
t e r m a p p l i e d b y J u n g to describe the m e e t i n g of the m i n d s , p e r s o n a l i ­
ties a n d souls of t w o p e o p l e , i n w h i c h e a c h is t r a n s f o r m e d a n d c h a n g e d
72 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

b y the e n c o u n t e r (Jung 1946/54). T h e a n a l y s t is a s s u m e d to be the

m o r e c o n s c i o u s of the t w o , to possess greater p s y c h o l o g i c a l h e a l t h , a n d
to h a v e the p o t e n t i a l to facilitate greater c h a n g e t h a n he or she e x p e r i ­
ences. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the analyst is c h a n g e d , albeit ever so s l i g h t l y
Transference a n d counter-transference are i n p a r t a r e p l a y of e a r l y
a n d c h i l d h o o d experiences w i t h parents, t h u s the n o t i o n of ' c o n i u n c ­
t i o ' m u s t also a p p l y there too. A l t h o u g h parents u s u a l l y h a v e the e d g e
w h e n it c o m e s to ego-strength a n d k n o w l e d g e , the c h i l d ' s h y p o t h e s e s
p o t e n t i a l l y l e a d also to l e a r n i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of ideas i n b o t h
p a r t i e s . T h e p a r e n t s ' interaction w i t h their c h i l d i n e v i t a b l y has s o m e
effect o n t h e m , e v e n if this entails o n l y that the parent learns s o m e t h i n g
a b o u t his or her o w n responses or w a y of s e e i n g the w o r l d .
It is, I t h i n k , a c o m m o n experience of a n y parent (and, i n d e e d , of
a n y o n e w o r k i n g w i t h children) that s e e m i n g l y n a i v e or a m u s i n g q u e s ­
tions c a n really m a k e us r e - t h i n k o u r a s s u m e d k n o w l e d g e , o u r r a t i o ­
n a l e for b e h a v i o u r . A t a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l , o l d e r c h i l d r e n a n d
adolescents m i g h t offer u s — i f w e c a n accept the o p p o r t u n i t y to d o
s o — a chance to re-evaluate o u r perspectives a n d to l e a r n a different
w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t things.
S o , a l t h o u g h — a s i n other p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r i e s — l e a r n i n g is f a c i l ­
itated t h r o u g h r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y p a y s careful atten­
t i o n to the p o t e n t i a l of the learner as a teacher, a n d v i c e v e r s a , rather
t h a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g e x c l u s i v e l y o n the a c t i v i t y of the learner. T h i s , to
m y m i n d , b r i n g s into focus the p o t e n t i a l creativity of any r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
a n d t h u s — a l s o — t h e creative a n d i m a g i n a t i v e aspects of l e a r n i n g .

***

H a v i n g v i s i t e d s o m e aspects of early l e a r n i n g , a n d h a v i n g offered a

p e r s p e c t i v e o n h o w the process of l e a r n i n g is established, I s h a l l n o w
t u r n to w h a t E J . A n t h o n y refers to as 'meaningful learning'. He
d e s c r i b e s it as that w h i c h : ' i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e exercise of s u c h c o g ­
n i t i v e processes as j u d g e m e n t and understanding' (Anthony 1989:
103). N o t o n l y is this v e r y clearly related to the d e v e l o p m e n t of d i r e c t ­
e d t h o u g h t , b u t is a l s o — o n e a s s u m e s — t h e u l t i m a t e object of e d u c a ­
t i o n , a l t h o u g h there m a y of course be steps a l o n g the w a y i n c o r p o r a t ­
i n g 'rote l e a r n i n g ' or e v e n s i m p l e r k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g .
Somewhat a k i n to this, D a v i d K o l b defines l e a r n i n g as: '...the
p r o c e s s w h e r e b y k n o w l e d g e is created t h r o u g h the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of
 Sylvia Cohen 73

e x p e r i e n c e . K n o w l e d g e results f r o m the c o m b i n a t i o n of g r a s p i n g expe­

rience a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g it' ( K o l b 1984: 41).
Consequently, K o l b distinguishes between two dimensions w i t h i n
the process of l e a r n i n g : ' p r e h e n s i o n ' a n d ' t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ' . W i t h i n each
of these are t w o 'dialectically opposed modes'. P r e h e n s i o n is the
' g r a s p i n g ' of e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h w e c a r r y o u t either t h r o u g h ' a p p r e ­
h e n s i o n ' or ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' . T h e f o r m e r m o d e entails direct concrete
e x p e r i e n c e of the t h i n g to be l e a r n e d — a s is g a i n e d t h r o u g h a n a p p r e n ­
ticeship, for instance. T h e latter, m e a n w h i l e , utilises ' s y m b o l i c repre­
sentations of e x p e r i e n c e ' — f o r instance, a c o u n t r y or area is c o m p r e ­
h e n d e d b y creating a map to represent it.
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , o n the other h a n d , describes those instances i n
w h i c h the k n o w l e d g e w e g a i n is u s e d to create m e a n i n g . T h i s is then
a p p l i e d to other situations, or to b r i n g a b o u t a m o r e c o m p l e t e u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g . K o l b b o r r o w s terms f r o m logic i n o r d e r to n a m e the two
m o d e s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : ' i n t e n t i o n ' a n d ' e x t e n s i o n ' , w h i c h relate to
abstract a n d concrete qualities respectively. T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , he argues,
is not s i m p l y a process w e u n d e r g o ' i n t e r n a l l y ' , so to speak. It is
i n s t e a d a process w h i c h utilises both extension into the real w o r l d , a n d
also the i n t e n t i o n b y w h i c h w e t h i n k abstractly. A s K o l b p u t s it:

W h a t I p r o p o s e here is that the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n processes of

i n t e n t i o n a n d e x t e n s i o n c a n be a p p l i e d to o u r concrete a p p r e ­
h e n s i o n s . W e l e a r n the m e a n i n g of o u r concrete i m m e d i a t e expe­
riences b y i n t e r n a l l y reflecting o n their p r e s y m b o l i c i m p a c t o n
o u r feelings, a n d / o r b y a c t i n g o n o u r a p p r e h e n d e d experience
a n d t h u s e x t e n d i n g it. T a k e , for e x a m p l e , the rose l y i n g o n m y
desk. I t r a n s f o r m m y a p p r e h e n s i o n of the rose i n t e n t i o n a l l y b y
d e p l o y i n g m y attention to its different aspects... a n d experience
a blossoming of b r i e f reminiscences. H e r e I c a n n o t resist the
i m p u l s e to t r a n s f o r m the experience extensionally, to p i c k u p the
rose a n d h o l d it to m y nose... n e w e x t e n d e d a p p r e h e n s i o n f u r ­
ther stimulates m y i n t e r n a l reflections... (Kolb 1984: 52)

K o l b is i l l u s t r a t i n g here a process of l e a r n i n g i n w h i c h b o t h ' c o n ­

crete' a n d 'abstract' m o d e s of f u n c t i o n i n g are v i t a l , a n d h a v e a n e q u a l
v a l u e . W h e n the t w o d i m e n s i o n s of l e a r n i n g are d i a l e c t i c a l l y o p p o s e d ,
together w i t h their m o d e s , a k i n d of ' m a p ' of types of l e a r n i n g c a n be
s k e t c h e d , i n w h i c h different c o m b i n a t i o n s of m o d e a n d d i m e n s i o n are
c o n c e i v a b l e . T h e s e different ' l e a r n i n g styles' are d e p e n d e n t u p o n a
74 Learning: a Jitngian Perspective

n u m b e r o f variables: the tendencies a n d preferences o f the i n d i v i d u a l ;

the context a n d content of w h a t is b e i n g l e a r n e d ; a n d the c u l t u r a l expe­
rience o f the i n d i v i d u a l . These m a k e for s o m e v e r y intricate a n d c o m ­
plex interrelationships b u t , for the present, I w i l l concentrate u p o n a
single aspect of the tendencies o f the i n d i v i d u a l .
K o l b explicitly relates J u n g ' s t y p o l o g y to h i s o w n t h e o r y of m o d e s
of l e a r n i n g — w i t h the caveat that neither the t y p o l o g y , n o r the d i m e n ­
sions a n d m o d e s o f l e a r n i n g , are s i m p l e concepts. A s I h a v e already
e m p h a s i s e d , the d i m e n s i o n s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n b o t h the p e r s o n a l i t y
a n d i n l e a r n i n g are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , b u t i n dialectical o p p o s i ­
t i o n — i n accordance w i t h J u n g ' s p a r a d i g m o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
o p p o s i t e s . In other w o r d s , the opposites 'engage i n d i a l o g u e ' , or enter
into a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h e a c h feeds the other, so that a w a y o f c o m ­
b i n i n g b o t h approaches m a y b e f o u n d . F o r instance, s o m e o n e w h o
prefers concrete experience as a w a y o f a p p r e h e n d i n g ( w h i c h w e m i g h t
relate to the d i m e n s i o n o f extraversion), w i l l , i n o r d e r to t r a n s f o r m the
experience for further l e a r n i n g or use, be r e q u i r e d at s o m e p o i n t to
e m p l o y a m o r e abstract a n d ' i n n e r ' (or introverted) m o d e o f c o n c e p t u ­
alisation. If s o m e t h i n g is not 'abstracted' f r o m the experience, then it
w i l l b e o f n o further use. T h e style o f abstraction w i l l b e i n d i v i d u a l ,
h o w e v e r , a n d i n part a p r o d u c t o f the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the opposites.
O u r extravert, for instance, w h o prefers concrete experience as a m o d e
of a p p r e h e n s i o n , m a y n e e d to r e l y h e a v i l y o n i m a g e r y i n order to
abstract h i s experience a n d t r a n s f o r m it.
T h e s e l e a r n i n g styles, a l t h o u g h they utilise c o n s c i o u s , directed
t h i n k i n g are, i n part at least, d e t e r m i n e d b y unconscious processes.
A c c o r d i n g to J u n g , the collective u n c o n s c i o u s is s t r u c t u r e d b y arche­
types w h i c h inter-react w i t h o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e is a l w a y s a n
u n c o n s c i o u s potential to be o t h e r w i s e . T h u s w e encounter yet another
l e v e l o f dialectic, that b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d conscious d y n a m i c s .
F o r J u n g , the u n c o n s c i o u s possesses a compensatory f u n c t i o n ; it ' b a l ­
ances' conscious attitudes b y h o l d i n g w i t h i n itself the o p p o s i t e to
t h e m . F o r instance, s o m e o n e w h o regards h i m o r herself as ever­
patient a n d tolerant m a y be u n c o n s c i o u s l y a n g r y a n d critical. T h e
m o r e the u n c o n s c i o u s is s u p p r e s s e d , the m o r e l i k e l y it is to p o p o u t i n
u n i n t e n d e d s p e e c h or action. F o r this reason it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y i m p o r ­
tant to listen to 'messages' f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l s — w h e t h e r i n the
f o r m of d r e a m s , images, or f a n t a s i e s — i n o r d e r to incorporate into
awareness other aspects o f the personality.
 Sylvia Cohen 75

In terms o f l e a r n i n g — a n d cognitive processes g e n e r a l l y — t h e s a m e

a p p l i e s . A l t h o u g h w e m a y be c o n s c i o u s of h a v i n g certain talents or
abilities, there are i n the u n c o n s c i o u s the opposite potentials. T h e p e r ­
s o n w h o t h i n k s a n d learns b y u s i n g h i g h l y f o c u s e d r e a s o n i n g , for
i n s t a n c e , m a y h a v e a n u n c o n s c i o u s potential for m o r e lateral, i m a g i n a ­
tive w a y s of a p p r o a c h i n g things. A d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the t w o m i g h t
e n c o u r a g e a n d p r o d u c e s o m e v e r y creative l e a r n i n g a n d thought, i n
w h i c h s o m e of the restrictions of logic m i g h t be released, a n d i m a g i n a ­
t i o n — o r i n t u i t i o n , p e r h a p s — m i g h t be expressed w i t h i n a c o m m u n i c a ­
ble a n d l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k .
A t this p o i n t w e b e g i n at last to t o u c h u p o n that other m o d e of
t h i n k i n g p r o p o s e d b y J u n g , w h i c h h e describes as ' n o n - d i r e c t e d ' , a n d
w h i c h is:

. . . i n the m a i n subjectively m o t i v a t e d , a n d n o t so m u c h b y c o n ­
scious m o t i v e s a s — f a r m o r e — b y u n c o n s c i o u s ones. It certainly
p r o d u c e s a w o r l d p i c t u r e v e r y different f r o m that of conscious,
d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g . . . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s bases of d r e a m s a n d fan­
tasies are o n l y a p p a r e n t l y infantile reminiscences... w e are c o n ­
cerned with primitive or archaic thought-forms, based on
instinct, w h i c h n a t u r a l l y emerge m o r e clearly i n c h i l d h o o d t h a n
they d o later. B u t they are not i n themselves infantile, m u c h less
p a t h o l o g i c a l . (Jung 1911-12/52: 37)

Undirected t h i n k i n g is a s s o c i a t i v e rather than logical, using

i m a g e r y a n d fantasy, f o l l o w i n g its o w n subjective p a t h — w h i c h , of
c o u r s e , m a y l e a d to d i s t o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n i n 'real w o r l d ' terms—but
w h i c h , nevertheless, is also b a s e d o n sense perceptions. It is s i m p l y the
case that u n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g does s o m e t h i n g different w i t h these p e r ­
ceptions. W h e r e a s d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g seeks c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d the
m a n i p u l a t i o n of ideas or objects i n the real w o r l d (thus e n a b l i n g tech­
n o l o g i c a l progress), u n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is less c o n c e r n e d w i t h this
t h a n w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h e t h e r that i n v o l v e s one's o w n p s y c h i c
reality, or a m i x t u r e of b o t h this a n d the 'real w o r l d ' .
Jung's comment that this k i n d of t h i n k i n g , w i t h its u n c o n s c i o u s
basis, is neither infantile n o r p a t h o l o g i c a l addresses the p r e v i o u s l y
p o p u l a r v i e w that associative t h i n k i n g is ' i n f e r i o r ' to l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g . 1

T h i s v i e w stems f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r a s s u m p t i o n about k n o w l e d g e a n d its

f u n c t i o n — t h a t i s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s — w h i c h seems to h a v e g a i n e d
a h o l d since the E n l i g h t e n m e n t . If k n o w l e d g e is a s s u m e d to be l i n e a r ­
76 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

l y p r o g r e s s i v e — a s is the case i n m a n y s c i e n c e s — t h e n further l e a r n i n g

tends to be r e g a r d e d as b u i l t l o g i c a l l y u p o n w h a t has g o n e before, a n d
thus it is i n d e e d difficult to appreciate the p a r t that unconscious
d y n a m i c s a n d fantasies m i g h t play.
U n t i l r e c e n t l y w o r k o n cognitive processes has b e e n i n f l u e n c e d
l a r g e l y b y the b e h a v i o u r i s t a p p r o a c h , a n d has concentrated almost
exclusively on conscious processes. However, i n a recent paper
Moraglia (1991) cites research o n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g (or 'IP')
w h i c h , h a v i n g established concepts s u c h as 'attention' a n d ' c o n s c i o u s ­
ness' as scientifically v a l i d , has i n e v i t a b l y t u r n e d to a t t e m p t i n g to
u n d e r s t a n d their opposites. In other w o r d s , n o n - c o n s c i o u s processes i n
i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g are n o w b e i n g r e c o g n i s e d a n d a d d r e s s e d .
It seems especially clear f r o m this w o r k that conscious f u n c t i o n i n g
is o n l y a p a r t of the activities of the p s y c h e . M o r e o v e r , d u e to the l i m ­
ited c a p a c i t y of the conscious system, w e process a great d e a l of i n f o r ­
m a t i o n w i t h o u t conscious awareness, although conscious precepts
m a y be affected b y this processing.
M o r a g l i a notes a n agreement b e t w e e n the properties of n o n - c o n ­
scious IP a n d of the u n c o n s c i o u s , as p u t f o r w a r d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s —
essentially, that the activity a n d processes of b o t h differ m a r k e d l y f r o m
c o n s c i o u s activities a n d processes. S o m e basic elements of the specifi­
2

cally Jungian m o d e l of the m i n d also f i n d c o r r o b o r a t i o n i n this

research.
F o r instance, the differentiation w i t h i n the field of IP b e t w e e n ' c o n ­
scious' and 'unconscious processes' parallels Jung's distinction
between directed a n d undirected thinking. The former—as Jung
r e m a r k e d — i s ' f a t i g u i n g ' or, i n IP terms, i n v o l v e s ' h i g h e n e r g y c o n ­
s u m p t i o n ' , whereas the latter, b e i n g associative rather t h a n a n a l y t i c a l ,
uses far less energy. IP also appreciates the l i m i t e d capacity of the c o n ­
scious s y s t e m to d e a l w i t h all the i n f o r m a t i o n the m i n d receives, a n d
thus recognises the necessity of n o n - c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s i n g . S i m i l a r l y ,
f r o m a J u n g i a n perspective, the p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s (repressed mate­
rial f r o m p e r s o n a l experience) is constituted p a r t l y because of the l i m ­
i t e d c a p a c i t y of the conscious system. U n l i k e the collective u n c o n ­
scious, the p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s derives largely f r o m the w o r l d of sen­
sation a n d experience, m u c h of w h i c h is not m e d i a t e d c o n s c i o u s l y
H o w e v e r , the w a y i n w h i c h these data are nevertheless o r g a n i s e d
b r i n g s us to the f u n c t i o n of the collective u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h is struc­
t u r e d — i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d — b y archetypes. Similarly, IP research s u g ­
 Sylvia Cohen 77

gests that the structures w h i c h organise the u n c o n s c i o u s m a t e r i a l are

n o t extraneous or e m p i r i c a l i n o r i g i n , b u t :

...resemble more d i r e c t l y innate, t r a n s p e r s o n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f

experience, i n a n a l o g y w i t h C h o m s k y ' s ideas of a genetically
inherited a n d unconscious 'deep structure' of language.
( M o r a g l i a 1991: 31)

In other w o r d s , archetypes m i g h t be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d as organisers of

o u r p e r c e p t i o n s — w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y o n e aspect w h i c h J u n g attributed
to t h e m .
T h e ' m e a n i n g f u l l e a r n i n g ' to w h i c h I referred earlier i n v o l v e s b o t h
a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n — i n other w o r d s , a k i n d of i n f o r m a ­
t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . If, then, u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l activity p l a y s as great a
role i n l e a r n i n g as it d o e s i n IP, t h e n h o w m i g h t w e g a i n access to this
u n c o n s c i o u s activity, a n d h o w m i g h t w e c o n c e p t u a l i s e w h a t it tells u s
a b o u t the processes o f l e a r n i n g itself?
T h e d y n a m i c s o f the u n c o n s c i o u s — w h e t h e r 'repressed/personal'
or ' c o l l e c t i v e ' — a r e o r g a n i s e d archetypally. H o w e v e r , i n themselves the
archetypes c a n n o t b e k n o w n ; they are o n l y — a s it w e r e — ' p o t e n t i a l '
structures. U n c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y a n d contents m a y o n l y manifest t h e m ­
selves t h r o u g h d r e a m s , fantasy, a n d i m a g e r y . T h e s e processes f o r m e r ­
l y c o n t r i b u t e d to another m o d e of t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h , since time
i m m e m o r i a l , h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e s t r i v e n to m a k e sense of themselves
a n d the w o r l d : myth-making.

A l l the creative p o w e r that m o d e r n m a n p o u r s into science a n d

technics the m a n of a n t i q u i t y d e v o t e d to h i s m y t h s . T h i s creative
u r g e explains... the c o n t i n u a l r e j u v e n a t i o n of m y t h s i n G r e e k c u l ­
ture... T h i s activity of the e a r l y classical m i n d w a s i n the highest
degree artistic... (Jung 1911-12/52: 24)

J u n g is at p a i n s to e m p h a s i s e the h u m a n i n e v i t a b i l i t y of fantasy a n d
m y t h - m a k i n g , w h i c h s p r i n g f r o m the a r c h e t y p a l realms of the collec­
tive u n c o n s c i o u s . If w e w e r e n e v e r t o l d a m y t h or a story i n o u r entire
lives, w e w o u l d i n v e n t o u r o w n . J u n g focuses o n the creative d r i v e
t o w a r d s m y t h - m a k i n g , y e t this p r o c e s s — w h i c h , generally, relies u p o n
associative rather t h a n l o g i c a l t h o u g h t — m a y also h a v e a b e a r i n g u p o n
the process of l e a r n i n g .
78 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

If there is i n h u m a n beings a n a r c h e t y p a l p r o p e n s i t y to w e a v e sto­

ries, this m i g h t also constitute part of the a r c h e t y p a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of
o u r c a p a c i t y for i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g , as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . Myths
w e r e b a s e d o n u n i v e r s a l h u m a n themes, g i v e n f o r m b y a local culture,
as attempts to u n d e r s t a n d a n d to l e a r n about the w o r l d i n w a y s w h i c h
utilise h u m a n experience. M y t h s c a n themselves b e u n d e r s t o o d as a
f o r m of analogy, p r o v i d i n g a means of ' a p p r e h e n d i n g t h r o u g h e x p e r i ­
ence', as K o l b w o u l d p u t it.
In K o l b ' s terms w e m o v e constantly f r o m p r e h e n s i o n to transfor­
m a t i o n i n o u r t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . H i s chief interest w a s i n the char­
acteristic styles b y w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s resolve this d i a l e c t i c — t h e differ­
ent w a y s i n w h i c h different p e o p l e learn. H o w e v e r , I a m s u g g e s t i n g
that this dialectic (between p r e h e n s i o n a n d transformation) is i n part
r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h a n o t h e r — t h a t b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d conscious
d y n a m i c s , a n d , concomitantly, b e t w e e n associative a n d l o g i c a l t h i n k ­
ing.
O f c o u r s e , ancient m y t h s d o n o t i n themselves p r o v i d e explanations
satisfactory i n m o d e r n scientific terms. T h e y d o n o t e n g e n d e r testable
a n d refutable h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h c a n be tested o u t i n the real w o r l d . In
the m a i n this is because the focus of m y t h is u p o n satisfactory e x p l a ­
n a t i o n a n d subjective k n o w l e d g e , rather t h a n c o n t r o l of objects i n the
real w o r l d . In the ancient w o r l d , control of events w a s u s u a l l y m e d i a t ­
e d t h r o u g h the g o o d offices of d i v i n i t i e s , p l a c a t e d b y p r a y e r a n d sacri­
fice.
H o w e v e r , once h u m a n s became interested i n t r y i n g to m a n i p u l a t e
the w o r l d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h e n t h i n k i n g h a d to
b e c o m e m o r e d i r e c t e d , a n d l e a r n i n g about the w o r l d h a d to b e c o m e
m o r e closely related to the w a y things actually w o r k e d . T h e o l d m y t h s ,
w i t h their a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t r i m m i n g s , were n o longer useful, i n that
they w e r e u n a b l e to p r o v i d e the k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n s that m i g h t l e a d
to further l e a r n i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n the m o s t r i g o r o u s l y scientific m e t h o d depends
u p o n the w o r k i n g s of things w h i c h cannot b e seen, i n order to p r o v i d e
theoretical m o d e l s . C o n t e m p o r a r y p h y s i c s , for instance, has entered a
r e a l m i n w h i c h p h e n o m e n a a n d relationships are d e s c r i b e d m e t a p h y s ­
ically. T o p u t this another way, w e invent stories that h e l p e x p l a i n the
w o r l d to u s , a n d enable us to m a n i p u l a t e s o m e aspects of it. T h e s e sci­
entific stories are n o t the same as ancient m y t h s (they p r o v i d e either a
l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n , or a technologically w o r k a b l e m o d e l ) yet they still
w o r k o n the p r i n c i p l e of analogy. T h e m o d e l s t h r o u g h w h i c h w e n o w
 Sylvia Cohen 79

u n d e r s t a n d the w o r l d are the p r o d u c t , I w o u l d say, o f the dialectic

b e t w e e n associative a n d l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g ; b e t w e e n the i m a g i n a t i o n
w h i c h creates story, a n d the a p p l i c a t i o n of a logic w h i c h tests o u t
h y p o t h e s e s . O f course, i n either case, there m u s t b e a c o m m o n a i m of
c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n c e it is d e c i d e d that p r i v a t e thoughts are to be
s h a r e d , they m u s t be translated into terms that utilise n o t o n l y p e r s o n ­
al experience b u t also c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g . T h u s , flights of fancy, those
leaps o f logic w e call i n t u i t i o n , fantasy a n d imagery, m i g h t b e b r o u g h t
into the p u b l i c sphere i n a w a y that m a k e s sense to others.
Because associative or n o n - d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g uses far less p s y c h i c
energy, it is less t i r i n g a n d — i n that s e n s e — a m o r e ' p l e a s u r a b l e ' a c t i v i ­
ty t h a n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g . T h i s , I t h i n k , b r i n g s us b a c k to m y initial
question: given the h i g h degree of will a n d energy-expenditure
i n v o l v e d i n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g , w h i c h is necessary for l e a r n i n g , w h y o n
earth s h o u l d w e choose to d o it? T h e n o t i o n that h u m a n s are ' n a t u r a l ­
l y ' c u r i o u s creatures does n o t c o m p l e t e l y a n s w e r this because, as I
h o p e to h a v e s h o w n , w e are quite capable of satisfying o u r c u r i o s i t y
s i m p l y t h r o u g h fantasy a n d i m a g e r y .
To meander a l o n g the h i g h w a y s and by-ways of n o n - d i r e c t e d
t h o u g h t is, h o w e v e r , a k i n to a p u l l t o w a r d s inertia. T h i s n o t i o n of ' i n e r ­
tia' is p e r h a p s the closest J u n g c a m e to a v e r s i o n of 'the d e a t h d r i v e ' .
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e o n e m i g h t s a y that a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of fantasy
a n d association is ' a n t i - l e a r n i n g ' . W e l o n g to r e t u r n to a sense of ' o n e ­
n e s s ' w i t h the m o t h e r — h o w e v e r i l l u s o r y this n o t i o n m i g h t b e — i n
w h i c h there is n o effort or conflict, a n d w e are sheltered f r o m the h a r s h
v a g a r i e s of the r e a l w o r l d .
H o w e v e r , the d i m e n s i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h w e f u l l y d e v e l o p o u r
h u m a n p o t e n t i a l is c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d this comes about precisely
t h r o u g h s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n u r t u r i n g mother, t h r o u g h the a g e n c y o f
the father or ' p a t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e ' :

T h i s is the... L o g o s , w h i c h eternally struggles to extricate itself

f r o m the p r i m a l w a r m t h a n d p r i m a l d a r k n e s s of the m a t e r n a l
w o m b ; i n a w o r d , f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Q u n g 1938/59: 178)

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the f u n c t i o n s of m o t h e r a n d father d o n o t

relate to a n y n e c e s s a r i l y f i x e d roles of the actual parents, b u t rather to
a r c h e t y p a l representations o f u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ('mother') a n d c o n ­
sciousness ('father') i n the p s y c h e (cf. J u n g 1938/59, 1934/54).
80 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

T h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s separation f r o m the m o t h e r is a n e m b r y o n ­
ic stage i n the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n — t h e l i f e l o n g activity of f i n d i n g
o u r s e l v e s a n d o u r p a t h i n l i f e . W i t h the initial s e p a r a t i o n , a n d the c o n ­
3

c o m i t a n t n e e d for c o m m u n i c a t i o n , relationships w i t h others b e c o m e

e s t a b l i s h e d . T h r o u g h these the c h i l d begins to please a n d to be p l e a s e d
b y a d u l t s . T h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l experience activates other a r c h e t y p a l
potentials. T h e G a r d e n of E d e n m a y h a v e its place i n o u r e m o t i o n a l
y e a r n i n g , b u t once the fruit of the tree of k n o w l e d g e has b e e n bitten,
c u r i o s i t y c o m p e l s us to use o u r c o g n i t i o n to l e a r n about the w o r l d .
W h a t w e m i g h t call a l e a r n i n g ego' is established, e n a b l i n g the neces­
s a r y d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n fantasy a n d directed t h i n k i n g to take place.
W e n e v e r s i m p l y reach a p o i n t i n o u r d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e w e w a n t
o n l y to l e a r n ; the dialectic b e t w e e n associative a n d d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is
c o n s t a n t l y r e - w o r k e d , as are the dialectics b e t w e e n the other pairs of
opposites we have touched upon: extraversion/introversion, con­
s c i o u s / u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d concrete e x p e r i e n c e / a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t u a l i s a ­
t i o n , for instance.

* **

T h e dialectic that m i g h t be d e s c r i b e d as the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l to l e a r n ­

i n g , a n d to o u r c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of e d u c a t i o n , is that b e t w e e n the p e r ­
s o n a l a n d the collective.
T h e r e is a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n o u r p r i v a t e needs, w a n t s , a n d interests,
a n d w h a t w e m i g h t call 'the p u b l i c d e m a n d ' . W e m a y be c u r i o u s a n d
e x p l o r a t o r y creatures, b u t there is a n e v i d e n t conflict b e t w e e n w h a t w e
are c u r i o u s to l e a r n , a n d w h a t w e are called u p o n to learn. In other
w o r d s , o u r l e a r n i n g is to a greater or lesser extent d e t e r m i n e d b y a c o n ­
sensvis o n w h a t is ' v a l u a b l e ' , 'interesting', 'right' a n d ' i m p o r t a n t ' . T h e
p r e - s c h o o l c h i l d , for instance, m a y be free to explore the e n v i r o n m e n t ,
a n d e x p e r i m e n t w i t h l a n g u a g e , paint, or clay, b u t h e or s h e — e v e n at
this e a r l y s t a g e — s t i l l has to l e a r n to control his or h e r excretion, eat i n
a p a r t i c u l a r w a y , sit i n a circle w h e n t o l d to d o so, a n d learn the l a n ­
g u a g e w h i c h others speak. T h i s conflict is m o r e a p p a r e n t i n adults: the
v o c a t i o n a l learner is clearly c o m p e l l e d to take i n things w h i c h d o not
r e a l l y interest h i m or her, i n order to attain the r e q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e .
T h e r e is a p r o b l e m inherent i n all f o r m s of f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h
is precisely to d o w i t h a d d r e s s i n g the i n d i v i d u a l yet at the s a m e time
c o n f o r m i n g to the collective consensus. Perhaps the g r o u p of learners
m o s t v u l n e r a b l e to this tension b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l a n d collective is c h i l ­
 Sylvia Cohen 81

d r e n of c o m p u l s o r y s c h o o l - a g e . U n t i l sixteen, t h e y m u s t attend s c h o o l ,
or its e q u i v a l e n t , a n d are expected to l e a r n w h a t is p u t i n front of t h e m ,
a n d to l e a r n it (usually) i n quite large g r o u p s . O n e m i g h t a l m o s t s a y
that the m e m b e r s of this g r o u p of learners n e e d a v e r y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d
T e a m i n g e g o ' , p l u s the w i l l to direct a n d focus their t h i n k i n g , to a
greater extent t h a n a n y other g r o u p of learners.
I t h i n k that there are t w o aspects of J u n g i a n t h i n k i n g w h i c h m i g h t
p r o v e h e l p f u l i n b e g i n n i n g to a d d r e s s this difficulty. In the first place,
the a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n to c u r i o s i t y m i g h t be t a k e n as a n i n d i c a t i o n
that h u m a n b e i n g s are resilient to the b o r e d o m of collective d e m a n d s
as l o n g as they receive a decent a d m i x t u r e of w h a t they really w a n t .
This fundamental curiosity w i l l also p r o b a b l y be best captured
t h r o u g h effective p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l — c e r t a i n l y b y presentation
w h i c h a l l o w s for as m u c h e x p l o r a t i o n as possible.
S e c o n d l y , c o n n e c t e d to the a b o v e , the J u n g i a n p a r a d i g m of the coni­
unctio a s s u m e s that l e a r n i n g is a n interactive process. T h i s m a k e s , I
t h i n k , for a m o d e l w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s rather m o r e d e m o c r a c y t h a n is
i m p l i e d b y the n o t i o n of a teacher w h o m e r e l y a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y
'teaches'. T h e i d e a of coniunctio i m p l i e s i n s t e a d a place of l e a r n i n g a n d
interaction, b o t h w i t h the m a t e r i a l , a n d w i t h the self of the teacher. T h e
i n t e r a c t i o n a n d dialectic b e t w e e n teacher a n d student m i r r o r s the
' i n n e r ' dialectics the student w i l l u s e i n o r d e r to a p p r e h e n d a n d trans­
f o r m m a t e r i a l i n h i s or h e r o w n u n i q u e way. W e m i g h t s a y that the s t u ­
d e n t 'learns h o w to l e a r n ' t h r o u g h this interaction, d u e to the w a y that
d i a l o g u e o r c o n v e r s a t i o n , h o w e v e r s i m p l e o r basic, reveals the t h o u g h t
processes of both parties. I w o u l d prefer to e n v i s a g e a process w h e r e b y
the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n b o t h parties activates a n e q u i v a l e n t process i n
the s t u d e n t , e n a b l i n g t h e m to d i s c o v e r their strengths a n d weaknesses,
a n d their o w n p r e f e r r e d m o d e s o f l e a r n i n g .
T h i s s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n to m e a n that the teacher m u s t address
every c h i l d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d i n great d e p t h — a feat that w o u l d be w e l l
n i g h i m p o s s i b l e i n a c l a s s r o o m of thirty c h i l d r e n . It does m e a n , h o w ­
ever, that face-to-face interaction b e t w e e n teacher a n d p u p i l s , e v e n i n
large g r o u p s , is v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t . T o s o m e extent, of course, c h i l d r e n
a n d other learners h a v e to f i n d their o w n w a y of l e a r n i n g within the
collective setting, a n d h a v e to a d a p t to the collective. If not, w e b e c o m e
a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s , rather t h a n the social beings u p o n
w h i c h J u n g i a n t h e o r y insists.
H o w e v e r , there are s o m e further points to b e m a d e here. T h e first
touches u p o n a n aspect of learning difficulty—a theme w h i c h I d o n o t
82 Learning: a Jungian Perspective

h a v e space to d e a l w i t h p r o p e r l y , b u t w h i c h nevertheless demands

attention. A c h i l d w h o s e ego cannot mediate effectively b e t w e e n the
desires of the p e r s o n a l a n d the d e m a n d s of the collective m a y w e l l
h a v e d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a r n i n g . A n ' o v e r - a d a p t e d ego', which enforces
c o m p l i a n c e w i t h a u t h o r i t y or w i t h 'the n o r m ' , m i g h t i n h i b i t e x p l o ­
r a t i o n a n d creativity. In extreme cases, o d d l y e n o u g h , a n ego w h i c h
seems ' s t r o n g ' m i g h t actually i n h i b i t m e a n i n g f u l l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d
m i g h t b e u n a b l e to realise his or her o w n u n i q u e l e a r n i n g style, w h i c h
is necessary i n o r d e r for that c h i l d to a p p r e h e n d a n d t r a n s f o r m data i n
a w a y w h i c h is u s e f u l a n d m e a n i n g f u l .
O n the other h a n d , a n ego w h i c h finds i n h i b i t i o n of i m p u l s e s diffi­
cult to m a n a g e w i l l disable the c h i l d i n a different w a y . A s w e h a v e
seen, l e a r n i n g calls for qualities s u c h as w i l l , concentration, and
d e l a y e d gratification. A n ego w h i c h cannot a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l i m p u l s ­
es or the desire for i m m e d i a t e gratification w i l l manifest itself i n resis­
tance to l e a r n i n g . In b o t h c a s e s — o f over- a n d u n d e r - a d a p t a t i o n — t h e
dialectic b e t w e e n opposites is unable to be c o n d u c t e d further to a n y
effect.
The f i n a l issue I would like to raise concerns how collective
d e m a n d s , if not k e p t w i t h i n certain b o u n d s , c a n b e c o m e o v e r b e a r i n g
a n d i n h i b i t i n g . T h e p r i n c i p l e of a N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m m i g h t effec­
t i v e l y e n s u r e a n e q u i v a l e n c e of standards across the country, a n d c o n ­
sole us w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that w e k n o w w h a t o u r c h i l d r e n are l e a r n ­
i n g , b u t it has its pitfalls. S t a n d a r d s m i g h t degenerate i n t o ' s t a n d a r d i ­
s a t i o n ' , w h i c h takes little account of i n d i v i d u a l , social, or r e g i o n a l dif­
ferences. C h i l d r e n w h o are e n c o u r a g e d to b e c o m e too c o n s c i o u s of c o l ­
lective d e m a n d s lose a n y chance of d e v e l o p i n g a l o n g their o w n i n d i ­
v i d u a l l i n e s , a n d m a y lose all capacity for creative t h o u g h t .
A N a t i o n a l C t i r r i c u l u m presents a constant d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g too
d e t a i l e d a n d p r e s c r i p t i v e , b o t h i n terms of m e t h o d s a n d of content. It
might try to teach things that cannot really be taught, but only
absorbed—through o b s e r v a t i o n , interaction, a n d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . F o r
instance: social r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c i t i z e n s h i p , ethical b e h a v i o u r , a n d so o n ,
are n o t so m u c h subjects to be l e a r n e d (as the G o v e r n m e n t has recent­
l y suggested) as qualities w h i c h c a n be e n g e n d e r e d t h r o u g h relation­
s h i p s w i t h adults i n the e n v i r o n m e n t . In other w o r d s , a c u r r i c u l u m that
is too a n x i o u s to teach c a n destroy l e a r n i n g , a n d can negate the f u n d a ­
m e n t a l p u r p o s e of e d u c a t i o n i n its o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g — t o l e a d out, to
facilitate, a n d to proffer the o p p o r t u n i t y of l e a r n i n g .
 Sylvia Cohen 83

Notes

1
Both Kolb (1984) Whitmont E (1969) present this view and a critique of it.

2
He cites Shevrin & Dickman 1980.

3 There is in fact an intricate relationship between individuation and learning—one cannot

happen without the other, but they are not the same. We might say that each is a special

instance of the other. Meaningful learning cannot take place without separation from moth­

er—there would be no need to learn anything if this did not occur. On the other hand, indi­

viduation involves learning about oneself.

 O N 'LEARNING' A N D'LEARNING ABOUT': W.R.BION'S

T H E O R Y O F T H I N K I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N A L PRAXIS

Jean White

W . R . B i o n (1897-1972) w a s a r g u a b l y the m o s t p r o f o u n d l y r a d i c a l p s y ­
c h o a n a l y t i c thinker since F r e u d a n d K l e i n . A f t e r h i s p i o n e e r i n g w o r k
o n g r o u p s , he a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f to the s t u d y of t h i n k i n g a n d of w h a t
he t e r m e d the evolution of m i n d . A l t h o u g h m o s t of this w o r k is d e r i v e d
f r o m h i s analysis of t h o u g h t d i s o r d e r s i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c consult­
i n g - r o o m , it has c o n s i d e r a b l e relevance to the nature of l e a r n i n g a n d
w h a t facilitates l e a r n i n g i n e d u c a t i o n a l settings. To m y k n o w l e d g e , the
e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of B i o n ' s theories h a v e n e v e r b e e n e x p l o r e d ,
a l t h o u g h B i o n h i m s e l f p o i n t e d o u t the l i n k b e t w e e n his w o r k a n d the­
ories of k n o w l e d g e . (Bion 1984a: 1).
T h i s chapter w i l l s h o w h o w s o m e of B i o n ' s k e y concepts are p r o ­
f o u n d l y g e r m a n e to b o t h the attitude a n d technique of the teacher, a n d
to the p r o v i s i o n of a facilitative setting for l e a r n i n g i n the c l a s s r o o m or
s e m i n a r r o o m . I s h a l l d r a w p r i m a r i l y u p o n the central p e r i o d of B i o n ' s
Learning from
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c w r i t i n g s . T h i s w o r k is p u b l i s h e d as:
Experience (1984a), Elements of Psychoanalysis (1984b), Transformation
(1984c), Second Thoughts (1984d), a n d Attention and Interpretation
(19846). B i o n ' s w r i t i n g style is, unfortunately, not p a r t i c u l a r l y l u c i d ,
1

a n d often dense a n d inaccessible e v e n to the e x p e r i e n c e d p s y c h o a n a ­

lytic reader. T h i s d o e s n o t i n a n y w a y detract f r o m the r a d i c a l i s m a n d
p r o f u n d i t y of his t h i n k i n g , b u t it m a y s o m e t i m e s deter the u n p r e p a r e d .
A f t e r the central p e r i o d of h i s w o r k o n t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , B i o n
b e c a m e m o r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the nature of transcendent or ultimate
reality. A l t h o u g h these later w r i t i n g s are b o t h fascinating a n d i l l u m i ­
n a t i n g , they h a v e less i m m e d i a t e relevance to e d u c a t i o n . I w i l l , h o w ­
ever, briefly explore s o m e of the l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d those
of P a o l o Freire, the great educationalist w h o s e t h o u g h t w a s s h a p e d b y
his i n v o l v e m e n t i n literacy c a m p a i g n s i n the ' T h i r d W o r l d / . I w i l l also
l o o k i n s o m e detail at w h a t the c o m b i n e d a p p l i c a t i o n of B i o n ' s a n d
Freire's ideas m i g h t l o o k like i n practice, d r a w n f r o m m y experience of
t e a c h i n g a s e m i n a r series i n the f i n a l year o f a u n i v e r s i t y - b a s e d p o s t ­
graduate training course o n psychoanalytic psychotherapy.
 Jean White 85

A radical psychoanalytic paradigm?

B i o n w a s t r a i n e d as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t w i t h i n the F r e u d i a n a n d K l e i n i a n
t r a d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h h e retained a n d gave fresh m e a n i n g to m a n y of
the c e n t r a l concepts f r o m these traditions, h i s t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g also
d r a w s u p o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l , scientific, a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l sources, a n d
c a n u l t i m a t e l y s t a n d o n its o w n as a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s y s t e m . F o r the
sake of clarity, I w i l l first p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o f those p r i m a r y c o n ­
cepts i n B i o n ' s w r i t i n g s w h i c h are relevant to e d u c a t i o n .
B i o n ' s t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g rests o n the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t h e
t e r m e d 'beta elements' a n d ' a l p h a f u n c t i o n ' . H e d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e d n o n ­
d e s c r i p t i v e , abstract, often m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y as a w a y of
d r a w i n g attention to the fact that these are i n t e n d e d to b e empty cate­
g o r i e s , u s e f u l o n l y for p u r p o s e s of n o t a t i o n , a n d c o m p l e t e l y m e t a p h o r ­
i c a l w i t h o u t a n y i n t e n d e d o r i m p l i e d reference to ' a c t u a l ' or ' r e a l '
processes, w h a t e v e r those m i g h t b e (Bion 1984a: 3).
'Beta e l e m e n t s ' represent those particles of r a w experience, sensa­
t i o n , o r i m p r e s s i o n w h i c h m u s t b e e v a c u a t e d f r o m the m i n d if they
c a n n o t b e p r o c e s s e d into thought- T h e p r i m a r y routes or m e a n s of
e v a c u a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n , are h a l l u c i n a t i o n , m i n d l e s s activity, 'act­
i n g o u t ' or a c t i n g o n i m p u l s e , m i n d l e s s chatter, m i n d l e s s g r o u p or h e r d
b e h a v i o u r , o r s o m a t i s a t i o n (Bion 1984a: 6-7). A l l of these B i o n d e e m e d
'psychotic' or 'soma-psychotic' phenomena, a n d therefore anti­
t h o u g h t a n d d a m a g i n g to the m i n d .
' A l p h a f u n c t i o n ' , i n contrast, represents the process w h e r e b y these
e l e m e n t a r y particles of experience are t r a n s f o r m e d into t h o u g h t (Bion
1984a: 8). T h i s takes place firstly b y m e a n s of the v i s u a l , a u d i t o r y , or
sensual image, w h i c h c a n be d r e a m t ( B i o n 1984a: 26), a n d then
p r o c e s s e d into ever m o r e sophisticated f o r m s o f t h o u g h t , represented
i n the l e f t - h a n d c o l u m n of the d i a g r a m B i o n referred to as 'the G r i d '
( B i o n 1984a: 55; see figure overleaf). T h e G r i d represents B i o n ' s theory
of t h i n k i n g i n a n extremely c o n d e n s e d f o r m . It merits a c h a p t e r —
i n d e e d a w h o l e b o o k — a l l to itself, a n d I can o n l y g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n of
its m e a n i n g i n this chapter.
E a c h o f the G r i d ' s t w o axes p r o v i d e s a p e r s p e c t i v e o n the d e v e l o p ­
m e n t o f t h o u g h t . T h e vertical axis, f r o m t o p to b o t t o m , represents
d e g r e e s o f evolution a n d abstraction of t h o u g h t s . T h e h o r i z o n t a l , f r o m
left to r i g h t , demonstrates the application o r uses of the different d i s ­
tinctions o r levels of t h o u g h t , as represented i n the vertical axes. T h e
p o i n t s o f intersection b e t w e e n the axes enable the d r a w i n g of v e r y fine
86 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

T H E GR I D
 Jean White 87

distinctions between types of thoughts, b o t h i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e the

psychoanalytic consulting r o o m . 2

O t h e r k e y concepts i n B i o n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y are:

• the contact b a r r i e r
• the selected fact
• Ps*-»D

• c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d (or: )
• m u l t i p l e vertices

• transformations

I w i l l b r i e f l y describe a n d clarify these terms.

The contact barrier

T h e c o n c e p t of the contact barrier is v e r y closely l i n k e d to the e v o l u ­
t i o n of m i n d . T h e contact barrier is created b y the m e t a p h o r i c a l streams
of t h o u g h t w h i c h result f r o m the w o r k i n g s of a l p h a f u n c t i o n ( B i o n
1984a: 17). T h e barrier separates c o n s c i o u s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s mind,
a n d t h e r e b y protects relations w i t h external reality ( B i o n 1984a: 22). A n
e x a m p l e of this process i n action m i g h t be ' t h i n k i n g a b o u t a d r e a m a n d
its m e a n i n g ' . In the process of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n manifest and
latent content, a n d i n reflecting o n the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the m a t e r i a l
released t h r o u g h free association, the distinction between internal and
external reality is r e i n f o r c e d i n the m i n d of dreamer. A s a result, there is
far less d a n g e r of c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n i n t e r n a l a n d external reality t h a n
if the d r e a m h a d s i m p l y b e e n d r e a m t a n d h a d not b e e n subject to f u r ­
ther m e n t a t i o n . T h e contact barrier, therefore, also r e n d e r s the m i n d
less p e r m e a b l e to c o n t a m i n a t i o n , o r to the i n f l u x of projective i d e n t i f i ­
c a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m p s y c h o t i c processes i n o t h e r s — f o r e x a m p l e , i n
3

the case of a h i g h l y - c h a r g e d g r o u p s i t u a t i o n , i n w h i c h there m a y be

e n o r m o u s p r e s s u r e to act or speak a c c o r d i n g to the p r e v a l e n t m o o d or
climate of the majority. In this situation, the i n d i v i d u a l w h o c a n s t a n d
b a c k a n d ' t h i n k u n d e r fire' is less l i k e l y to be c a u g h t u p i n p o w e r f u l
and unthinking group dynamics.
O n e of the m a n y e x c i t i n g i n n o v a t i o n s i n B i o n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y is his
insight t h a t — d u e to the o p e r a t i o n of a l p h a f u n c t i o n , the contact b a r r i ­
er, a n d all the different stages of t h o u g h t o u t l i n e d i n the G r i d — t h e e v o ­
l u t i o n of the m i n d is p o t e n t i a l l y endless or infinite. A s l o n g as o n e is
88 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

c a p a b l e of t h o u g h t a n d t r u t h , the m i n d c a n c o n t i n u e to e v o l v e or
4

d e v e l o p , far b e y o n d the dictates of e a r l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences.

The selected fact, and Ps

In B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g , the notions of the 'selected fact' a n d 'Ps D are

c l o s e l y interconnected (Bion 1984a: 72). B i o n posits a continual—
a l m o s t m o m e n t b y m o m e n t — m o v e m e n t w i t h i n the m i n d , a constant
i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the ' p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d ' (Ps) a n d ' d e p r e s s i v e ' (D)
p o s i t i o n s . P u t s i m p l y , the ' p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d p o s i t i o n ' represents the
earliest p h a s e of d e v e l o p m e n t of the infant's m i n d , i n w h i c h g o o d a n d
b a d experiences a n d objects are k e p t separate a n d , because of the
w o r k i n g s of projective identification, p e r s e c u t o r y or p a r a n o i d a n x i ­
eties p r e d o m i n a t e . T h e p r i m a r y defence u s e d i n this state of m i n d is
splitting, hence the t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s f r a g m e n t a t i o n , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ,
a n d relative chaos. T h e 'depressive p o s i t i o n ' , m e a n w h i l e , represents a
step t o w a r d s coherence a n d cohesiveness, as the m i n d b e c o m e s g r a d ­
u a l l y c a p a b l e of tolerating frustration a n d a m b i v a l e n c e . In i n f a n c y this
is b r o u g h t about w h e n the y o u n g c h i l d realises that the m o t h e r is the
s o u r c e of both satisfying and gratifying and frustrating and depriving
experiences. T h u s the c h i l d b e c o m e s able to conceive of the m o t h e r as
a w h o l e c o m p l e x p e r s o n i n external reality. A l o n g w i t h this, the c h i l d
b e c o m e s able to experience concern for the other as separate f r o m the
self, a n d reparative i m p u l s e s replace u n c o n s c i o u s sadistic or projective
assaults.

A l l of us revert to p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d processes u n d e r stress, a n d

s o m e of us n e v e r e m e r g e v e r y far f r o m t h e m i n the first p l a c e . In B i o n ' s
t h i n k i n g , h o w e v e r , i n h e a l t h a n d i n t h o u g h t , there is a necessary f l u c t u ­
a t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o positions or states of m i n d . W e need to regress
t e m p o r a r i l y to the relative chaos a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n of the p a r a n o i d ­
s c h i z o i d p o s i t i o n as a sort of reculer pour mieux sauter ('a recoil neces­
s a r y to a leap further f o r w a r d ' ) t h r o u g h w h i c h the emergence of a idea
m a y b e c o m e possible. T h i s fleeting regressive m o v e m e n t does n o t nec­
essarily i n v o l v e a great sense of p e r s e c u t i o n ( B i o n 1984a: 92), a l t h o u g h
a sense of pressure m a y be felt. It m i g h t feel, for e x a m p l e , as if the m i n d
is d a r t i n g about i n a chaotic fashion, or i n t o l e r a b l y b l a n k a n d e m p t y
a n d u n a b l e to t h i n k . T h e r e m a y be a sensation of s o m e t h i n g p u s h i n g
o n it f r o m b e h i n d , before the relief of a n e w t h o u g h t s p r i n g s out of this
inchoate state.
 Jean White 89

T h e 'selected fact', o n the other h a n d , represents a n e m o t i o n or i d e a

that l e n d s coherence to w h a t is d i s p e r s e d , i n t r o d u c i n g o r d e r into d i s ­
o r d e r ( B i o n 1984a: 73). It c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as a n i n t u i t i o n or a d i v ­
i n a t i o n — a n ' o h . . . ' — w h i c h m a k e s the b e g i n n i n g of a t h o u g h t possible,
a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y incites a m o v e m e n t i n t o the d e p r e s s i v e position
(cf. G r i n b e r g et a l . 1975: 51). C h r i s t o p h e r B o l l a s , i n Cracking Up (1995),
describes a s i m i l a r m o v e m e n t as the basic r h y t h m of l i v i n g a n d t h i n k ­
i n g . H e argues that to benefit a n d g a i n n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m the richness
a n d w i s d o m o f o u r u n c o n s c i o u s lives, there m u s t b e a constant, d u a l
m o v e m e n t . C o h e r e n t t h o u g h t introduces o r d e r a n d c o n d e n s e s , whilst
' d i s p e r s a l ' or free association, b y b r e a k i n g u p that w h i c h c o u l d other­
w i s e b e i n d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g over-coherent, gives u s access to other
unconscious communications.

Container/contained )

T h e c o n c e p t ' c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d ' (* ) is closely tied u p i n B i o n ' s

fundamental Weltanshauung w i t h a c o u p l e — t h a t is, the m o t h e r a n d
infant, or analyst a n d patient (Bion 1984a: 90). T h i s t e r m a n d its s y m ­
b o l are a n e x t r e m e l y s h o r t h a n d m e a n s o f c o n v e y i n g h i s n o t i o n that
t h i n k i n g is essentially not a o n e - p e r s o n activity. T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e is
d e r i v e d f r o m B i o n ' s ideas o n ' m a t e r n a l r e v e r i e ' a n d benign projective
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . P u t s i m p l y , B i o n postulates that the infant projects h i s
terror, anxiety, o r 'nameless d r e a d ' into a receptive m a t e r n a l mind
w h i c h is able to c o n t a i n or h o l d that anxiety u n t i l it c a n b e r e t u r n e d to
the infant i n a tolerable, p r o c e s s e d f o r m . In this w a y , a n i n t e r n a l
d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h t h o u g h t is possible is introjected, a n d
b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d c o m p l e x as it e v o l v e s .
B i o n d e s c r i b e d c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d as: ' a n e m o t i o n a l realisation
associated w i t h l e a r n i n g that b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e c o m p l e x as
it constantly recurs t h r o u g h o u t m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t ' ( B i o n 1984a: 93),
a n d as: 'the m a t i n g of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s to p r o ­
d u c e a c o n c e p t i o n ' (Bion 1984a: 91). S u b s e q u e n t analysts h a v e e x t e n d ­
e d a n d d e v e l o p e d the ' m a t i n g ' n o t i o n to i n c l u d e m o r e d e t a i l e d i n t e r n a l
m o d e l s of the p a r e n t a l c o u p l e as a p a r a d i g m a t i c f o r m o f c o n t a i n e r /
c o n t a i n e d (cf. B r i t t o n et a l . 1989). T h e u n c o n s c i o u s f o r m a s s u m e d b y
the p a r e n t a l c o u p l e i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d d e t e r m i n e s the w a y i n w h i c h
m e n t a l l i n k s are m a d e , o r e v a d e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i f the u n c o n s c i o u s
p h a n t a s y of p a r e n t a l intercourse is i n t r u s i v e a n d aggressive, fraught
90 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

w i t h danger, then the p e r s o n m a y to a n extent be able to a l l o w things

to c o m e together i n his or her m i n d , b u t o n l y w i t h great anxiety a n d
i n t e r n a l evasions a n d d e n i a l s . It is n o w w i d e l y accepted a m o n g s t p s y ­
5

c h o a n a l y t i c theorists that the level of t r i a n g u l a t i o n m a d e possible b y

the successful resolution of the O e d i p u s C o m p l e x p r o v i d e s a n internal
m o d e l o n w h i c h insight is b a s e d . A g r o w i n g , s t r e n g t h e n i n g c o n t a i n e r /
6

c o n t a i n e d , m a d e possible t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n of t h o u g h t a n d interaction
w i t h other t h o u g h t f u l m i n d s , a n d w h i c h r e m a i n s flexible a n d a d a p t ­
able, p r o v i d e s the basis for c o n t i n u i n g l e a r n i n g f r o m experience ( B i o n
1984a: 92; 1984e: 72-82).

Midtiple vertices

T h e t e r m V e r t e x ' i m p l i e s a perspective or p o i n t of v i e w . B i o n suggest­

e d that h e a l t h a n d thought enable the p o s s i b i l i t y of ' b i n o c u l a r v i s i o n '
or ' m u l t i p l e v e r t i c e s ' — t h a t is to say, the c a p a c i t y to h o l d i n m i n d dif­
f e r i n g perspectives o n the same issue or possibility. T h i s p r o v i d e s a
p o w e r f u l f o r m of reality-testing. W h e n m u l t i p l e vertices f r o m different
p e o p l e or g r o u p s of p e o p l e converge to f o r m a consensus, then a p i c ­
ture or p a r a d i g m of external reality emerges, w h i c h B i o n d u b s ' c o m ­
m o n sense'. T h i s further u n d e r l i n e s the n o t i o n that t h o u g h t proceeds
f r o m i n t e r n a l a n d external relationships.

Transformations

A l l the p r e c e d i n g c o n c e p t s — a l p h a f u n c t i o n , the contact barrier, c o n ­

t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d , vertex a n d m u l t i p l e v e r t i c e s — a r e related to B i o n ' s
use of his concept of transformations.
T h o u g h t , i n the B i o n i a n sense, is a c o n t i n u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e m o ­
t i o n a n d experience, w h i c h i r r e v o c a b l y transforms the thinker a n d his
o r her perceptions of internal a n d external reality. T h o u g h t s are also i n
themselves capable of g r o w i n g a n d a c q u i r i n g further m e a n i n g , a n d
thereby inevitably promoting further p e r s o n a l development and
change.
Different p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories c a n themselves be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d
as g r o u p s of transformations, as c a n the poetic, artistic, scientific,
p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l fields of k n o w l e d g e . E a c h of these intel­
lectual or c u l t u r a l p a r a d i g m s is the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n s o m e o n e ' s m i n d ,
of the primary unknowable reality—which Bion designated 'O'.
Progressive cycles of transformation occur. However—apparently
 Jean White 91

p a r a d o x i c a l l y — t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n ' K ' (see b e l o w , p.93) m a y result i n

closer a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to ' b e c o m i n g O ' or ' a t - o n e - m e n t w i t h O ' . I w i l l
r e t u r n to this c o n c e p t w h e n l o o k i n g at s o m e of the l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s
ideas a n d those of P a o l o Freire.

Psychoanalytic and philosophical contexts

B i o n broke away f r o m both F r e u d i a n a n d K l e i n i a n theory i n m a n y fun­

d a m e n t a l areas. T h e r e r e m a i n s n o trace of F r e u d i a n mechanistics or the
s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l of the m i n d i n B i o n ' s w o r k . P a r t h e n o p e B i o n T a l a m o ,
B i o n ' s daughter, tells a n a m u s i n g anecdote c o n c e r n i n g B i o n ' s response
to h e r q u e r y a b o u t w h a t the ego w a s . H i s r e p l y — ' a f i g m e n t of p s y c h o ­
a n a l y s t s ' i m a g i n a t i o n s ' — i s p e r h a p s m o r e of a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of a j o k i n g ­
l y affectionate f a t h e r - d a u g h t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a n of a t r u l y cavalier atti­
t u d e (Talamo 1997: 52). N o n e t h e l e s s , it m a y b y n o w h a v e b e c o m e clear
t h a n his m o d e l of m i n d is r a d i c a l i n that it constitutes essentially a
process m o d e l .
T h e m i n d is c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v i n g or d e v e l o p i n g t h r o u g h the w o r k ­
i n g s of thought, o r else d e t e r i o r a t i n g , t h r o u g h the o p e r a t i o n of w h a t
B i o n t e r m e d lies—the e v a s i o n of frustration a n d reality t h r o u g h p s y ­
c h o l o g i c a l l y o m n i p o t e n t m e c h a n i s m s . In B i o n ' s w o r k , a n d i n that of
some other p o s t - K l e i n i a n theorists, omnipotence or omniscience
d e s c r i b e s a state of m i n d i n w h i c h tolerance of frustration is so l i m i t e d
that the i g n o r a n c e w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e be tolerated u n t i l a t h o u g h t
c o u l d e m e r g e is i n s t e a d d e n i e d t h r o u g h p r e m a t u r e ' k n o w l e d g e ' . A n
e x a m p l e m i g h t b e the patient w h o ' k n o w s ' w h a t his analyst is t h i n k ­
i n g , i n preference to tolerating the n o t - k n o w i n g w h i c h m i g h t a l l o w a
n e w a n d c h a l l e n g i n g v i e w p o i n t to be c o n s i d e r e d . B i o n d e e m e d this
k i n d of e v a s i o n to be d a m a g i n g to the m i n d a n d v i e w e d it as a n t i ­
development.
In B i o n ' s c a n o n , t r u t h a n d the reality p r i n c i p l e are m o t i v a t i o n a l
forces of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e to the F r e u d i a n pleasure p r i n c i p l e ( B i o n
1984a: 31); it is e m o t i o n a l g r o w t h w h i c h p r o v i d e s a m o r e p o w e r f u l l y
e n e r g i s i n g p r i n c i p l e t h a n s e x u a l l i b i d o (cf. S y m i n g t o n & S y m i n g t o n
1996: 7). F o r F r e u d , a d r e a m is a h i d d e n desire p r e s e n t e d i n d i s g u i s e d
f o r m , whereas for B i o n it is the first stage i n the synthesis a n d repre­
s e n t a t i o n of u n o r g a n i s e d aspects of experience. F o r F r e u d , the f u n c t i o n
of t h o u g h t is to decrease tension; for B i o n , its p u r p o s e is the manage­
ment of t e n s i o n — b e a r i n g p a i n is a n essential prerequisite to the d e v e l ­
o p m e n t of a c a p a c i t y for t h o u g h t ( B i o n 1984a: 29). B i o n w o u l d also
92 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

a p p e a r to h a v e r e p u d i a t e d F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of the role of ' p r i ­

m a r y ' a n d ' s e c o n d a r y processes' i n t h i n k i n g , a n d to h a v e r e p l a c e d
these w i t h the p r o c e s s i n g of beta elements t h r o u g h a l p h a f u n c t i o n a n d
the contact b a r r i e r (Bion 1984a: 22, 54). I n d e e d , B i o n ' s d a u g h t e r has
a r g u e d that F r e u d ' s t h e o r y of consciousness, a n d B i o n ' s t h e o r y of
a l p h a f u n c t i o n possess a v e r y s i m i l a r status, as '...heuristic t o o l s — m o d ­
e l s — e n a b l i n g us to conceptualise a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w h a t w e t h i n k
w i t h greater ease a n d clarity' (Talamo 1997: 52). D e s p i t e B i o n ' s great
respect for F r e u d , a n d his a c k n o w l e d g e d i n d e b t e d n e s s , h e constituted
a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of m i n d a n d m e n t a l m e c h a n i s m s a c c o r d i n g to a n
essentially different p a r a d i g m . Nevertheless, he retained m a n y c o r p o ­
real m e t a p h o r s for m e n t a l processes—for e x a m p l e , his use of the a l i ­
m e n t a r y s y s t e m as a m o d e l for the processes of t h o u g h t . T h i s is c o n ­
sistent w i t h his v i e w that p s y c h e a n d s o m a are f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n s e p a ­
r a b l e — s i m i l a r to the F r e u d i a n n o t i o n of a ' b o d y e g o ' ( F r e u d 1923: 26).
B i o n ' s w o r k c o n t r a d i c t e d m u c h of the spirit of K l e i n i a n t h e o r y i n
that he e m p h a s i s e d the i m p o r t a n c e of personal meaning as a g o a l . H i s
later w o r k , o n ultimate or transcendent reality, w h i c h m i g h t be r e g a r d ­
e d as b e l o n g i n g quite c o m f o r t a b l y to the m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n , w a s total­
l y u n a c c e p t a b l e to m a n y K l e i n i a n s . Nonetheless he r e t a i n e d , assimilat­
e d , a n d m a d e fresh use of m a n y core K l e i n i a n c o n c e p t s — i n p a r t i c u l a r
projective identification, splitting, envy, a n d the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d
d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , as J. a n d N . S y m i n g t o n p o i n t out, he
u s e d t h e m i n the service of ' a different m e t a p s y c h o l o g y ' ( S y m i n g t o n &
S y m i n g t o n 1996: 11). M e l a n i e K l e i n w a s the first to posit a n 'episte­
m o p h i l i c instinct' as a central d r i v e i n d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h b e c a m e the
p r i m a r y force i n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n . B i o n w a s , therefore, a p s y c h o a n a ­
lytic r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n the w a y that (to use his o w n terms) he b r o u g h t
' n e w vertices' to bear o n m a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c shibboleths.
H e d r e w w i d e l y f r o m m a n y other intellectual d i s c i p l i n e s : f r o m
mathematics (for instance, the 'selected fact' c o m e s f r o m P o i n c a r e
[Bion 1984a: 72]); from philosophy (especially Plato, Kant and
Wittgenstein); a n d f r o m d i v i n i t y (the G n o s t i c s , J u l i a n of N o r w i c h , a n d
St. Augustine). His t h i n k i n g bears comparison with that of
G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o (1668-1744), a l t h o u g h this is not a p h i l o s o p h e r to
w h o m h e ever referred. V i c o ' s a x i o m that ' M e n at first feel w i t h o u t p e r ­
c e i v i n g , then they perceive w i t h a t r o u b l e d a n d agitated spirit, f i n a l l y
they reflect w i t h a clear m i n d ' (Vico 1984: 218) c o u l d almost serve as a
p a r a p h r a s e of B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the m e n t a l processes i n v o l v e d i n
thinking.
 Jean White 93

V i c o a n d B i o n reject C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m a l t h o u g h , as A n d r e G r e e n
has p o i n t e d out, a c c o r d i n g to a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( G r e e n 1998),
B i o n w a s nevertheless v e r y m u c h i n f l u e n c e d b y Descartes. B o t h V i c o
a n d B i o n focus o n ' k n o w l e d g e f r o m the i n s i d e ' , a n d e m p h a s i s e the role
of e m o t i o n as central to the d e v e l o p m e n t of t h o u g h t . U l t i m a t e l y b o t h
a w a r d v e r y h i g h status to the v a l u e of intuition i n the process of l e a r n ­
i n g . I n d e e d , it is p r o b a b l y o n e of the h a l l m a r k s of B i o n ' s greatness that
it is r e l a t i v e l y easy to d r a w parallels b e t w e e n his w o r k a n d that of
g r o u n d - b r e a k i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m other e p o c h s .

The meaning of learning

So, n o w w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d h i s ideas i n s o m e detail, w h a t does this

c u r i o u s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o l y m a t h offer those of us for w h o m the arts of
teaching a n d l e a r n i n g are p r i m a r y p r e o c c u p a t i o n s ?
B i o n d e v e l o p e d his t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g as a m e a n s to b r e a k free of
the constraints i m p o s e d b y the latent r e d u c t i o n i s m of m u c h p s y c h o a n ­
alytic theory. H i s m o d e l of m i n d , a l t h o u g h f i r m l y r o o t e d i n somatic
a n d e m o t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s , enables u s to concentrate o n w h a t is essen­
tially ' h u m a n ' i n h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t — n a m e l y , the a b i l i t y to think
one's w a y into c h a n g e a n d c h a n g e d p e r c e p t i o n s of 'reality'.
B i o n e m p h a s i s e d the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t he c a l l e d ' l e a r n i n g '
a n d ' l e a r n i n g a b o u t ' ( w h i c h is also related to the d i s t i n c t i o n he d r e w
b e t w e e n ' e v o l u t i o n ' a n d ' m e m o r y ' ) . In his n o t a t i o n a l m o d e l , l e a r n i n g
is represented b y the ' K ' l i n k . K , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n :

...does n o t c o n v e y a sense of finality, that is to say, a m e a n i n g that

x is i n p o s s e s s i o n of a piece of k n o w l e d g e c a l l e d y, b u t rather that
x is i n the state of getting to k n o w y a n d y is i n a state of getting
to be k n o w n b y x. ( B i o n 1984a: 47)

R e a l k n o w l e d g e , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n , i n v o l v e s e m o t i o n at its core,
a n d t r u t h is a n e m o t i o n a l experience. ' L e a r n i n g about', i n contrast, is
exteriorised, a n d occurs i n a w a y w h i c h d o e s n o t change or challenge
the f o u n d a t i o n s of a p e r s o n ' s b e i n g ; it i s — a c c o r d i n g to B i o n — s i m p l y
memory.
A l l of this, then, begs the d e e p l y p o l i t i c a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y p h i l o s o p h ­
ical q u e s t i o n : what is learning for?
F o r the p u r p o s e s of this chapter, I a m c h o o s i n g to prioritise the
s a m e k i n d of l e a r n i n g as B i o n . T h i s l e a r n i n g is a n integral p a r t of p e r ­
94 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t — i t m a k e s use of the student's e x p e r i e n c e o f life so

far, a n d it changes the student's v i e w of the w o r l d for ever. T h i s k i n d
of l e a r n i n g c a n be i n t e r n a l i s e d as a resource a n d a s o u r c e o f strength
a n d authority, a n d m a y , ultimately, require the p e r s o n to act u p o n their
e n v i r o n m e n t . It w a s this w h i c h B i o n c a l l e d ' e v o l u t i o n ' .
Y o u m a y h a v e n o t i c e d that ' A c t i o n ' is the sixth a n d p e n u l t i m a t e
d e v e l o p m e n t a l o n g the t o p r o w of the G r i d . B y a c t i o n , B i o n m e a n t a
deeply thought-through decision—the p o l a r o p p o s i t e of m i n d l e s s action,
a c t i n g o n i m p u l s e , o r acting as a m e a n s of a v o i d i n g t h o u g h t . T h e r e are,
therefore, v e r y great similarities b e t w e e n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f the u l t i ­
mate o u t c o m e s of t h o u g h t , a n d P a o l o Freire's n o t i o n o f ' conscientiza­
cao\ F r e i r e ' s t e r m integrates the process of b e c o m i n g subjectively
h u m a n , l e a r n i n g to p e r c e i v e i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of a n
a u t h e n t i c subjectivity, a n d e n g a g i n g i n p o l i t i c a l p r a x i s b a s e d o n those
p e r c e p t i o n s . H e d r e w these c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s of a d u l t
literacy c a m p a i g n s i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , i n w h i c h h e s a w that l e a r n i n g to
r e a d a n d w r i t e w a s inseparable f r o m l e a r n i n g to t h i n k . A n d once o n e
c a n t h i n k o n e ' s o w n t h o u g h t s , it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e to act u p o n the
w o r l d , rather t h a n be acted o n b y it. E d u c a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e — i n Freire's
t e r m s — i s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y activity. T h i n k i n g , for B i o n , is also a r e v o l u ­
t i o n a r y activity, a l b e i t — i n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n — r e s t r i c t e d to c h a n g i n g
the thinker.
B i o n w a s n o t at a l l p o l i t i c a l , i n the sense of p o s s e s s i n g a n i n f o r m e d
a n d a p p l i e d awareness of the w o r l d ' s inequalities a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y ­
driven power relationships. N o r were any of his writings overtly
a i m e d at a n e d u c a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e . B u t e v e n s o , h e n e v e r s h i r k e d f r o m
a l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n , a n d w o u l d — I t h i n k — h a v e a p p r o v e d of the a p p l i ­
c a t i o n o f h i s w o r k o n t h o u g h t , t h i n k i n g , a n d l e a r n i n g to the field o f
education.

Bion in the classroom

B i o n ' s w o r k c a n b e a p p l i e d m o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
the attitude of the teacher, a n d — t o a lesser e x t e n t — t o suggest specific
techniques a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s . M y a s s u m p t i o n — d e r i v e d f r o m B i o n ' s
a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g u n c o n s c i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d the relational
n a t u r e o f l e a r n i n g — i s that the state o f m i n d of the teacher, lecturer, o r
s e m i n a r leader w i l l h a v e the m o s t p r o f o u n d i m p a c t o n the s t u d e n t s '
c a p a c i t y to l e a r n .
 Jean White 95

My arguments are d e v e l o p e d f r o m experiences w i t h relatively

s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t u d e n t s — e i t h e r late adolescent or a d u l t — w i t h r e g a r d to
w h o m management control, a n d d i s c i p l i n e are n o t significant issues.
H o w e v e r , the ideas d i s c u s s e d here m a y h a v e s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n to w o r k
with children.
In a n i n f l u e n t i a l short p a p e r entitled ' N o t e s o n M e m o r y a n d D e s i r e '
(in B i o n 1984d) a n d , later, i n Attention and Interpretation (1984e: 41),
B i o n a d v o c a t e s that the p s y c h o a n a l y s t , i n o r d e r to p r o m o t e the evolu­
tion of m i n d i n h i s patient, s h o u l d i n h i b i t b o t h c o n s c i o u s m e m o r y a n d
desire for i m p r o v e m e n t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g or cure. S i m p l y h a v i n g a bad
m e m o r y w i l l n o t suffice, notes B i o n , because forgetting, i n this o r d i ­
n a r y sense, m e r e l y ties the m i n d to the s e n s u a l or concrete, a n d does
n o t facilitate the i n t u i t i v e because it does n o t p r o m o t e the necessarily
r e c e p t i v e state o f m i n d . A d i s c i p l i n e d d e n i a l of m e m o r y a n d desire, o n
the other h a n d , p r o m o t e s w h a t B i o n calls a n 'act of f a i t h ' , a state of
m i n d w h i c h h e referred to elsewhere as ' r e v e r i e ' , i n w h i c h a n intuitive,
d e e p a n d new i n s i g h t o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n d e v e l o p i n s u c h a w a y as
to c h a n g e or a d v a n c e a n d enlarge the m i n d a n d its a p p e r c e p t i o n s .
B i o n also d e f i n e d reverie as that w h i c h Keats t e r m e d 'negative
c a p a b i l i t y ' — ' w h e n a m a n is capable of b e i n g i n uncertainties, m y s t e r ­
ies, d o u b t s , w i t h o u t a n y irritable r e a c h i n g after fact a n d r e a s o n ' (Keats,
cited i n B i o n 1984e: 125). It is a state of m i n d w h i c h is b o t h necessarily
r e c e p t i v e , a n d y e t i n a state of s u s p e n d e d a n i m a t i o n , for this is h o w a
n e w i d e a or i n t u i t i o n c a n enter consciousness. It is the state of m i n d i n
w h i c h the m o t h e r receives the b a b y ' s n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d
transforms t h e m into t h o u g h t , i n order to m a k e the b a b y ' s over­
w h e l m i n g e m o t i o n a l experiences bearable. It w a s also A r c h i m e d e s '
state of m i n d i n his f a m o u s b a t h . It is n o t a s t r i v i n g after a n y t h i n g i n
particular, n o r a l o g i c a l or c o n s c i o u s effort to p u t t w o a n d t w o togeth­
er. Instead, i n this state of m i n d , the m a x i m u m f r e e d o m of m o v e m e n t
b e t w e e n the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d the d e p r e s s i v e positions is p o s s i ­
ble. A p a r t i a l regression to a n unformed state takes place, a n d y e t the
m i n d is still alert a n d alive, a n d r e a d y to take h o l d of b a r e l y f o r m e d
e m e r g e n t t h o u g h t s , taking t h e m as far as i n s p i r a t i o n w i l l allow. I n this
state o f m i n d a 'selected f a c t ' — i n the f o r m of a n i d e a p u t f o r w a r d b y a
s t u d e n t , for e x a m p l e — c a n be g r a s p e d i n s u c h a w a y as to facilitate
m a x i m u m e x p l o r a t i o n of its ramifications a n d associations. T h r o u g h
the teacher's state of reverie students c a n be greatly e n a b l e d to t h i n k ,
a n d e n c o u r a g e d to s u s p e n d t e m p o r a r i l y their ' g i v e n s ' a n d ' k n o w n s ' i n
96 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

f a v o u r o f the r i s k y activity (or m a y b e e v e n passivity) of a l l o w i n g n e w

t h o u g h t s to enter consciousness.
T h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y interactive process c a n be e n h a n c e d b y a p p r o ­
p r i a t e a n d i n f o r m e d varieties o f c o n t a i n m e n t . B i o n ' s c o n c e p t o f c o n ­
t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d c a n be a p p l i e d to the c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n i n b o t h its
m o t h e r / i n f a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n , a n d that o f the parental c o u p l e . In m o t h ­
e r / i n f a n t f o r m , the teacher contains the u n f o r m e d t h o u g h t s a n d c o m ­
m u n i c a t i o n s o f h i s or her students t h r o u g h a w i l l i n g n e s s to h o l d t h e m
i n m i n d w i t h o u t p r e m a t u r e f o r c i n g of r a t i o n a l c o n c l u s i o n s . S h e or h e
m u s t h a v e the receptive c a p a c i t y to tolerate h a l f - d e v e l o p e d thoughts
a n d creative m e a n d e r i n g s , u n t i l either the student, o r a g r o u p o f s t u ­
dents—with or without the t e a c h e r — c a n a l l o w these t h o u g h t s to
e v o l v e i n t o f u l l y e m e r g e n t ideas, w h i c h c a n t h e n be tested b y r a t i o n a l
processes a n d b y exposure to other ideas i n the s a m e i n t e l l e c t u a l arena.
C o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d i n its parental a n d coital f o r m is less o b v i o u s ­
l y a p p l i c a b l e to the c l a s s r o o m , b u t is still a n extremely u s e f u l concept.
In its c l i n i c a l u s a g e , the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y of the p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p c a n represent i n s y m b o l i c f o r m v a r i o u s disturbances o r difficulties
i n t h i n k i n g , o r it c a n illustrate h o w m e n t a l connections are m a d e o r
a v o i d e d . F o r instance, the p e r s o n w h o c a n n o t quite a l l o w his o r h e r
parents to c o m e together i n a sexual f o r m i n h i s or h e r m i n d m a y h a v e
a c o r r e s p o n d i n g difficulty w i t h a l l o w i n g t w o ideas to connect. T h e
result m i g h t b e s o m e o n e w h o m w e c o m m o n l y describe as V a g u e ' .
A l t h o u g h h e o r she sort of has ideas, they r e m a i n i n d e f i n i t e , lack
i m p a c t , a n d n e v e r quite c o m e to the p o i n t . In contrast, active p e n e t r a ­
tive i n t e r c o u r s e is a potent s y m b o l for the c o n j u n c t i o n of t h o u g h t , a n d
i n t u r n p r o v i d e s a m o r e active, v i g o r o u s m o d e l o f c o n t a i n m e n t . O n e
e x a m p l e o f this m i g h t be a n i m p r o m p t u lecture. T h e r e c a n be s o m e ­
t h i n g quite different about the q u a l i t y of t h i n k i n g that takes p l a c e i n a
m o r e or less s p o n t a n e o u s lecture, rather t h a n s i m p l y r e a d i n g f r o m a
p a p e r o r notes. A s the teacher speaks, h e o r she is t h i n k i n g . S h e o r he
m a y d e v e l o p n e w ideas o r strands of t h o u g h t i n the course o f the d e l i v ­
ery. T h i s is often m o r e interesting a n d exciting to listen to; the process
of t h i n k i n g itself c a n i m p a c t p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o n the students, s t i m u l a t ­
i n g a n d p r o v o k i n g a m o r e active, t h o u g h t f u l response. It facilitates p a r ­
ticipative l e a r n i n g , i n other w o r d s , because the students are p a r t y to
the t h o u g h t - p r o c e s s e s of the teacher as they occur, a n d are t h u s e n c o u r ­
a g e d to t h i n k themselves.
A n o t h e r f o r m of active c o n t a i n m e n t m i g h t be the facilitation o f d i s ­
c u s s i o n , t h r o u g h techniques w h i c h require a n d p r o v o k e thinking.
 Jean White 97

T h e s e m i g h t i n c l u d e the setting of p r o b l e m s to w h i c h the teacher h a s

n o a b s o l u t e l y p r e d e t e r m i n e d answers. O r , alternatively, o n e m i g h t
e n c o u r a g e the students to g i v e their o w n presentations, b u t w i t h the
p r e s e n c e of the teacher as a n active, c o n t a i n i n g force, s u p p o r t i n g a n d —
where n e c e s s a r y — p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the a r g u m e n t s a n d dilemmas
p o s e d . O r o n e m i g h t incite t h o u g h t t h r o u g h m o r e deliberate i n t r o d u c ­
tion of paradoxes or contradictions.
T h e s e ideas are less a p p l i c a b l e to the t e a c h i n g of facts t h a n to the
e n c o u r a g e m e n t of interpretations, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d the generation
of m e a n i n g . T h e s e m e t h o d s also m a k e certain a s s u m p t i o n s about
k n o w l e d g e : that it is a c o m p l e x entity, a l w a y s u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t ; that
there m a y b e several v a l i d p o i n t s o f v i e w w h i c h it is p o s s i b l e to bear i n
m i n d at the s a m e t i m e ; a n d that e v e r y intellectual p a r a d i g m e m b o d i e s
o n l y a p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t r u t h or o f reality (whatever that m i g h t
b e , a n d w h e t h e r w e c a n ever a p p r e h e n d a n y t h i n g close to it...). In
B i o n ' s terms, t r u t h is a process, a n d the toleration of d o u b t is a neces­
sity for l e a r n i n g .
T h e search f o r m u l t i p l e vertices c a n also b e a p o w e r f u l m e a n s of
g e n e r a t i n g debate a n d d i v e r g e n c e of o p i n i o n , w i t h o u t a destructive
l e v e l o f conflict o r factionalism. M u l t i p l e vertices c a n demonstrate
how—psychically speaking—diverse perspectives throw different
l i g h t o n a p r o b l e m o r a n issue, a n d d i s c o u r a g e the h o l d i n g of fixed
p o s i t i o n s . M u l t i p l e vertices enable m e n t a l flexibility a n d agility, a n d —
p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y — a r e a m e a n s o f c o n s t a n t l y c a l l i n g into
q u e s t i o n the issue u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .
F i n a l l y , the B i o n i a n n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g — o r 'the K a c t i v i t y ' — r e p r e ­
sents s o m e t h i n g that is m u c h closer to the sense of ' g e t t i n g to k n o w '
t h a n to h o l d i n g o r ' h a v i n g ' a p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e of k n o w l e d g e . In this
sense k n o w i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e are, therefore, f u n d a m e n t a l a n d q u i n ­
tessentially h u m a n processes, as o p p o s e d to h a v i n g a n y t h i n g to d o w i t h
p o s s e s s i n g a piece of k n o w l e d g e . T h i s latter m i g h t b e d u b b e d the 'sta­
tus' o r ' o w n e r s h i p ' m o d e l o f k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h c o m p a r e s interesting­
l y w i t h Freire's critique of 'the b a n k i n g c o n c e p t of e d u c a t i o n ' (Freire
1970: 53-4).
In terms of Bion's G r i d , knowledge p r o c e e d s b y w a y of ever
i n c r e a s i n g abstractions. W i t h i n c r e a s i n g specificity, k n o w l e d g e p r o c e e d s
to e x p l o r e the relationships b e t w e e n elements rather t h a n the elements
t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s process negates the concrete a n d p a r t i c u l a r ; the m o r e
s u c c e s s f u l the abstraction o r theorisation o f the c o m m o n o r l i n k i n g r e l a ­
98 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

t i o n s h i p , the m o r e u n i v e r s a l a n d true the k n o w i n g or l e a r n i n g (cf.

G r e e n 1998). In this w a y ,

...the success of abstraction c a n be m e a s u r e d b y the a m o u n t of

' c o n f i d e n c e ' created, a f e e l i n g a n a l o g o u s to the feeling created b y
the fact of k n o w i n g that sense i m p r e s s i o n s c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h
other senses or s h a r e d w i t h other people (common sense).
Confidence is strengthened when the representation corre­
s p o n d s not o n l y to the e m o t i o n a l experience f r o m w h i c h it w a s
abstracted, b u t also to other realisations n o t k n o w n at the p o i n t
of abstraction. ( B l e a n d o n u 1994: 161)

In terms of the c l a s s r o o m , the v a l u e s d e r i v e d f r o m this w a y of

t h i n k i n g a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d the a c h i e v e m e n t of k n o w l e d g e p r i v i l e g e
s h a r e d reflection, d e e p t h o u g h t , a n d intellectual d i s c o v e r y . T h e y rele­
gate to second-class c i t i z e n s h i p a n y k i n d of ' l e a r n i n g b y rote', ' m e m o ­
r i s i n g ' or ' k n o w i n g about'. Instead, the B i o n i a n a p p r o a c h constitutes
essentially a n a d v e n t u r e m o d e l of l e a r n i n g , rather t h a n a m e r c h a n d i s ­
i n g a c q u i s i t i o n of 'facts' a n d ' l i n k a g e s ' .
I s h a l l n o w e x p l o r e i n m o r e d e t a i l a n a c t u a l e x a m p l e f r o m the class­
r o o m , a n d d r a w s o m e m o r e substantial p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n B i o n a n d the
r a d i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g of P a o l o Freire.

Experiences in learning

A b o u t a y e a r a g o I w a s i n v i t e d to teach a series of c l i n i c a l s e m i n a r s —
e l e v e n i n a l l — w i t h a g r o u p of students o n the f i n a l y e a r of a u n i v e r s i ­
t y - b a s e d p o s t g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g course i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y . T h i s c o u r s e
c o m b i n e d academic rigour w i t h a clinical apprenticeship system. T h e
s t u d e n t s w e r e r e q u i r e d to sit e x a m i n a t i o n s i n d i v e r s e strands of p s y ­
c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y a n d to w r i t e a theoretical thesis, a n d at the s a m e
time to d e v e l o p their skills, experience, a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g as p s y ­
chotherapeutic p r a c t i t i o n e r s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , therefore, a major
e m p h a s i s of the course w a s the c o m b i n a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e o r y
a n d practice.
A t the p o i n t I a r r i v e d , i n the s e c o n d t e r m of the t h i r d year, this w a s
p r e c i s e l y w h a t the students felt they c o u l d not d o . T h e y felt d e - s k i l l e d
i n b o t h areas, h a r b o u r e d m a j o r anxieties a b o u t their a b i l i t y to practice
as c l i n i c i a n s , a n d near-catastrophic anxieties c o n c e r n i n g their i m p e n d ­
i n g theoretical e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h e y w e r e a n extremely interesting a n d
 Jean White 99

u n u s u a l g r o u p o f students. T h e i r c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s r a n g e d across
J e w i s h , N i g e r i a n , A f r o - C a r i b b e a n , Irish, W e l s h , A r m e n i a n , I n d i a n a n d
I r a n i a n . M a n y w e r e i n v o l v e d i n w o r k i n g w i t h refugees, a n d several
c a m e f r o m refugee b a c k g r o u n d s . S o m e h a d experience of p o l i t i c a l
i m p r i s o n m e n t . I n d e e d , the extremity o f the experiences s o m e o f the
students h a d u n d e r g o n e , a n d their w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t c u l t u r a l b a c k ­
g r o u n d s , w e r e b o t h critical factors i n their a b i l i t y to l e a r n — a s I shall
demonstrate.
V e r y creatively, t h e y d e c i d e d to m a k e use o f m e to tackle s o m e o f
their p r e d o m i n a n t anxieties, a n d I d e c i d e d to a l l o w t h e m to e m p l o y m e
i n this constructive fashion. F r o m the p r i v i l e g e o f w o r k i n g as their
teacher I learnt a h u g e a m o u n t a b o u t the i n t e g r a t i o n o f theory a n d
practice i n the c l a s s r o o m , a n d a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p ­
m e n t . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , I l e a r n e d t h r o u g h a c t i o n h o w the p e r s o n a l i s a ­
t i o n o f l e a r n i n g — i n this case, the d e e p a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e o r y to p e r s o n ­
al u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e — c a n o p e n the d o o r to theoretical
d e v e l o p m e n t . For, as time w e n t o n , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that s o m e of the
students w e r e u n d e r g o i n g the sort o f p r o f o u n d p e r s o n a l t r a n s f o r m a ­
t i o n w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s deep l e a r n i n g , a n d also b e g i n n i n g to g a i n real
clinical confidence.
Initially, I h a d b e e n a s k e d to use the s t u d e n t s ' c l i n i c a l presentations
to illustrate different aspects of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, a n d thus enable
t h e m to d e v e l o p their theoretical u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s is a fairly stan­
dard teaching format within psychoanalytic a n d psychodynamic
courses. H o w e v e r , I s o o n d i s c o v e r e d that the students w e r e j a d e d a n d
j a u n d i c e d b y s t a n d a r d teaching m e t h o d s . T h e y r e s p e c t f u l l y insisted
that t h e y w a n t e d to b e taught, p e r h a p s p r e c i s e l y because the s t a n d a r d
t e a c h i n g formats w e r e not e n a b l i n g t h e m to l e a r n f r o m their o w n expe­
rience. M u c h to m y b e m u s e m e n t a n d i n i t i a l bafflement, they were
a b s o l u t e l y insistent o n this. B u t s u b s e q u e n t l y I realised that w h a t they
w e r e a c t u a l l y i n s i s t i n g u p o n w a s , i n fact, their desire to learn.
Together, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h e a c h other, students a n d teacher, w e
i d e n t i f i e d w h a t the students felt to b e the m o s t salient g a p s i n their
c o n c e p t u a l a n d c l i n i c a l grasp o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory. Together, w e
o r g a n i s e d these areas into a series o f c l e a r l y d e f i n e d subjects. W e
a g r e e d that for each s e m i n a r w e w o u l d p o o l suggestions for r e a d i n g . I
w o u l d p r o v i d e a b r i e f i m p r o m p t u o v e r v i e w o f the subject, a n d the s t u ­
dents w o u l d b r i n g clinical e x a m p l e s o r issues p u z z l i n g t h e m . A n d s o
w e e m b a r k e d o n w h a t h a d b e g u n to feel l i k e a n extremely exciting
v e n t u r e , because the p r o g r a m m e w e h a d d e v i s e d tallied i n its format
100 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

p r e c i s e l y w i t h w h a t the students h a d i d e n t i f i e d as their o w n l e a r n i n g

needs.
T h e risk p r o v e d w o r t h t a k i n g . T h e students felt that the s e m i n a r s
w e r e theirs. If they w e r e not l e a r n i n g w h a t t h e y w a n t e d i n the w a y they
w a n t e d , then they n o w felt they h a d the liberty to change the t e a c h i n g
a n d l e a r n i n g format. T h i s m e a n t that they w e r e t h i n k i n g c o n s t a n t l y —
w i t h , at times, furious concentration. T h e i r a l i e n a t i o n h a v i n g greatly
d i m i n i s h e d , they f o u n d that they w e r e l e a r n i n g w i t h p a s s i o n , i n t e n s i ­
ty, a n d intimacy. It w a s a n experience of a m e e t i n g of m i n d s w h i c h
c o u l d p r o b a b l y o n l y be m a t c h e d i n the c o n s u l t i n g - r o o m o r w i t h i n a n
i n t i m a t e relationship or great f r i e n d s h i p . A s their experiences of l e a r n ­
i n g freed t h e m , so they were able to speak m o r e f r a n k l y f r o m the heart.
In this w a y , experiences were expressed a n d l e a r n e d f r o m w h i c h m i g h t
o t h e r w i s e h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d too p a i n f u l o r difficult for the class­
r o o m . A s it t u r n e d o u t , the theory w a s n o t just ' a p p l i e d ' , b u t instead
absolutely k n i t t e d into the s t u d e n t s ' o w n experiences, a n d thus
b e c a m e i n d i s s o l u b l y a part of t h e m . T h e experience w a s far m o r e p r o ­
f o u n d than l e a r n i n g for a n e x a m i n a t i o n , a l t h o u g h they w e r e i n d e e d
l e a r n i n g for examinations. T h e w a y i n w h i c h w e h a d c o n s t r u c t e d the
s e m i n a r s , a n d the fact that w e h a d s h a r e d the experience of s t r u g g l i n g
to f i n d a w a y to p r o m o t e the deepest l e v e l of l e a r n i n g , acted b o t h as a
f r a m e a n d as a safe container for the p r o c e s s i n g of experiences w h i c h
m i g h t otherwise h a v e f u n c t i o n e d as a b a r r i e r to l e a r n i n g .

M o r e o v e r , s u r p r i s i n g l y , as time w e n t o n , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that
w i t h i n this constructed frame of s h a r e d l e a r n i n g the use of p s y c h o a n ­
alytic theory itself w a s s e r v i n g as a container a n d as a n a i d e to p r o ­
c e s s i n g the students' experiences. T h e f u n c t i o n of theory w a s d e m o n ­
strated as a n integral part of practice; t h o u g h t w a s not dissociated f r o m
experience. T h e students c h a n g e d a n d w e r e c h a n g e d ; there w a s n o
n e e d to t r y to remember.
T h e fact that these students c a m e f r o m w i d e l y diverse c u l t u r a l
b a c k g r o u n d s , a n d h a d extremely different experiences of life, w a s of
m a t e r i a l consequence c o n c e r n i n g their c a p a c i t y to construct a setting
i n w h i c h they c o u l d l e a r n w i t h s u c h p a s s i o n , intensity, a n d s p e e d . T o
b e g i n w i t h , it entailed that w e h a d n o o p t i o n b u t to engage w i t h m u l ­
tiple v e r t i c e s — i n w h a t e v e r aspect of theory o r field of e n q u i r y w e
f o c u s s e d o n . Because there w a s so little s h a r e d a s s u m p t i o n , e v e r y t h i n g
w e l o o k e d at w a s c o n t i n u a l l y c a l l e d into q u e s t i o n f r o m a r a d i c a l l y dif­
ferent perspective.
 Jean White 101

Because the students h a d a l r e a d y u n d e r g o n e a r d u o u s experiences

at the l i m i t s of h u m a n e n d u r a n c e , there w a s n o p o s s i b i l i t y that a n atti­
t u d e of n a i v e faith or trust c o u l d be a s s u m e d i n o u r s e m i n a r s . T h e trust
w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y established b e t w e e n the s t u d e n t s , a n d b e t w e e n
the students a n d myself, was meticulously built a n d challenged
repeatedly, b u t , for a l l that, r e m a i n e d d u r a b l e a n d r o b u s t l o n g after the
seminars h a d ended.
T h i s r e m i n d s m e of a p o i n t B i o n m a k e s a b o u t the growing contain­
er/contained s t r u c t u r e as a n a p p a r a t u s or vehicle for l e a r n i n g :
'Learning depends o n the c a p a c i t y for the g r o w i n g c o n t a i n e r / c o n ­
t a i n e d to r e m a i n integrated a n d yet lose r i g i d i t y ' (Bion 1984a: 93). In
other w o r d s , the testing a n d v i g o r o u s usage o f the container for l e a r n ­
i n g (in this e x a m p l e : myself, the s e m i n a r s , a n d their format) w a s a n
i n d i s p e n s a b l e aspect of o u r h a v i n g b e e n able to d e v e l o p a setting for
l e a r n i n g that c o u l d f u n c t i o n at a h i g h l y sophisticated level.

Bion and Freire—transformative praxis

W i t h o u t b e i n g a w a r e of it the students a n d I h a d b e e n e n g a g e d i n w h a t
Freire d e s c r i b e d as ' d i a l o g u e ' . In Freire's terms, w e h a d b e e n s t r i v i n g
to f i n d the 'true w o r d ' w h i c h unites reflection a n d action i n e d u c a t i o n ­
al p r a x i s .
T h i s b r i n g s m e to the final part of this chapter, i n w h i c h I s h a l l d r a w
s o m e m o r e explicit parallels b e t w e e n the t h i n k i n g of B i o n a n d Freire.
I s h a l l n o t focus o n the politics of Freire's d i s c o u r s e , n o r o n his p e d ­
agogic m e t h o d o l o g y for literacy. W h a t I h o p e to d o , h o w e v e r , b y l i n k ­
i n g a n d s h o w i n g the similarities b e t w e e n s o m e of the core ideas of
B i o n a n d Freire, is to u n d e r l i n e the transformative p o t e n t i a l of b o t h
sets of i d e a s , a n d to s h o w h o w they c o m p l e m e n t each other.
B i o n w a s a p s y c h o a n a l y s t w h o w a s essentially a p h i l o s o p h e r . H i s
t h e o r y o f t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g penetrates d e e p l y into the n a t u r e a n d
structure o f m i n d . Freire w a s a n educationalist w h o w a s , essentially, a
p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l . H i s t h e o r y penetrates d e e p l y into the nature a n d
structure of social a n d p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . T h e i r start- a n d e n d - p o i n t s are
t h u s the p o l a r opposites o f the i n t e r n a l a n d the external w o r l d , b u t
they are b o t h great theorists of h o w p e o p l e change. C o n s i d e r i n g that
they n e v e r m e t , a n d that it is e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y they read o n e a n o t h ­
e r ' s w o r k , the l e v e l o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y a n d s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is h i g h ­
l y s t r i k i n g . D r a w i n g o u t the f u n d a m e n t a l tenets a n d e m p h a s e s they
102 On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'

h a v e i n c o m m o n enables us to i d e n t i f y the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s a n d
v a l u e s o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p r a x i s of e d u c a t i o n .
F o r instance, b o t h w e r e d e e p l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h p r o b l e m s of s u b ­
jectivity a n d authenticity. Freire's 'true w o r d ' h a s a n a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l
p e n u m b r a o f m e a n i n g to B i o n ' s ' t r u t h ' . F o r B i o n , truth is the o u t c o m e
of b e a r i n g p a i n a n d frustration to a sufficient degree to m a k e p o s s i b l e
the p r o c e s s i n g o f e m o t i o n a l experience t h r o u g h a l p h a - f u n c t i o n ; it is
the antithesis o f the m e a n i n g l e s s discharge o f w o r d s t h r o u g h beta ele­
m e n t s . T o u s e w o r d s truthfully, therefore, o n e m u s t b o t h m e a n s o m e ­
t h i n g a n d d e v e l o p oneself i n the process.
In Freire's terms, the 'true w o r d ' is that w h i c h unites reflection a n d
a c t i o n . W i t h o u t the d i m e n s i o n of action, w e r u n the risk of verbalism:

...the w o r d is c h a n g e d into i d l e chatter, into a n a l i e n a t e d a n d

a l i e n a t i n g " b l a h " . It b e c o m e s a n e m p t y w o r d , o n e w h i c h c a n n o t
d e n o u n c e the w o r l d , for d e n u n c i a t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a
c o m m i t m e n t to t r a n s f o r m , a n d there is n o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h ­
out a c t i o n . (Freire 1970: 68)

Yet w i t h o u t the d i m e n s i o n of reflection, w e r u n the risk o f activism,

w h i c h negates true praxis a n d m a k e s d i a l o g u e i m p o s s i b l e :

E i t h e r d i c h o t o m y , b y creating u n a u t h e n t i c f o r m s of existence,
creates also u n a u t h e n t i c forms o f t h o u g h t , w h i c h reinforce the
o r i g i n a l d i c h o t o m y . . . T o exist, h u m a n l y , is to name the w o r l d , to
c h a n g e it... [S]aying that w o r d is n o t the p r i v i l e g e of s o m e f e w
p e r s o n s , b u t the r i g h t of e v e r y o n e . . . [I]f it is i n s p e a k i n g their
w o r d that p e o p l e , b y n a m i n g the w o r l d , t r a n s f o r m it, d i a l o g u e
i m p o s e s itself as the w a y b y w h i c h they achieve significance as
h u m a n beings. Dialogue is thus an existential necessity. (Freire
1970: 69, m y italics)

F r e i r e ' s d i a l o g i i e , then, is a k i n to B i o n ' s evolution; it is n o less t h a n

that w h i c h m a k e s h u m a n beings a u t h e n t i c a l l y h u m a n . B i o n ' s e v o l u ­
t i o n o f m i n d d e p e n d s o n the g r o w t h o f the i n t e r n a l c o n t a i n e r / c o n ­
t a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , s u c h that the m i n d b e c o m e s ever m o r e flexible,
robust, resilient, a n d capable of t h i n k i n g i n i n c r e a s i n g l y complex
f o r m s . Freire's d i a l o g u e — m e a n w h i l e — i s the t r a n s p o s i t i o n of B i o n ' s
e v o l u t i o n a r y i n t e r n a l process onto the external w o r l d . H u m a n s are
'beings i n the process o f b e c o m i n g ' . Because, i n Freire's v i s i o n , p e o p l e
 Jean White 103

b e c o m e h u m a n i n the act of n a m i n g the w o r l d , it is the social f o r u m s

i n w h i c h d i a l o g u e is p o s s i b l e — w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , c o m m u n i ­
ty o r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s — w h i c h are the h u m a n i s i n g forces i n society.
A p p l i e d to a specifically e d u c a t i o n a l context, d i a l o g u e is w h a t d i s t i n ­
g u i s h e s ' b a n k i n g ' e d u c a t i o n ( m e m o r i s i n g that w h i c h is g i v e n ; ' d o m e s ­
t i c a t i n g ' students) f r o m p r o b l e m - p o s i n g e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h offers a
s e a r c h for k n o w l e d g e i n the B i o n i a n sense of the w o r d . Teacher a n d
s t u d e n t s d e v e l o p ' c o - i n t e n t i o n a l i t y ' . T h i s m a k e s the process of s t u d y
(and its c o n c l u s i o n s ) collectively owned. Co-intentionality begins
w h e n the teacher presents a p r o b l e m for i n q u i r y related to a k e y aspect
of s t u d e n t experience, so that students recognise their t h o u g h t a n d l a n ­
g u a g e (their subjectivity) i n the study. ' K n o w i n g ' , for Freire, m e a n s
b e i n g a n active subject w h o questions a n d transforms. T o l e a r n is to
recreate the w a y w e r e g a r d ourselves, o u r e d u c a t i o n , a n d o u r society.
T h e r e are s i m i l a r affinities b e t w e e n Freire's c o n c e p t of conscientiza­
cao a n d B i o n ' s use of the w o r d ' t h i n k i n g ' — p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t w h e n
w e c o n s i d e r B i o n ' s G r i d . F o r Freire, t h o u g h t or t h i n k i n g is the f u n c ­
t i o n a l basis of d i a l o g u e :

...true d i a l o g u e c a n n o t exist unless the d i a l o g u e r s engage i n crit­

ical t h i n k i n g — t h i n k i n g w h i c h discerns a n i n d i v i s i b l e s o l i d a r i t y
b e t w e e n the w o r l d a n d the p e o p l e a n d a d m i t s of n o d i c h o t o m y
b e t w e e n t h e m — t h i n k i n g w h i c h perceives reality as process, as
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , rather t h a n as a static e n t i t y — t h i n k i n g w h i c h
d o e s n o t separate itself f r o m a c t i o n , b u t constantly immerses
itself i n t e m p o r a l i t y w i t h o u t fear o f the risks i n v o l v e d . (Freire
1970: 73)

In the process o f conscientizacao, critical t h i n k i n g c o m e s to replace

n a i v e t h i n k i n g . Conscientizacao, for Freire, represents the q u a n t u m shift
that takes place as a p e r s o n c o m e s to base their p e r c e p t i o n s of external
reality o n a n authentic self w h i c h has l e a r n e d f r o m its o w n e x p e r i ­
ences. W h e r e a s , for B i o n , the p e r s o n b e c o m e s c a p a b l e of i n c r e a s i n g l y
s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y abstract levels o f t h o u g h t , for Freire the
e m p h a s i s is a l w a y s o n the p e r c e p t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p o w e r
relationships i n external reality:

C o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n changes one's p e r c e p t i o n of the facts, b a s e d o n

a critical u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . A p e r s o n w h o h a s r e a c h e d c o n ­
scientisation is capable of clearly p e r c e i v i n g h u n g e r as m o r e t h a n
104 On 'Learning and 'Learning About'
7

just not eating, as the manifestation of a p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d

social reality of deep injustice... T h e p e r s o n w h o has reached
conscientisation is able to connect facts a n d p r o b l e m s a n d to
u n d e r s t a n d the connections between h u n g e r a n d f o o d p r o d u c ­
tion, food production and agrarian reform, agrarian reform and
reactions against it, h u n g e r a n d e c o n o m i c p o l i c y , h u n g e r and
v i o l e n c e a n d h u n g e r as violence... A p e r s o n w h o has r e a c h e d
conscientisation has a different u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h i s t o r y a n d of
his or her role i n it. (Freire 1996:182-3)

Freire's m o d e l of e d u c a t i o n , a n d B i o n ' s m o d e l of l e a r n i n g , are b o t h

i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m the process of b e c o m i n g authentically h u m a n , f r o m
d e v e l o p i n g as a h u m a n b e i n g . So, a l t h o u g h Freire alone emphasises
the necessarily c h a n g e d perceptions a n d relations w i t h r e g a r d to exter­
n a l reality, ultimately, i n neither v i s i o n c a n l e a r n i n g be d i v o r c e d f r o m
the w a y the learner relates to the w o r l d .
T o s u m m a r i s e briefly, m a n y of Freire's k e y concepts are c o m p a r a b l e
a n d d e p e n d u p o n s i m i l a r v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s to those of B i o n . T h e
process of conscientizacao is a k i n to that of the G r i d . Freire's v e r b a l i s m
a n d a c t i v i s m are v e r y like B i o n ' s 'discharge of beta elements'; the 'true
w o r d ' has m a n y similarities to ' a l p h a f u n c t i o n ' ; a n d F r e i r e a n ' d i a l o g u e '
a n d B i o n i a n ' e v o l u t i o n ' b o t h p r o c e e d w i t h i n relationships, a l t h o u g h
B i o n emphasises the internal d i m e n s i o n a n d Freire the external.
B u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t than the coincidence of their basic concepts is
the d e e p affinity o f their general outlook. B o t h created a language ofpos­
sibility. B o t h w e r e p r o f o u n d l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the constitution of
a u t h e n t i c subjectivity, a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t a l potential i n h e r e n t i n it.
Freire concentrated o n m a k i n g history, a n d B i o n o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of
self, b u t — i n m y o p i n i o n — t h e s e are m e r e l y differences of emphasis.
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g for e d u c a t i o n h a v e m u c h reso­
n a n c e a n d affinity w i t h the F r e i r e a n m e t h o d .
F i n a l l y , to r e t u r n to m y students, they w e r e e n g a g e d i n a struggle to
t r a n s f o r m d e g r a d i n g a n d d e h u m a n i s i n g experiences into manageable
entities w h i c h c o u l d be thought about, p l a c e d w i t h i n specific contexts,
u n d e r s t o o d , a n d u l t i m a t e l y u s e d to i n f o r m h u m a n e practices as c l i n i ­
cians. F o r this enterprise deep theoretical l e a r n i n g was also necessary.
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of Freire's t h i n k i n g to this k i n d of e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m
is self-evident, a n d n e e d not be spelt out. H o w e v e r , it m a y c o m e as a
s u r p r i s e that B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g also p r o v i d e s sage a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g assis­
tance w i t h the p r o b l e m s of integrated l e a r n i n g .
 Jean White 105

Notes

1
The original dates of publication for these works are as follows: Learning from Experience
(1962), Elements of Psychoanalysis (1963), Transformations (1965), Second Thoughts (1967), and
Attention and Interpretation (1970).
2 Readers interested in further study of The Grid should read Bion's Elements of Psychoanalysis
(1963) .
3 The term 'projective identification' refers to the way in which undigested or disowned
aspects of experience can be expelled or projected into the minds of others. Readers interested
in exploring this concept more fully should refer to Hinshelwood's Dictionary of Kleinian
Thought (1989: 179-208).
4
The term 'truth', for Bion, entails the capacity to tolerate pain and frustration until such a
time as an authentic transformation of experience into mental form, through alpha function,
can be brought about. Further reflections on the implications of Bion's notion of 'truth' are
presented throughout this chapter.
5 There is another example of a faulty internal parental model of container-contained below,
p.96 (the 'vague' person).

6 For further elaboration of this intriguing concept, see Britton et al. 1989: 7-8.

 T H E H A Z A R D S O F CURIOSITY: A KLEINIAN PERSPECTIVE

ON LEARNING

Linda Buckingham

P s y c h o a n a l y s t s v a r y i n their e x p l a n a t i o n s of failure to learn. F r e u d , for

instance, l i n k e d the stifling of sexual c u r i o s i t y i n c h i l d r e n , b y parents,
to later difficulties i n l e a r n i n g . If a c h i l d is m a d e to feel g u i l t y for b e i n g
c u r i o u s a b o u t the f u n d a m e n t a l sexual facts of life, t h e n other questions
m a y feel too d a n g e r o u s to ask.
O t h e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t s — s u c h as F a i r b a i r n a n d W i n n i c o t t — s t r e s s the
p s y c h i c injuries w h i c h parents inflict o n c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h c o n t e m p t ,
c r u e l t y a n d neglect, r e s u l t i n g i n different k i n d s of d e f e n s i v e ' s t u p i d i ­
ty'. T h e u n e a r t h i n g of w i d e s p r e a d s e x u a l abuse, often f a m i l i a l a n d
e n d u r i n g for generations, has lead to the r e c o g n i t i o n that severe l e a r n ­
i n g difficulties m a y be defensive a n d self-protective, the result of t r a u ­
m a rather t h a n d u e to innate c o n d i t i o n s . O n the w h o l e , p s y c h o a n a l y s t s
of different schools are u n i t e d i n c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n the unconscious
effects o n the c h i l d of maltreatment o r neglect.
T h e K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h differs f r o m these i n that it ascribes l e a r n i n g
difficulties, at least i n part, to the infant's i n h e r e n t aggression. F o r
K l e i n , f o l l o w i n g F r e u d , o u r p s y c h i c qualities are s u b s u m e d u n d e r the
t w o d o m i n a n t instincts: the life a n d d e a t h instincts. L o v e a n d hate are
r e g a r d e d as inherent feelings i n c h i l d r e n w h i c h , f r o m the v e r y first,
interact w i t h the c h i l d ' s objects—firstly, part-objects ( p r i m a r i l y the
breast) a n d later w h o l e objects: the mother, father a n d siblings.
M a n y K l e i n i a n s b e l i e v e i n the existence of a d e a t h instinct, s o m e
s i m p l y i n innate a g g r e s s i o n (a less o v e r w h e l m i n g concept), b u t the
e m p h a s i s is f i r m l y o n the c h i l d ' s i n t e r n a l w o r l d a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h the external w o r l d — t h a t is, o n the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n u n c o n ­
s c i o u s p h a n t a s y a n d the experience of external p e o p l e a n d situations.
T h e c h i l d ' s u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies a b o u t its objects w i l l , f r o m the
first, c o l o u r his or h e r perceptions of these objects a n d thus his or her
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m . T h e r e is a c o n t i n u o u s , c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n of
unconscious a n d a c t u a l experience of others, e a c h i n f l u e n c i n g the
other. In g o o d circumstances, actual experience w i l l m o d i f y the terrors
of the i n t e r n a l w o r l d a n d the c h i l d ' s p e r c e p t i o n w i l l be m o r e i n line
w i t h reality. In b a d circumstances, the c h i l d ' s f r i g h t e n i n g phantasies
w i l l b e a f f i r m e d a n d thus strengthened; real p e r s e c u t i o n enhances
 Linda Buckingham 107

p a r a n o i a a n d character d i s t u r b a n c e sets i n . W h e r e K l e i n a n d the post-

K l e i n i a n s differ f r o m other schools of p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s is i n their a s c r i p ­
t i o n o f o v e r w h e l m i n g sadistic i m p u l s e s to certain infants, e v e n u n d e r
g o o d external circumstances. Infants w i t h a n i n h e r e n t l y l o w tolerance
of f r u s t r a t i o n are l i k e l y to h a v e phantasies of a b a d , d e n y i n g breast a n d
w i l l e x p e r i e n c e sadistic, attacking i m p u l s e s t o w a r d s it. T h i s sets i n
t r a i n a n e g a t i v e cycle: fears of r e t r i b u t i o n , introjection of a b a d , d a m ­
a g e d breast, feelings of p e r s e c u t i o n w h i c h are then projected back onto
the breast, a n d so o n . E a r l y d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d b a b y c a n
set i n , e v e n if the m o t h e r is d o i n g her best to counteract the b a b y ' s anx­
iety. A n o t h e r baby, w i t h a h i g h tolerance of frustration, m a y thus fare
better u n d e r w o r s e external circumstances, a l t h o u g h a n y b a b y w h o s e
m o t h e r is n o t i n t o u c h w i t h its n e e d s w i l l suffer.
It is w i t h this e m p h a s i s o n the infant's o w n personality, u p o n h i s or
her o w n l o v i n g or sadistic i m p u l s e s , that I w i l l describe the K l e i n i a n
t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g a n d i n h i b i t i o n s i n l e a r n i n g . In a n early w o r k , ' T h e
D e v e l o p m e n t o f T h e C h i l d ' (1921), K l e i n offers a F r e u d i a n e x p l a n a t i o n
for i n h i b i t i o n s of all k i n d s , i n c l u d i n g i n h i b i t i o n s of c u r i o s i t y a n d l e a r n ­
i n g . B a s i n g h e r c o n c l u s i o n s o n the analysis of a y o u n g b o y (this w a s
her o w n s o n , unfortunately, a l t h o u g h s h e d i d not p u b l i c i s e this fact at
the time) she stressed the i m p o r t a n c e of not stifling the c u r i o s i t y of
children, especially their c u r i o s i t y about the b o d y a n d sexuality.
C h i l d r e n ' s questions, K l e i n b e l i e v e d , s h o u l d be a n s w e r e d openly. T h e
c r u s h i n g of this c u r i o s i t y b y parents w o u l d l e a d to its b e i n g repressed,
w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d l e a d to n e u r o t i c illness a n d to i n h i b i t i o n s i n l e a r n ­
i n g . A g l i m m e r of her later t h i n k i n g , h o w e v e r , is a l r e a d y present i n this
p a p e r w h e r e she refers to the infant's u r g e to u n d e r s t a n d a n d to k n o w .
T h i s f o r e s h a d o w s K l e i n ' s ' e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct' w h i c h is p r e s u m e d
to exist e v e n before the infant c a n s p e a k a n d w h i c h c a n l e a d to e x p e r i ­
ences o f h u g e frustration.
T h i s i d e a is e x p a n d e d i n a later paper, ' E a r l y Stages of the O e d i p u s
C o n f l i c t ' (1928). H e r e K l e i n discusses the infant's w i s h to u n d e r s t a n d
w h a t is b e i n g s a i d a r o u n d h i m , h i s consequent frustration a n d , u l t i ­
mately, h i s rage a n d h a t r e d i n response:

O n e of the m o s t bitter grievances w h i c h w e c o m e u p o n i n the

u n c o n s c i o u s is that this t r e m e n d o u s q u e s t i o n i n g i m p u l s e , w h i c h
is a p p a r e n t l y o n l y p a r t l y c o n s c i o u s a n d e v e n so far as it is c a n ­
n o t yet b e expressed i n w o r d s , r e m a i n s u n a n s w e r e d . A n o t h e r
r e p r o a c h f o l l o w s h a r d u p o n this, n a m e l y that the c h i l d c o u l d n o t
108 The Hazards of Curiosity

u n d e r s t a n d w o r d s a n d s p e e c h . T h u s his first q u e s t i o n s g o b a c k
b e y o n d the b e g i n n i n g s of his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s p e e c h . ( K l e i n
1928: 188)

If the feelings of rage a n d f r u s t r a t i o n are severe, certain i n h i b i t i o n s

m a y d e v e l o p i n later life, s u c h as the i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n a f o r e i g n l a n ­
g u a g e , or a h a t r e d for p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s , races, o r c o u n t r i e s . (I i m a g ­
i n e that s t u t t e r i n g a n d speech d e l a y m a y h a v e s i m i l a r causes.)
O n c e s p e e c h is a c h i e v e d , h o w e v e r , other frustrations of the episte­
m o p h i l i c instinct m a y occur. C h i l d r e n f r o m t w o o n w a r d s , before they
h a v e a c q u i r e d definite k n o w l e d g e of sexual matters for certain, h a v e
o n l y v a g u e l y f o r m e d ideas about t h e m , c o u p l e d w i t h a n intense u r g e
to k n o w : T h e c h i l d . . . feels this frustration the m o r e a c u t e l y b e c a u s e he
knows nothing d e f i n i t e a b o u t s e x u a l processes' ( K l e i n 1928: 188). This,
too, is h i g h l y f r u s t r a t i n g . Interestingly, this contradicts to s o m e extent
K l e i n ' s c o n t e n t i o n that m a l e a n d female infants h a v e s t r o n g genital
s e n s a t i o n s — p e n i l e a n d v a g i n a l — w h i c h g i v e rise to u n c o n s c i o u s ideas
of h e t e r o s e x u a l g e n i t a l c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y . She refers to the 'first stir­
r i n g s of the genital i m p u l s e s ' a n d believes that 'the o r a l , receptive a i m
of the [girl's] g e n i t a l exercises a d e t e r m i n i n g i n f l u e n c e i n the g i r l ' s
t u r n i n g to the f a t h e r ' ( K l e i n 1928: 192). She also discusses the g i r l ' s
' u n c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s of the v a g i n a ' a n d of 'sensations i n that o r g a n
a n d the rest of the genital a p p a r a t u s ' , a l t h o u g h she d o e s not n a m e the
clitoris. I t h i n k that if c h i l d r e n d i d h a v e this u n c o n s c i o u s knowledge
t h e n their s e x u a l q u e s t i o n s , i n this area at least, w o u l d a l r e a d y be p a r ­
t i a l l y satisfied.
I t h i n k F r e u d is m o r e accurate i n this respect w h e n he describes the
b i z a r r e c o n s c i o u s fantasies c h i l d r e n express a b o u t sexuality a n d r e p r o ­
d u c t i o n — e . g . that babies are b o r n f r o m the m o t h e r ' s b o t t o m or f r o m
her navel. F r e u d d i d not b e l i e v e that c h i l d r e n h a v e unconscious
' k n o w l e d g e ' ( w h a t e v e r that is) of these things, b u t t h o u g h t i n s t e a d that
y o u n g c h i l d r e n pass t h r o u g h a p h a s e of ' p o l y m o r p h o u s p e r v e r s i t y ' i n
w h i c h first the o r a l t h e n the a n a l zones are erotised, a l o n g w i t h other
p a r t s a n d surfaces of the b o d y ( F r e u d 1905a: 183ff). A c t i v i t i e s c a n also
b e c o m e e r o t i s e d , s u c h as ' w a t c h i n g ' or ' b e i n g w a t c h e d ' ( F r e u d 1905a:
169). Later, u n d e r the d o m i n a n c e of the genital p h a s e , these z o n e s a n d
p l e a s u r e s a s s u m e a lesser i m p o r t a n c e . F o r F r e u d , the s e x u a l d r i v e s are
n o t i n h e r e n t l y l i n k e d to a n y object, so that object choice is the o u t c o m e
of the c h i l d ' s a c t u a l experiences of their parents a n d siblings. C e r t a i n
e x p e r i e n c e s m i g h t l e a d c h i l d r e n to t u r n i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t f r o m one
 Linda Buckingham 109

p a r e n t a n d attach themselves to the other, or to i d e n t i f y w i t h one a n d

c o u r t the other.
F o r K l e i n , i n contrast, heterosexuality is b a s e d o n innate m a t c h i n g ,
whereby the sensations i n the infant's sexual organs (omitting any
m e n t i o n of the clitoris) dictate a n u n c o n s c i o u s i d e a of c o m p l e m e n t a r i ­
ty: p e n i s —> v a g i n a . O n the other h a n d , K l e i n ' s d e t a i l e d descriptions o f
object-relating a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y o p e n u p a m u c h m o r e c o m ­
p l i c a t e d p i c t u r e of sexuality. H e r t h e o r y of the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d
d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s offer i l l u m i n a t i n g accounts of the h a z a r d o u s j o u r ­
ney of infancy On this journey—a kind of infant's 'Pilgrims
Progress'—the b a b y faces m a n y obstacles a n d frustrations. It d e a l s
w i t h these a c c o r d i n g to its personality, w i t h the h e l p or h i n d r a n c e of its
parents. A s far as i n h i b i t i o n s of l e a r n i n g are c o n c e r n e d , it is i m p o r t a n t
to focus i n p a r t i c u l a r o n the p e r i o d c o v e r i n g the a n a l sadistic stage a n d
the s u b s e q u e n t ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , t h r o u g h w h i c h b o t h b o y s a n d g i r l s
m u s t pass, as o u t l i n e d i n ' E a r l y Stages of the O e d i p u s C o n f l i c t ' (1928).
T h i s p a p e r is a m i n e of interesting, c h a l l e n g i n g ideas, s o m e of w h i c h
K l e i n n e v e r really e x p a n d e d , b u t u p o n w h i c h w e c a n b u i l d .

* **

Before c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n these ideas, I s h a l l give a short account of

K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of infant a n d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , i n t e n d e d for those
readers not closely familiar w i t h K l e i n ' s w r i t i n g s .
A c c o r d i n g to K l e i n , the infant is b o r n r e a d y to relate to a s a t i s f y i n g
object. U n l i k e F r e u d , she d i d not believe i n a phase of p r i m a r y n a r c i s ­
s i s m , a n d — u n l i k e W i n n i c o t t — s h e d i d n o t think there w a s a p h a s e of
' i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ' d u r i n g w h i c h the infant is u n a w a r e of its separate­
ness f r o m the mother. F r o m the b e g i n n i n g , K l e i n b e l i e v e d , the infant
reaches out for a n d experiences a n object—the m o t h e r ' s breast (com­
b i n e d w i t h her s m e l l , voice, t o u c h , m o o d ) . She t h o u g h t that the infant
possesses f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a l o o s e l y f o r m e d ego, c a l l e d into b e i n g
b y the b a b y ' s n e e d to d e f e n d itself against the i n t e r n a l force of the
d e a t h instinct. In other w o r d s , the ego is p r e c i p i t a t e d b y the life
instinct.
W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e agrees w i t h this as a n a d e q u a t e — o r e v e n l o g i ­
c a l — e x p l a n a t i o n of the b i r t h of the e g o , it is e v i d e n t that s o m e e a r l y
f o r m of self is p e r f o r m i n g a f u n d a m e n t a l , tripartite p s y c h i c task f r o m
the b e g i n n i n g of life: i.e. s p l i t t i n g , p r o j e c t i n g , introjecting. S p l i t t i n g a n d
projection are d e f e n s i v e measures t a k e n b y the infant as w a y s of r e d i i c ­
110 The Hazards of Curiosity

i n g extreme anxiety. W h e n the b a b y has a g o o d f e e d , is n o u r i s h e d a n d

c o m f o r t e d , it w i l l p e r c e i v e the breast as g o o d . W h i l s t d r i n k i n g the g o o d
m i l k the b a b y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y introjects a n idea o f a g o o d , generous
breast. H o w e v e r , i f the b a b y h a s a n unsatisfactory e x p e r i e n c e of the
breast, d u e to frustration or the q u a l i t y of the feed, it w i l l introject a n
i d e a of a b a d breast w h i c h frustrates o r denies. T h i s is the basis of
u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y a n d the i n t e r n a l w o r l d of the c h i l d , w h i c h is
e x p e r i e n c e d concretely as c o n t a i n i n g a host o f objects i n v a r i o u s states
of g o o d a n d b a d h e a l t h , e n d o w e d w i t h either l o v i n g o r m a l i g n atti­
tudes.
T h e b a b y w i l l project its i d e a of the breast onto the b r e a s t so that it
w i l l b e p e r c e i v e d as either g o o d or b a d . N a t u r a l l y , n o b a b y has exclu­
sively g o o d experiences of f e e d i n g , w h i l e b a d experiences v a r y f r o m
b a b y to baby. B u t i n either case the infant's ego is too fragile to e n c o m ­
pass the i d e a that the breast c a n b e both g o o d a n d b a d . T h e b a d n e s s
threatens to o v e r w h e l m the g o o d a n d the b a b y feels it w i l l fall to bits.
In r e s p o n s e it splits the i d e a o f the g o o d breast f r o m that o f the b a d , i n
o r d e r to p r e s e r v e the sense of g o o d n e s s a n d the fragile i n t e g r i t y o f the
e a r l y ego.
T h e g o o d a n d the b a d breast, t h e n , o w e their characters i n the
infant's m i n d n o t just to the infant's actual e x p e r i e n c e o f f e e d i n g b u t
also to the phantasies w h i c h a c c o m p a n y this. A g o o d feed stimulates
l o v i n g i m p u l s e s w h i c h l e a d to i d e a l i s a t i o n of the breast. A b a d e x p e r i ­
ence stimulates c r u e l , aggressive i m p u l s e s w h i c h injure the breast i n
the infant's phantasy. A b a d , attacked a n d i n j u r e d breast, w h e n r e ­
introjected b y the baby, leads to fears o f retaliation a n d p e r s e c u t i o n . It
is v i t a l to the b a b y ' s sanity, t h e n , to feel that the g o o d breast is u n c o n ­
t a m i n a t e d b y the b a d .
In g o o d circumstances, the b a b y ' s p l e a s u r a b l e experiences o f the
breast w i l l o u t w e i g h the b a d ones a n d w i l l lessen the a w f u l n e s s of
f r i g h t e n i n g phantasies. W h e n the b a b y reaches four m o n t h s , its e x p e ­
rience of the m o t h e r b e g i n s to shift f r o m a part-object to a w h o l e - o b j e c t
e x p e r i e n c e . N o t o n l y d o the g o o d a n d b a d breast m o v e closer together
i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d as s p l i t t i n g decreases, b u t the m o t h e r b e g i n s to b e
e x p e r i e n c e d as p e r s o n . T h i s is the t h r e s h o l d o f the d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n .
From the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d perspective, mustering all possible
defences to protect itself f r o m b a d n e s s , the infant shifts to the p e r s p e c ­
tive o f s e e i n g further t h a n itself. H o w e v e r , the r e c o g n i t i o n that the
l o v e d m o t h e r is the s a m e p e r s o n w h o w a s h a t e d a n d attacked i n p h a n ­
 Linda Buckingham 111

tasy l e a d s to guilt. T h e w a y the infant deals w i t h this g u i l t is of crucial

i m p o r t a n c e for its further character d e v e l o p m e n t .
T h e i n f a n t d o m i n a t e d b y p a r a n o i d feelings w i l l f i n d this guilt i n t o l ­
erable. H e w i l l a s s u m e that the m o t h e r is n o t o n l y i n j u r e d but also
a n g r y a n d s e e k i n g to retaliate or injure h i m . In this narcissistic, p a r a ­
n o i d state, the b a b y w i l l attempt p r i m a r i l y to d e f e n d h i m s e l f f r o m the
p e r s e c u t o r y g u i l t a n d splits off a n y feelings of c o n c e r n a n d love.
C o n c e r n w i t h p r e s e r v a t i o n of the self w i l l be u p p e r m o s t i n the infant's
m i n d a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l p r o c e e d a l o n g narcissistic lines.
T h e infant w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o v i n g feelings a n d a relatively
secure internal good object w i l l e x p e r i e n c e his g u i l t as shocking,
p a i n f u l , d e p r e s s i n g , b u t not intolerable. W h i l s t this b a b y w i l l suffer
s o m e p e r s e c u t o r y feelings a n d fear r e v e n g e f r o m the mother, he w i l l
also h a v e reparative urges a n d w i l l try to m a k e g o o d the d a m a g e he
has d o n e i n phantasy. M o r e o v e r , he w i l l be a c t i n g o u t of gratitude for
the g o o d n e s s his m o t h e r has g i v e n h i m , n o t just out of g u i l t (cf. K l e i n
1957).
F r o m f o u r m o n t h s , u n t i l the infant is a b o u t t w o , he or she w i l l be
g r a p p l i n g w i t h the challenges of the d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e w i l l be
f r e q u e n t shifts b e t w e e n d e p r e s s i v e c o n c e r n a n d p a r a n o i d fears—that
is, b e t w e e n the d e p r e s s i v e a n d p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d positions—as the p e r ­
s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p s either i n a narcissistic f a s h i o n or i n a w a y more
f o c u s e d o n l o v e a n d c o n c e r n for the other.
O e d i p a l feelings, h a v i n g started at four, five or six m o n t h s , w i l l be
w e l l - d e v e l o p e d b y t w o years. T h e father, or m o t h e r ' s partner, w i l l f i g ­
u r e i n v a r i o u s significant w a y s : as l o v e d p a r e n t , r i v a l , e n e m y , a d m i r e d
f i g u r e , a n d so o n , a n d siblings w i l l also f i g u r e largely.

The Femininity Complex

K l e i n is n o t too clear o n her d a t i n g of the a l l - i m p o r t a n t ' f e m i n i n i t y

c o m p l e x ' , b u t this seems to o c c u r at a r o u n d t w o years a n d its reper­
c u s s i o n s f a n o u t into the d e v e l o p i n g O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . F o r K l e i n , all
r o a d s l e a d b a c k to the mother. B y the t i m e the father is taken into
a c c o u n t , his d i s t i n g u i s h i n g sexual feature, the p e n i s , is seen m a i n l y i n
r e l a t i o n to the m o t h e r as s o m e t h i n g she enjoys a n d is able to keep w i t h ­
i n h e r b o d y . If the p e n i s is attacked i n p h a n t a s y at this e a r l y stage, then
it is n o t as part of the father per se b u t as p a r t of h i m w h i c h the m o t h e r
has i n s i d e her. A s the c h i l d d e v e l o p s , the f a t h e r — a n d h i s g e n i t a l i a — i s
seen m o r e o n his o w n a c c o u n t a n d as a n alternative love-object to the
112 The Hazards of Curiosity

m o t h e r . H o w e v e r , it is the m a t e r n a l ' i m a g o ' w h i c h d o m i n a t e s e a r l y

c h i l d h o o d . It is i n the p e r i o d before the f u l l t h r e e - p e r s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p
of the O e d i p u s c o m p l e x that the ' f e m i n i n i t y c o m p l e x ' o c c u r s . B o t h the
b o y a n d the g i r l e n v y a n d a d m i r e the m o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a n d s e x u a l
a t t r i b u t e s — h e r breasts w h i c h give m i l k , h e r w o m b w h i c h p r o d u c e s
babies, h e r beauty. F o r the b o y a n d the g i r l , the courses r u n b y this
c o m p l e x are similar, t h o u g h their o u t c o m e s w i l l often differ a c c o r d i n g
to gender.
F o r b o t h sexes, the desire to possess the m o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a n d sex­
u a l attributes can l e a d to e n v i o u s , destructive attacks i n phantasy.
T h e s e result i n fears of r e t r i b u t i o n — f e a r s that the c h i l d ' s o w n insides
w i l l b e r o b b e d , s c o o p e d out, bitten u p , d e s t r o y e d . T h e g i r l m a y fear
that h e r i n s i d e s are p e r m a n e n t l y d a m a g e d a n d that she w i l l be u n a b l e
to h a v e babies of her o w n . (I i m a g i n e she m a y also fear that she herself
is too d a n g e r o u s to be a mother.) She m a y later be p r o n e to h y p o c h o n ­
d r i a c a l anxieties.
T h e b o y m a y also fear that h i s i n s i d e s w i l l be d e s t r o y e d , b u t as w e l l
as this he w i l l h a v e a n acute fear of castration b y the mother. T h i s is
a n o t h e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m F r e u d , w h o r e g a r d e d the father as castrator.
F o r K l e i n , b y the time the b o y fears castration b y the father for the s i n
of d e s i r i n g his mother, he has a l r e a d y suffered fear of castration b y the
m o t h e r . T h i s is all the m o r e l i k e l y if, i n phantasy, his p e n i s has b e e n
u s e d against the m o t h e r as a n i n t r u s i v e , a t t a c k i n g w e a p o n . In later life
he m a y be s e x u a l l y i m p o t e n t . T h a t is, his p e n i s m a y be r e g a r d e d as so
p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s that it has to be r e n d e r e d ineffective. A n o t h e r
o u t c o m e of a b o y ' s a d m i r a t i o n a n d e n v y of the m o t h e r m a y be a n act­
i n g - o u t i n reality of the sadistic sexual phantasies of infancy. T h e b o y
m a y c o u n t e r his e n v y b y d e v e l o p i n g c o n t e m p t a n d h a t r e d of w o m e n ,
b y o v e r - v a l u i n g his p e n i s a n d his m a s c u l i n e p h y s i c a l a n d intellectual
ability. A t its m o s t d a n g e r o u s a n d least subtle this attitude is expressed
i n s e x u a l attacks, r a p e a n d m u r d e r . I a m r e m i n d e d here of R i p p e r - t y p e
m u r d e r s i n w h i c h the b u t c h e r y is c o n c e n t r a t e d o n the breasts, w o m b
a n d genitalia.

* * *

If o n e accepts these ideas o n the f e m i n i n i t y phase, it is n o t h a r d to see

that it is at this p o i n t l e a r n i n g difficulties are m o s t l i k e l y to set i n . T h e
e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct of the v e r y y o u n g c h i l d is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d
w i t h b o d i l y questions a b o u t his or her o w n b o d y , the m o t h e r ' s b o d y ,
 Linda Buckingham 113

the f a t h e r ' s b o d y . S o m e of the m o s t urgent c u r i o s i t y is directed t o w a r d

the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s : W h a t goes o n i n there? D o e s she secretly keep
m i l k f o r herself? A r e there babies g r o w i n g i n there? Is father's p e n i s i n
there? Is it a b e a u t i f u l sanctuary o r a m o n s t e r - i n f e s t e d forest? T h e c h i l d
m a y c o m e u p w i t h s o m e bizarre theories before his or her c u r i o s i t y
b e g i n s to be satisfied.
T h e e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct c a n f o u n d e r if it is too s t r o n g l y l i n k e d
w i t h i n t r u s i v e , sadistic feelings, if w a n t i n g to k n o w about the m o t h e r ' s
i n s i d e s a n d h e r m i n d is l i n k e d w i t h the w i s h to c o n t r o l , to possess, to
p u n i s h . C h i l d r e n ' s c u r i o s i t y is u s u a l l y c o l o u r e d b y s a d i s m to s o m e
d e g r e e a n d this has v a r i o u s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . T h e c h i l d m a y successfully
p u r s u e k n o w l e d g e t h r o u g h o u t his o r her life i n a w a y w h i c h i n v o l v e s
e x e r t i n g p o w e r a n d control o v e r others. In a d u l t h o o d this t e n d e n c y
m a y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n the w o r k p l a c e or i n p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , or
it m a y r e m a i n c a r e f u l l y d i s g u i s e d . F o r instance, g y n a e c o l o g y , p s y c h i a ­
t r y a n d the p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s are professions i n w h i c h the desire to
k n o w c o u l d e a s i l y be i n t r u s i v e l y a n d sadistically m o t i v a t e d . T h e y are
p r o f e s s i o n s w h i c h c a n l e n d themselves to p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s of m i s u s e ,
their objects b e i n g the w o m b a n d the m i n d . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d be
b o r n e i n m i n d that a n y p r o f e s s i o n c a n be m i s u s e d .
The epistemophilic instinct/impulse can r u n a more ordinary
c o u r s e if it is less a l l i e d to i n t r u s i v e , sadistic i m p u l s e s . It c a n also be
e m p l o y e d g e n e r o u s l y a n d w i t h l o v e , a l t h o u g h I suspect the desire to
k n o w is n e v e r e n t i r e l y free of the w i s h to possess a n d c o n t r o l .
A n o t h e r o u t c o m e is inhibition of l e a r n i n g . T h i s m a y be s p e c i f i c — e . g .
a n i n a b i l i t y to d o m a t h s or to s p e a k a foreign l a n g u a g e — o r it m a y be
g l o b a l . I d o n o t w i s h to m a k e generalisations r e g a r d i n g l e a r n i n g diffi­
culties. S o m e h a v e p h y s i c a l causes, whereas s o m e , l i k e d y s l e x i a , w h i c h
has n o t yet b e e n a s c r i b e d a p h y s i c a l or a genetic cause, s e e m to h o v e r
o n the b o r d e r b e t w e e n the p h y s i c a l a n d the p s y c h o l o g i c a l . I s h a l l o n l y
concentrate here o n the K l e i n i a n v i e w of p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n h i b i t i o n
w h i c h has its root i n guilt a n d anxiety.
If the c h i l d , d u r i n g the ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , d o e s n o t s i m p l y a d m i r e
h i s or h e r m o t h e r ' s f e m i n i n e qualities, b u t is i n s t e a d e x t r e m e l y e n v i o u s
of t h e m , a n d if h e o r she is n o t s i m p l y c u r i o u s a b o u t her m i n d a n d the
contents of h e r w o m b b u t is s a d i s t i c a l l y a n d d e s t r u c t i v e l y interested,
t h e n h e or she m a y w i t h d r a w f r o m a n y further c u r i o s i t y a b o u t the
m o t h e r . T h a t is, the g u i l t e x p e r i e n c e d for h a r b o u r i n g sadistic c u r i o s i t y
a n d c a r r y i n g o u t sadistic attacks i n p h a n t a s y m a y l e a d , n o t to r e p a r a ­
t i o n b u t to severe i n h i b i t i o n .
114 The Hazards of Cariosity

A c c o r d i n g to K l e i n , o r d i n a r y ' s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n is itself based o n

7

the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c urge to k n o w about the m o t h e r ' s insides. T h i s urge

w i l l a l w a y s cause a certain a m o u n t of a n x i e t y because c u r i o s i t y at this
stage is i n e v i t a b l y t i n g e d w i t h s a d i s m . I n ' T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S y m b o l
F o r m u l a t i o n i n the D e v e l o p m e n t of the E g o ' (1930), K l e i n w r i t e s about
the p r e g e n i t a l phase, w h e n g e n i t a l trends b e g i n to exercise a n i n f l u ­
ence. T h i s is the b e g i n n i n g of O e d i p a l conflict a n d s a d i s m p r e d o m i ­
nates. A l o n g s i d e of the infants' l i b i d i n a l interest i n his parent's b o d i e s ,
e s p e c i a l l y his m o t h e r ' s , the a n x i e t y a r i s i n g i n this phase

...sets g o i n g the m e c h a n i s m o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Since the c h i l d

desires to d e s t r o y the organs (penis, v a g i n a , breast) w h i c h stand
for the objects, he conceives a d r e a d o f the latter. T h i s a n x i e t y
c o n t r i b u t e s to m a k e h i m equate the organs i n q u e s t i o n w i t h
o t h e r things; o w i n g to this e q u a t i o n these i n their t u r n become
objects of anxiety, a n d so he is i m p e l l e d c o n s t a n t l y to m a k e other
a n d n e w equations, w h i c h f o r m the basis of h i s interest i n the
n e w objects a n d of s y m b o l i s m . ( K l e i n 1930: 220)

In other w o r d s , this anxiety p r o m p t s the c h i l d to d i v e r t his or her

c u r i o s i t y a w a y f r o m the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s a n d onto a s y m b o l i c e q u i v a ­
lent, s u c h as a t o y or a d o l l w h i c h w i l l then be u s e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d
w i t h interest. If this object also arouses a n x i e t y because of the s a d i s m
s t i l l attached to the c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y , then another s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t
w i l l be chosen, a n d so o n . I n the process, a n x i e t y is m a s t e r e d a n d the
c h i l d ' s interest i n objects b e c o m e s m o r e p l e a s u r a b l e . A t the same t i m e
l a n g u a g e is d e v e l o p i n g — a s y s t e m of signifiers w h i c h represents
t h i n g s , actions, feelings, b u t w h i c h is n o n e of these t h i n g s itself
If a n x i e t y a n d g u i l t p r o v e o v e r w h e l m i n g , the e a r l y process of choos­
i n g s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t s is s t o p p e d i n its tracks. I n its severe forms
this i n h i b i t i o n prevents p l a y ( w h i c h is a m e a n s of testing one's grasp of
the w o r l d ) a n d e v e n the d e v e l o p m e n t of speech. T h e c h i l d w i l l feel that
the t o y t r a i n or d o l l is the d a m a g e d a n d persecuted mother. The toy
w i l l be cast aside, a v o i d e d , a n d the i m p u l s e of c u r i o s i t y w i l l be
c h e c k e d , d a m p e n e d . S p e e c h c a n suffer a s i m i l a r fate. T h e c h i l d m a y
m i s t a k e w o r d s for things, so that l a n g u a g e w i l l be a v o i d e d a n d there­
b y i m p e d e d . W e see the s a m e process i n the p s y c h o t i c b r e a k d o w n of
a d u l t s w h e n w o r d s are e x p e r i e n c e d as concrete objects. S i m i l a r l y , ideas
a n d objects c o l l a p s e i n t o their s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t s . I n h e r p a p e r o n
s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n , H a n n a S e g a l g i v e s the e x a m p l e of a concert v i o l i n ­
 Linda Buckingham 115

ist w h o w a s u n a b l e to p e r f o r m because he e q u a t e d p l a y i n g the v i o l i n

w i t h m a s t u r b a t i n g o n stage (Segal 1986).
A v e r y clear c l i n i c a l e x a m p l e o f the a r r e s t i n g effect of episte­
m o p h i l i c a n x i e t y is p r o v i d e d b y K l e i n i n T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S y m b o l
F o r m a t i o n i n the D e v e l o p m e n t o f the E g o ' (1930). I n this p a p e r she pre­
sents a f o u r - y e a r - o l d b o y D i c k , w h o s e v o c a b u l a r y a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l
a t t a i n m e n t w e r e at the l e v e l of a fifteen to e i g h t e e n - m o n t h - o l d . H e w a s
s e v e r e l y l a c k i n g i n h i s a d a p t a t i o n to r e a l i t y a n d to e m o t i o n a l relations.
H e w a s l a r g e l y d e v o i d of affects a n d indifferent to the presence or
absence of h i s m o t h e r a n d n u r s e . H e d i s p l a y e d v e r y little a p p a r e n t
anxiety, h a d a l m o s t n o interests a n d d i d n o t play. W h e n he s p o k e he
u s e d w o r d s incorrectly, b u t for the m o s t p a r t s t r u n g s o u n d s together i n
a m e a n i n g l e s s w a y a n d c o n s t a n t l y repeated c e r t a i n noises. H e s e e m e d
to h a v e n o w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e , w a s antagonistic to his mother, a n d
often d i d the o p p o s i t e of w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d of h i m . H o w e v e r , b o t h his
o p p o s i t i o n a n d h i s o b e d i e n c e l a c k e d b o t h affect a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
W h e n h e h u r t h i m s e l f he w a s l a r g e l y i n s e n s i t i v e to p a i n a n d h a d n o
desire to be c o m f o r t e d . H e w a s p h y s i c a l l y a w k w a r d , c o u l d n o t g r i p
k n i v e s or scissors, b u t c o u l d use the s p o o n w i t h w h i c h he ate q u i t e n o r ­
mally.
N o w a d a y s , i f D i c k h a d seen a p s y c h o l o g i s t o r a p s y c h i a t r i s t , he
w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y h a v e b e e n d i a g n o s e d as b e i n g o n the autistic spec­
t r u m , a n d w o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d b e h a v i o u r a l treatment. A c h i l d p s y ­
c h o t h e r a p i s t m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y m a k e the s a m e d i a g n o s i s b u t w o u l d
probably recommend psychotherapy. K l e i n believed Dick was schizo­
p h r e n i c a n d p r o c e e d e d u n d a u n t e d w i t h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c treatment.
O n h i s first v i s i t to M r s . K l e i n , D i c k a l l o w e d h i s n u r s e to leave w i t h ­
o u t a n y e m o t i o n , a n d f o l l o w e d K l e i n i n t o her r o o m w i t h c o m p l e t e
indifference. H e r a n a r o u n d a i m l e s s l y a n d s h o w e d n o interest i n a n y ­
t h i n g w i t h i n the r o o m , i n c l u d i n g K l e i n herself.
D i c k ' s i n f a n c y w a s v e r y d i s t r e s s i n g . H e w a s n o t able to s u c k p r o p ­
e r l y a n d , despite h i s m o t h e r ' s a t t e m p t s to n u r s e h i m , n e a r l y d i e d of
s t a r v a t i o n . A r t i f i c i a l foods w e r e resorted to a n d , at s e v e n - m o n t h s - o l d ,
a w e t - n u r s e w a s f o u n d for h i m b u t b y t h e n h e c o u l d n o t t h r i v e o n
breast-feeding. H e suffered f r o m i n d i g e s t i o n a n d h a e m o r r h o i d s . M o r e
significantly, p e r h a p s , a l t h o u g h he w a s p h y s i c a l l y cared for, ' n o real
l o v e w a s l a v i s h e d o n h i m , h i s m o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g for h i m b e i n g f r o m the
v e r y b e g i n n i n g c o l d ' ( K l e i n 1930). B y the e n d of D i c k ' s first y e a r his
m o t h e r d e c i d e d he w a s a b n o r m a l a n d her attitude t o w a r d s h i m w o r s ­
e n e d . N e i t h e r h i s father n o r h i s n u r s e gave h i m a n y tenderness, so he
116 The Hazards of Curiosity

started life i n a n u n u s u a l l y loveless e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n he w a s two he

h a d a n e w n u r s e w h o w a s k i n d a n d affectionate t o w a r d s h i m , then he
s t a y e d for s o m e time w i t h his g r a n d m o t h e r w h o w a s also v e r y l o v i n g .
H i s d e v e l o p m e n t i m p r o v e d s o m e w h a t , a l t h o u g h his n u r s e ' s p r o h i b i ­
t i o n o n m a s t u r b a t i o n gave rise to a sense of guilt. H i s f e e d i n g p r o b l e m s
p e r s i s t e d . W i t h the w e t n u r s e h e h a d s h o w n n o desire to s u c k , then h e
w o u l d n o t d r i n k f r o m a bottle. W h e n he w a s offered s o l i d f o o d , he
r e f u s e d to bite it u p , a n d rejected a n y t h i n g that w a s not the consisten­
cy of pap. T h o u g h his k i n d l y n u r s e h a d h e l p e d him i n certain
respects—for e x a m p l e , b y h e l p i n g h i m d e v e l o p a s l i g h t l y increased
interest i n f o o d — h i s f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s r e m a i n e d . W i t h her, as
w i t h e v e r y o n e else, i n c l u d i n g his g r a n d m o t h e r , D i c k failed to establish
f r i e n d l y contact.
D i c k ' s p r e m a t u r e genital a c t i v i t y created a n exaggerated i d e n t i f i c a ­
t i o n w i t h the objects he attacked (his p a r e n t s ' genitals), and con­
t r i b u t e d to a n e a r l y defence against s a d i s m . C o n s e q u e n t l y he h a d
ceased to d e v e l o p a p h a n t a s y life, a n d his contact w i t h reality w a s
e x t r e m e l y w e a k . A f t e r a feeble b e g i n n i n g , his s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n h a d
c o m e to a standstill. H e was indifferent to the objects a n d toys a r o u n d
h i m , w i t h s o m e l i m i t e d exceptions: trains, stations, d o o r - h a n d l e s , a n d
the o p e n i n g a n d s h u t t i n g of d o o r s . H o w e v e r , i s o l a t e d a n d u n r e l a t e d to
his c o n s c i o u s life, these were u n a b l e to f o r m the basis for further s u b ­
limations.
T h r o u g h h e r analysis of D i c k , K l e i n d i s c o v e r e d that these things
a n d actions h a d a single s o u r c e — t h e p h a n t a s y of p e n e t r a t i o n into the
mother's body:

D o o r s a n d l o c k s s t o o d for w a y s i n a n d o u t of her b o d y , w h i l s t the

d o o r - h a n d l e s represented the father's p e n i s a n d his o w n . T h u s
w h a t h a d b r o u g h t s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n to a standstill w a s the d r e a d
of w h a t w o u l d be d o n e to h i m (particularly b y the father's penis)
after h e h a d p e n e t r a t e d into the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . ( K l e i n 1930)

D i c k ' s defences against his destructive i m p u l s e s w e r e thus a f u n d a ­

m e n t a l i m p e d i m e n t to his d e v e l o p m e n t . H e w a s i n c a p a b l e of a n y act
of a g g r e s s i o n . A s w e h a v e seen, as a b a b y he w o u l d not bite a n d c h e w
f o o d , a n d b y f o u r h e c o u l d not h o l d scissors, k n i v e s or tools. A l t h o u g h
K l e i n d o e s not s p e l l this out, D i c k ' s sadistic i m p u l s e s t o w a r d s his
m o t h e r ' s b o d y w o u l d h a v e arisen d u r i n g the f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e . O n c e
 Linda Buckingham 117

these i m p u l s e s w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h g e n i t a l p h a n t a s i e s of p e n e t r a t i o n ,
t h e y h a d to be s t y m i e d a n d s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n ceased.
K l e i n , c o n f r o n t e d b y D i c k ' s total l a c k o f interest i n her, the r o o m a n d
the toys she s h o w e d h i m , h a d a flash o f i n t u i t i o n , p e r h a p s p r o m p t e d
b y the k n o w l e d g e that h e w a s interested i n trains. S h e p l a c e d a b i g
t r a i n b e s i d e a s m a l l e r o n e a n d called t h e m ' D a d d y - t r a i n ' a n d ' D i c k ­
t r a i n ' . H e p i c k e d u p the t r a i n she called ' D i c k ' , r o l l e d it to the w i n d o w ,
a n d said 'station'.
F e e l i n g m o r e sure o f herself t h a n m i g h t m a n y c h i l d p s y c h o t h e r a ­
pists, K l e i n r e s p o n d e d : T h e station i s M u m m y ; D i c k is g o i n g into
M u m m y ' ( K l e i n 1930). A t this h e r a n i n t o the space b e t w e e n the outer
a n d i n n e r d o o r s o f the r o o m , s h u t h i m s e l f i n , s a i d ' D a r k ' , a n d r a n o u t
a g a i n . H e d i d this s e v e r a l times, a n d K l e i n e x p l a i n e d to h i m : 'It is d a r k
i n s i d e M u m m y . D i c k is i n s i d e d a r k M u m m y ' ( K l e i n 1930).
A l t h o u g h h e h a d left his n u r s e at the start o f the session w i t h o u t
s h o w i n g a n y e m o t i o n , h e n o w said ' N u r s e ? ' twice a n d K l e i n a s s u r e d
h i m the n u r s e w o u l d c o m e s o o n . In the next t w o sessions h e b e h a v e d
i n the s a m e w a y , b u t i n the t h i r d h e r a n b e h i n d a chest of d r a w e r s
w h e r e h e w a s s e i z e d w i t h anxiety, a n d c a l l e d M r s . K l e i n to h i m . W h e n
the session w a s o v e r h e greeted his n u r s e w i t h u n u s u a l delight. W i t h
the a p p e a r a n c e o f anxiety, t h e n , there also e m e r g e d a sense of depen­
dence, o n b o t h K l e i n a n d the n u r s e .
G r a d u a l l y h e b e g a n to s h o w interest i n the w o r d s K l e i n vised a n d i n
the toys she s h o w e d h i m . H i s a g g r e s s i o n b e c a m e e v i d e n t i m m e d i a t e l y
i n h i s play, w a n t i n g K l e i n to cut u p toys o n his behalf, a n d r u n n i n g i n t o
the space b e t w e e n the d o o r s a n d s c r a t c h i n g t h e m w i t h h i s nails. H e
t h e n crept i n t o a c u p b o a r d .
A t the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s f o u r t h session h e cried w h e n h i s n u r s e left
h i m , b u t s o o n b e c a m e interested i n the toys. H e p u s h e d aside a little
cart h e h a d a s k e d K l e i n to d a m a g e i n the p r e v i o u s session. W h e n she
s a i d the cart s t o o d for h i s mother, h e p u t it i n the space b e t w e e n the
d o o r s , i n d i c a t i n g a n e x p u l s i o n o f b o t h the d a m a g e d object a n d o f h i s
o w n s a d i s m . T h e w a s h - b a s i n i n the r o o m c a m e to s y m b o l i s e h i s m o t h ­
e r ' s b o d y , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y he d i s p l a y e d a d r e a d of b e i n g w e t t e d w i t h
water. H e s h o w e d the s a m e anxiety w h e n u r i n a t i n g . U r i n e a n d faeces
r e p r e s e n t e d to h i m h a r m f u l , d a n g e r o u s substances. T h e s e , a l o n g w i t h
the p e n i s , s t o o d , i n D i c k ' s phantasy, for objects w i t h w h i c h to attack the
m o t h e r ' s b o d y . T o the extent that t h e y m i g h t p r o m p t retaliation f r o m
his m o t h e r , they w e r e also a source o f i n j u r y to h i m s e l f . H e therefore
118 The Hazards of Curiosity

h a d a d r e a d of the i n s i d e of his m o t h e r ' s b o d y a n d of his father's p e n i s ,

w h i c h h e i m a g i n e d to be i n there.
T h e introjection of these p a r e n t a l i m a g e s r e s u l t e d i n a h a r m - i n f l i c t ­
i n g super-ego. A l o n g s i d e Dick's premature genital development and
i n c a p a c i t y for tolerating anxiety w a s a h i g h d e g r e e of empathy w i t h his
objects- T h i s e m p a t h y w a s

...a d e c i s i v e factor i n his w a r d i n g - o f f of all d e s t r u c t i v e i m p u l s e s .

D i c k c u t h i m s e l f off f r o m reality a n d b r o u g h t h i s p h a n t a s y life to
a s t a n d s t i l l b y t a k i n g refuge i n the phantasies of a d a r k , e m p t y ,
v a g u e w o m b . ( K l e i n 1930: 227)

D i c k thus m a n a g e d to w i t h d r a w his attention f r o m m o s t of the

objects i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d the contents of his
m o t h e r ' s w o m b a n d his o w n d a n g e r o u s p e n i s a n d excreta.
K l e i n m a n a g e d , i n D i c k ' s a n a l y s i s , to get i n t o u c h w i t h the r u d i ­
m e n t s of p h a n t a s y life a n d s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n w h i c h he still d i s p l a y e d .
H e became more consciously anxious, a n d established a symbolic rela­
t i o n to p e o p l e a n d objects w h i c h w a s g r a d u a l l y m o r e i n q u i r i n g a n d
a g g r e s s i v e . W h e n he b e c a m e too a n x i o u s , he w o u l d t u r n his attention
a w a y to s o m e extent f r o m the things w i t h w h i c h h e h a d established a n
'affective r e l a t i o n ' , a n d w o u l d concentrate o n n e w objects. Later, h o w ­
ever, h e w a s able to direct his c u r i o s i t y back to the things h e h a d g i v e n
u p earlier, a n d so a c h a i n of m e a n i n g a n d s y m b o l i s a t i o n w a s c a u t i o u s ­
l y e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n objects a n d b e t w e e n activities. A s his interests
developed, he enlarged his v o c a b u l a r y and become emotionally
a t t a c h e d to the significant p e o p l e i n his l i f e — h i s parents, h i s n u r s e ,
Mrs. Klein.
In h e r c o m m e n t s o n this patient, w h o m she h a d b e e n s e e i n g for six
m o n t h s at the time of w r i t i n g , K l e i n e m p h a s i s e d that she d i d n o t g e n ­
e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t a c h i l d ' s m a t e r i a l so s o o n . H o w e v e r , D i c k ' s c a p a c i t y to
c o m m u n i c a t e w a s so m e a g r e that K l e i n m a d e h e r interpretations o n
the basis of h e r g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h i m . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the
a n a l y s i s s h o w e d her to h a v e b e e n pretty accurate.

***

F o r the c h i l d , as for the a d u l t , successful analysis of the sadistic i n t r u ­

sive p h a n t a s i e s a n d the r e s u l t i n g guilt w i l l free the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c
i m p u l s e a n d w i l l enable l e a r n i n g to take p l a c e . T h e d i s t o r t i n g g r i p of
 Linda Buckingham 119

p e r s e c u t o r y phantasies w i l l be lessened a n d the ability to p e r c e i v e

c l e a r l y w i l l b e i m p r o v e d . S y m b o l i c objects w i l l n o l o n g e r b e seen as
their e q u i v a l e n t s — e . g . the v i o l i n w i l l n o t b e e x p e r i e n c e d as the v i o l i n ­
ist's o w n p e n i s , a n d w o r d s w i l l n o longer be e x p e r i e n c e d as concrete
objects o r real actions.
A w i d e s p e c t r u m of i n h i b i t i o n s results f r o m e a r l y c u r i o s i t y a n d its
a t t e n d a n t anxieties. I w i l l n o w try to describe a few of t h e m , taken f r o m
m y c l i n i c a l experience a n d , i n the last e x a m p l e , the p e r s o n a l experience
of a n a c q u a i n t a n c e .

Stuart

S t u a r t w a s referred for intensive p s y c h o t h e r a p y w h e n he w a s almost

f i v e . T h e r e w e r e factors i n h i s f a m i l y situation w h i c h e x p l a i n e d a lot of
his agitated b e h a v i o u r , h i s i n a b i l i t y to concentrate i n class, a n d h i s anx­
i o u s b u t aggressive attachment to his mother. H o w e v e r , h i s d i s p o s i t i o n
w a s g e n e r a l l y excitable a n d aggressive a n d he d e m o n s t r a t e d i n h i s
p l a y a n d his d r a w i n g s a h i g h degree of c o n t e m p t for h i s m o t h e r a n d
females. H e h a d a v i e w of m e n as i n h e r e n t l y i n t r u s i v e a n d sadistic.
Stuart w a s b r i g h t a n d intelligent so his l e a r n i n g w a s n o t i n h i b i t e d i n
a s t u p e f y i n g w a y . Rather, h e w a s so restless a n d d i s t r a c t e d that h e
c o u l d rarely settle to lessons. H e w a s a c h i e v i n g far b e l o w h i s ability,
e x c e p t i n art, w h e r e h e excelled. N o w a d a y s h e m i g h t h a v e r e c e i v e d a n
i n i t i a l d i a g n o s i s o f ' A t t e n t i o n Deficit H y p e r a c t i v i t y D i s o r d e r ' before
f i n d i n g h i s w a y to p s y c h o t h e r a p y . H i s l e a r n i n g w a s certainly i m p e d e d .
T h e c u r i o s i t y he could express e m e r g e d i n his d r a w i n g s ( w h i c h h e
m a n a g e d to concentrate o n i n calmer m o m e n t s ) or t h r o u g h a b u s i v e
treatment o f other c h i l d r e n , h i s mother, o r m e .
' C u r i o s i t y ' is p e r h a p s the w r o n g w o r d for w h a t Stuart m a n i f e s t e d .
It w a s , rather, a c o n c e n t r a t e d stream of p r o j e c t i o n s — m o s t l y negative
a n d u g l y — o n t o p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g m e . S o m e of this b e h a v i o u r c o u l d b e
a c c o u n t e d for b y his h o m e situation. H i s m o t h e r w a s a defeated
w o m a n w h o w o u l d either y e l l at h i m , g i v e i n to h i m , or ignore h i m .
H i s father w a s a d i s t u r b e d a n d sadistic m a n , w h o s e sense of reality
w a s h i g h l y d i s t o r t e d , a n d to w h o m his m o t h e r w a s i n thrall. Stuart's
father w o u l d l i v e at h o m e for a w h i l e a n d then leave, a n d Stuart w a s
d i s c e r n i b l y c a l m e r d u r i n g h i s father's l o n g e r absences.
Stuart's p s y c h o t h e r a p y started off fairly a m i c a b l y as he s i z e d m e
u p , b u t h e w a s restless a n d agitated. I s o o n b e c a m e the object of h i s
h o s t i l i t y i n a w a y that w a s m a r k e d l y sadistic a n d m i s o g y n o u s . T h e c l i ­
120 The Hazards of Curiosity

m a t e of the sessions b e g a n to v a r y w i d e l y . H e c o u l d be p l a y f u l , c o n ­
v e r s a t i o n a l , creative, t h o u g h always s o m e w h a t gruff a n d w a r y . He
w o u l d create elaborate b o a r d games f r o m the materials i n his box, a n d
w e w o u l d p l a y t h e m c o m p a n i o n a b l y u n t i l s o m e upset o c c u r r e d a n d
h i s a g g r e s s i o n a n d a n g u i s h w o u l d w e l l u p o u t of h i m like a geyser. A t
other times h e w o u l d be engrossed i n d r a w i n g a n d i n telling m e the
story-lines b e h i n d his p i c t u r e s , w h i c h w e r e often sinister, s o m e t i m e s
m o n s t r o u s . T h e themes of g o o d a n d e v i l w e r e t y p i c a l of c h i l d r e n his
age, b u t the g o o d characters never m a i n t a i n e d their integrity. Badness
u s u a l l y s e e m e d m o r e i n v i t i n g to h i m . H e w a s fascinated w i t h d a n g e r ­
ous interiors—caves, tunnels, dungeons—within which dragons,
snakes, m o n s t e r s , s p i d e r s w o u l d be b u s y at their e v i l w o r k , a l o n g s i d e
skeletons a n d corpses. T h e r e w a s a lot of p e r v e r s i t y i n his play. G o o d
a n d b a d w e r e n o t just c o n f u s e d , b u t b a d n e s s w a s often a d o p t e d as the
best choice. H e w a s d r i v e n to destroy, time after time, the sense that I
c o u l d d o h i m g o o d , that s o m e w h e r e there w a s a g o o d m o t h e r or p a r ­
ent he c o u l d reach out to. W e k n o w that early d e p r i v a t i o n a n d c r u e l t y
often results i n a c h i l d ' s t u r n i n g a w a y g o o d treatment, because it
r e m i n d s h i m , unbearably, of w h a t was not available before a n d e m p h a ­
sises p a r e n t a l failure. I h a v e treated s u c h c h i l d r e n , b u t there w a s m o r e
to Stuart's n e g a t i v i t y t h a n this.

Phases of h o p e o n m y p a r t w o u l d be abruptly, c r u e l l y e c l i p s e d . O n e
d a y the s e s s i o n h a d b e e n p r o g r e s s i n g relatively c a l m l y a n d he d e c i d e d
to m a k e a ' m e a l ' . H e constructed a n d c o l o u r e d s o m e p i n k ' i c e - c r e a m '
o u t of p a p e r , t h e n p l a c e d it o n the floor w h e r e he w a s sitting a n d
e x c l a i m e d h a p p i l y : ' T h i s is m y M u m m y ' s l o v e l y f o o d ! ' I w a s still s m i l ­
i n g b e n i g n l y w h e n he s u d d e n l y h a w k e d u p a gob of p h l e g m a n d spat
it out o n the floor beside the 'ice c r e a m ' . H e c r i e d t r i u m p h a n t l y : ' A n d
this is m y f o o d a n d I like it best!', m a k i n g l i p - s m a c k i n g s o u n d s . T h e
i m p a c t o n m e w a s s h o c k i n g i n its p e r v e r s i t y — a c h i l d ' s a v o w a l of ' E v i l
be t h o u m y g o o d ' .
A t other times he w o u l d attack m e directly, k i c k i n g , h i t t i n g , s p i t t i n g
a n d a b u s i n g m e i n a desperate, excited j u m b l e of w o r d s . I often h a d to
restrain h i m p h y s i c a l l y , a n d these sessions w o u l d leave m e filled w i t h
i m p o t e n t r a g e a n d despair. H i s v e r b a l attacks o n m e w e r e directed
against the m o t h e r ' s insides a n d her sexuality. H e w o u l d y e l l that I w a s
a b i t c h , c h a n t about a m u m m y a n d a d a d d y f u c k i n g u p a tree, s i n g ' M y
m u m m y licks m y p u s s y ' , or ' L i c k y o u r m o t h e r ' s p u s s y ! ' , a n d rant d e n ­
i g r a t i n g l y a b o u t r i c h m e n a n d t r a m p w i v e s . O n c e , i n the m i d s t of
t h r o w i n g t h i n g s about a n d y e l l i n g out the w i n d o w , h e d r e w a p i c t u r e
 Linda Buckingham 121

of a s n a k e b e i n g t o r n apart b y a ' g o o d ' monster. T h e m o n s t e r started

e a t i n g the s n a k e , s a y i n g : ' I ' d f u c k i n g d i e for a f u c k i n g j u i c y snake
g o i n g a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d i n m y t u m m y ! ' W h e n I said that this w a s
m e a n t to be a M u m m y a n d a D a d d y h a v i n g v e r y b a d sex together h e
e x c l a i m e d : 'Sex! Y u k ! If y o u d o n ' t like the d r a w i n g I'll tear it u p ' . I t o l d
h i m I w o u l d keep it here a l o n g w i t h a l l h i s other d r a w i n g s a n d , for
s a f e - k e e p i n g , I p u t it i n m y p o c k e t . H e w a s c u r i o u s a b o u t m y pockets
a n d I s a i d h e w a n t e d to k n o w w h a t w a s g o i n g o n i n s i d e m e . ' M a y b e
y o u t h i n k I've got a b a d D a d d y snake i n s i d e m e . ' ' Y o u p r o b a b l y d o ' , he
r e p l i e d . ' Y o u s h o u l d check e v e r y m o r n i n g to see.'
H e started d r a w i n g a p i n e tree a n d s i n g i n g ' H a p p y B i r t h d a y to
M u m m y ' . I t o o k this u p as h i s w i s h to h a n g o n t o the i d e a of m e as a
good mummy person, though this w a s r e a l l y d i f f i c u l t for h i m .
O c c a s i o n a l a n g u i s h e d screams w o u l d w e l l o u t of h i m , as t h o u g h a tor­
t u r e d c h i l d i n s i d e h i m w a s m o m e n t a r i l y u n g a g g e d . T h e tone of the
b i r t h d a y s o n g w o u l d c h a n g e f r o m sincere to m o c k i n g , t h e n back a g a i n .
L a t e r i n the session he w a s a g a i n c h a n t i n g ' L i c k y o u r Mummy's
pussy!' a n d giggling mockingly.
H e w a n t e d m e to w i n d h i m i n the c u r t a i n a n d k e e p h i m sealed i n
there. N o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g his c o m m u n i c a t i o n I i n t e r p r e t e d that h e
w a n t e d to t h i n k I w o u l d let h i m get r i g h t i n s i d e m e . H e started t h r o w ­
i n g t h i n g s at m e , r u b b i n g h i s p e n i s p r o v o c a t i v e l y s p i t t i n g at m e . I w a s
u n a b l e to s t e m this attack so I e n d e d the s e s s i o n e a r l y a n d took h i m to
the w a i t i n g - r o o m w h e r e I sat w i t h h i m w h i l e h e c a l m e d d o w n , r o c k i n g
o n the r o c k i n g - h o r s e . In retrospect I feel sure that w h a t I s a i d w a s the
o p p o s i t e of w h a t h e w a s feeling. I t h i n k h e w a n t e d to be w o u n d i n the
c u r t a i n to b e k e p t f r o m i n t r u d i n g i n t o m e a n d d a m a g i n g m e . M y inter­
p r e t a t i o n therefore p r o v o k e d h i m into the v e r y activity f r o m w h i c h h e
w a n t e d to b e restrained a n d protected.
In another session he was c h a n t i n g yet again about licking
M u m m y ' s pussy, r u b b i n g it u p a n d d o w n , D a d d y f u c k i n g daughter,
h i s w i l l y getting stuck a n d sore. ' I ' l l n e v e r d o that a g a i n ! ' I s a i d that h e
w a s s i n g i n g about parents a n d c h i l d r e n h a v i n g sex, a n d that p e r h a p s
h e w o n d e r e d i f I w a s that k i n d of M u m m y , o r if I w a s just interested i n
h i m a n d h i s m i n d . 'If y o u are that k i n d o f M u m m y ' , h e r e p l i e d , T i l
k i c k y o u u p the arse!'
My questions to h i m — w h i c h I p u t f r o m time to time—about
w h e t h e r a n y t h i n g like this w a s h a p p e n i n g at h o m e w e r e m e t w i t h c o n ­
t e m p t , as t h o u g h I w a s d i r t y - m i n d e d or m a d . I h a v e n o d o u b t that his
122 The Hazards of Curiosity

h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t w a s perverse, b u t w h e t h e r he w a s a c t u a l l y s e x u a l ­
l y a b u s e d has n o t b e e n d e t e r m i n e d so far b y his s u b s e q u e n t therapists.
In another session he attacked m e relentlessly for m e n t i o n i n g his
b a b y self. It w a s there i n the material, b u t he f o u n d it u n b e a r a b l e to lis­
ten. H e w a s k i c k i n g m e , so I took off his shoes a n d p u t t h e m o u t s i d e .
T h e n he threw a h e a v y chair at m e , so this too w e n t o u t s i d e . T h e n he
w a s r u s h i n g at m e a n d spitting. I caught h o l d of h i m a n d w r a p p e d h i m
tightly i n h i s r u g . H e p r o m i s e d to c a l m d o w n , b u t was s o o n a t t a c k i n g
a n d spitting a g a i n , t r y i n g to w i p e snot o n m e (his nose w a s always
r u n n y ) a n d threatening to bite m e . I w r a p p e d h i m u p s e v e r a l m o r e
times yet the s p i t t i n g w e n t o n . I finally gave u p o n the b l a n k e t a n d his
attacks b e c a m e less v i r u l e n t . H e e v e n t u a l l y s a i d he w o u l d not spit a n y
m o r e , a n d m a n a g e d this. I s a i d that s o m e t h i n g better w a s h a p p e n i n g
i n h i m ; he w a s t r y i n g to h a n g o n to s o m e g o o d feelings t o w a r d s m e . H e
s a i d he d i d feel better n o w , a n d started p u t t i n g things to rights i n the
r o o m . H e a s k e d for his shoes b a c k so I gave t h e m to h i m a n d tied u p
his laces. H e w a s catching bits of floating d u s t i n his m o u t h , t h e n s p r i n ­
k l i n g the c r u m b l i n g stuffing f r o m a chair into his m o u t h . I s a i d that
a l t h o u g h he w a s t r y i n g to feel better he was f e e d i n g h i m s e l f d i r t rather
t h a n g o o d t h e r a p y f o o d . ' Y o u never feed m e ' , he s a i d . B u t i n another
shift of m o o d he searched for a b e a d (there w a s often the o d d b e a d
l y i n g a b o u t the r o o m ) . I s a i d he d i d not n e e d to d o that to be g o o d ; get­
t i n g h o l d of g o o d feelings w a s e n o u g h . (I w a s , h o w e v e r , i g n o r i n g the
concrete i m p o r t a n c e of reparation.) H e presented m e w i t h a b e a d , a p i n
a n d a seed.

O n c e he w a s i n a state of near d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . H e w a s c r a w l i n g
a r o u n d the floor, g r u n t i n g , s l o b b e r i n g — a l m o s t f o a m i n g at the m o u t h .
I h a d another patient w h o u s e d to collect t i n y c o l o u r e d b e a d s w h i c h
s o m e t i m e s got scattered. Stuart h a d a k n a c k of f i n d i n g t h e m and
r e g a r d e d t h e m as p r e c i o u s . O n this o c c a s i o n he w a s o n his s t o m a c h ,
p r o p e l l i n g h i m s e l f a r o u n d the edges of the r o o m like a g r u b , his m o u t h
s u c k i n g at the base of the s k i r t i n g b o a r d w h e r e there w a s a tiny, c o n ­
t i n u o u s g a p , h o o v e r i n g u p d u s t a n d t i n y bits of detritus. W h i l s t c h o o s ­
i n g to ingest d i r t as his best f e e d i n g o p t i o n h e m a y also h a v e b e e n h o p ­
i n g to v a c u u m u p a p r e c i o u s b e a d . W e w e r e b o t h extremely s u r p r i s e d
w h e n he s u d d e n l y j u m p e d u p , g r i m a c i n g , w i t h a long-lost e a r r i n g of
m i n e , silver a n d amethyst, d a n g l i n g f r o m the gap b e t w e e n his front
teeth. I e x c l a i m e d i n joy as he h a n d e d it to m e a n d g r a s p e d his h a n d to
shake it. H e w a s b e m u s e d b u t let m e shake his h a n d i n thanks, t h e n
l o o k e d at it w o n d e r i n g l y . T h e rest of the session he w a s m u c h calmer.
 Linda Buckingham 123

B r i g h t spots l i k e this h a d a s p e c i a l p o i g n a n c y a m i d s t the dross a n d

a w f u l n e s s of m o s t of his c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . W h e n I f i n a l l y s t o p p e d see­
i n g h i m a n d ' h a n d e d h i m o v e r ' to the p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t at his special
s c h o o l , I felt p r o f o u n d l y s a d a n d also v e r y d i s a p p o i n t e d that I h a d not
m a n a g e d to shift his perversity.
It is h i g h l y l i k e l y that this b o y h a d b e e n s e x u a l l y a b u s e d , or w i t ­
n e s s e d a d u l t sexual activity, or h a d w a t c h e d v i o l e n t a n d p o r n o g r a p h i c
v i d e o s — o r all of these things. I w a s e x t r e m e l y w o r r i e d about his h o m e
e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o n v e n e d several meetings w i t h S o c i a l Services, b u t
d e s p i t e the m a s s i v e a m o u n t of p e r v e r s e sexual m a t e r i a l i n his sessions
a n d h i s t e n d e n c y to degenerate w h e n his father w a s at h o m e , this was
n o t seen as substantial e n o t i g h e v i d e n c e to m e r i t investigation. After
t r a n s f e r r i n g to the s c h o o l p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , Stuart w a s able to talk about
m e w i t h s o m e nostalgia. H e w a s later p l a c e d i n a therapeutic b o a r d i n g
c o m m u n i t y w h e r e he has b e e n m o r e settled a n d w h e r e the staff are
e n c o u r a g i n g h i m to attend art college.
Stuart's case is not a clear-cut e x a m p l e of K l e i n ' s theory of l e a r n i n g
i n h i b i t i o n s , g i v e n the chaotic a n d p e r v e r s e influences of his h o m e e n v i ­
r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , it is i n d i c a t i v e of the w a y i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n differ
i n t e m p e r a m e n t , a n d of h o w s o m e are m o r e aggressive f r o m a n early
age t h a n others. In g o o d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , Stuart w o u l d h a v e b e e n bright,
energetic, c u r i o u s , n o d o u b t quite a h a n d f u l , b u t the s a d i s m inherent i n
his e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e s m a y w e l l not h a v e o v e r w h e l m e d h i m w i t h
hostile feelings a n d h a v e i m p e d e d his p r o g r e s s at s c h o o l . In his case,
the lethal m i x t u r e of p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s i o n a n d s a d i s m w i t h a chaotic,
anti-social h o m e - l i f e m e a n t that h e c o u l d r a r e l y c o n t a i n h i m s e l f for
l o n g a n d refrain f r o m destructive outbursts of rage. H e h a d o n l y a tiny,
s h i f t i n g place of safety w i t h i n himself. W i t h g o o d p a r e n t i n g his aggres­
s i o n a n d sexual s a d i s m w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e easily s u b l i m a t e d ,
i n s t e a d of o p e n l y expressed. W i t h his c u r i o s i t y u n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y too
m u c h hostility h e m a y h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d quite w e l l at s c h o o l a n d m a y
e v e n h a v e a c h i e v e d a b o v e the average.

Tracey

M y next clinical e x a m p l e is a m o r e clear-cut i l l u s t r a t i o n of the role

w h i c h a c h i l d ' s d i s p o s i t i o n p l a y s i n early d e v e l o p m e n t .
T r a c e y w a s b o r n into a f a m i l y of females, h e r father h a v i n g left s o o n
after h e r b i r t h . F o r Tracey, her b i r t h a n d her father's desertion were
fatefully l i n k e d .
124 The Hazards of Curiosity

T r a c e y w a s ' b o r n w i t h her fists c l e n c h e d a n d r e a d y to fight', as her

m o t h e r once t o l d m e w i t h p r i d e . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g T r a c e y ' s m o t h e r
h a l f - c o n s c i o u s l y e n c o u r a g e d her aggression as w e l l as resenting it.
P e r h a p s , r e s i g n i n g herself to desertion, she delegated her liveliness
a n d h o s t i l i t y to h e r daughter.
F r o m a n e a r l y age T r a c e y retained her faeces, frustrating her m o t h ­
e r ' s attempts to toilet-train her. T r a c e y w o u l d h a n g onto her m o t i o n s
a n d t h e n e x p e l t h e m at i n a p p r o p r i a t e times, setting the t r e n d for a h i s ­
t o r y of s o i l i n g w h i c h , as she got o l d e r w a s n o longer i n v o l u n t a r y or
w h o l l y u n c o n s c i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d , b u t w a s deliberately a i m e d at d e n i ­
g r a t i n g her mother. Tracey o n l y d i d this at h o m e , a n d r e g a r d e d it as her
m o t h e r ' s task to clear it u p .
T r a c e y h a d n o t b e e n neglected o r p h y s i c a l l y or e m o t i o n a l l y a b u s e d .
S h e w a s l o v e d a n d c h e r i s h e d , w i t h all her p h y s i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l w a n t s
catered for. H o w e v e r , her sights h a d a l w a y s b e e n set i n the ' w r o n g '
p l a c e a n d f o c u s e d o n the ' w r o n g ' objects. Rather than h a v i n g a c h i l d ' s
h u n g e r for care, l o v e a n d attention i n reasonable q u a n t i t i e s — a h u n g e r
w h i c h c o u l d be s a t i s f i e d — s h e h a d , f r o m early o n , a g r e e d for u n c o n d i ­
t i o n a l attention, s e r v i t u d e , f o o d , toys. A s she grew o l d e r she was
h e a p e d w i t h clothes, trainers, gadgets, C D s , a n d so o n . E v e r y t h i n g w a s
s w a l l o w e d u p a n d rarely s a v o u r e d , so that experiences a n d objects
s o o n lost their v a l u e . A t one time T r a c e y h a d s e v e n T a m a g o t c h i cyber­
pets r u n n i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . W h e n I h e a r d of this she t o l d m e tri­
u m p h a n t l y that she h a d let t h e m a l l die, a n i n d i c a t i o n of h e r attitude
t o w a r d s other babies, since cyber-pets d e p e n d u p o n their o w n e r s for
survival.
T r a c e y w a s b r o u g h t to therapy, a g e d n i n e , b y her desperate m o t h e r
w h o s e e m e d to g r o w thinner d a i l y w h i l e T r a c e y g r e w larger. M o t h e r
c o m p l a i n e d of Tracey's t y r a n n i c a l attitude, her r u d e n e s s at h o m e a n d
i n p u b l i c , h e r constant d e m a n d s . I w a s seeing Tracey once a w e e k a n d
h e r m o t h e r w a s seen once e v e r y few w e e k s b y another w o r k e r , to s u p ­
p o r t the therapy. W h i l s t Tracey's awareness of her t y r a n n y a n d her
c o n c e r n a b o u t its consequences increased o v e r time, her f u n d a m e n t a l
attitude d i d n o t shift. T h i s is p a r t l y d u e to the fact that the d y n a m i c s
b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d daughter, set i n train at b i r t h , are c l u n g to b y b o t h
of t h e m .
Sessions w i t h Tracey, w h i l s t c o n t a i n i n g c o m p a n i o n a b l e moments,
h a v e l a r g e l y consisted of her relentless attempts to boss m e a r o u n d . I
o n c e e x c l a i m e d to her that things d i d n o t h a v e to be this way, that it
w a s p o s s i b l e for her to s h o w a different side of herself, one that w a s
 Linda Buckingham 125

m o r e o r d i n a r y , less c o n t r o l l i n g . To m y s u r p r i s e , she b e h a v e d i n a n
entirely n e w w a y for the w h o l e session, u n t i l the v e r y e n d . She q u i e t l y
t a p e d s o m e large sheets of p a p e r together a n d d r e w a m o t o r w a y l e a d ­
i n g f r o m L o n d o n to a sea-side resort. T w o b i g brothers a n d a smaller
brother w e n t o n h o l i d a y to the resort. T h e little b r o t h e r was bossed
a b o u t a n d told off a lot a n d fell off a p i e r twice, b u t he h a d f u n . T h e r e
w a s also a little sister w h o w a s kept at h o m e , e x c l u d e d f r o m the a d v e n ­
ture. W h e n I c o m m e n t e d that the g i r l , like the y o u n g p a r t of herself,
w a s b e i n g kept out of the story, the brothers p i c k e d her u p , let her j o i n
i n a n d w e r e quite protective of her. ' H o w d o y o u like m y world?'
Tracey a s k e d . I s a i d it w a s v e r y interesting to be able to see it i n this
w a y (i.e. i n s t e a d of b e i n g d r a g g e d into games, s h o u t e d out, insulted).
A t the e n d I c o m m e n t e d that she h a d s h o w n she c o u l d d o s o m e t h i n g
different a n d that a p a r t of her, like the little g i r l i n the g a m e , h a d b e e n
a l l o w e d to j o i n i n . A c l o u d settled o n h e r face a n d she started to p u n c h
m e quite h a r d ( w h i c h w a s fairly u n u s u a l ) so that I h a d to f e n d her off.
I h a d b e e n e x p e c t i n g too m u c h a n d h a d i n t r u d e d o n h e r n e w - f o u n d
spontaneity.

T r a c e y ' s sadistic i m p u l s e s towards her m o t h e r ' s sexuality and

r e p r o d u c t i v e capacity h a v e h a d c r i p p l i n g consequences. H e r early p r o ­
jective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a bossy, c o n t r o l l i n g p e n i s , a n d her m o t h e r ' s
c o l l u s i o n i n this, h a v e resulted i n a n e n t a n g l e d , a n x i o u s attachment
b e t w e e n t h e m . M o t h e r ' s c o n t i n u a l g i v i n g - i n to T r a c e y ' s d e m a n d s has
the f l a v o u r of s o m e o n e t r y i n g to placate a d a n g e r o u s enemy. Tracey's
early retention of her faeces m a y h a v e b e e n a w a y of k e e p i n g her m o t h ­
er o n tenterhooks a n d n o t a l l o w i n g h e r the satisfaction of successful
m o t h e r i n g . W h a t e v e r the nature of its o r i g i n s , her use of her faeces has
d e v e l o p e d into s o m e t h i n g sadistic, d e n i g r a t i n g , a i m e d specifically at
her m o t h e r , the servant w h o has to clear u p her mess a n d w h o s e
insides T r a c e y is u n c o n s c i o u s l y attacking. M i x e d i n w i t h this is p o s s i ­
b l y a n a l a r m s y s t e m (also u n c o n s c i o u s ) directed at a m o t h e r w h o has
n e v e r a d e q u a t e l y c o n t a i n e d h e r — h e n c e Tracey's feeling of constant
n e e d , constant o v e r s p i l l .
T r a c e y has b e e n a l l o w e d to o c c u p y her m o t h e r ' s internal p h y s i c a l
a n d m e n t a l space, i n a s h a r e d u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy. T h e r e is n o space
for a p o t e n t i a l partner for mother, for a real p e n i s , or e v e n for m o t h e r
herself. T h a t is, M o t h e r is not a l l o w e d her o w n integrity, her peace of
m i n d , her o w n t h o u g h t s a n d decisions. Tracey's e a r l y curiosity a b o u t
her m o t h e r ' s insides w a s h e a v i l y c o l o u r e d b y a n attitude of o w n e r s h i p ,
a p p r o p r i a t i o n . Rather t h a n o r d i n a r y curiosity, or e v e n c u r i o s i t y w i t h a
126 The Hazards of Curiosity

sadistic tinge, her attitude w a s i n v a s i v e a n d c o n t r o l l i n g . J u d g i n g f r o m

the feelings she expresses i n therapy, she w a n t e d to eradicate possible
other babies f r o m the territory she w a s o c c u p y i n g i n m o t h e r ' s womb.
O n o n e o c c a s i o n , she a n d her m o t h e r w e r e sitting i n the w a i t i n g - r o o m
next to a m o t h e r a n d baby. T h e b a b y ' s foot t o u c h e d Tracey's m o t h e r ' s
a r m , a n d Tracey l o o k e d v e r y i n d i g n a n t . In the session she r a n t e d about
d i s g u s t i n g babies a n d h o w they h a d n o right to t o u c h her mother. T h e y
w o u l d c o n t a m i n a t e h e r ; that b a b y d e s e r v e d to d i e . I n a m e d Tracey's
s t r o n g w i s h for h e r m o t h e r to h a v e n o m o r e babies, a n d she a g r e e d
noisily. A s for her o w n attitude t o w a r d s babies, she w o u l d n e v e r h a v e
one: t h e y ' r e d i s g u s t i n g a n d m e s s y ; t h e y ' r e idiots. I r e m i n d e d her that
she w a s a b a b y o n c e , a n d that she still leaves mess for her m o t h e r to
c l e a n u p . I d o not recall her response at that time, b u t m o r e recently,
w h e n I h a v e b r o u g h t u p h e r ill-treatment of her mother, she has
a s s u r e d m e that she n o w treats her m o t h e r w e l l . T h i s is u n t r u e , b u t p e r ­
h a p s it demonstrates a m o d i c u m of guilt.
A t a n u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l her g u i l t felt p e r s e c u t i n g a n d unbearable.
T r a c e y ' s m a l i g n feelings e x t e n d t o w a r d s b o t h sexes: b o y s are 'brainless
i d i o t s ' , t h o u g h i n clothes a n d m a n n e r she m o s t resembles a b o y ; girls
are u s u a l l y too ' g i r l y ' for her. She despises their l o v e of d o l l s a n d the
w a y t h e y tart t h e m s e l v e s u p . T h e fact that, i n her u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a ­
sy, she is the p e n i s , p r e v e n t s her f r o m a n y a d m i r a t i o n of m a s c u l i n i t y as
other. S h e has e n v i o u s l y a p p r o p r i a t e d , b y projective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
w h a t she regards as m a s c u l i n i t y . A t the same time, her forced o c c u p a ­
t i o n of h e r m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s — p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l — p r e v e n t s her f r o m
a d m i r i n g h e r m o t h e r ' s f e m i n i n e a n d m a t e r n a l qualities. Instead, her
i n t r u s i v e relationship to her m o t h e r has resulted i n d e n i g r a t i o n a n d
s e e i n g h e r as a servant. W h a t n e e d e d to h a p p e n b e t w e e n Tracey a n d
her m o t h e r was, clearly, a process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n w h i c h freed t h e m
b o t h f r o m this s y m b i o s i s . T h i s w a s n o s m a l l task!
T r a c e y ' s early history, b o t h p e r s o n a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l , set the
scene for perverse character d e v e l o p m e n t . A t p r i m a r y s c h o o l , T r a c e y
m a n a g e d a c a d e m i c d e m a n d s , a l t h o u g h peer relationships w e r e a p r o b ­
l e m . S h e got o n best w i t h the y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , w h o m she c o u l d
o r g a n i s e . She w o u l d also take u n d e r her w i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h a p h y s i c a l
disability, b e s t o w i n g o n t h e m the care she d e n i e d her v u l n e r a b l e self.
On transferring to s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l her difficulties escalated. She
c o u l d n o t m a n a g e p e e r relationships a n d f o u n d the pressure to be
m o r e m a t u r e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e i m p o s s i b l e to d e a l w i t h . She c o u l d n o t
concentrate o n lessons, c o u l d not m a n a g e a n y t h i n g w h i c h w a s a c h a l ­
 Linda Buckingham 127

l e n g e — e s p e c i a l l y m a t h e m a t i c s . A n y tasks or lessons she h a d to s t r u g ­

gle w i t h w e r e ' c r a p ' . P e r h a p s her difficulties w i t h m a t h s were tied i n
w i t h her symbiosis w i t h her mother, so that n u m b e r s are h a r d to
m a n i p u l a t e — t o d i v i d e , m u l t i p l y , subtract. ( M y final case i n this p a p e r
illustrates this k i n d of p r o b l e m . )
T r a c e y ' s i n t r u s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her mother, her identification
w i t h a c o n t r o l l i n g p e n i s , her infantile greed a n d e n v y are all factors
w h i c h distract her f r o m clarity of thought, f r o m peace of m i n d a n d
f r o m o r d i n a r y e m o t i o n a l a n d intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t .
W h e r e T r a c e y ' s guilt e m e r g e d , h o w e v e r , w a s w h e n e v e r her mother
h a d bouts of illness. T r a c e y t h e n b e c a m e fearful, a n x i o u s , a n d tried to
b e considerate. T h i s m a y h a v e h a d several c o m p o n e n t s : d r e a d that she
h a d w o r n her m o t h e r d o w n a n d e n d a n g e r e d h e r life, or w o r r y that the
o n l y object she c o u l d t r u l y control w o u l d expire a n d leave her w i t h o u t
her f a m i l i a r p s y c h i c e n v i r o n m e n t .
W h i l s t creating a ' r o d for her o w n b a c k ' , T r a c e y ' s m o t h e r d i d not
create her d a u g h t e r ' s d i s p o s i t i o n . Inserted f r o m b i r t h into the p o s i t i o n
of a p h a l l i c object for her mother, Tracey took to this l i k e a fish to water.
It seems that Tracey's p o w e r f u l infant p e r s o n a l i t y f e d into mother's
n e e d s a n d that the interaction of t y r a n t - b a b y a n d v i c t i m - m o t h e r g e l l e d
f r o m the start. O n e w o u l d n e e d to h a v e f o l l o w e d their d y n a m i c s i n
d e t a i l to u n d e r s t a n d this e v o l u t i o n clearly, so to s o m e extent m y v i e w
is retrospective a n d relies u p o n the m o t h e r ' s a c c o u n t of Tracey's i n f a n ­
cy a n d m y r e l a t i o n s h i p to T r a c e y i n the transference.
T h e r e is h o p e i n this p i c t u r e . Tracey c o u l d be e n g a g i n g , humorous
a n d v e r y p e r c e p t i v e , b u t the i n d i v i d u a t i o n f r o m h e r mother, w h i c h
w o u l d a l l o w these qualities to f l o u r i s h , h a d yet to be a c h i e v e d at the
time of the p r e m a t u r e e n d i n g of her therapy.

Lucy

M y final case is that of a n a d u l t acquaintance w h o has generously

a l l o w e d m e to use s o m e of her life events to illustrate m y h y p o t h e s i s .
L u c y w a s the y o u n g e s t of three c h i l d r e n . H e r m o t h e r b e c a m e ill
w i t h a fatal, b u t l i n g e r i n g , disease after her b i r t h . She b e c a m e serious­
l y i l l w h e n L u c y w a s n i n e a n d d i e d w h e n she w a s fifteen. L u c y w a s
f a v o u r e d b y h e r m o t h e r w h o took out her h o s t i l i t y o n L u c y ' s elder sis­
ter. T h e subtext of L u c y ' s e a r l y life w a s her m o t h e r ' s illness. H e r father
a t t e m p t e d to placate his w i f e a n d to neutralise a n y conflict i n the f a m ­
ily. T h u s L u c y ' l e a r n e d ' f r o m a n early age that anger a n d s a d i s m w e r e
128 The Hazards of Curiosity

too d a n g e r o u s to express. T h a t is, anger w o u l d d e s t r o y mother. W h e n

h o s t i l i t y d i d arise (unless it was mother's), father w o u l d declare:
' T h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as hate'. H i s o w n rage against his wife for b e i n g
ill w a s n o t a d m i t t e d . H e w a s u n a b l e to grasp his wife's a n g r y projec­
tions a n d give t h e m life i n his m i n d .
L u c y w a s a b r i g h t g i r l , g o o d at all subjects. She f o u n d n u m b e r s fas­
c i n a t i n g a n d e n j o y e d arithmetic. A f t e r her m o t h e r ' s h e a l t h deteriorat­
e d her father c o u l d not m a n a g e the three c h i l d r e n , so L u c y w a s f a r m e d
out to relatives. She h a t e d this b u t d i d not tell her father, for fear of
u p s e t t i n g h i m . W h e n she r e t u r n e d h o m e she c a r e d for her m o t h e r a n d
w a s m o r e like father's c o m p a n i o n t h a n h i s daughter.
W h i l e m a n a g i n g m o s t of her subjects w e l l at s c h o o l , L u c y started to
h a v e severe difficulty w i t h m a t h s . She c o u l d a d d b u t not d i v i d e or s u b ­
tract. L o n g d i v i s i o n w a s a n i g h t m a r e . L u c y has b e e n i n analysis for sev­
eral y e a r s a n d has b e e n able to m a k e sense of s o m e of this. N u r s i n g her
m o t h e r gave her a sense of identity, of usefulness a n d f u l f i l l e d her
s t r o n g r e p a r a t i v e i m p u l s e s . T h e t h o u g h t of her m o t h e r ' s d e a t h w a s
d e v a s t a t i n g a n d left her w i t h the feeling of n o t h i n g n e s s , b o t h i n t e r n a l ­
l y a n d externally. Terrified that her m o t h e r w o u l d be ' t a k e n a w a y ' , she
w a s u n a b l e to subtract n u m b e r s f r o m one another. T h i s l i n k w a s not
c o n s c i o u s , of course. D i v i s i o n m e a n t an i n t e r r u p t i o n of w h o l e n e s s , the
wholeness of her m o t h e r a n d of her relationship w i t h her m o t h e r ,
w h i c h w a s a k i n d f u s i o n . Fractions a n d ratios m a d e her feel she w a s
f a l l i n g apart a n d l e d her i n t o a sick p a n i c .
L u c y t a l k e d early, r e a d early, w a s v e r y articulate. H e r facility i n this
area r e m a i n e d unaffected. H o w e v e r , maths represented not o n l y the
fact of loss (subtraction), f r a g m e n t a t i o n (fractions), a n d s e p a r a t i o n
( d i v i s i o n ) , it also represented connectedness. L u c y spent her e a r l y
teens a v o i d i n g t h i n k i n g of connections w i t h i n her f a m i l y b e c a u s e it
w a s so d y s f u n c t i o n a l . H o w d i d all the parts l i n k u p to m a k e the w h o l e ?
H e r fear of the a n s w e r to this l e d her to believe that things a n d p e o p l e
w e r e safer c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y — a s isolated n u m b e r s , separate p e o ­
p l e , n o d a n g e r o u s connectedness.
In fact, w h a t L u c y felt to be w h o l e w a s actually the result of s p l i t ­
t i n g ; she w a s the ' g o o d d a u g h t e r ' of a ' g o o d m o t h e r ' , a m o t h e r w h o
w a s u n a b l e to take o n the ' b a d ' aspects of L u c y , i n c l u d i n g her b a d feel­
ings. In this case, then, neither c o u l d accept the other as b a d , o n l y as
g o o d , w h o l l y g o o d . H e r father h a d o p t e d out of the e q u a t i o n .
L u c y w a s clearly v e r y e n t a n g l e d w i t h her mother. E a c h s a f e g u a r d ­
ed the o t h e r ' s g o o d n e s s a n d aliveness. T h e m o t h e r projected her
 Linda Buckingham 129

h a t r e d , anger, a n d bitterness i n t o the rest of the family. A n a l y s i s has

h e l p e d L u c y m a k e the c o n n e c t i o n s that w e r e too p a i n f u l to c o n t e m ­
plate before. B e i n g m o r e i n t o u c h w i t h h e r anger a n d s a d i s m , she can
now think more i n terms of n u m b e r s , although mathematics still
r e m a i n s f r i g h t e n i n g territory. S h e n o w realises that, as a c h i l d , she felt
so m u c h u n c o n s c i o u s hostility t o w a r d s her m o t h e r that she feared a n y
e x p r e s s i o n of it w o u l d d e s t r o y her.
A s for L u c y ' s early c u r i o s i t y a b o u t her m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s , this w a s
a c c o m p a n i e d b y fear f r o m the v e r y start because her m o t h e r w a s i n fact
i l l . H e r n e g a t i v e feelings w e r e then c o m p e n s a t e d for b y o v e r - c o n c e r n
a n d g u i l t . T h e s a d i s m m i x e d w i t h h e r e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e s w a s felt
as p o t e n t i a l l y d e v a s t a t i n g . She s o u g h t solace i n active r e p a r a t i o n b y
c a r i n g for her mother. Because she i n t e r n a l i s e d a n i l l m o t h e r , this felt
p e r s e c u t o r y , so the b a d , v e n g e f u l m o t h e r h a d to be w i d e l y split off
f r o m the g o o d , b e n i g n m o t h e r . E q u a l l y , L u c y ' s o w n v u l n e r a b i l i t y h a d
to r e m a i n i n check, because her m o t h e r w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n able to
tolerate it, a n d neither w o u l d her father a n d s i b l i n g s . Fortunately, L u c y
suffered o n l y a specific l e a r n i n g b l o c k a n d has d e v e l o p e d w i t h her
sense o f self a n d h e r w o m a n l i n e s s m o s t l y intact.

Conclusion

I a m a w a r e that, f r o m the e x a m p l e s offered, it c o u l d be a r g u e d that

e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w e r e h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l : i n Stuart's case, his p e r ­
verse f a m i l y ; i n T r a c e y ' s case, her r e s i g n e d m o t h e r a n d the lack of a n y
real f i r m n e s s i n her u p b r i n g i n g ; i n L u c y ' s case, the t r a g e d y of a s l o w l y
d y i n g m o t h e r . H o w e v e r , it seems to m e that, i n all these cases, the p e r ­
s o n a l i t y of the c h i l d p l a y e d its p a r t a n d that s a d i s m , w h i c h K l e i n
b e l i e v e d is c a u g h t u p w i t h the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct, w a s a v i t a l ele­
m e n t i n the e a r l y lives of these c h i l d r e n .
In Stuart's case, his a g g r e s s i o n r e p e a t e d l y o v e r w h e l m e d h i m a n d
s p i l l e d i n t o those a r o u n d h i m . H i s a g g r e s s i o n h a d a v e r y s t r o n g s e x u ­
al e l e m e n t a n d i n his sessions it w a s u s u a l l y the m o t h e r , p e r s o n i f i e d b y
m e , w h o w a s b o t h the subject a n d the object of s e x u a l d e g r a d a t i o n . F o r
Tracey, h e r relentless t y r a n n y a n d l a c k of c o m p a s s i o n t o w a r d s her
objects (internal a n d external) d i v e r t e d her f r o m a n y real peace of
m i n d . H e r e n v y of b o t h m a s c u l i n i t y a n d f e m i n i n i t y l e d her to d e v a l u e
b o t h sexes, a n d left her w i t h a n i m p o v e r i s h e d i n n e r w o r l d . In contrast,
L u c y ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of h o w m u c h she c u r b e d her infantile s a d i s m has
h e l p e d her a p p r o a c h n u m b e r s i n a less p e r s e c u t e d w a y .
130 The Hazards of Curiosity

F o r those of us w o r k i n g a n d t h i n k i n g w i t h i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c tra­

d i t i o n , the n a t u r e / n u r t u r e debate is n o w v i e w e d as w r o n g l y p o s e d . I
d o n o t t h i n k that a n y s c h o o l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s d e n i e s the existence of
all i n n a t e qualities n o r the role of the e n v i r o n m e n t . Intergenerational
patterns, i n p a r t i c u l a r , are n o w w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d — e . g . the r e p e t i t i o n ,
o v e r g e n e r a t i o n s , of s e x u a l abuse w i t h i n families, r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h
c o n t i n u e s u n t i l it is b r o u g h t to light a n d u n d e r s t o o d .
H o w e v e r , there is a s t r o n g s c h o o l of t h o u g h t , p r o b a b l y best e x e m ­
p l i f i e d b y W . R . D . F a i r b a i r n , that a g g r e s s i o n is reactive, that the c h i l d
has a c a p a c i t y for a g g r e s s i o n b u t d o e s n o t e x p e r i e n c e the feeling unless
p r o v o k e d . K l e i n , of c o u r s e , w h i l s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g that e x t e r n a l factors
c o u l d exacerbate anger, r e g a r d e d a g g r e s s i o n as a c o n s t a n t l y a v a i l a b l e
e m o t i o n i n the infant, not as a capacity. W h a t also d i s t i n g u i s h e s K l e i n
i n this area is h e r belief that all i n s t i n c t u a l i m p u l s e s are u n d e r p i n n e d
b y u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies, w h i c h b e c o m e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d tied
i n t o l a n g u a g e as the c h i l d d e v e l o p s , b u t w h i c h o c c u r i n p r i m i t i v e f o r m
f r o m b i r t h (as i m a g e s l i n k e d to feelings). F o r K l e i n it is the i n t e r a c t i o n
of a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e , d i s p o s i t i o n a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y which
d e t e r m i n e s character d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w h i c h also e x p l a i n s w h y these
processes are so e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d to d e c i p h e r a n d to follow.

Postscript: philosophical trends in Kleinian thought

T h e r e are t w o p h i l o s o p h i c a l tendencies i n K l e i n ' s w o r k . O n e is Realist

a n d E m p i r i c i s t , the other is P l a t o n i c a n d Idealist. H e r Realist line of
t h o u g h t is f o c u s s e d o n the necessity for the i n f a n t — o v e r time—to
t h i n k a b o u t a n d p e r c e i v e reality ( c o m p r i s e d , p r i m a r i l y , of significant
others) objectively rather t h a n b e c o m i n g c o n f u s e d b y d i s t o r t i n g p h a n ­
tasies. F r o m this p o i n t of v i e w the a i m of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b o t h w i t h
c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s , is to lessen the distortions a n d exaggerations, b o t h
p o s i t i v e a n d negative, of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, so that the p a t i e n t sees
h i m or herself a n d others as they r e a l l y are. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h the
K l e i n i a n focuses o n the subjective w o r l d of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y , this
is n o t a Subjectivist, Relativist p o s i t i o n . O n the contrary, K l e i n r e c o g ­
n i s e d p s y c h i c reality a n d stressed that it has to be m o d i f i e d and
b r o u g h t i n l i n e w i t h external reality, i n o r d e r for sanity to p r e v a i l . A
R e l a t i v i s t p o s i t i o n o n t r u t h w i l l n o t h e l p a patient w h o s e p e r c e p t i o n is
d i s t o r t e d . It w i l l n o t h e l p a c h i l d , for instance, to b e t o l d : T c a n see that
y o u t h i n k y o u r m o t h e r is t r y i n g to p o i s o n y o u , a n d that she changes
into a w i t c h at n i g h t , a n d since that is y o u r " t r u t h " , I w i l l respect that'.
 Linda Buckingham 131

Rather, w h i l s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g the strength of the c h i l d ' s phantasy, w e

s h o u l d recognise that it is a phantasy, a n d s h o u l d w o r k i n the transfer­
ence to m o d i f y it. If the m o t h e r is, i n d e e d , a sadist this w i l l b e c o m e
a p p a r e n t d u r i n g treatment.
In ' M o u r n i n g a n d Its R e l a t i o n to M a n i c - D e p r e s s i v e States' (1940)
K l e i n writes a b o u t the process of i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n a n d the struggle the
i n f a n t has i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d outer reality:

T h e r e is a constant interaction b e t w e e n anxieties r e l a t i n g to the

' e x t e r n a l ' mother... a n d those relating to the ' i n t e r n a l ' m o t h e r ' . . .
In the b a b y ' s m i n d , the ' i n t e r n a l ' m o t h e r is b o u n d u p w i t h the
' e x t e r n a l ' o n e , o f w h o m she is a ' d o u b l e ' , t h o u g h o n e w h i c h at
once u n d e r g o e s alterations i n his m i n d t h r o u g h the v e r y process
o f i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n ; that is to say, her i m a g e is i n f l u e n c e d b y his
phantasies, a n d b y i n t e r n a l s t i m u l i a n d external experiences of
a l l k i n d s . . . T h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n s w h e n external situations a n d
things are i n t e r n a l i s e d . T h e phantastic nature of the i n n e r w o r l d
exerts a p o w e r f u l effect o n the c h i l d , o n the w a y h e t h i n k s a n d
feels a b o u t p e o p l e a n d situations. T h e d o u b t , uncertainties a n d
anxieties that m a y arise because of this act as a c o n t i n u o u s i n c e n ­
tive to the y o u n g c h i l d to observe a n d m a k e sure about the exter­
n a l object w o r l d , f r o m w h i c h this i n n e r w o r l d s p r i n g s , a n d b y
these m e a n s to u n d e r s t a n d the i n t e r n a l o n e better. T h e visible
m o t h e r thus p r o v i d e s c o n t i n u o u s p r o o f s of w h a t the ' i n t e r n a l '
mother is l i k e , w h e t h e r she is l o v i n g or angry, h e l p f u l o r
r e v e n g e f u l . T h e extent to w h i c h external reality is able to d i s ­
p r o v e anxieties a n d s o r r o w r e l a t i n g to the internal reality varies
w i t h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l , b u t c o u l d be t a k e n as o n e of the criteria for
n o r m a l i t y . I n c h i l d r e n w h o are so m u c h d o m i n a t e d b y their inter­
n a l w o r l d that their anxieties c a n n o t b e sufficiently d i s p r o v e d
a n d c o u n t e r a c t e d e v e n b y the pleasant aspects of their relation­
s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e , severe m e n t a l difficulties are u n a v o i d a b l e .
( K l e i n 1940)

This Empiricist view contrasts w i t h another strand of K l e i n ' s

t h o u g h t , h e r i d e a s o n u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e . I earlier referred to
K l e i n ' s debatable t h e o r y that infants of b o t h sexes h a v e a n ' u n c o n ­
s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e ' of the v a g i n a a n d the p e n i s . B y the time she c a m e to
w r i t e ' T h e O e d i p u s C o m p l e x i n the L i g h t of E a r l y A n x i e t i e s ' (1945)
K l e i n ' s ideas o n infant sexuality h a d n a r r o w e d s o m e w h a t . T h e r e is less
132 The Hazards of Curiosity

e m p h a s i s i n this p a p e r o n the ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , a b o u t w h i c h she h a d

w r i t t e n so i n t e r e s t i n g l y a l m o s t t w e n t y y e a r s earlier. Instead she lays
o u t a m o r e r i g i d f o r m u l a c o n c e r n i n g object-directed i m p u l s e s . In this
s c h e m e , the g i r l has a n u n c o n s c i o u s awareness of h e r v a g i n a a n d often
m a s t u r b a t e s v a g i n a l l y . She is aware, u n c o n s c i o u s l y , of the receptive
' f u n c t i o n ' of the v a g i n a , so that her

. . . o r a l desires for her father's p e n i s m i n g l e w i t h h e r first genital

desires to receive that p e n i s . These g e n i t a l desires i m p l y the w i s h
to receive c h i l d r e n f r o m h e r father. ( K l e i n 1945)

K l e i n d r a m a t i c a l l y d o w n - p l a y s the s e n s i t i v i t y of the clitoris a n d d i s ­

agrees w i t h F r e u d c o n c e r n i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of the ' p h a l l i c p h a s e ' for
the g i r l , s t r e s s i n g that, i n h e r v i e w , p e n i s e n v y is b a s e d o n e n v y of the
m o t h e r w h o is s u p p o s e d to c o n t a i n the father's p e n i s w h i c h the g i r l
herself w i s h e s to receive.

E a r l y g e n i t a l desires, as w e l l as o r a l ones, are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s

m o t h e r a n d father. T h i s is i n line w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that i n
b o t h sexes there is a n inherent u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e of the
existence of the p e n i s as w e l l as the v a g i n a . In the m a l e infant,
g e n i t a l sensations are the basis for the e x p e c t a t i o n that h i s father
possesses a p e n i s w h i c h the b o y desires a c c o r d i n g to the e q u a ­
t i o n 'breast = p e n i s ' . A t the s a m e t i m e , his genital sensations a n d
i m p u l s e s also i m p l y the search for a n o p e n i n g i n t o w h i c h to
insert h i s p e n i s , i.e. t h e y are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s h i s mother. T h e
infant g i r l ' s genital sensations correspondingly prepare the
desire to receive her father's p e n i s i n t o h e r v a g i n a . It a p p e a r s
therefore that the g e n i t a l desires for the p e n i s of the father, w h i c h
m i n g l e w i t h o r a l desires, are at the root of the g i r l ' s p o s i t i v e a n d
of the b o y ' s i n v e r t e d O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . ( K l e i n 1945)

T h e r e are m a n y p r o b l e m s w i t h this t h e o r y — e . g . the role of the a n u s

as a p o t e n t i a l l y receptive o r g a n i n b o t h sexes; the role of the clitoris for
the g i r l ; the i n f l u e n c e of actual experiences w i t h b o t h parents w h i c h
w i l l i n f l u e n c e b o t h i d e n t i t y a n d object choice. B u t w h a t I w i s h to h i g h ­
l i g h t here is the t y p e of t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e u p o n w h i c h these ideas
are b a s e d , h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i.e. a P l a t o n i c theory of
i n n a t e i d e a s m i x e d w i t h a d o s e of b i o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n i s m . She w r i t e s
s i m i l a r l y a b o u t the 'innate factors' u n d e r l y i n g the infant's relation to
 Linda Buckingham 133

the breast, w h i c h 'is i n s t i n c t i v e l y felt to be the source of n o u r i s h m e n t ,

i n a d e e p e r sense of life itself. T h i s m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l closeness to the
g r a t i f y i n g breast i n s o m e m e a s u r e restores, if things g o w e l l , the lost
p r e n a t a l u n i t y w i t h the m o t h e r a n d the f e e l i n g of security that goes
w i t h it' ( K l e i n 1957). I n another p a p e r , ' O u r A d u l t W o r l d a n d Its Roots
i n I n f a n c y ' (1959), K l e i n writes that the infant has a n

...innate u n c o n s c i o u s awareness of the existence o f the mother.

W e k n o w that y o u n g a n i m a l s at once t u r n to the m o t h e r a n d f i n d
their f o o d f r o m her. T h e h u m a n a n i m a l is n o t different i n that
respect, a n d this i n s t i n c t u a l k n o w l e d g e is the basis for the
infant's p r i m a l r e l a t i o n to h i s mother. ( K l e i n 1959)

O n e m i g h t p r o c e e d a l o n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l lines f r o m these state­

m e n t s , a n d argue s i m p l y that a h u n g r y n e w - b o r n b a b y w i l l w e l c o m e a
feed a n d b e c o m e attached to the f e e d i n g - s o u r c e (the breast) as a c o n ­
sequence. However, Klein's arguments for 'innateness' have been
t a k e n u p b y m a n y s u b s e q u e n t K l e i n i a n s . W i l f r e d B i o n w a s the first
post-Kleinian psychoanalyst to e x t e n d the P l a t o n i c possibilities of
K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of e a r l y object relations. H e f o r m u l a t e d a s o p h i s t i c a t e d
t h e o r y of innate i d e a s w h i c h h e set o u t i n ' A T h e o r y of T h i n k i n g '
(1962). In this w o r k h e traces w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s to be the infant's e a r l i ­
est efforts a n d defences i n the area o f object relations. B i o n sees t h i n k ­
ing as ' a d e v e l o p m e n t forced o n the p s y c h e b y the pressure of
t h o u g h t s ' (Bion 1962) a n d h e classifies these thoughts a c c o r d i n g to
their d e v e l o p m e n t a l h i s t o r y : firstly, p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s , t h e n c o n c e p t i o n s ,
a n d , finally, concepts. C o n c e p t s are n a m e d , f i x e d thoughts.

T h e c o n c e p t i o n is i n i t i a t e d b y the c o n j u n c t i o n of a p r e - c o n c e p ­
t i o n w i t h a realisation. T h e p r e - c o n c e p t i o n m a y b e r e g a r d e d as
the a n a l o g u e i n p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s o f K a n t ' s concept of 'empty
t h o u g h t s ' . P s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l l y the t h e o r y that the infant has a n
i n b o r n d i s p o s i t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a n expectation of a breast
m a y b e u s e d to s u p p l y a m o d e l . W h e n the p r e - c o n c e p t i o n is
b r o u g h t into contact w i t h a realisation that a p p r o x i m a t e s to it,
the m e n t a l o u t c o m e is a c o n c e p t i o n . P u t i n another w a y , the p r e ­
c o n c e p t i o n (the i n b o r n e x p e c t a t i o n of a breast, the p r i o r k n o w l ­
e d g e of a breast, the ' e m p t y t h o u g h t ' ) w h e n the infant is b r o u g h t
i n t o contact w i t h the breast itself, mates w i t h awareness of the
realisation a n d is s y n c h r o n o u s w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of a c o n ­
134 The Hazards of Curiosity

c e p t i o n . T h i s m o d e l w i l l serve for the t h e o r y that e v e r y j u n c t i o n

of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h its realisation p r o d u c e s a c o n c e p t i o n .
C o n c e p t i o n s therefore w i l l b e expected to b e c o n s t a n t l y c o n ­
j o i n e d w i t h a n e m o t i o n a l experience of satisfaction. ( B i o n 1962:
111)

B i o n l i m i t s the t e r m ' t h o u g h t ' , at this e a r l y p o i n t of d e v e l o p m e n t , to

the m a t i n g of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h a frustration. T h e m o d e l he uses is
that of a n infant w h o s e expectation of a breast is m a t e d w i t h a realisa­
t i o n of a ' n o breast' available. T h e experience, t h e n , is of a 'no-breast'
i n s i d e . T h e next step taken b y the infant d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r the infant
tries to e v a d e f r u s t r a t i o n or to m o d i f y it.
A s I see it, there are t w o p r o b l e m s w i t h this a p p r o a c h .
Firstly, a need, be it p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l , or b o t h , is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
the s a m e as a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n or as ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e . A c o n c e p t i o n
c a n arise i n s t e a d f r o m the satisfaction of a n e e d . F o r instance, the c o n ­
c e p t i o n of a breast m i g h t b e s a i d to arise f r o m the experience of satis­
f a c t i o n of h u n g e r at the breast. W e c o u l d say, t h e n , that a c o n c e p t i o n is
p r o d u c e d b y the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of a n e e d a n d the realisation of a n object
w h i c h satisfies that n e e d . T h e r e is n o n e e d to i m p o r t a P l a t o n i c o r
K a n t i a n t h e o r y of 'Innate Ideas' to u n d e r p i n this process.
S e c o n d l y , the infant c o u l d o n l y be left w i t h the experience of a ' n o
breast' i n s i d e if it a l r e a d y h a d a c o n c e p t i o n of a breast. It m a k e s perfect
sense that a c o n c e p t i o n of the breast can be m a t e d w i t h the realisation
of a no-breast, b u t it m a k e s n o sense to s a y that a n e m p t y t h o u g h t , if
f r u s t r a t e d , c a n p r o d u c e a f u l l t h o u g h t — a 'no-breast'. In other w o r d s , to
get to ' n o breast' y o u m u s t a l r e a d y h a v e got to 'breast'. A n infant w h o
has n o t yet e s t a b l i s h e d the c o n c e p t i o n (the i m a g e , the experience) o f
the breast a n d w h o s e h u n g e r is frustrated, w i l l be left w i t h d i s c o m f o r t
a n d distress a n d p e r h a p s , if one really stretches this d u b i o u s p o i n t , a
' n o - t h i n g ' i n s i d e . B u t b y i m p o r t i n g the t h e o r y of 'innate i d e a s ' a n d ' a
p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e , B i o n is j u m p i n g the g u n a n d i n s e r t i n g the c o n c e p ­
t i o n of the breast i n t o the p r e - c o n c e p t i o n stage.
B i o n p r o c e e d s to say that, if the infant c a n tolerate f r u s t r a t i o n , the
' n o breast' i n s i d e b e c o m e s a t h o u g h t a n d t h i n k i n g d e v e l o p s . T h e g u l f
of f r u s t r a t i o n c a n t h e n b e b r i d g e d b e t w e e n the m o m e n t o f w a n t a n d
the m o m e n t of satisfaction.
If a n i n f a n t c a n n o t tolerate frustration he w i l l t e n d to e v a d e it. W h a t
s h o u l d be a t h o u g h t , a p r o d u c t of the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n
a n d n e g a t i v e realisation, b e c o m e s a bad object, fit o n l y for e v a c u a t i o n , a
 Linda Buckingham 135

thing-in-itself. A g a i n , I t h i n k it m a k e s m o r e sense to s p e a k of infants

w h o h a v e a c o n c e p t i o n , a n d expectation, of the breast b u t c a n n o t tol­
erate its n o n - a p p e a r a n c e a n d so t u r n it bad i n their m i n d s . If w e are talk­
i n g of a n infant w h o has not yet f o r m e d a c o n c e p t i o n of the breast, then
the infant, w h e n its n e e d is frustrated, w i l l h a v e the experience of d i s ­
c o m f o r t , agitation a n d p e r h a p s the presence of s o m e t h i n g b a d . T o h a v e
a n experience of a ' n o breast' w o u l d be too s o p h i s t i c a t e d . T h e b a b y
w o u l d n o t h a v e got there yet.
W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of his s e c t i o n o n p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s , B i o n ' s theory
is i n v a l u a b l e as a d e s c r i p t i o n of the ability to t h i n k a n d to tolerate e m o ­
t i o n a l life. I w i l l n o t s u m m a r i s e the rest of this t h e o r y since it is d i s ­
c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s chapter. H o w e v e r , I s h o u l d e m p h a s i s e that the
substance of B i o n ' s t h e o r y is a d e s c r i p t i o n of the different m e n t a l states
c o n s e q u e n t u p o n w h e t h e r the infant m a n a g e s , i n v a r i o u s w a y s , to tol­
erate p s y c h i c p a i n or opts to e v a d e i t — e . g . t h r o u g h d e n i a l or o m n i p o ­
tence.
I t h i n k it is t i m e l y to q u e s t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories b y e x a m i n i n g
their p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s a n d to d e c i d e w h i c h ideas we
b e l i e v e to be true or, at the v e r y least, to be a w a r e of w h y w e are d r a w n
to certain theories.
A s far as B i o n is c o n c e r n e d I d o n o t believe it is useful to graft c o m ­
p l i c a t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y onto the b a b y ' s experience. I w o u l d be
inclined to d i t c h the t h e o r y of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s a n d take a more
E m p i r i c i s t , M a t e r i a l i s t line b y f o l l o w i n g the b a b y ' s actual experience.
I n his ' T h e o r y of T h i n k i n g ' B i o n ' s e a r l y p r o p o s i t i o n s are suffused w i t h
the p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y of innate ideas a n d ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e . H i s
later p r o p o s i t i o n s , f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n s of ' c o n c e p t i o n s ' o n w a r d s , are
m o r e Realist a n d E m p i r i c i s t . It is clearly a t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g w h i c h is
itself i n f l u e n c e d b y theories of k n o w l e d g e a n d l e a r n i n g .
S i m i l a r l y , as I h a v e s h o w n , K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g has both
P l a t o n i c (innate ideas) a n d Realist, E m p i r i c i s t strands. H e r statements
a b o u t the infant's u n c o n s c i o u s , innate k n o w l e d g e of s e x u a l functions
contrast w i t h her d e s c r i p t i o n s of h o w the infant g r a d u a l l y m a n a g e s to
d i s t i n g u i s h p h a n t a s y f r o m reality. I n b o t h K l e i n a n d B i o n ' s w o r k the
d i v e r s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l tastes of readers a n d students are therefore
catered for b u t there has n o t yet b e e n a n y s u s t a i n e d debate as to w h i c h
of their p r o p o s i t i o n s are a c t u a l l y true. T h e o r i e s t e n d to be either
e s p o u s e d or s h u n n e d i n total, w h e r e a s a critical analysis of a theory
w h i c h teases o u t its different strands w i l l s u r e l y h e l p its u s e f u l ele­
m e n t s to s u r v i v e as s p r i n g b o a r d s to further k n o w l e d g e .
 T H E D O G ' S TEMPER: A N ESSAY O N T H E VICISSITUDES O F
LEARNING

Kirsty Hall

T h e m i n d s o f m o r t a l s are so different a n d bent o n s u c h d i v e r s e

j o u r n e y s that it m a y at first a p p e a r i m p o s s i b l e for a n y c o m m o n
taste a n d f e l l o w s h i p to exist b e t w e e n t w o o r three u n d e r these
s u p p o s i t i o n s . It is h o w e v e r quite the contrary. M i n d s would
l e a v e e a c h other i n c o n t r a r y directions, traverse e a c h other i n
n u m b e r l e s s p o i n t s , a n d at last greet e a c h other at the j o u r n e y ' s
e n d . A n o l d m a n a n d a c h i l d w o u l d talk together a n d the o l d
m a n b e l e d o n h i s p a t h a n d the c h i l d left t h i n k i n g . — J o h n K e a t s ,
letter to R e y n o l d s (Keats 1960:102)

'Try another Subtraction s u m . Take a bone f r o m a d o g : what

remains?'
A l i c e c o n s i d e r e d . ' T h e b o n e w o u l d n ' t r e m a i n , of c o u r s e , if I
t o o k it - a n d the d o g w o u l d n ' t r e m a i n : it w o u l d c o m e to bite m e
- a n d I ' m sure I s h o u l d n ' t r e m a i n ! '
' T h e n y o u t h i n k n o t h i n g w o u l d r e m a i n ? ' s a i d the R e d Q u e e n .
T t h i n k that's the a n s w e r /
' W r o n g , as u s u a l , ' s a i d the R e d Q u e e n : ' T h e d o g ' s temper
w o u l d r e m a i n . ' ( C a r r o l l 1872: 174-5)

T h e s e are t w o v e r y different scenarios, each of w h i c h c o u l d b e t e r m e d

a ' l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e ' . T h e p u r p o s e o f this p a p e r is n o t to e x a m i n e the
h i g h w a y s a n d b y e w a y s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d other theories of l e a r n ­
i n g . O t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s to this b o o k h a v e a l r e a d y t a c k l e d this p r o b l e m .
Instead I a m e x p l o r i n g o n e p a r t i c u l a r p a t h , the v i c i s s i t u d e s o f the p a t h
that l e a d s a p e r s o n to l e a r n to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a l y s t o r p s y c h o a n a ­
lytic p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t . T h i s p a p e r l o o k s at the q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g expe­
1

riences s u c h p e o p l e g o t h r o u g h .
P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y are often attacked. T h e y are
a t t a c k e d i n the m e d i a for b e i n g e x p e n s i v e , l o n g - w i n d e d , a n d ineffec­
tive. C o u n s e l l o r s are q u i c k e r a n d cheaper. S o m e t i m e s , their services
are free, b e c a u s e e v e n f u l l y - t r a i n e d c o u n s e l l o r s are p r e p a r e d to g a i n
experience as v o l u n t e e r s . E v e n cheaper a n d even more effective,
a p p a r e n t l y , is a self-help g r o u p . A n o t h e r n o t c h u p (or is it d o w n ? ) o n
 Kirshj Hall 137

the s a m e scale is the self-help b o o k a n d the internet site. T h e f i n a l

n o t c h (the last straw?) is the n e w s p a p e r article, i n w h i c h s o m e o n e
claims: T s o l v e d m y p r o b l e m b y t a k i n g s u c h - a n d - s u c h a tablet; there's
no need to s p e n d lots of time a n d m o n e y b a r i n g o n e ' s s o u l to s o m e o n e
else'. T h e p a r a d o x d e s c r i b e d here is that p s y c h o t h e r a p y h o l d s o u t the
p r o s p e c t of b e i n g too p a i n f u l to c o n t e m p l a t e , w h i l s t at the s a m e time
offering a n o p p o r t u n i t y to relieve the v e r y s a m e p a i n — y e t p e o p l e p r e ­
fer the i m p e r s o n a l i t y of a p i l l .
M e a n w h i l e there is a n a p p a r e n t l y inexhaustible interest i n a n d c o n ­
c e r n a b o u t the quality of o u r lives: H o w s h o u l d w e c o p e w i t h loss, w i t h
tragedy, w i t h disaster? C a n w e f i n d w a y s to d e a l w i t h o u r p h o b i a s ,
w i t h a d d i c t i o n to a l c o h o l or d r u g s ? C a n w e ever be h a p p y ? W h a t k i n d
of sex-life m i g h t w e h a v e ? Is it the s a m e as that of other p e o p l e ? C a n
w e c o p e w i t h the strains a n d stresses of w o r k ? S h o u l d we stay i n o u r
present difficult r e l a t i o n s h i p or not? D e s p i t e the o p p r o b r i u m frequent­
l y h e a p e d u p o n the h e l p i n g professions, f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s t s to social
w o r k e r s , there is, apparently, n o shortage of p e o p l e q u e u i n g u p for
h e l p w i t h these a n d m a n y other questions. P e o p l e d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d to
talk to s o m e o n e b u t , at the same t i m e , this is the last t h i n g they w a n t
to d o . If y o u d o choose s i m p l y to take the tablets, y o u a v o i d the p r o b ­
lems b u t also the pleasures of b u i l d i n g a relationship w i t h s o m e o n e else,
w h e t h e r it is a f r i e n d or a therapist. T h e twenty-first c e n t u r y is a time
i n w h i c h loneliness is e n d e m i c w i t h i n m a n y cultures.
S i m i l a r l y there is a p l e t h o r a of o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n all k i n d s of
things f r o m all k i n d s of m e d i a — p o p u l a r n o v e l s , soaps, newspaper
articles, T V p r o g r a m m e s , s u r f i n g the internet a n d so o n . T h e i n f o r m a ­
tion o b t a i n e d , w h e t h e r it is about c o o k i n g , D I Y or f i x i n g y o u r r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p , is often e n t e r t a i n i n g a n d i n f o r m a t i v e . H o w e v e r , the often-regur­
gitated collective v i e w of large n u m b e r s of p e o p l e , a l t h o u g h often
s u p e r f i c i a l l y v e r y attractive, can be less t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g a n d less
enjoyable t h a n r e a d i n g the o r i g i n a l v i e w s of a single author. T o i l l u s ­
trate the p r o b l e m of r e d u c i n g ideas to their l o w e s t c o m m o n denomi­
nator, I r e c o m m e n d a D i s n e y r i d e at the E p c o t centre i n F l o r i d a . Y o u
c a n sit i n a g o n d o l a a n d take a r i d e t h r o u g h a n artificial starry n i g h t ,
l e a r n i n g about the h i s t o r y of the w o r l d i n five m i n u t e s . Y o u pass b y a
tableau of ' A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s ' , f o l l o w e d b y a t a b l e a u of 'Ancient
R o m a n s ' . . . Incidentally, I a m referring here to the h i s t o r y of the h u m a n
race; interestingly, d i n o s a u r s m e r i t a separate s h o w s o m e fifteen m i n ­
utes longer. E v e n quite y o u n g c h i l d r e n f o u n d the tableaux rather b o r ­
i n g — p e r h a p s because it w a s too s i m p l e for 'the u n d e r tens'?
138 The Dog's Temper

S o , are these a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x e s — t h e p a i n a n d p l e a s u r e of l e a r n ­
i n g , a n d the p a i n a n d pleasure of p s y c h o t h e r a p y — i n a n y w a y related?
T h i s p a p e r w i l l a r g u e that i n d e e d t h e y are. In the case of p s y c h o t h e r a ­
p y p e o p l e w a n t relief f r o m their suffering w i t h o u t h a v i n g to e x a m i n e
w h a t m a d e t h e m suffer i n the first place. In the case of l e a r n i n g , they
w a n t to f i n d o u t a b o u t s o m e t h i n g w i t h o u t g o i n g t h r o u g h the g r i n d of
h a v i n g to a c q u i r e a large b o d y of k n o w l e d g e . T h e r e seems to be a n
i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the degree of p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t , c o m ­
m i t m e n t , a n d self-exposure r e q u i r e d , a n d the p o p u l a r i t y of the treat­
m e n t or p r o c e s s , w h e t h e r it is p s y c h o t h e r a p y or l e a r n i n g .

***

P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d l o o k for the cause of this d i l e m m a i n the n a t u r e of

l e a r n i n g itself a n d i n the nature of the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e
quotations at the b e g i n n i n g of this p a p e r illustrate t w o differing
aspects of the p r o b l e m . T h e first is K e a t s ' h o p e f u l a n d l i f e - g i v i n g affir­
m a t i o n that i n spite of a l l the difficulties, at least s o m e t i m e s , m i n d s do
m e e t . T h e o p t i m i s t i c r e a d i n g of K e a t s is, therefore, that the e x p e r i e n c e
of l e a r n i n g a n d — i n d e e d — o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s too c a n be l i f e - a f f i r m i n g
a n d e n h a n c i n g . H o w e v e r , Alice Through the Looking Glass perfectly s u m ­
marises a fundamental h u m a n d i l e m m a : w h e n we think w e ' v e learned
s o m e t h i n g , it m a y be perfectly correct i n one sense yet completely
w r o n g i n another. It d e p e n d s o n the a s s u m p t i o n s w e m a k e . A l i c e ' s
e n c o u n t e r w i t h the R e d Q u e e n also m a k e s it clear that i n s o m e cir­
c u m s t a n c e s l e a r n i n g c a n be a n e x t r e m e l y u n p l e a s a n t experience. T h e s e
p o i n t s are the m e a t o n the b o n e I w a n t to c h e w over.
L e a r n i n g - c e n t r e d p r o b l e m s are, after a l l , issues w h i c h c o n c e r n the
v e r y n u t s a n d bolts of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . H o w e v e r w r o n g - h e a d e d a n d
incorrect p e o p l e m a y a p p e a r to be, t h e y d o i n d e e d m a k e j u d g e m e n t s ,
a c q u i r e ' i n f o r m a t i o n ' about themselves a n d c h a n g e their lives o v e r a
p e r i o d of t i m e — i n short, they learn. O n e of the settings w h i c h c a n be
u s e d for this process is the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c setting. In a sense, t h e n , p s y ­
c h o a n a l y s i s c a n be b o t h a n o p p o r t u n i t y for e x p l o r i n g T h e 'Alice
T h r o u g h the L o o k i n g G l a s s ' w o r l d of m i s g u i d e d a s s u m p t i o n s and
e r r o r s of j u d g e m e n t a b o u t o u r s e l v e s , a n d also a p l a c e w h e r e w e may
e x p e r i e n c e the relief of b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d — a m e e t i n g of m i n d s i n the
s p i r i t of K e a t s .
H a v i n g h i g h l i g h t e d s o m e of the d i l e m m a s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g ,
w h i c h produce ambivalence towards psychoanalysis a n d psychother­
 Kirsty Hall 139

a p y i n all their v a r i o u s f o r m s , I w a n t to t u r n the spotlight u p o n the

p a t h I p i c k e d o u t at the b e g i n n i n g of this chapter: the p a t h of l e a r n i n g
w h i c h leads to q u a l i f i c a t i o n as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t or p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t .
H o w is the practice of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p a s s e d o n f r o m one generation
to another, a n d h o w d o students or trainees learn? If it is difficult for
those o n the r e c e i v i n g e n d to c o m e i n t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y , h o w much
m o r e difficult is it to train p e o p l e to b e c o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d p s y ­
chotherapists? D o w e e q u i p p e o p l e to operate i n a p a r a d o x i c a l w o r l d
w h e r e o u r clients b o t h d o a n d d o not w a n t us to w o r k w i t h t h e m , a n d
i n w h i c h there is outright s u s p i c i o n of w h a t w e h a v e to offer? T a l k i n g
of s u s p i c i o n — d o w e let trainees loose w i t h the a r g u m e n t s for a n d
against p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a n d for a n d against c o m p e t i n g theories of c l i n ­
i c a l practice, a l l o w i n g t h e m to participate freely a n d to offer their o w n
p o i n t of v i e w , o r w o u l d this i n v o l v e too m u c h risk?
In the process of e x p l o r i n g theories of l e a r n i n g as they a p p l y to the
p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , I w a n t to relate this i n d i v i d u a l
e x p e r i e n c e of l e a r n i n g to the w i d e r p s y c h o a n a l y t i c c u l t u r e a n d to s h o w
h o w , c o n t r a r y to the c o m m o n l y h e l d c o n v i c t i o n of m a n y analysts a n d
therapists, changes i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, p a r t i c u l a r l y o v e r the last
forty years, h a v e p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d c l i n i c a l practice, e v e n if this
i n f l u e n c e has n o t b e e n w e l l r e c o g n i s e d or a c k n o w l e d g e d .
T h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n of the process of l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a
p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t or p s y c h o a n a l y s t is f a i r l y t y p i c a l :

• T r a i n i n g is p r e d i c a t e d u p o n y o u r o w n p e r s o n a l analysis or t h e r a p y
( k n o w n i n the field as a ' t r a i n i n g analysis'), s o m e clinical e x p e r i ­
ence, a n often c u r s o r y r e a d i n g of selected texts w h i c h c o n f o r m to
the p r e j u d i c e s of the o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h w h i c h y o u train, a n d listen­
i n g to a p p a r e n t l y endless n u m b e r s of s o - c a l l e d ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s .

• E v e n t u a l l y , p r o v i d e d y o u h a v e a v o i d e d t r e a d i n g o n too m a n y of the
traditionalists' toes (in the guise of the m e m b e r s of the t r a i n i n g
c o m m i t t e e ) , y o u e m e r g e f r o m the other e n d of the s a u s a g e - m a c h i n e
e x h a u s t e d a n d penniless but, nevertheless, a q u a l i f i e d , registered,
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t o r p s y c h o a n a l y s t , a p p a r e n t l y fit to
practice a n a c q u i r e d ' s k i l l ' o n the u n s u s p e c t i n g p u b l i c .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y this is i n m a n y cases a s k i l l w h i c h has b e e n a c q u i r e d

without any apparent need to u n d e r s t a n d — e v e n in rudimentary
f o r m — m a n y of the f u n d a m e n t a l ideas w h i c h u n d e r p i n the d a y - t o - d a y
140 The Dog's Temper

practice of p s y c h o t h e r a p y , a n d w h i c h h a v e b e e n the c o m m o n c u r r e n c y
of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c d i s c o u r s e d u r i n g the first h a l f o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n ­
tury.
T h i s l a c k of k n o w l e d g e is e v i d e n t f r o m a n y t r a w l t h r o u g h the c u r ­
rent literature, i n w h i c h it is the n o r m rather t h a n the e x c e p t i o n to w r i t e
' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s for p u b l i c a t i o n . In these p a p e r s a n attempt to d e r i v e
s o m e t h e o r y f r o m three o r four clinical e x a m p l e s is m a d e , regardless o f
the fact that, i n the vast m a j o r i t y of cases, there is n o g o o d reason
a d d u c e d for a d h e r i n g to o n e t h e o r y rather t h a n another. M u c h u s e f u l
k n o w l e d g e relevant to the topic u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n — b u t n o t d e e m e d to
be ' p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l ' — i s s i m p l y i g n o r e d . T h i s is i n stark contrast to the
p a p e r s w r i t t e n i n the first half o f the t w e n t i e t h century, w h e r e the
a u t h o r s began w i t h theory, a n d i l l u s t r a t e d the issues w i t h c l i n i c a l e x a m ­
ples. 2

T h e p e r c e p t i o n that there is a p r o b l e m i n t r a i n i n g p e o p l e to b e c o m e
p s y c h o a n a l y s t s is n o t n e w , n o r is it restricted to B r i t a i n . In 1996, O t t o
K e r n b e r g published a highly entertaining, tongue-in-cheek paper enti­
tled: 'Thirty Methods to D e s t r o y the C r e a t i v i t y of P s y c h o a n a l y t i c
C a n d i d a t e s ' . A brief extract c o n v e y s the f l a v o u r :

T h e f o l l o w i n g list of w a y s to i n h i b i t the creativity of p s y c h o a n a ­

lytic c a n d i d a t e s is n o t expected to be e x h a u s t i v e , a l t h o u g h I h o p e
it covers d o m i n a n t p r o b l e m s . . . N a t u r a l l y , a v o i d s t i m u l a t i n g c a n ­
d i d a t e s to p u t a n y n e w , o r i g i n a l i d e a o f their o w n into w r i t i n g :
w r i t i n g s h o u l d be a chore, a n o b l i g a t i o n , n e v e r a p l e a s u r e , a n
e a r l y source of p r i d e i n c o n t r i b u t i n g to the science of p s y c h o ­
analysis w h i l e still b e i n g a student. ( K e r n b e r g 1996) 3

T h e c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h K e r n b e r g m a k e s b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g a n d cre­
ativity is d e m o n s t r a t e d b u t n o t e x p l o r e d b y h i m . Yet it is here I t h i n k
that w e n e e d to start o u r search: W h e r e is the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c u r ­
rent p s y c h o a n a l y t i c practice a n d l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a l y s t ?
P s y c h o a n a l y s i s , as p r a c t i s e d b y s o m e , offers the o p p o r t u n i t y of m a k i n g
subtle b u t i m p o r t a n t distinctions b e t w e e n those w h o are n e u r o t i c (less
d i s t u r b e d ) a n d those w h o are p s y c h o t i c (severely d i s t u r b e d ) ; i n other
w o r d s , b e t w e e n those for w h o m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y i n d e e d b e ' t h e
t a l k i n g c u r e ' , a n d others to w h o m w e c a n offer o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d h e l p .
P s y c h o a n a l y s i s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h to theories of r e m e m b e r i n g a n d
forgetting, a n d it h a s c o n n e c t e d these to t r a u m a . It h a s i n f l u e n c e d d i s ­
course theory, a n d h a s b r o u g h t to the f o r e g r o u n d the v a l u e of the
 Kirsty Hall 141

h u m a n subject a n d the subjective. O u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o m e of the

c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h u m a n s e x u a l i t y w o u l d be e v e n m o r e w o e f u l l y i n a d e ­
quate w i t h o u t the c o n t r i b u t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n s i g h t s , a n d the
ambivalences of h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n a n d causality are i n e x p l i c a b l e
w i t h o u t s o m e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c k n o w l e d g e . I h a v e selected just a few of
the areas i n w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has m u c h to c o n t r i b u t e , b u t it is m y
p e r c e p t i o n that v e r y few practitioners of a n y p e r s u a s i o n c o u l d a c t u a l ­
l y d i s c u s s these theories w i t h a n y degree of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . O f t e n , they
are c o m p l e t e l y u n a w a r e that their c l i n i c a l practice c o u l d be e n h a n c e d
b y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the theoretical concerns a l l u d e d to above. So
the q u e s t i o n remains: W h y d o n ' t w e use p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory to
i m p r o v e o u r practice, i n s t e a d of s h y i n g a w a y f r o m it w i t h excuses s u c h
as b e i n g too b u s y or e x h a u s t e d to r e a d , o r else s l i p p i n g i n t o the tired
o l d v i e w that a c a d e m i c p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has n o t h i n g to offer the p r a c t i ­
tioner?

In the v a s t majority of trainings it is i m p o r t a n t that m i n d s are seen

to m e e t , i.e. that y o u r m i n d is seen to be i n agreement w i t h those w h o
h a v e t r a i n e d y o u . H o w e v e r , p u b l i c l y v o i c e d o p i n i o n s are often not
r e a l l y o p i n i o n s at a l l , rather they are ' u n e a s y a g r e e m e n t s ' — n o t , I t h i n k ,
quite w h a t K e a t s h a d i n m i n d . It is c o m m o n p l a c e for s o m e p s y c h o a n ­
alysts to a r g u e that ' t r a d i t i o n ' m u s t s i m p l y be a c c e p t e d . T r a d i t i o n
s e e m s to i n c l u d e a t r e a d m i l l of ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s : s o m e of these p a p e r s
h a v e a n e m p i r i c a l scientific basis, a l t h o u g h the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
the ' s c i e n c e ' a n d the client i n the c o n s u l t i n g - r o o m is often left u n c l e a r ;
others are of the v a r i e t y i n w h i c h phrases like ' m y patient's persistent
a c t i n g - o u t of her u n c o n s c i o u s e n v y m a d e m e u n a b l e to t h i n k ' a b o u n d .
M u c h o f the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c w o r l d seems to p r e s u m e that e x a m i n i n g
y o u r own state of m i n d is: (a) one of the m a i n tools of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ,
a n d (b) that it is a reliable g u i d e to the state of m i n d of the patient.
O f t e n t h e s e — a n d o n l y t h e s e — k i n d s of p a p e r s are d e e m e d suitable to
f o r m the research projects of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
A n o t h e r frequent experience is for p e o p l e to train a l m o s t entirely
w i t h i n a single n a r r o w t r a d i t i o n , w h e r e one analyst's w o r k is p r e ­
s u m e d i n v a r i a b l y to lead to the 'correct' p a t h of t h i n k i n g . A g a i n , K e a t s '
v i s i o n of a c r o s s i n g of paths cannot h a p p e n if e v e r y o n e is b l i n d l y t r e a d ­
i n g i n the footsteps of the p e r s o n a h e a d .
H o w e v e r , this rather critical v i e w of current t r a i n i n g s m u s t be
e x a m i n e d m o r e closely. If I a m to suggest that the t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d
of t r a i n i n g p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s n e e d s to be c h a n g e d
142 The Dogs Temper

t h e n , to b e fair, w e s h o u l d l o o k at w h a t the attractions a n d a d v a n t a g e s

of the c u r r e n t t r a d i t i o n are. S o , w h a t is the other side of the coin?
T h e reassurance offered b y t r a d i t i o n is v i v i d l y illustrated i n a t r a d i ­
t i o n a l C h r i s t m a s carol, the f o u r t h verse o f G o o d K i n g Wenceslas:

'Sire the n i g h t is d a r k e r n o w ,
a n d the w i n d b l o w s stronger;
Fails m y heart I k n o w n o t how,
I c a n g o n o longer.'
' M a r k m y footsteps, g o o d m y Page;
Tread thou i n them boldly:
T h o u shalt f i n d the w i n t e r ' s rage
F r e e z e t h y b l o o d less c o l d l y . '

I w o n d e r a b o u t the s e n t i m e n t of this verse. I a m n o t c o n c e r n e d here,

i n c i d e n t a l l y , w i t h the r e l i g i o u s aspect o f the carol, b u t rather w i t h the
s t o r y that it tells. T h e P a g e h a s to h e l p the K i n g d i s t r i b u t e gifts to the
p o o r . H o w e v e r the P a g e , i n t u r n , needs h e l p to c a r r y o u t this task. W h y
s h o u l d p l o d d i n g after s o m e o n e else be s o reassuring? First o f a l l , at o n e
l e v e l it w o r k s v e r y efficiently; the P a g e gets d o n e the job of d e l i v e r i n g
a l m s to the peasant. T h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t 'learns' to b e c o m e a p s y ­
c h o t h e r a p i s t , s o w h e r e ' s the p r o b l e m ?
M y i m p r e s s i o n is that m a n y practitioners are i n the p o s i t i o n of the
P a g e f r o m ' G o o d K i n g Wenceslas' rather t h a n i n that of the c h i l d f r o m
the letter b y K e a t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t t h e y fear m o s t is b e i n g p u t i n
the p o s i t i o n o f A l i c e i n Through the Looking Glass. It feels safer to f o l l o w
w e l l - t r o d d e n p a t h s , a n d e v e n to r e m a i n u n a w a r e of the often v i t r i o l i c
a r g u m e n t s w h i c h are i n f u l l f l o w i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , w h e t h e r they c o n ­
c e r n h o w m a n y sessions a w e e k a patient s h o u l d b e seen, the p r o s a n d
cons of the u s e o f the counter-transference, o r the s o - c a l l e d ' s h o r t ' ses­
sion.
A C h r i s t m a s carol p r o b a b l y changes a little o v e r the years, b u t n o t
v e r y m u c h , a n d the debates i n the p s y c h o t h e r a p y f i e l d h a v e c h a n g e d a
little o v e r the years, b u t n o t m u c h .
T h e tasks o f the P a g e are m a n y a n d v a r i e d , b u t also l i m i t e d i n s c o p e .
S t u d e n t s a n d trainees are r a r e l y a s k e d to w o r k t h r o u g h r i v a l r e a d i n g s
of the O e d i p u s c o m p l e x for e x a m p l e , o r specifically to relate t h e o r y to
practice. T h e y are often expected to d e r i v e t h e o r y f r o m practice rather
t h a n vice versa. It is n o t a n t i c i p a t e d that they w i l l b e critical of w h a t
 Kirsty Hall 143

t h e y r e a d , a n d t h e y are c e r t a i n l y n o t e n c o u r a g e d to use w h a t they h a v e

r e a d to criticise c l i n i c a l practice.
It is also f r e q u e n t l y the case that students are not e x p e c t e d to read
w h o l e b o o k s — p e r h a p s this m i g h t l e a d to d i s a g r e e m e n t . In the same
v e i n , I a m often a s k e d if I can s u g g e s t cribs for the w o r k of w e l l - k n o w n
p s y c h o a n a l y s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y that of L a c a n ; b u t I h a v e also b e e n asked
for a M e l a n i e K l e i n crib a n d a F r e u d crib i n m y time. W h y ? Because it
a p p e a r s to the s t u d e n t that they w i l l save s o m e of that p r e c i o u s c o m ­
m o d i t y , time. H o w e v e r , I t h i n k t h e y m i g h t i n s t e a d be t a k i n g a n e v e n
larger r i s k — t h e y m a y w e l l h a v e b e c o m e b o r e d s i l l y l o n g before they
h a v e f i n i s h e d r e a d i n g the c r i b — t h e ' D i s n e y l a n d ' s y n d r o m e ! Many
cribs c o n t a i n statements w h i c h differ s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m those of the
o r i g i n a l author. S o m e t i m e s t h e y are e v e n d o w n r i g h t w r o n g . A crib is
r e a l l y o n l y h e l p f u l if it is u s e d i n the o r i g i n a l sense of a c r i b , i.e. y o u
h a v e the o r i g i n a l text a l o n g s i d e a n d r e a d b o t h alternately. I disagree
w i t h the a x i o m that 'less is m o r e ' — t h i s m a y be true, i n s o m e cases,
w h e r e m a k i n g interpretations of a patient's w o r d s is c o n c e r n e d , b u t i n
the case of r e a d i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , less is quite s i m p l y less. Pages
d o n ' t n e e d to k n o w as m u c h as K i n g s so that t h e y w o n ' t h a v e to w o r r y
a b o u t b e i n g w r o n g , like A l i c e .

Teachers also c o n s p i r e i n the b u s i n e s s of r e a d i n g less. E v e r y w h e r e I

go, I a m t o l d that trainees are ' t o o b u s y ' to r e a d , often c o m b i n i n g f u l l ­
t i m e w o r k a n d y o u n g families. It has e v e n b e e n s u g g e s t e d to m e that
t e a c h i n g the t h e o r y of o n l y one p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s c h o o l m e a n s that the
s t u d e n t c a n t h e n save v a l u a b l e time. O f c o u r s e , this is s i m p l y a m e a n s
b y w h i c h the status q u o c a n be u p h e l d — t h e Pages w o n ' t ever k n o w
that there are other m e t h o d s of g o v e r n m e n t o u t there. B u t w o u l d w e
accept these s a m e a r g u m e n t s i n the t r a i n i n g of doctors or l a w y e r s ?
S t u d e n t s are r a r e l y g i v e n the o p p o r t u n i t y to argue w i t h their teach­
ers o r to l e a r n f r o m other students, except i n the l i m i t e d sense of m i x ­
i n g w i t h p e o p l e f r o m the s a m e year. S t u d e n t g r o u p s are often v e r y
s m a l l , b u t this d o e s n o t s e e m to l e a d to i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n — i t just
k e e p s the range of debate as n a r r o w as p o s s i b l e . T e a c h i n g o n n e a r l y all
courses is d i d a c t i c , m a k e s use of little i n the w a y of t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y
i n v e n t i o n s s u c h as tapes, o v e r h e a d projectors, f i l m s , T V p r o g r a m m e s ,
d i a g r a m s , f l o w charts, a n d so o n . I c a n t h i n k of instances w h e r e these
are e m p l o y e d , b u t they are few a n d far b e t w e e n .
O v e r a l l , this t r a i n i n g format d o e s not s e e m to h a v e c h a n g e d m u c h
since the 1950s. S t u d e n t s i n m o s t o r g a n i s a t i o n s are d i v i d e d into y e a r
g r o u p s , a practice a d o p t e d i n B r i t a i n b y the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l
144 The Dog's Temper

S o c i e t y after the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s . T h e theoretical t r a i n i n g

p a r t l y consists of teaching the w o r k s of w h o e v e r are c o n c e i v e d to be
the m a j o r theorists b y the t r a i n i n g b o d y i n q u e s t i o n — x weeks o n
F r e u d , y w e e k s o n J u n g , z w e e k s s t u d y i n g B i o n etc. T h e biggest change
since the 1950s is p r o b a b l y t e a c h i n g a c c o r d i n g to w h a t e v e r are the c u r ­
r e n t l y ' p o l i t i c a l l y correct' h e a d i n g s — x w e e k s o n f e m i n i s m , r a c i s m , a n d
the i m p l i c a t i o n s of sexual abuse. It is interesting to o b s e r v e that, i n u n i ­
v e r s i t i e s , it is often courses w h i c h discuss issues s u c h as f e m i n i s m ,
r a c i s m , c u l t u r e a n d g e n d e r w h i c h m a k e u s e of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas,
a n d p r o d u c e o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g i n this area. It does n o t s e e m to be the
c l i n i c a l trainings l e a d i n g the w a y , as a result of research c o n d u c t e d
w i t h patients.
W h y is there s u c h a n i n v e s t m e n t i n e n s u r i n g that b o t h the content
a n d process of teaching p s y c h o a n a l y s i s r e m a i n s largely static, w h i l s t
the w o r l d o u t s i d e is c h a n g i n g ever m o r e r a p i d l y ? I n m a n y countries,
p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is r e c o g n i s e d as a d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h is d e e p l y e n g a g e d
i n a r g u m e n t a n d debate w i t h p s y c h i a t r y , p h i l o s o p h y , anthropology
a n d s o c i o l o g y ; whereas i n m a n y other c o u n t r i e s , it seems, these inter­
actions are d e e m e d to be b o t h too difficult a n d too d a n g e r o u s , if n o t
i m p o s s i b l e . E v e n i n countries s u c h as F r a n c e o r A r g e n t i n a , w h e r e p s y ­
c h o a n a l y s i s is a m u c h m o r e m a i n s t r e a m a c t i v i t y t h a n the U K , the f e w
w h o d a r e to disagree w i t h the ' s c h o o l o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ' to w h i c h their
t r a i n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n o w e s allegiance c o u r t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f o p p r o b r i ­
u m , i n s u l t s , a n d e x p u l s i o n , a l l too r e m i n i s c e n t of the fate of e a r l y p i o ­
neers s u c h as S a n d o r F e r e n c z i or W i l h e l m R e i c h . Is the s t u d y of p s y ­
choanalysis always doomed to l e a d to s p l i t s and dissension?
P e r h a p s — s a d l y — i t is. E v e n if o n e accepts L a c a n ' s v i e w that s p l i t t i n g
a n d d i s s e n s i o n are a n essential process, the o n l y w a y to p r e v e n t u s
f r o m b e c o m i n g e m b e d d e d e v e r m o r e s o l i d l y i n the comforts a n d l i m i ­
tations of t r a d i t i o n , the experience of splits a n d d i s s e n s i o n c a n be ago­
n i s i n g l y p a i n f u l as close f r i e n d s t u r n i n t o d e a d l y enemies.
T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e style of t r a i n i n g I h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e of course
p r o d u c e s results. T h e Pages l e a r n to tread i n the footsteps of the K i n g .
P e o p l e b e c o m e Pages, a n d b e c o m e w e l l m a n n e r e d . T h e y k n o w h o w to
b e h a v e i n C o u r t . T h e p r e v a i l i n g culture i n B r i t a i n a n d , I suspect, i n
many other countries, is that p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s of all p e r s u a s i o n s
i n c r e a s i n g l y invest i n p o r t r a y i n g themselves as ultra-respectable m e m ­
b e r s o f society w h o c o n f o r m to ever m o r e t i g h t l y - d r a w n codes of
b e h a v i o u r a n d clinical p r a c t i c e . Pages d o n ' t disagree w i t h K i n g s ; t h e y
4

d o n ' t say: ' W o u l d n ' t be better i f w e c a l l e d it a d a y for n o w a n d set o u t

 Kirsty Hall 145

t o m o r r o w , w h e n the w i n d has d r o p p e d ? ' or: I f w e p a i d the peasants a

bit m o r e , w e w o u l d n ' t n e e d to m a k e this j o u r n e y ' . In the p r e v a i l i n g
a t m o s p h e r e it b e c o m e s difficult to l e a r n anything - let alone p r o p o s e
s o m e t h i n g fresh a n d new. T h e Page doesn't w a n t to c o m e to a sticky
e n d at the h a n d s of the K i n g , o r at the h a n d s of his o r her colleagues,
o r — t o m i x m y q u o t a t i o n s — b e the object of the d o g ' s temper.
T h u s , I suggest, t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s of teaching p r o d u c e a strangle­
h o l d o n creative l e a r n i n g . W e p r o d u c e competent Pages, b u t v e r y f e w
K i n g s w h o m i g h t a d v a n c e the cause of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .

** *

T h e next step i n the a n a l y s i s of w h a t l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a ­

lyst o r p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t i n v o l v e s e x p l o r i n g w h a t is m e a n t b y the w o r d
' t r a d i t i o n a l ' , w h i c h I h a v e u s e d m a n y times i n m y d e s c r i p t i o n of the
c u r r e n t situation. W h e r e does ' t r a d i t i o n ' fit i n a t h e o r y o f learning?
I w a n t to m a k e use o f R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n
his b o o k Keywords—A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (1976). T h e root
w o r d i n L a t i n has the f o l l o w i n g m e a n i n g s :

(i) d e l i v e r y , (ii) h a n d i n g d o w n k n o w l e d g e , (iii) p a s s i n g o n a d o c ­

trine, (iv) s u r r e n d e r o r b e t r a y a l . (Williams 1976: 318-9)

Williams comments:

W h e n w e l o o k at the d e t a i l e d processes of a n y o f these t r a d i ­

tions, i n d e e d w h e n w e realise that there are traditions... a n d that
o n l y s o m e of t h e m o r parts of t h e m h a v e b e e n selected for o u r
respect a n d d u t y , w e c a n see h o w difficult t r a d i t i o n r e a l l y is, i n
a n abstract o r e x h o r t a t o r y or, as s o often, r a t i f y i n g use.
It is s o m e t i m e s o b s e r v e d , b y those w h o h a v e l o o k e d into partic­
u l a r traditions that it o n l y takes t w o generations to m a k e a n y ­
t h i n g t r a d i t i o n a l : n a t u r a l l y e n o u g h , since that is the sense of tra­
d i t i o n as active process. B u t the w o r d tends to m o v e towards
a g e - o l d a n d t o w a r d s ceremony, d u t y a n d respect. C o n s i d e r i n g
o n l y h o w m u c h has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s , a n d h o w v a r i o u s
it a c t u a l l y is, this, i n its o w n w a y , is b o t h a b e t r a y a l a n d s u r r e n ­
der. ( W i l l i a m s 1976: 319)
146 The Dog's Temper

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n of the o p e r a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n , i n a l l
the senses g i v e n a b o v e , seems to m e to describe v e r y accurately the
current position of m u c h of psychoanalysis a n d psychotherapy.
I a l l u d e d a b o v e to the fact that trainees were d i v i d e d into y e a r
grovips i n the 1950s. T h i s is i n d e e d the p e r i o d i n w h i c h m a n y of the tra­
ditions I h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e w e r e l a i d d o w n . Before this time t h e o r y
a n d practice s e e m to h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e f l u i d l y i n t e r t w i n e d — l i k e
the c o n t r a r y directions a n d n u m b e r l e s s p o i n t s of K e a t s ' letter. T h i s d i d
n o t p r e v e n t the u n p l e a s a n t critical experiences of Alice Through the
Looking Glass—quite the reverse. The Freud-Klein Controversies 1941-45
( K i n g & Steiner 1991) d o c u m e n t s the b l i s t e r i n g debate w i t h i n the
B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society about w h o w a s to b e c o m e T h e G o o d
Q u e e n W e n c e s l a s ' of British p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : w a s it to be A n n a F r e u d
or M e l a n i e K l e i n ?
I w i l l describe this a r g u m e n t at s o m e l e n g t h , because I t h i n k it out­
lines v e r y c l e a r l y the reasons w h y s u b s e q u e n t l y i n B r i t a i n w e h a v e
concentrated o n p r o d u c i n g Pages rather t h a n K i n g s or Q u e e n s .
A l t h o u g h this m a y s e e m p a r o c h i a l , the internecine struggles between
K a r e n H o r n e y a n d the A m e r i c a n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c establishment, a n d
the sequence of events w h i c h l e d to the d e p a r t u r e of L a c a n f r o m the
I n t e r n a t i o n a l P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , p o i n t to w h a t m a y b e a u n i ­
v e r s a l u n d e r l y i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n c l i n i c a l t h e o r y a n d practice, w h i c h
I s h a l l g o o n to discuss later.
T h e C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s c a n be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l
B r i t i s h terms as a cricket m a t c h , w i t h M e l a n i e K l e i n , S u s a n Isaacs, J o a n
R i v i e r e a n d C o . b a t t i n g for the K l e i n i a n s , a n d A n n a F r e u d , E d w a r d
G l o v e r , M e l i t t a S c h m i d e b e r g a n d the 'Viennese g r o u p ' i n general bat­
t i n g for the F r e u d i a n s . I n fact, as y o u m i g h t expect, it w a s m u c h m o r e
c o m p l i c a t e d a n d n o t at a l l gentlemanly. First of a l l , there w a s also a
g r o u p of p e o p l e w h o w e r e n ' t a l i g n e d w i t h either of these factions, a n d
w h o s e ideas w e r e n ' t necessarily f o r m e d into a coherent b o d y of o p i n ­
i o n . T h i s g r o u p a c q u i r e d a series of ideas d u r i n g a n d after this p e r i o d ,
i n a rather p i e c e m e a l fashion, later b e c o m i n g the I n d e p e n d e n t g r o u p of
the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society, S o m e of the p l a y e r s i n v o l v e d
s w i t c h e d s i d e s — f o r e x a m p l e G l o v e r started as a s u p p o r t e r of M e l a n i e
K l e i n , b u t later b e c a m e o n e of her p r i n c i p a l critics.
A second complicating factor w a s that the C o n t r o v e r s i a l
D i s c u s s i o n s w e r e , to use a F r e u d i a n t e r m , ' o v e r - d e t e r m i n e d ' . T h e f o l ­
l o w i n g is a list of the ' d e t e r m i n a n t s ' o f the debate, a l t h o u g h I a m sure
it is n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e :
 Kirsty Hall 147

• T h e C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s w e r e not just a b o u t theory, they were

also c o n c e r n e d w i t h t e c h n i q u e . ( A t that time it w a s still a s s u m e d i n
B r i t a i n that t h e o r y a n d t e c h n i q u e w e r e related to practice albeit, of
course, i n a c o m p l i c a t e d manner.)

• T h e debate was also a struggle for p o w e r b e t w e e n competing

groupings—about who actually controlled the British Psycho-
A n a l y t i c a l Society. (For t h i r t y years E d w a r d G l o v e r a n d Ernest
Jones h a d o c c u p i e d k e y p o s i t i o n s o n the m o s t influential c o m m i t ­
tees of the Society a n d , not s u r p r i s i n g l y , m a n y m e m b e r s thought it
w a s time for a change.)

• T h e D i s c u s s i o n s c a n also be c o n s t r u e d i n B o w l b y i t e terms (since

B o w l b y h i m s e l f w a s a n i m p o r t a n t participant) as a grief reaction to
F r e u d ' s d e a t h i n 1939. T h e s u b s e q u e n t 'attachment p r o b l e m s ' of the
B r i t i s h s c h o o l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are still g o i n g o n today.

• P r e s u m a b l y , also, it is n o accident that the Society w a s at w a r d u r ­

i n g the S e c o n d W o r l d War. P a s s i o n s r a n so h i g h that one debate c o n ­
t i n u e d i n the m i d s t of a n air r a i d .

It is i m p o s s i b l e i n the space of a chapter to g i v e m o r e t h a n a taste of

these p r o c e e d i n g s . H o w e v e r I h a v e selected a brief excerpt f r o m one of
the less w e l l k n o w n b u t , at the s a m e time (as B o w l b y comments) p r o b ­
a b l y the m o s t intellectually acute p a r t i c i p a n t , M a r j o r i e B r i e r l e y :

T h e r i g h t ideas are n o t easy to c o m e by. A b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g is a dif­

ficult a n d p r e c a r i o u s activity. It is c o n t i n u a l l y m o u l d e d , d i r e c t e d ,
a n d o t h e r w i s e i n f l u e n c e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies a n d p r e ­
c o n c e p t i o n s . A r c h a i c habits of t h o u g h t i n t r u d e at e v e r y turn.
N e v e r t h e l e s s it is the o n l y i n s t r u m e n t w e h a v e for p e n e t r a t i n g
b e y o n d the experience of l i v i n g to the l a w s g o v e r n i n g e x p e r i ­
ence a n d so to its m o r e a d e q u a t e control. A l l theoretical f o r m u ­
lations r u n the risk of d e g e n e r a t i n g into restatements of archaic
beliefs. A s the e x a m p l e of J u n g s h o w s , there is a n a r r o w m a r g i n
of safety b e t w e e n creating a n e w m y t h o l o g y a n d m a k i n g a v a l i d
c o n t r i b u t i o n to k n o w l e d g e . K e e p i n g one's f o o t i n g is a matter of
trial a n d error. B u t h u m a n n a r c i s s i s m is a l w a y s l o o k i n g for a
h a b i t a t i o n a n d has b e e n c h i v v i e d out of one place after another.
148 The Dog's Temper

W e m u s t be v e r y careful i n d e e d that w e d o n o t a l l o w it to f i n d a
last refuge i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l reality or i n the o m n i p o t e n c e of f a n ­
tasy. ( K i n g & Steiner 1991: 333)

B e r n a r d B u r g o y n e has c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e d that B r i e r l e y ' s c o n c e p ­

t i o n of the relationship b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d practice is d e e p l y f l a w e d
( B u r g o y n e 2000). H o w e v e r , I w a n t to concentrate here o n her a s s u m p ­
t i o n that t h e o r y matters at all T h i s a s s u m p t i o n has, o v e r the years,
b e e n q u i e t l y d o w n g r a d e d . F o r e x a m p l e , to b e c o m e a m e m b e r of the
B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society, y o u n o l o n g e r h a v e to w r i t e a q u a l i ­
f y i n g p a p e r . M a n y other trainings require a p a p e r as part of the q u a l i ­
f i c a t i o n process b u t often insist that it s h o u l d be a clinical p a p e r , there­
b y i m p l i c i t l y o p p o s i n g theory to clinical practice.
T h e p a i n f u l n e s s of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , for all w h o took
part, is v i v i d l y c o n v e y e d i n the transcripts. T h e Controversial
D i s c u s s i o n s illustrate that if the fear of b e i n g e x c l u d e d c a n be faced,
t h e n t h i n k i n g of a v e r y h i g h order is p r o d u c e d . K e y p a p e r s i n the lit­
erature w e r e w r i t t e n at this time, n o t o n l y b y w e l l - k n o w n l u m i n a r i e s
s u c h as K l e i n , Isaacs a n d R i v i e r e , b u t also b y half-forgotten figures
s u c h as G l o v e r a n d S h a r p e . D u r i n g these d i s c u s s i o n s the protagonists
5

f a c e d n o t one b u t t w o sources of pain—the fear of exclusion (the reality

of this fear is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y G l o v e r ' s d e c i s i o n to p l a y n o further
active p a r t i n the Society's activities after 1945) a n d the fear of indepen­
dent thinking. 6

T h u s I a m e m p h a s i s i n g here that n o t one b u t t w o sources of anxiety

are b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d . If the anxiety c o n c e r n i n g either or b o t h cannot be
f a c e d , t h e n p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s experience relentless
p r e s s u r e to c o n f o r m a n d b e c o m e Pages. T h e p l o t is s c r i p t e d i n the same
w a y , regardless of w h e t h e r the participants are L a c a n i a n factions i n
F r a n c e , organisations i n different countries w h o s e m e m b e r s b e l o n g to
the International P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , or—in Britain—rival
o r g a n i s a t i o n s s u c h as the U n i t e d K i n g d o m C o u n c i l for P s y c h o t h e r a p y
a n d the B r i t i s h C o n f e d e r a t i o n of Psychotherapists, or e v e n a n t a g o n i s ­
tic a c a d e m i c s i n the universities.

***

H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d the traditional aspect of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g ,

a n d h a v i n g i n d i c a t e d s o m e of the reasons for the f o r m u l a t i o n of t r a d i ­
t i o n , I t h i n k it is time to t u r n to the f u n d a m e n t a l issue of the nature of
 Kirsty Hall 149

l e a r n i n g . A t this stage I a m g o i n g to m a k e use of K a r l P o p p e r ' s theory

of l e a r n i n g since it offers t w o useful insights ( P o p p e r 1974: 45). T h e
first is its a n a l y s i s of the cause of the s t e a d y decline f r o m p a i n f u l b u t
v i b r a n t l e a r n i n g (The C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s ) t h r o u g h d o g m a to
t r a d i t i o n ; the s e c o n d is its attempt to p r o v i d e a n e x p l a n a t i o n for the
progress (or lack of it) of the Page.
P o p p e r ' s t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g goes as follows:

• A t first the student is p r e s e n t e d w i t h a situation w h i c h she or he

does n o t u n d e r s t a n d at a l l or w h i c h is new. (For instance: T h e Page
is a s k e d a b o u t the peasant w h o lives ' a g o o d league hence'.)

• If all goes w e l l , the s t u d e n t then progresses to a p r e l i m i n a r y u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g of the m a t e r i a l , d e m o n s t r a t e d b y b e i n g able to imitate the
text. (The P a g e treads i n the footsteps of the K i n g . )

• T h e next stage is the c a p a c i t y to describe the ideas in one's own

words. (The P a g e carries o u t the task of t a k i n g f o o d , w i n e a n d logs
to the peasant).

• F i n a l l y the s t u d e n t is i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e they h a v e the ability to

criticise a text. (The Page n e v e r gets this far, because the decisions of
the K i n g are n e v e r questioned).

P o p p e r ' s t h e o r y operates over a p e r i o d of time. I n d e e d if one w e r e

to d r a w it g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e n time w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y f o r m one of d i a ­
g r a m ' s axes. It p r o p o s e s b y i m p l i c a t i o n that n o i d e a is fixed since e v e r y
i d e a is a l w a y s criticisable. If w e a p p l y P o p p e r ' s theory to the t e a c h i n g
of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , it suggests that the anxiety i n d u c e d i n the Page b y
the t r a i n i n g experience is so great that v e r y few w i s h e v e n to c o n s i d e r
c h a l l e n g i n g the K i n g , rejecting the v i e w s of the R e d Q u e e n , or d e p a r t ­
i n g f r o m other m i n d s i n c o n t r a r y directions.
It is interesting to c o n s i d e r i n this c o n n e c t i o n the w o r k of s o m e
B r i t i s h w r i t e r s r e g a r d e d as s t a n d a r d references i n the context of p s y ­
choanalysis a n d l e a r n i n g . The Emotional Experience of Learning, by
S a l z b e r g e r - W i t t e n b e r g , O s b o r n e a n d W i l l i a m s (1983), presents exam­
ples f r o m w o r k w i t h g r o u p s of teachers b u t , noticeably, there is n o d i s ­
c u s s i o n i n the b o o k of h o w the a u t h o r s ' theories m i g h t a p p l y to their
o w n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g . T h e r e are also several b o o k s a l o n g the
s a m e lines as On Learning from the Patient b y Patrick C a s e m e n t (1985),
150 The Dog's Temper

i n w h i c h it is a s s u m e d that analysts ' l e a r n ' f r o m patients. Precisely

w h a t is l e a r n e d is d e f i n e d i n terms of m a k i n g a c l i n i c a l experience 'fit'
a t h e o r y w h i c h the w r i t e r assumes exists. F o r e x a m p l e , Casement's
c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d ' T h e K e y D y n a m i c s of C o n t a i n m e n t ' m a k e s several
a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h g o u n q u e s t i o n e d i n the text, n a m e l y : ­

(i) that one p e r s o n c a n ' c o n t a i n ' a n o t h e r ' s feelings;

(ii) that c o n t a i n i n g feelings is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h it is the analyst's job to

do;

(iii) that feelings c a n be separated f r o m w o r d s , since i n e a c h of the c l i n ­

ical vignettes discussed i n the chapter, the patients' feelings are
d e d u c e d b y the a u t h o r f r o m the w o r d s u s e d b y the patient. In other
w o r d s , the feelings that the writer describes are p r e s u m e d to be the
s a m e as those w h i c h the patient experiences. T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s may
be justifiable, b u t the a u t h o r e v i d e n t l y does not feel it necessary to p r o ­
v i d e justification (cf. C a s e m e n t 1985: 132-154),

It w o u l d be interesting to ask a g r o u p of students w h a t they a c t u a l ­

l y l e a r n f r o m texts s u c h as these. 'Sitting b y N e l l y ' — i . e . , w a t c h i n g
s o m e o n e else c a r r y i n g o u t a s k i l l e d task or, i n this case, r e a d i n g a b o u t
s o m e o n e d o i n g t h i s — i s c o n s i d e r e d of v e r y l i m i t e d p r a c t i c a l use i n
other p r o f e s s i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e o n e training to be a s u r g e o n m a y
w a t c h s o m e o n e else c a r r y out a n o p e r a t i o n , b u t n o b o d y w o u l d d r e a m
of s u g g e s t i n g that o n l y this m e t h o d of t r a i n i n g be u s e d . Instead, a m e d ­
ical s t u d e n t s p e n d s s e v e r a l years f i n d i n g out h o w the h u m a n b o d y
w o r k s theoretically, uses m o d e l s o n w h i c h to practice, a n d so o n .
It s e e m s to m e that the reason w h y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is so difficult to
teach lies i n the n a t u r e of the anxiety p r o d u c e d i n the teachers as w e l l
as i n the learners. A safe w a y to l e a r n is to c o p y s o m e o n e else. A n y
other m e t h o d p r o d u c e s w h a t is feared to be a n u n b e a r a b l e anxiety that
the teacher m a y t u r n o n the p u p i l , like the R e d Q u e e n . T h i s state of
affairs is exacerbated b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s process of u n d e r g o i n g a n
analysis w i t h a n a n a l y s t . 7

W h e n this s a m e analyst, i n t u r n , has l e a r n e d o n l y b y i m i t a t i o n , then

d o g m a is p r o d u c e d , a n d the w h o l e d i s c i p l i n e is infected b y a p l e t h o r a
of t r a i n i n g s w h e r e w h a t is p a s s e d o n is d o g m a . L a c a n offers a g o o d
e x p l a n a t i o n for w h y this s h o u l d be so. H e proposes four different p o s i ­
 Kirsty Hall 151

tions w i t h respect to k n o w l e d g e . T h e p o s i t i o n of the M a s t e r (i.e. G o o d

K i n g Wenceslas or tradition) is represented as f o l l o w s :

S > S

$ a

In this d i a g r a m S is the signifier of the master: the signifier of 'he o r

x

she w h o d e m a n d s to be o b e y e d ' . S is 'the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ' , the w o r k ­

2

i n g s of h u m a n discourse. $ is the h u m a n subject, split b e t w e e n c o n ­

scious a n d u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d a is the object, possession of w h i c h
i m p l i e s enjoyment. (For a f u l l e x p o s i t i o n of the m e a n i n g of these terms
see F i n k 1995: 129-131). T h e t e r m s w h i c h a p p e a r above the h o r i z o n t a l
bars are s u p p o s e d to be r e a d as acting as the representatives of the c o r ­
r e s p o n d i n g terms b e l o w the b a r s . It is also possible to r e a d the terms
a b o v e the b a r as ' c o n s c i o u s ' , a n d those b e l o w the b a r as 'repressed'.
So, i n the case of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c trainings, if w e start w i t h ' t r a d i ­
t i o n ' i n the place of the master signifier ( w h i c h , as I h a v e a r g u e d , is
u s u a l l y the case these days), t h e n I t h i n k this leads to a state of affairs
s u c h as the f o l l o w i n g :

tradition • psychoanalytic theory

British psychoanalyst truth

/ psychotherapist

N o t a v e r y h a p p y picture! T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s c h e m a are that

if p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s place ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n the role of master, then the s i g ­
n i f y i n g c h a i n ( p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory) b e c o m e s ever m o r e restricted. T o
p l a c e ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n this p o s i t i o n , rather t h a n a n y of the others, entails
that the object ('truth') is r e p r e s s e d , a n d the h u m a n subject (in this
instance the analyst or therapist) is effectively b a r r e d f r o m k n o w l e d g e
altogether. A d d to this R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s ' p r o p o s i t i o n that it takes
t w o generations to f o r m a t r a d i t i o n ( p r e s u m a b l y because the restrictive
practices i n v o l v e d i n f o r m i n g a t r a d i t i o n n e e d time to take h o l d ) , t h e n
you have an explanation here of the reasons why, since the
C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , the p o s i t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory w i t h
respect to clinical practice has r e a c h e d its present state.
152 The Dog's Temper

P e r h a p s there is also a w a r n i n g for L a c a n i a n s themselves i n this for­

m u l a t i o n . A t the m o m e n t L a c a n i a n practice is, possibly, s a f e g u a r d e d
b y the fact that L a c a n ' s central project w a s to r e t u r n to F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l
ideas a n d to rescue h i m f r o m the m i s c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h t r a d i t i o n h a d
l a i d u p o n h i s w o r k . H o w e v e r , n e a r l y t w e n t y years after L a c a n ' s d e a t h ,
L a c a n ' s o w n ideas are n o w a p p e a r i n g i n a m u c h m o r e f o r m u l a i c (tra­
ditional) f o r m a t . 8

I h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e n to illustrate this p r o b l e m u s i n g L a c a n ' s

' D i s c o u r s e of the M a s t e r ' rather than his ' D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y ' .
In the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y it is S 2 (the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n , h u m a n
discourse) w h i c h o c c u p i e s the d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n (see F i n k 1995: 132­
3). T h i s m i g h t legitimately be u s e d to illustrate the g o i n g s - o n of the
C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , b u t seems i n a p p r o p r i a t e to describe the
scene i n B r i t a i n at the m o m e n t . M a n y p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s are expected to
r e a d so little that they s k i p past the r a t i o n a l i s i n g a n d intellectual n i t ­
p i c k i n g of the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y , a n d choose i n s t e a d u n c r i t i ­
cal acceptance of the M a s t e r D i s c o u r s e f r o m the o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h
w h i c h they trained.
A c c o r d i n g to L a c a n , discourse a l w a y s takes place i n the u n e a s y
space b e t w e e n irresistible force a n d i m m o v a b l e object—or, to use his
o w n terms, b e t w e e n i m p o t e n c e a n d impossibility. U s i n g this theory,
t h e n , it b e c o m e s clear that l e a r n i n g is a l w a y s i n c o m p l e t e . L e a r n i n g
m a y i n d e e d take place as a process, b u t its results c a n n o t necessarily be
categorised or a s c e r t a i n e d — t h a t w o u l d be ' c o n d i t i o n i n g ' . L e a r n i n g
a p p e a r s as a n effect i n the r e a l — h e n c e the feeling of u n r e a c h a b i l i t y a n d
h o p e l e s s n e s s w h i c h , i n a m y s t e r i o u s w a y , is part a n d p a r c e l of the j o y
of the search i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g new. For example,
e n c o u n t e r i n g the w o r k of L a c a n p r o d u c e s a n anxiety that I can n e v e r
r e a d e n o u g h of his w o r k to feel that I h a v e sufficiently u n d e r s t o o d the
c o m p l e x i t y of his t h o u g h t .
So w h a t c a n w e d o i n the face of this anxiety? I t h i n k that R a y m o n d
W i l l i a m s offers u s a p o i n t e r i n his q u a l i f y i n g r e m a r k : ' C o n s i d e r i n g
o n l y h o w m u c h has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s , a n d h o w v a r i o u s it a c t u ­
a l l y is...' ( W i l l i a m s 1976: 319). P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d l o o k at that p a r t of
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c h i s t o r y that does not f o r m part of t o d a y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l
teaching of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y . I p r o p o s e w e d i p into
the c a p a c i o u s d u s t b i n of B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c history, because there,
I t h i n k , are s o m e interesting p i c k i n g s .
F o r instance, i n the section of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s d e v o t ­
e d to t e c h n i q u e , E l l a S h a r p e has this to say about ' c u r e ' :
 Kirsty Hall 153

T w e n t y - t w o y e a r s ago I w a s n e v e r d o m i n a t e d b y the desire to

c u r e , o n l y to u n d e r s t a n d . C u r e w a s for m e a n a c c o m p a n i m e n t of
r e v e a l i n g the h i d d e n causes of illness. Interpretations w e r e s i m ­
p l e a n d w e n t n o further t h a n m y direct u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the bit
of w o r k I w a s e n g a g e d u p o n . I r e g a r d e d transference as the
m e e t i n g p l a c e of present a n d past e m o t i o n a l fixations a n d the
e x p r e s s i o n of hostile transference e v e n m o r e l i b e r a t i n g to the
p s y c h e t h a n the infantile p o s i t i v e one. Transference w a s to be
u s e d for one p u r p o s e o n l y the l e v e r i n g of the r e p r e s s e d into c o n ­
s c i o u s n e s s , o n e h a d n o other use for it. I b e l i e v e d i n r e a l parents,
as w e l l as i m a g o s , i n real events as w e l l as i m a g i n a r y ones. I
b e l i e v e d , as I still d o , that phantasy, h o w e v e r h o r r i f i c , m u s t be
easier for the p e r s o n r i d d e n b y phantasy, t h a n r e a l i t y I h a d to
u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n d w h e r e a n d h o w the t w o w e r e associated i n
a space-time w o r l d .
I b e l i e v e d a n d still b e l i e v e i n F r e u d ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n that the
a n a l y s t s h o u l d content h i m s e l f w i t h the m o t t o of a n o l d s u r g e o n :
'Je le p a n s a i , D i e u le g u e r i t ' . [I c a r e d for h i m , G o d c u r e d h i m . ]
T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g not d u e to us, h o w e v e r s k i l f u l w e m a y be,
w h e n a patient achieves a cure, a n d w e m u s t b o w to reality a n d
a c k n o w l e d g e there are illnesses that c a n n o t be c u r e d . A n analyst
of o u r Society s a i d to m e quite s e r i o u s l y not l o n g a g o , ' O n l y the
l i m i t a t i o n s of t i m e p r e v e n t s the cure of all p s y c h i c a l d i s o r d e r s ' .
T h a t belief is n o t c o n s o n a n t w i t h reality, its reference is to eterni­
ty. ( K i n g & Steiner 1991: 642)

M a n y p r a c t i t i o n e r s m a y f i n d m u c h to disagree w i t h i n this state­

m e n t , n o t a b l y p e r h a p s its u n q u e s t i o n i n g use of the w o r d s ' r e a l ' a n d
' r e a l i t y ' . H o w e v e r , w h a t I f i n d s t r i k i n g is E l l a S h a r p e ' s v e r y realistic (if
I d a r e use the t e r m here) a p p r o a c h to w h a t she thinks p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
c a n d o a n d w h a t is b e y o n d it. T h i s is a r e a l i s m b o r n e of a n a p p r e c i a t i o n
of the l i m i t a t i o n s of k n o w l e d g e — t h e k n o w l e d g e of the subject, about
the subject, a n d — e q u a l l y — o f the analyst a n d his or her p a r t i c u l a r the­
o r y o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . E l l a S h a r p e d o e s n o t strike m e as a w o m a n w h o
w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y appreciate L a c a n ' s d i s c o u r s e t h e o r y B u t then a g a i n ,
p e r h a p s she m i g h t , c o n s i d e r i n g that, after t w e n t y - t w o years, she still
refuses to b e l i e v e that the analyst s h o u l d o c c u p y the p o s i t i o n of the
Master.
154 The Dogs Temper

T o r e t u r n to the state o f B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : h a v e n ' t w e all taken

o u r collective eyes off the ball? P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y are
attempts to r e s p o n d to h u m a n suffering. S o m e k i n d of t h e o r y i n f o r m s
the m a n y a n d v a r i e d a p p r o a c h e s to these practices. C o m p e t i n g theo­
ries often p r o p o s e c o m p l e t e l y different a p p r o a c h e s to the s a m e k i n d of
p r o b l e m ; the l a n g u a g e u s e d to o u t l i n e a t h e o r y often v a r i e s w i l d l y
f r o m that o f a n o t h e r ' a n d , frequently, t h e o r y is i m p l i c i t rather t h a n
explicit. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n spite o f these often h u g e differences, there i s ,
I t h i n k , a c o m m o n a l i t y of p u r p o s e . W e n e e d K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s as w e l l
as P a g e s — o r p e r h a p s w e n e e d a d e m o c r a c y of s o m e k i n d — a n a t m o s ­
p h e r e w h e r e t h e o r y p l a y s a n active role i n the e d u c a t i o n of p s y ­
c h o t h e r a p i s t s , w h e r e d i s c u s s i o n , a r g u m e n t a n d e v e n c r i t i c i s m leaves a
p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t thinking (rather t h a n bitten b y L e w i s C a r r o l l ' s d o g ) . If
the t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n o f analysts a n d therapists c o n t i n u e s i n its
p r e s e n t d i r e c t i o n , t h e n the d e m i s e o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a ­
p y is a possibility. T h e y w i l l b e r e p l a c e d b y p i l l s , o r — p e r h a p s — g e n e ­
t h e r a p y rather t h a n p s y c h o - t h e r a p y . B u t sadly, I t h i n k , h u m a n suffer­
i n g i n its m y r i a d f o r m s w i l l persist.

Notes

1
Throughout this chapter all references to psychoanalysts and psychoanalysis should be
taken to include psychoanalytic psychotherapists and psychoanalytic psychotherapy and
vice versa. There are, of course, many arguments about the distinguishing features of these
terms, but these are not within the purview of this paper.
2 To illustrate my point the reader might profitably compare two books published in 1999.
The first is Female Sexuality: the Early Psychoanalytic Controversies (Grigg 1999) which contains
a collection of papers, all written prior to the Second World War. The second is Psychoanalytic
Understanding of Violence and Suicide (Josef Perelberg 1999) in which all the papers were writ­
ten during the 1990s. There is no coherent attempt in the latter to delineate the link between
violence to another person and violence to oneself. This is simply assumed. Equally, there is
no attempt to understand the sociology of suicide using psychoanalytic tools, for example:
why there has been an increase in the rate of suicide among young men. On the other hand,
in the former book, the issue of defining the psychoanalytic meanings of 'castration', and the
implications of this for female sexuality, for malejfemale relationships and clinical practice, is
at the very heart of the book.
3 I have chosen this extract partly to indicate how universal the debate about psychoanalyt­
ic training has become, since Kernberg acknowledges here that he is echoing the views of the
British psychoanalyst, Ronald Britton (1994).
4 The most vivid example which comes to mind is the unpleasant scrap going on between the
rival registration bodies in Britain. The British Confederation of Psychotherapists is prepared
to argue that their registrants are 'better' because, they allege, they see their patients more
times a week than their rivals in the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy. One does
not need to turn to a philosopher or a psychoanalyst for a convincing demonstration of the
futility of this argument. George Orwell expresses it most succinctly near the end of Animal
 Kirsty Hall 155

Farm when the pigs stand on their hind legs and chant: Tour legs good, two legs better'
(Orwell 1989).

5 I have in mind such papers as The Nature and Function of Phantasy' by Susan Isaacs

(1943), and 'The Therapeutic Effect of Inexact Interpretation: A Contribution to the Theory of

Suggestion', by Edward Glover (1955).

6 A careful examination of any part of the debates concerning the papers written for the

Controversial Discussions reveals subtle as well as extreme differences of opinion between

those who took part. It is striking that few of the contributors are content to play the role of

the Page. Very little was taken for granted during the discussions, and each participant was

willing to take the risk of being criticised as well as criticising. A good example is the pro­

longed series of debates which followed Susan Isaacs' paper The Nature and Function o f

Fantasy' (see King & Steiner 1991:322-475), although it should be noted that Isaacs' paper is

also available in other, significantly different versions (see Isaacs 1948, and Klein et al 1952).

^ This paper does not seek to challenge the notion that a training analysis is an essential part

of learning to be a psychoanalyst. It would seem it is indeed essential to have first-hand expe­

rience of that which one seeks to pass on to others.

^ Bruce Fink's book A Clinical Introduction to Lacanian Theory and Practice (1997) is excellent in

many respects but has begun to show signs of tradition creeping in with the telltale use o f

words such as 'must', 'ought' and 'should'.

 F R O M T H E DESIRE F O R K N O W L E D G E T O T H E

JOUISSANCE OF LEARNING: A N APPROACH T O

LACAN'S THEORY 1

Teresa Celdran

N o matter h o w m a n y times w e go a r o u n d the matter, i n the e n d l e a r n ­

i n g is n o m o r e t h a n a w a n t i n g to k n o w s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t oneself.
W e n e v e r e m e r g e f r o m n a r c i s s i s m — t h a t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e — b u t
n e v e r t h e l e s s there is 'the s o c i a l ' , 'the c o m m u n i t y ' . T h e r e is also love, for
e x a m p l e . A n d this is just as w e l l . . . T h e 'extra s o m e t h i n g ' , this a d d i ­
t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e of b e i n g w h i c h , once p u t into w o r d s 'for i t s e l f , is
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a k n o w l e d g e 'for u s ' , 'for the c o m m u n i t y ' , to the
extent that the subject f o r m s p a r t of the ' w e ' as w e l l as of the ' o n e ' . T h e
o n e w h i c h articulates the message i n a ' s a y i n g ' , then, states s o m e t h i n g
of the t r u t h a b o u t itself, s o m e t h i n g definite a b o u t the t r u t h of its desire.
In other w o r d s , it says s o m e t h i n g a b o u t that w h i c h it k n o w s .
T h i s ' s a y i n g ' , structured t h r o u g h the s y s t e m of l a n g u a g e , therefore
becomes intelligible—or intelligent. W e m a y b e t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e here,
b u t at the s a m e time the n o n s e n s e b e c o m e s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , c o n c e i v ­
able for those others w h o m — b y a p a r a d o x of l a n g u a g e — w e d e n o t e as
s i m i l a r , as o u r f e l l o w creatures.
H o w e v e r i n this d i s c o u r s e o n the t r u t h o f its desire, the subject
b e c o m e s a l i e n a t e d f r o m itself. T h e subject a p p e a r s a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r s
a l o n g the p a t h w a y s of l a n g u a g e , like a r i v e r r u n n i n g a l o n g its s o l i d
b e d , o n l y to lose itself b e l o w g r o u n d . T h i s is h o w w o r d s w o r k : the s u b ­
ject is filtered through t h e m , a n d i n the process eludes itself, is w i t h ­
d r a w n f r o m itself. H o w m a n y times w e say s o m e t h i n g different f r o m
w h a t w e w a n t e d to say, o r else s o m e t h i n g m o r e — o r l e s s — t h a n w e h a d
b e e n t h i n k i n g ! It is so difficult to say the r i g h t t h i n g , to f i n d the right
w o r d . T o s a y the right w o r d w o u l d be to assert, to e n u n c i a t e : it w o u l d
be a n act. Its consequence. A creation.
C r e a t i o n i n w h a t e v e r f o r m , a p p e a r s as a n effect of a t r u t h of the s u b ­
ject. It is the re-encounter of the subject w i t h itself i n s o m e t h i n g it h a d
lost. C o n s i d e r : to l e a r n is to investigate. It is to circle a r o u n d , getting
closer a n d closer to the lost object, u n t i l w e a p p r e h e n d it, seize it, a n d
t h e n — o n l y once it has b e e n g r a s p e d ; i n d e e d , precisely t h e n — t o realise
that, once a g a i n , it w a s n o t quite w h a t w e w e r e l o o k i n g for.
 Teresa Celdran 157

To l e a r n is to invent. It is to i n v e n t a p r o c e d u r e for ' c o m i n g to realise'

s o m e t h i n g that h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u n s a i d . B u t w h e n one arrives at
that p o i n t , after the s u r p r i s e of the d i s c o v e r y is it n o t a l w a y s the case
that there h a d b e e n s o m e t h i n g of that k n o w l e d g e already there before­
h a n d ? S o m e t h i n g w h i c h connects the h i s t o r y of the siibject w i t h a n
O t h e r t h i n g , a n a l i e n O t h e r w h i c h is at the s a m e t i m e the subject's
o w n ? It w o u l d s e e m , t h e n , that all k n o w l e d g e is i n s c r i b e d i n a d o u b l e
d i m e n s i o n , b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y , w h i c h connects the i n d i ­
v i d u a l w i t h m y t h a n d w i t h science, f r o m time i m m e m o r i a l .
If to l e a r n is to realise this k n o w l e d g e , t h e n to t e a c h is to 'transfer',
to ' g i v e a n a c c o u n t ' of that k n o w l e d g e . T o teach is to tell w h a t one
k n o w s , so that it passes f r o m one to the other. H o w e v e r , not e v e r y t h i n g
that is k n o w n is transferred. T h e object of transfer(ence) is o n l y that
part of subjective k n o w l e d g e w h i c h , as p a r t of the t r u t h about oneself,
goes b e y o n d the frontiers of subjectivity a n d arrives at the other i n the
f o r m of a message. T h e message, that w h i c h c o m e s f r o m the other,
f r o m w h a t h e says, reaches us a n d is a l w a y s the result of a d e c i p h e r e d
code. T h e transfer(ence) creates k n o w l e d g e . T h e s o l u t i o n to one s u b ­
ject's e n i g m a then e n g e n d e r s a n o t h e r ' s (the other's) s o l u t i o n . T h e y are
different, b u t are c o n n e c t e d , since they originate f r o m a c o m m o n place.
S o m e t h i n g like this h a p p e n s i n the case of m y t h s , l e g e n d s , a n d p o p ­
ular tales w h i c h h a v e b e e n transmitted f r o m g e n e r a t i o n to g e n e r a t i o n
d o w n the centuries. T h e s e tales s u r v i v e , i n o r a l o r w r i t t e n traditions,
n o t so m u c h because their (hi)story has c o n t e m p o r a r y interest, b u t
because it has a value. T h e y are a n e c h o of a n i n n e r v o i c e f r o m the
d e p t h s of time w h i c h p a r t i a l l y lifts the v e i l s that c o v e r the t r u t h l o c k e d
u p i n the h u m a n heart.
M o d e r n times h a v e created another f o r m of h o p e a n d i l l u s i o n : the
' r a t i o n a l subject'. T h e activity of this subject of k n o w l e d g e has s u p ­
p l a n t e d the 'authentic subject' as s u c h b y m e a n s of R e a s o n . T h i s s p e a k ­
i n g - b e i n g (parletre) legislates the t r u t h of t h i n g s — e v e n the t r u t h of the
subject itself. H a v i n g a s s u m e d the task of p r o d u c i n g these ' t r u e ' state­
m e n t s , the r a t i o n a l subject has elevated itself to the d i g n i t y of the epis­
temological subject, w h i c h decrees b y a n d for itself ( a n d not for another)
w h a t is ' p r o p e r ' to true k n o w l e d g e . H o w e v e r , this r a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e ,
this d i s c o u r s e of r e a s o n , w h i c h achieves its greatest e x p r e s s i o n i n s c i ­
entific d i s c o u r s e , t u r n s out instead to be the m o s t perfect instance of
those i m a g i n i n g s of the 'ego', w o r k i n g i n the service of a n Ideal a n d
u s u r p i n g the place of the 'authentic e g o ' of the subject.
158 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

L a c a n d e s c r i b e d this scientific r a t i o n a l i s m as 'the D i s c o u r s e of the

U n i v e r s i t y ' (see F i n k 1995: 132-3). F r o m its p e r s p e c t i v e of s u p p o s e d l y
a b s o l u t e k n o w l e d g e , it reaches its p o i n t of greatest suture w i t h its p r o ­
n o u n c e m e n t s o n 'the truth of the subject' a n d o n 'authentic k n o w l ­
e d g e ' . T h e D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y is a ' g a g ' o n s c i e n c e — t h a t is, o n
the k n o w l e d g e of the O n e , w h i c h , s t r u c t u r e d b y the d i s c o u r s e of l a n ­
g u a g e , is transferred to another b y the truth o f the message. In other
w o r d s , for L a c a n , the ' t r u t h ' c a n o n l y be h a l f - s a i d . F o r h i m ' a b s o l u t e
k n o w l e d g e ' is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , b y d e f i n i t i o n , is lost for ever. T h i s is a
k e y ; a reference to the u n c o n s c i o u s . . . In a desperate effort to d e n y that
p o i n t of the emptiness of reason, w h i c h constitutes the true essence o f
knowledge, scientific discourse generates instead an unrestrained
d a n c e of theories w h i c h , i n e v e r - w i d e n i n g c o n c e n t r i c circles, distances
the subject f r o m the roots of its history. C o n t r o l o v e r k n o w l e d g e , a n d
the a c c u m u l a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e as a c o n s u m e r i t e m , is w h a t c o m e s to
constitute the i n h e r i t a n c e of k n o w l e d g e , a n d is e x p r e s s e d as a k i n d o f
greed. R a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e cut off f r o m its u n c o n s c i o u s roots b e c o m e s
d i s t o r t e d to the p o i n t of charade, a n d m a l i g n a n t to the p o i n t of i m p o s ­
ture. Farcically, the subject, alienated i n a c h a i n of ' s a y i n g s ' , represents
itself t r y i n g to i g n o r e the u n c o n s c i o u s o r i g i n of its desire a n d the puis­
sances (or 'enjoyments') w h i c h s u r r o u n d it.

***

T h e three g r a n d p r i n c i p l e s at the basis of the o r i g i n a l i t y a n d scope of

F r e u d ' s discoveries w e r e r e f o r m u l a t e d b y L a c a n as the three d i m e n ­
s i o n s w h i c h structure subjectivity: desire, language, and the unconscious.
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , questions c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g , a n d its conse­
q u e n t c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n as a p r o b l e m p e r t a i n i n g to the t r a n s m i s s i o n of
k n o w l e d g e , c a n be u n d e r s t o o d i n terms of the e n e r g y and. i n t e r a c t i o n
of these three d i m e n s i o n s .
It w a s f r o m structuralist t h e o r y that L a c a n a d o p t e d the p r i n c i p l e s
w h i c h m i g h t define a n d e x p l a i n the c o n d i t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l as
s p e a k i n g - b e i n g . It is l a n g u a g e w h i c h constitutes the s t r u c t u r a l differ­
ence of the s p e a k i n g b e i n g f r o m a l l other l i v i n g creatures. T h e struc­
turalist attitude p r e s u p p o s e s a different strategy for t h i n k i n g a b o u t
objects, w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y reveals r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n those objects
that m i g h t n o t be i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s . It entails the a b a n d o n m e n t of
a ' r a t i o n a l ' or ' p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l ' d e s c r i p t i o n of the n a t u r e of the
objects, their properties a n d their qualities, i n f a v o u r of u n c o v e r i n g the
 Teresa Celdran 159

a p p a r e n t l y d i s g u i s e d relations that exist between t h e m , or b e t w e e n their

elements.
Jean Piaget d e f i n e d 'structure' as a l a w - g o v e r n e d s y s t e m of t r a n s ­
f o r m a t i o n s , w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d a n d e n r i c h e d b y the v e r y p l a y of those
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , b u t w h i c h does not, h o w e v e r , extend b e y o n d its o w n
b o u n d a r i e s o r refer to n o v e l or external elements (Piaget 1973). A s t r u c ­
ture h a s three m a i n characteristics: totality, transformation, a n d self-reg­
ulation.
A c c o r d i n g to Piaget, the totality of a structure p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e
u n i o n o f elements is n o t e q u i v a l e n t to their s u m . T h e n o t i o n of t r a n s ­
f o r m a t i o n , m e a n w h i l e , i m p l i e s the existence a n d o p e r a t i o n of internal
l a w s . F i n a l l y , self-regulation, w h i c h is the essential characteristic of the
structure, a s s u m e s m a i n t e n a n c e of these internal l a w s o v e r a n d a b o v e
those transformations a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h i n the s y s t e m , s u c h that a n y
e l e m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m the c o m b i n a t i o n of p r e v i o u s elements w i l l c o n ­
stitute a further, integrated element o f the selfsame s y s t e m , adapted
t o — i n d e e d , subjected t o — t h e l a w s b y w h i c h it operates. In other w o r d s ,
the structure is a stable s y s t e m , a n effect of a n e l e m e n t a r y order, w h i c h
b y the o p e r a t i o n of certain l a w s functions so as to achieve a f o r m a l
result.
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of structure, w h i c h has s p r e a d t h r o u g h e v e r y s c i e n ­
tific f i e l d i n the course of its c o n c e p t u a l itinerary, has its roots i n m a t h ­
e m a t i c a l logic. Gestalt P s y c h o l o g y is a subsequent echo of it. T h e w o r k
c a r r i e d o u t b y F e r d i n a n d d e Saussure (1983) i n the f i e l d of s t r u c t u r a l
l i n g u i s t i c s b e c a m e extremely useful i n the s t u d y of l a n g u a g e as t h e
basis of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . L a c a n a d o p t e d certain elements f r o m this
w o r k i n o r d e r to articulate the relationship b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s
a n d l a n g u a g e — t h a t is, to say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the structure o f the s u b ­
ject itself.
L a n g u a g e is articulated a l o n g t w o axes; o n e m i g h t also s a y that l a n ­
g u a g e is ' d i v i d e d ' a c c o r d i n g to these axes. T h e syntagmatic axis r e p r e ­
sents the d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e , its historicity a n d u n f o l d ­
i n g o v e r t i m e (Saussure 1983: 121ff). T h i s is the axis of s p e e c h (parole),
w h i c h is b a s e d o n a n a r t i c u l a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c unities that s u c c e e d o n e
another i n a c o m b i n a t o r y order. F r o m this aspect of l a n g u a g e is b o r n
w h a t L a c a n refers to as ' t h e s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ' ( L a c a n 1977: 153), if w e
u n d e r s t a n d b y this a p h o n e m i c c h a i n i n a t e m p o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g concept w i t h i n d i s c o u r s e of this s y n t a g m a t i c axis of l a n ­
g u a g e is the o p e r a t i o n of metonymy ( L a c a n 1977: 156-7,164).
160 From the Desire for Knowledge to the fouissance of Learning

The paradigmatic axis, o n the other h a n d , represents the s y n c h r o n i c

aspect of l a n g u a g e : its state taken as a w h o l e i n the present moment
(Saussure 1983: 87ff). It is the axis of l a n g u a g e (langue) w h o s e basis is
the s i g n . It enables the selection of l i n g u i s t i c unities a c c o r d i n g to a r e l a ­
t i o n of s i m i l a r i t y or resemblance, w h i c h gives rise to the processes of
metaphor a n d to their c o r r e s p o n d i n g role i n s i g n i f i c a t i o n ( L a c a n 1977:
156-7, 164).
D i s c o u r s e d e v e l o p s effectively t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h these
types of operation—metaphor a n d metonymy. T h e f o r m e r comprises
s e m a n t i c ' c o n d e n s a t i o n s ' of terms a c c o r d i n g to s i m i l a r i t y — ' t h e g o l d of
y o u r h a i r ' , for instance, w h e r e the s i m i l a r h u e of the p r e c i o u s m e t a l
a n d the tresses of the b e l o v e d facilitates a ' c o n d e n s a t i o n ' of the t w o
terms. T h e latter c o m p r i s e s linguistic ' d i s p l a c e m e n t s ' , b a s e d o n c o n t i ­
g u i t y — f o r e x a m p l e , 'a glass of s h e r r y ' , w h e r e the d r i n k is referred to i n
terms of the vessel w h i c h contains it. L a n g u a g e is thus the result of a n
articulation between langue and parole. A n act w h i c h is a c o n s e q u e n c e
of the o p e r a t i o n of a structure. It is the act of a subject, the subject of
parole, of s p e e c h ; the act of the s p e a k i n g - b e i n g .
H o w e v e r , this interpretation of h u m a n l a n g u a g e as constituted b y
signifiers a n d signifieds is n o t as s i m p l e as it m i g h t first appear. T h a t
w h i c h w e call ' r e a s o n ' c o n t i n u a l l y escapes f r o m it. T h e r a t i o n a l m o d e l ,
the r e a s o n a b l e m o d e l , w o u l d — i d e a l l y — b e that of a l e x i c o n . T h e i d e a l
of p s y c h o l o g y , l i k e w i s e , is that one d a y it m i g h t b e c o m e master of that
strange v a r i a b l e 'the u n c o n s c i o u s ' , a n d c h a i n it to the a c a d e m i c order.
I n d e e d , A l d o u s H u x l e y d r e a m e d of s o m e t h i n g l i k e this i n Brave New
World (1994), b u t d i d n o t go quite so far as to s p e l l it out. P e r h a p s he
lost h o p e o n the r o a d of reflection, o r p e r h a p s he w a s not quite so
blind.
L a c a n , i n contrast, d e p l o y e d the structuralist strategy w i t h i n the
f i e l d of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r to t r y a n d e x p l a i n the m e a n i n g of l a n ­
g u a g e , a n d its consequences. T h e results of his w o r k i n c l u d e d a r a d i c a l
shift w i t h i n m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l epistemology.
S a u s s u r e ' s o r i g i n a l structural a l g o r i t h m w a s b a s e d o n a transfor­
m a t i o n of the n o t i o n of the linguistic s i g n . H e p r o p o s e d that the s i g n
j o i n e d a concept w i t h a sound-image a n d n o t — a s h a d b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y
t h o u g h t — a ' t h i n g ' w i t h a ' w o r d ' (Saussure 1983: 66), F u r t h e r m o r e ,
a c c o r d i n g to Saussure, the s o u n d - i m a g e is not the 'trace of the m a t e r i ­
al s o u n d ' , as Piaget w a s to c l a i m (cf. T r a n - T h o n g 1967), b u t rather its
psychical trace: it is the mental representation of the t h i n g . It is a testi­
m o n y to o u r senses, a sensory i m a g e — o r , better still, a n interpretation.
 Teresa Celdran 161

T h e l i n g u i s t i c s i g n is thus p r e s e n t e d b y Saussure as a p s y c h i c entity

that relates a concept to a s o u n d - i m a g e . G i v e n that the latter is n o
l o n g e r s o m e t h i n g p u r e l y m a t e r i a l — ' t h e s o u n d i t s e l f — b u t instead its
representation, S a u s s u r e c h a n g e d its d e s i g n a t i o n to ' s i g n i f i e r ' , w h i c h
c o u l d b e t a k e n to m e a n 'that w h i c h carries the content of s i g n i f i c a t i o n ' .
F o r the s a m e r e a s o n , its c o u n t e r p a r t , the ' s i g n i f i e d ' , w a s also d i l u t e d
into a less precise c o n f i g u r a t i o n , to the extent that it m i g h t b e taken to
refer to ' a n e v o c a t i o n of the object', rather t h a n to the object i n itself.
T h e e v o l u t i o n o f the s c h e m a S a u s s u r e p r o p o s e d is as f o l l o w s :

Concept

Word Sound-image

T h i s relationship of o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o elements reveals a

p r o p e r t y of the s i g n w h i c h L a c a n d e s c r i b e d as 'the a u t o n o m y of the
signifier w i t h respect to the s i g n i f i e d ' . T h e relationship is not f i x e d
b e f o r e h a n d b y a n y d i c t i o n a r y or l e x i c o n , b u t is instead variable rather
than pre-established.
T h e s e t w o p r o p e r t i e s of l a n g u a g e — f i r s t l y , its s t r u c t u r a l d i v i s i o n
b e t w e e n m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y as p r i n c i p l e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a n d ,
secondly, the v a l u e of the s i g n — l e a d to a f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t i n L a c a n ' s
theory, n a m e l y the p r i m a c y o f the signifier over the s i g n i f i e d , a n d the
attendant consequences of this for the f o r m a t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s
( L a c a n 1968).
In other w o r d s , the f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n psychology
a n d the c o n c e p t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w h i c h L a c a n p r o p o s e d , lies p r e ­
cisely i n the significance p l a c e d o n the s p o k e n c h a i n . F r o m a p u r e l y
r a t i o n a l p o i n t of v i e w , Saussure's t h e o r y w o u l d l e a d us to a c o n c e p t i o n
of l a n g u a g e as a ' d o u b l e c h a i n ' — o f concepts a n d of s o u n d - i m a g e s —
s u c h that a n y cut i n the c h a i n of s o u n d - i m a g e s w o u l d b e taken to c o r ­
r e s p o n d exactly w i t h a s u b s e q u e n t cut i n the c h a i n of concepts, o n the
basis of the p r i n c i p l e of a o n e - t o - o n e relationship b e t w e e n signifier a n d
s i g n i f i e d . I n d e e d , S a u s s u r e ' s v e r y n o t i o n of the l i n g u i s t i c s i g n w o u l d
s e e m to l e a d to this s a m e i d e a (cf. S a u s s u r e l 9 8 3 : 110-1). I n effect, if w e
c o n s i d e r the s i g n as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h e v o k e s the i d e a of another t h i n g
i n o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e n w e m i g h t i m a g i n e that e v e r y time w e
e n c o u n t e r a signifier, S , i n the s p o k e n c h a i n , then this signifier is n e c ­
1

essarily c o n n e c t e d to a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n i f i e d , s . T h i s w o u l d g u a r ­
1

antee a significance for the s i g n i n itself, w h o s e v a l u e w o u l d then c o n ­

162 From the Desire for Knozvledge to the Jouissance of Learning

sist i n g r a n t i n g a signification as a c o n s e q u e n c e of the r e l a t i o n s h i p

i n v o l v e d b e t w e e n the t w o terms.
B u t w e all k n o w that this is not h o w things h a p p e n . L i n g u i s t i c c o m ­
p r e h e n s i o n d e p e n d s c r u c i a l l y o n context. T o s a y this reveals that the l i n ­
guistic s i g n exists o n l y as a f u n c t i o n of other signs, o r — t o p u t it a n o t h ­
er w a y — t h a t the linguistic s i g n o n l y assumes v a l u e w i t h i n a s t r u c t u r e d
e n s e m b l e o f other signs. O n l y i n this context c a n it establish m e a n i n g
a n d offer a signification. T h e character o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p established
b y the s i g n w i t h a l l these other signs d e p e n d s o n its contextual p o s i ­
t i o n . I n this sense, a s i g n is o p p o s e d to all the others as a differentiated
e l e m e n t , b u t at the same time is also subject to the rules w h i c h o r d e r
the s p o k e n c h a i n . T h u s , l a n g u a g e c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d as a struc­
t u r a l s y s t e m w h i c h emerges f r o m a series o f d i v i s i o n s i n t r o d u c e d b y
the s i g n into the a m o r p h o u s mass o f the p h o n e m i c c h a i n . T h e s e d i v i ­
s i o n s constitute a cut; it is the v e r y structure of the linguistic s i g n that
gives f o r m t o — w h i c h cuts a n d l i m i t s — t h e m a s s of l a n g u a g e . F r o m this
cut the signifier is b o r n a n d , w i t h it, words. In the m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
of l a n g u a g e f r o m w h i c h w e all suffer f r o m t i m e to time {only ' f r o m t i m e
to time'?) w e c a n see reflected the c r u c i a l role of the context a n d v a l u e
of the s i g n w h e n it c o m e s to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p r o b l e m s of c o m m u n i ­
cation. W e all k n o w that t w o different signifiers c a n b e l i n k e d to a s i n ­
gle s o u n d i m a g e , w h o s e signification c a n o n l y be c i r c u m s c r i b e d b y the
s i g n — ' m u l e ' a n d ' m e w l ' , for instance. A l l o f this has to b e u n d e r s t o o d
w i t h i n a context, w h i c h is the site w i t h i n w h i c h l a n g u a g e operates a n d
the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h it operates.

H e r e , precisely, is the p o i n t at w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o l o ­
g y d i v e r g e irreparably. T h e i r w a y s o f r e a d i n g the context a n d the v a l u e
a s c r i b e d to the s i g n o r i g i n a t e — q u i t e l i t e r a l l y — f r o m d i a m e t r i c a l l y
o p p o s e d places. D e s p i t e the fact that p s y c h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
use the s a m e terms to describe their objects, w h a t is s a i d is so v e r y dif­
ferent that the m e t h o d s a n d the objectives of their respective ethical
a p p r o a c h e s are also r a d i c a l l y divergent.
P s y c h o l o g y starts f r o m a f r a m e w o r k w h i c h deals w i t h w h a t is
' r a t i o n a l ' . R e a s o n is the p r i n c i p l e w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s its m e t h o d a n d its
c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f the p r o b l e m s of b e h a v i o u r . Its p h i l o s o p h y is b a s e d
o n control—control over variables, the f i l i n g of d a t a , the e v a l u a t i o n o f
results, a n d so o n . T h i s is reflected i n its s o - c a l l e d 'scientific m e t h o d ' ,
w h i c h is b a s e d o n the i d e a l o f b e i n g able to s a y e v e r y t h i n g a n d to
u n d e r s t a n d e v e r y t h i n g about b e i n g h u m a n , a n d thus ('thus'?) to a d a p t
man to its a i m s , w h i c h i n c l u d e control over its object. However,
 Teresa Celdran 163

because the u n c o n s c i o u s is at the basis of all the processes of l e a r n i n g ,

p s y c h o l o g y is l e d into a c u l d e sac b y this a p p r o a c h .
W i t h o u t w i s h i n g to d e m e a n the w o r k of n u m e r o u s a u t h o r s , espe­
c i a l l y those b e l o n g i n g to the R u s s i a n a n d G e n e v a Schools of p s y c h o l o ­
gy, s u c h as Piaget, W a l l o n , V y g o t s k y , L e o n t i e v , L u r i a , P a v l o v , et a l . , all
of w h o m h a v e m a d e serious c o n t r i b u t i o n s to d e t e r m i n e d a n d system­
atic s t u d i e s of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , nevertheless I t h i n k it is true to say
that the general a p p r o a c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y p s y c h o l o g y is c o n s p i c u ­
o u s l y u n a b l e to a n s w e r the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : ' W h a t is M a n ? 7
It is
e q u a l l y u n a b l e to g i v e a n a c c o u n t of h u m a n particularities, s i m p l y
because it cannot s e e — o r d o e s n o t w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d — t h a t the
m e a n i n g of b e h a v i o u r cannot be d e c i p h e r e d b y a r a t i o n a l interpreta­
t i o n of the s i g n , w h i c h conflates the terms ' s i g n i f i c a n c e ' a n d 'behav­
iour'.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the teaching of p s y c h o l o g y a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n leave
the subject i n a state of a l i e n a t i o n f r o m itself. W h a t is essential to the
structure of p s y c h o l o g y a c t u a l l y lies o u t s i d e it, a n d — w h a t is m o r e —
d i s t u r b s the d i s c i p l i n e b y e s c a p i n g its c o n t r o l , so that p s y c h o l o g y is l e d
to d e n y it, or to attempt to m a k e it d i s a p p e a r . T h i s m e r e l y a d d s one
m o r e p r o b l e m to a n a l r e a d y essential p r o b l e m : it resolves n o t h i n g . In
certain cases, this objective b e c o m e s a n i m p e r i o u s n e e d w h i c h comes
close to b e i n g c o m i c a l . I c a n n o t resist the t e m p t a t i o n to quote several
sections of a text b y C l a r e n c e B r o w n a n d E d w i n G i s e l l i , w h o were p r o ­
fessors at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley. T h e i r thesis is that n o
s t u d e n t of p s y c h o l o g y s h o u l d d o u b t that the a p p l i c a t i o n of scientific
m e t h o d w i l l h e l p to e l i m i n a t e all the 'false' a p p r o a c h e s to the s t u d y of
h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . Since I c o n s i d e r m y s e l f to be i n s o m e sense a ' s t u ­
d e n t of p s y c h o l o g y ' , I w a s o n c e i n c l u d e d a m o n g those w h o were p r e ­
s u m a b l y g o i n g to be r e s c u e d f r o m i g n o r a n c e a n d i n s t a l l e d i n the truth
of science. I p r o m i s e d m y s e l f that I w o u l d r e a d the b o o k , a n d h a r ­
b o u r e d the secret h o p e that a l l of p s y c h o l o g y ' s p r o b l e m s w o u l d be
e l i m i n a t e d once a n d for a l l , a n d — w i t h t h e m , i n c i d e n t a l l y — a l l of m y
o w n . In this b o o k w a s the r e c i p e , t h e n , h e a d e d w i t h j u i c y subtitles s u c h
as: ' C o n t e m p o r a r y false theories of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r ' , 'Scientific s p i r ­
its', ' C o m p a r i s o n of scientific spirits w i t h n o n - s c i e n t i f i c spirits':

M o d e r n m a n has not freed h i m s e l f f r o m the use of i m a g i n a r y

entities i n his attempts to e x p l a i n his b e h a v i o u r . B u t m o d e r n
spirits are not a l w a y s p e r s o n i f i e d a n d h a v e a m o r e abstract
n a t u r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , they are still the p r o d u c t of the i m a g i n a ­
164 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

t i o n , c o n s t r u c t e d so as to g i v e easy a n s w e r s to difficult q u e s t i o n s

a n d are often e m p l o y e d i n the s a m e w a y that o u r predecessors

u s e d spirits. F o r m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , these m o d e r n spirits e x p l a i n

behaviour satisfactorily, a n d after a l l , that is their function.

( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965)

W e t h e n p a s s onto a n e n u m e r a t i o n of these ' s p i r i t s ' :

...destiny... chance... nature [!!] ...instinct, is another s p i r i t that is

a l r e a d y t i r e d a n d w o r n . . . inheritance... the e n v i r o n m e n t . . . the

u n c o n s c i o u s , is a n o t h e r m o d e r n spirit of questionable r e p u t a t i o n

[I agree w i t h the adjective!], a p p a r e n t l y g r a n t e d all the functions

that the i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g possesses... [likewise, I agree]

It is interesting to note that the spirits of the m a n of science a n d

those of the l a y m a n are s i m i l a r i n one respect. T h e y are b o t h
b o r n f r o m the i m a g i n a t i o n . . . H e e m p l o y s constructions that d o
n o t refer to t h i n g s w h i c h are really observable... that is to s a y they
are b e y o n d s e n s o r y representation... In a s i m i l a r m a n n e r the l a y
p e r s o n uses his i m a g i n a t i o n to postulate ghosts, spirits, elves or
magical powers.
...the spirits of the scientist differ f r o m those of the n o n - s c i e n ­
tist [what l u c k ! ] . T o b e g i n w i t h , scientific theories are not p e r ­
s o n i f i e d . T h e y d o not consist of i m a g i n a r y p e r s o n s , great or
They do not have the characteristics of human
s m a l l , g o o d or b a d .
beings. They do not have desires. They do not experience emotions no
do they have intentions. T h e y d o not h a v e to be p l a c a t e d l i k e the
g o d s of p r i m i t i v e tribes.
Scientific theories are n o t reified concepts. T h e y d o not c o m e
to life. F o r e x a m p l e , i n the h a n d s of s o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s the
It is no longer a sim­
c o n c e p t of the u n c o n s c i o u s has b e e n reified.
ple rational idea which helps to explain human behaviour. It is
d e s c r i b e d as t h o u g h it w e r e another p e r s o n e x i s t i n g i n s i d e the
individual, a person with desires a n d a m b i t i o n s w h i c h differ f r o m
those of the i n d i v i d u a l . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is n o t far a w a y
f r o m one w h i c h s u p p o s e s the existence of spirits a n d demons.
( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965, italics mine)

If o n e l o o k s closely at this text, it says m o r e t h a n it a p p e a r s to say,

e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e the jouissance of the w r i t e r is c o n c e r n e d . T a k e n f u r ­
ther, it c o u l d also serve to e x e m p l i f y s o m e t h i n g of L a c a n ' s n o t i o n of
 Teresa Celdran 165

'the p r i m a c y of the s i g n i f i e r ' . In effect, if w e i n v e r t the s i g n , or take it

o u t of the context i n w h i c h it is i n s c r i b e d , it c a n be r e a d against the
g r a i n as a defence of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b y m e a n s of a critique of scientific
m e t h o d . T h e signifieds are s u b o r d i n a t e to the signifier b y v i r t u e of the
type of relation b e t w e e n the t w o w h i c h obtains w i t h i n the s i g n . T h e
m e a n i n g of the text, h o w e v e r , is r e v e a l e d at that p o i n t w h e r e the 'cut'
a p p e a r s — w h i c h L a c a n also d e s c r i b e d b y the t e r m 'point de caption', or
' q u i l t i n g p o i n t ' ( L a c a n 1977:154). In other w o r d s , this is the place of the
message.
L a c a n u s e d this n o t i o n of the 'point de caption' to reformulate
S a u s s u r e ' s thesis a n d d e m o n s t r a t e that the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
signifier a n d s i g n i f i e d is established a posteriori, at the p o i n t of s i g n i f i ­
c a t i o n , a n d that it is this w h i c h gives us the k e y to the message. In a d d i ­
t i o n , this c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a l w a y s takes place i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m its
d e c i p h e r m e n t . E v e r y d i s c o u r s e emits a message. It is n e v e r indifferent.
T h u s i n o u r e x a m p l e , the text c o n t i n u e s to r u n t h r o u g h a n e q u i v o ­
cal c o u r s e , i n the guise of a s a y i n g w h i c h does not k n o w itself, a n d
w i t h a k n o w l e d g e that is u n s a i d . It is l i k e a fantasy w i t h o u t its o w n
b e i n g — a spirit, p e r h a p s — i n the ineffable i n n o c e n c e of its o w n s t u p i d ­
ity. H o w e v e r , at one point, towards the e n d of the chapter, the
m e d i o c r e tone of the d i s c o u r s e is i n t e r r u p t e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y a m u c h
m o r e precise f o r m u l a t i o n :

T h e scientist controls h i s theory. H e keeps it i n the service of his

o w n problems a n d aims, and makes it work for him. (Brown &
G i s e l l i 1965, italics m i n e )

H e r e is the 'point de caption', clearly stated. T h e theory of the scien­

tist is n o t i n the service of the p r o b l e m s w h i c h the object poses, n o r i n
the service of the scientific a i m s of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , but rather
a d v a n c e s the scientist's own a i m to m a k e another w o r k for h i m . A t this
p o i n t of the d i s c o u r s e , the little ' s p i r i t s ' h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , to be
r e p l a c e d b y a m u c h m o r e a w e s o m e a n d d a n g e r o u s figure: the Master,
L a c a n ' s ' d i s c o u r s e of the u n i v e r s i t y ' , w h i c h secures the k n o w l e d g e of
science f r o m the m o u t h of a 'subject s u p p o s e d to k n o w ' , c a n u n d e r g o
a twist t o w a r d s w h a t L a c a n calls the ' d i s c o u r s e of the m a s t e r ' (see F i n k
1995: 130-1). T h i s entails a n attitude w h i c h guarantees the enslavement
of the other alienated b y its i g n o r a n c e ; the M a s t e r pontificates s h a m e ­
lessly o n e v e r y t h i n g he misrecognises, or k n o w s n o t h i n g about, for the
v e r y r e a s o n that it escapes his control. I n d e e d , H e g e T s dialectic of the
166 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

m a s t e r a n d slave reveals that i n order to ensure the existence of his

b e i n g , the m a s t e r ' s d i s c o u r s e m u s t d e g r a d e or destroy e v e r y t h i n g
w h i c h w i l l not s u b m i t to h i m . W i t h these w o r d s , then, B r o w n a n d
G i s e l l i close their chapter a n d s e n d their message:

...the F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s t has his o w n w h i m s to satisfy a n d

h i s b e h a v i o u r cannot be anticipated. B e i n g u n p r e d i c t a b l e , those
spirits provide no sort of control... their f u n c t i o n consists of placing
obstacles in the way of thought or channelling it, so that it becomes
easier to accept stereotypes a n d one is d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m t a k i n g
o n b o a r d a n d c o n s i d e r i n g n e w ideas. ( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965)

T h e s u b v e r t e d message of this text opens u p for us the q u e s t i o n of the

u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h L a c a n construes as ' s t r u c t u r e d like a l a n g u a g e '
( L a c a n 1979: 149). T h i s l a n g u a g e , i n its current, s y n c h r o n i c aspect, is
f o r m e d o n the basis of operations of metaphor. M e t a p h o r , a c c o r d i n g to
l i n g u i s t i c s , is a c o n d e n s a t i o n , the d e s i g n a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g b y m e a n s
of another t h i n g . F o r L a c a n , m e t a p h o r is n o t h i n g b u t the s u b s t i t u t i o n
of signifiers; a matter of one signifier b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y another.
T h e process of m e t a p h o r therefore p r o d u c e s m e a n i n g w i t h i n d i s ­
c o u r s e precisely b y v i r t u e of b e i n g w h e r e it o u g h t not to be. A
m e t a p h o r is the a p p e a r a n c e of a signifier w h e r e it is not e x p e c t e d ; the
m e t a p h o r i c signifier substitutes for another, w h i c h is t h e n s u b v e r t e d .
In m e t a p h o r the true, literal signifier b e c o m e s lost i n the s p o k e n c h a i n .
T h e m e t a p h o r locks u p the e n i g m a — o f the O t h e r — a n d , once it has
itself b e c o m e present, says s o m e t h i n g about this O t h e r . M e t a p h o r
therefore reveals s o m e t h i n g about the p r i m o r d i a l character of the s i g ­
n i f i e r — n o t o n l y w i t h respect to the s i g n i f i e d , b u t also w i t h respect to
the subject w h i c h it d e t e r m i n e s — a n d substitutes f o r — w i t h o u t the s u b ­
ject k n o w i n g .
T h e s e c o n d o r d e r of operations, w h i c h structure l a n g u a g e i n its
d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n , are those of m e t o n y m y . These are e v i d e n t i n a
transfer(ence) of d e n o m i n a t i o n , b y w h i c h a n object is d e s i g n a t e d b y a
t e r m different to that w h i c h is c o m m o n l y its o w n . M e t o n y m y is a d i s ­
placement, based o n certain connections b e t w e e n the two terms.
Metonymy is also a s u b s t i t u t i o n of signifiers, b u t — i n contrast to
m e t a p h o r — i n this case it is manifest. W h a t is s u b v e r t e d is n o t the s i g ­
nifier b u t the value of the signifier. In m e t o n y m y it is signification that is
 Teresa Celdran 167

lost. M e t o n y m y a l w a y s appears as a n a b s u r d i t y i n a d i s c o u r s e w h i c h
acquires its m e a n i n g t h r o u g h a process of association.
L a c a n ' s thesis, b a s e d o n his r e a d i n g of F r e u d , h o l d s that the struc­
ture of the subject is d e t e r m i n e d b y l a n g u a g e . T h e subject e x i s t s — p r i o r
to b e i n g — t h r o u g h speech. F o r instance: one talks about a c h i l d before
it is b o r n . T h e subject is c o n c e i v e d b y m e a n s of speech a n d exists w i t h ­
i n it e v e n before it d o e s so i n its o w n b o d y . But, because l a n g u a g e is a
c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h operates b y m e a n s of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y , a
p a r t of the d i s c o u r s e of the subject is w i t h d r a w n f r o m consciousness,
p r e c i s e l y because of those losses of m e a n i n g — o r of the s i g n i f i e d —
w h i c h take p l a c e i n the course of these operations.
T h e n o t i o n s of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y are t w o k e y pieces of
L a c a n ' s structural c o n c e p t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s process. In effect, if
the processes of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y are as present i n the d i s ­
c o u r s e of the subject as i n the w o r k i n g s of the p r i m a r y process, then
this m e a n s , o n the one h a n d , that the u n c o n s c i o u s is at the basis of
e v e r y c o m p o n e n t of l a n g u a g e a n d , o n the other h a n d — o r , at least, this
is L a c a n ' s p r o p o s a l — t h a t 'the u n c o n s c i o u s is structured like a l a n ­
guage'.
T h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s lead to a r a d i c a l l y different a p p r o a c h to the
s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . If it is l a n g u a g e w h i c h creates the s u b j e c t —
a n d n o t the r e v e r s e — t h e n w e c a n assert that the structure of the s u b ­
ject is that of its d i s c o u r s e . T h e h u m a n b e i n g c a n o n l y be s u c h as a sub­
ject of language, a n d f r o m this it d e r i v e s its subjectivity. B u t at the same
t i m e as l a n g u a g e generates the subject w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of a struc­
ture c o m p r i s e d of the rules of d i s c o u r s e , it also takes possession of that
subject a n d i m p r i s o n s it w i t h i n the s p o k e n c h a i n , b y m e a n s of a n
u n f o l d i n g t h r o u g h m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y i n w h i c h the subject loses
itself. In this w a y the s p e a k i n g b e i n g r e m a i n s attached to the l a n g u a g e
w h i c h creates it, yet is alienated w i t h i n it as the subject of l a n g u a g e .
L e a r n i n g , t h e n , s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t h e n as the consequence of a
process of m e t o n y m y w h i c h achieves its m e a n i n g i n a m e t a p h o r of a
realisation. T h e c h a i n of m e t o n y m i c associations is p u t into m o t i o n
w h e n the n e w l y b o r n c h i l d arrives i n the w o r l d . T h e c h a i n operates o n
the real b y f o r m i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l constructs. T h e s e constitute the s u c ­
cessful creation of k n o w l e d g e w h i c h w e call ' l e a r n i n g ' . T h i s ' w a v e of
e m i s s i o n ' , w h i c h travels b e a r i n g the message of k n o w l e d g e , has as its
o r i g i n the subject's o w n desire to solve the e n i g m a of his o w n subjec­
tivity. W h a t is l e a r n e d o n l y acquires m e a n i n g to the extent that it r e p ­
resents s o m e t h i n g real w h i c h has b e e n lost. W h a t is l e a r n e d , then,
168 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , b y v i r t u e of a lack, fills a v o i d . L e a r n i n g is
a jouissance w h i c h represents a m e t a p h o r for s o m e t h i n g that cannot be
s a i d . T h i s s o m e t h i n g is the essential T a c k of b e i n g ' w i t h i n the s p e a k i n g
being.
T h e d i v i s i o n that l a n g u a g e p r o d u c e s i n the subject is a c o n s e q u e n c e
of the s y m b o l i c o r d e r of the s i g n i f i e s w h i c h possesses the s i n g u l a r
p r o p e r t y of r e p r e s e n t i n g the presence of s o m e t h i n g real b y m e a n s of a n
absence. A s L a c a n ' s a p h o r i s m has it: T h e t h i n g m u s t be lost i n o r d e r
for it to b e r e p r e s e n t e d ' ( L a c a n 1997). In other w o r d s , w h a t w e are
d o i n g w h e n w e s p e a k is to n a m e that w h i c h w e are s p e a k i n g about, but
w i t h o u t it i n reality b e i n g present i n o u r d i s c o u r s e as s u c h . Instead,
that of w h i c h w e s p e a k is m a d e present o n l y t h r o u g h the s y m b o l i c r e p ­
resentation w h i c h the signifiers m a k e of it. T h e subject itself is lost i n
d i s c o u r s e , loses itself i n d i s c o u r s e , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m itself, i n o r d e r to be
n a m e d b y the signifiers that designate the subject (such as T , ' y o u ' ,
' m e ' , 'he'). To s u m u p : the r e l a t i o n s h i p to the c h a i n of d i s c o u r s e i s —
a b o v e a l l — o n e of a l i e n a t i o n f r o m the signifier b y v i r t u e of the s i g n i f i ­
e s a n d the fate of the s i g n i f i e d is s e c o n d a r y to this. F r o m the p o i n t of
v i e w of the u n c o n s c i o u s (such as w e observe its w o r k i n g s i n dreams)
o n l y the substitutions of signifiers are decisive for the s t r u c t u r a t i o n of
the subject. P r o o f of this is the a l i e n a t i o n of the t r u t h of the subject's
desire i n the o r d e r of d i s c o u r s e — t h e difficulty w e h a v e i n s a y i n g w h a t
w e w a n t to say, i n s a y i n g w h a t w e m e a n .
A d o p t i n g this a p p r o a c h , a n y s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , a n d — i n
p a r t i c u l a r — a n y s t u d y of the t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d a c q u i s i t i o n of k n o w l ­
e d g e , r e m a i n s tied to the structure f r o m w h i c h it derives a n d m u s t
operate i n the l i g h t of it. In other w o r d s , w h a t is l e a r n e d , the a c q u i s i ­
t i o n of k n o w l e d g e i n its w i d e s t sense, is not a consequence of a n expe­
rience of the real, since the real ' i n i t s e l f cannot be a p p r e h e n d e d other
t h a n b y subjectivation. T h i s is the c u l de sac of p s y c h o l o g y — a n d p s y ­
c h o l o g i s t s k n o w it. Instead, l e a r n i n g c a n be v i e w e d as a consequence
of l a n g u a g e , w h i c h operates t h r o u g h the i m a g i n a r y trace left b y its
s y m b o l i c representative. W h a t w e call 'reality' is o n l y a n imaginary
objectivation of t h a t — t h e r e a l — w h i c h c a n o n l y be c a p t u r e d b y m e a n s of
a representation. E v e n p s y c h o l o g y recognises that sensory experience
is i r r e d e e m a b l y p r i v a t e , a n d — f r o m K o f f k a to L e o n t i e v — h a s s p o k e n of
itself as 'the science of p s y c h i c p h e n o m e n a as functions of a b r a i n
w h i c h reflects reality' (Pinillos 1975). A n y act of sensation, s u c h as see­
i n g or h e a r i n g , e n d s u p b e i n g a n inner experience:
 Teresa Celdran 169

P a r a d o x i c a l l y expressed, if e v e r y o n e o n l y h a d the reactions that

others c o u l d observe, n o b o d y w o u l d observe a n y t h i n g . (Koffka
1999)

T h e p r o b l e m , then, lies i n the fact that the b r a i n does not reflect the
real b u t interprets it, a n d d o e s so i n a v e r y p a r t i c u l a r way. Reality does
n o t exist b u t , like art, is a creation of the subject. E v e r y k n o w l e d g e is
s u b j e c t i v e — i t p r o c e e d s f r o m s u b j e c t i v i t y — a n d is s u b o r d i n a t e d to a
desire that d e r i v e s f r o m the u n c o n s c i o u s order. T h i s k n o w l e d g e is
o p e n e d to experience t h r o u g h a jouissance, a n d is transmitted as the
effect of a transfer(ence). Transfer(ence) is a k n o w l e d g e concerning
t r u t h , the t r u t h of e v e r y o n e c o n c e r n i n g their desire, w h i c h c a n be
o r d e r e d a n d transmitted.
T h i s is w h a t constitutes teaching: it is the t r a n s m i s s i o n of a k n o w l ­
e d g e w h i c h says s o m e t h i n g about the t r u t h of the subject. W h e n this
k n o w l e d g e is t r a n s f o r m e d into a p r o d u c t , t h e n art a n d the sciences are
b o r n . C r e a t i o n is the result of a w i l l to s p e a k to the other, for the other.
T h e r e is n o u n i q u e truth of science, or of art. T r u t h is not ' u n i q u e , b u t 7

is, i n s t e a d , one: t r u t h is the truth of the desire of e a c h subject. B u t if

t r u t h w e r e o n l y a p u r e l y a n d u n i q u e l y subjective matter, then teaching
w o u l d n o t be v i a b l e . H o w c o u l d a truth w h i c h is o n l y one's o w n be
transmitted? C a n e d u c a t i o n be r e g a r d e d as a n y t h i n g other t h a n a p a r a ­
d o x ? I n d e e d , this seems to be the case. E d u c a t i o n is one of the three
things w h i c h F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s posits as i m p o s s i b l e (Freud
1937: 248). T h i s is for the s i m p l e reason that w h a t w e call ' c o m m u n i c a ­
t i o n ' b e l o n g s to the register of the i m a g i n a r y . F o r e v e r y subject the
s a m e signifier c a n offer different signifieds, a c c o r d i n g to the discourse
w i t h i n w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l operates, a n d — a t the s a m e t i m e — s i g n i f i ­
c a t i o n c a n n e v e r be m a d e b y two subjects i n precisely the s a m e way.
T h i s fact b e c o m e s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n the structure of the g r o u p .
O n o n e o c c a s i o n , a g r o u p of students w a s a s k e d to write d o w n the
c o l o u r of the shirt w o r n b y a friend i n the lecture h a l l , a n d then after­
w a r d s to say a l o u d w h a t the c o l o u r w a s . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y straightfor­
w a r d task p r o d u c e d s u c h a v a r i e t y of responses that it b e c a m e i m p o s ­
sible to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h c o l o u r w a s actually meant. O n e c o u l d w o r k
out approximately what colour was involved by excluding other
terms—'blue', for e x a m p l e . B u t , thereafter, the range of possible
c o l o u r s r a n f r o m ' b r o w n ' to ' y e l l o w ' , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h ' o r a n g e ' , ' m u s ­
t a r d ' , ' o l i v e ' , a n d m a n y m o r e besides. F u r t h e r m o r e , the students w e r e
s u r p r i s e d to hear other replies so at o d d s w i t h their o w n . T h i s m a d e
170 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

t h e m l a u g h , since e v e r y o n e ' s colour, w i t h o u t b e i n g precise, n e v e r t h e ­

less d e s c r i b e d s o m e shade w h i c h c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as 'accurate'. T h e
j o k e - l i k e effect p r o d u c e d b y the d i s p a r i t y w a s a p r o d u c t of a m e t a p h o r ­
ical c o n d e n s a t i o n , t h r o u g h w h i c h e a c h of the terms h a d a m e a n i n g
w i t h o u t n e e d of e x p l a n a t i o n . H o w e v e r , i n a d d i t i o n , they a l l h a d s o m e ­
t h i n g i n c o m m o n , o w i n g to a m e t o n y m i c concatenation, w h i c h i n the
e n d p r o v i d e d a certain signification. T h i s degree of signification, f r o m
a c o m m o n m e a n i n g , is w h a t a l l o w s to us to a r r i v e at c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,
b u t w h i c h is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n consensus i n s p e e c h . F r o m this c o n s e n ­
s u s — t h a t is, f r o m the ' d e m o c r a t i s a t i o n ' of l a n g u a g e — a r e b o r n those
s o c i a l agreements w h i c h place limits o n the i m p o s s i b l e , a n d a m o n g
w h i c h are i n c l u d e d the e d u c a t i o n a l project itself.
T h e v a l u e of this e x a m p l e is that it demonstrates h o w c o m m u n i c a ­
t i o n b e t w e e n s p e a k i n g - b e i n g s o n l y s e e m i n g l y operates at the r a t i o n a l
l e v e l . C o n s e n s u s i n l a n g u a g e is a n i m a g i n a r y objectivation, a tacit
a g r e e m e n t to say w h e r e s a y i n g is i m p o s s i b l e . It is a n agreement that i n
a common place—the dictionary, the l e x i c o n — s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is
strictly i n d i v i d u a l a n d subjective w i l l be w o r k e d o n . In reality, true
c o m m u n i c a t i o n , that w h i c h gives m e a n i n g a n d significance to w o r d s ,
d o e s n o t lie i n a rational f o r m of d i s c o u r s e , n o r i n the 'content' of
w o r d s themselves, b u t rather i n the s u b v e r t e d m e s s a g e w h i c h leaves a
m e t a p h o r i c effect a n d a m e t o n y m i c trace.
T h i s process of ' e n u n c i a t i o n ' — a s L a c a n describes it ( L a c a n 1966:
193)—liberates, b y m e a n s of a s i g n i f y i n g cut, that first l a n g u a g e of
u n c o n s c i o u s desire w h i c h is articulated i n the s a y i n g .
If, t h e n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n u n d e r its r a t i o n a l f o r m is actually a n o p e r ­
a t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s , t h e n i n w h a t sense c a n w e speak of ' e d u c a ­
t i o n ' a n d ' l e a r n i n g ' ? If the s a i d is o u t s i d e the s a y i n g , a n d the s a y i n g is
n o t i n 'the s a y i n g s ' , then w h a t is really t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n ,
a n d o n w h a t are e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s based? A s w e h a v e seen, e d u ­
c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g , as c o n c e i v e d u n d e r the n o t i o n of r a t i o n a l control
b y the subject, f o r m a n i l l u s o r y i d e a , for the s i m p l e reason that this
m e t h o d is absolutely d i s c o r d a n t w i t h the nature of the material w i t h
w h i c h t h e y w o r k — t h a t is, w i t h individual subjects, one-to-one. Science
f u n c t i o n s ' b a c k w a r d s ' here: firstly it i n v e n t s a subject a d a p t e d to its
s y s t e m , a n d then submits the subject to the control of its m e t h o d , i n
o r d e r to o b t a i n a r e s u l t — ' r a t i o n a l m a n ' . B u t , because h u m a n nature is
n o t s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d reason, b u t is rather a n effect of u n c o n s c i o u s
desire, this s u p p o s e d subject of science c o n t i n u a l l y breaks out of the
s y s t e m a n d escapes its control. H e r e w e h a v e the b e g i n n i n g of that
 Teresa Celdran 171

farce i n w h i c h e d u c a t i o n fails, w h e t h e r it is re-enacted i n the limitless

d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the s y m p t o m a t o l o g y of the p s y c h i a t r i c clinic, or i n
failures i n s c h o o l . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is not n o r m a l l y subject to reason,
a n d e v e n w h e n it b e c o m e s so, it is u s u a l l y b y routes other t h a n e d u c a ­
tion. T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is not n a i v e , a n d is m u c h stronger a n d m o r e
p o w e r f u l t h a n reason. N e v e r t h e l e s s , scientific d i s c o u r s e c o n t i n u a l l y
d o w n - p l a y s the s t u d y of w h a t constitutes the m a i n p i l l a r of the speak­
i n g b e i n g : the u n c o n s c i o u s d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e . T h i s b l i n d n e s s , w i l ­
f u l or a c c i d e n t a l , o n the p a r t o f scientific d i s c o u r s e , is b a s e d o n a d e n i a l
of the e v i d e n c e , a n d i n v a r i a b l y leads to a s t a n c e — a p o s e — o f the
m a n i p u l a t i o n of subjects, s u p p o s e d l y 'the subjects of science'. T h i s c u l ­
minates i n a n 'impasse', a circuit w i t h n o w a y out, w h e r e all w e
e n c o u n t e r is the d e a d l y signifier of repetition. It is precisely here, w h e r e
the subject ' s u p p o s e d to k n o w ' fails, that it gives w a y to the repressed,
w h i c h i n one w a y or another a l w a y s returns, as F r e u d h i m s e l f s a i d
( F r e u d 1919).
E d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g are, then, the effects of a transfer(ence).
B o t h p r o c e e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of u n c o n s c i o u s desire. O n l y w h e n this
knowledge is i n s c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r of l a n g u a g e does it
a c q u i r e m e a n i n g a n d signification. M e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a t i o n are ele­
m e n t s w h i c h structure the l o g i c of k n o w l e d g e a n d are bearers of the act
of t r a n s m i s s i o n . In reality, h o w e v e r , it is not k n o w l e d g e 'in itself
w h i c h is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h the transfer(ence), b u t o n l y its logic.
T e a c h i n g c a n o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d the act of transfer(ence) of this l o g i c —
a n e n u n c i a t i o n — o f w h i c h its statements p r o v i d e a n account.
T h e truth-effect generated b y teaching u n f o l d s i n the knowledge
that it p r e s e n t s — a n offering to the other w h i c h recognises it as s u c h .
L e a r n i n g w o u l d t h e n consist i n the r e c o g n i t i o n of the t r u t h — o f the
o t h e r — t h r o u g h the t e a c h i n g of k n o w l e d g e . L e a r n i n g is the a c k n o w l ­
e d g e d effect of a t r u t h w h i c h , like that of teaching, concerns desire.
T h i s is seen m o s t clearly i n practice: teaching is d e s c r i b e d as a ' v o c a ­
t i o n ' , a c a l l i n g , a ' w i l l to s a y ' , a n d is m o s t e v i d e n t i n those of us w h o
r e m e m b e r h a v i n g l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g ourselves. T h e s e v o c a t i o n a l s u b ­
jects—our true teachers—leave a r e m a i n d e r w h i c h goes beyond
i n s t r u c t i o n a n d their o w n k n o w l e d g e . W h a t they leave us, o n top of
a n y r e c o g n i t i o n of their k n o w l e d g e , is s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e g e n u i n e
a n d authentic: the m a r k of subjectivity. It is precisely this p e r s o n a l
trace left b y e v e r y professor o n his or her k n o w l e d g e w h i c h attracts
d i s c i p l e s , w h i c h energises l e a r n i n g , a n d w h i c h creates a s c h o o l . T h a t
i m p r i n t is w h a t , w i t h o u t b e i n g e n u n c i a t e d c o m p l e t e l y (because b y def­
172 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

i n i t i o n it c a n n o t be) calls the other to k n o w l e d g e of himself. The

teacher is the e x a m p l e , the one w h o enunciates his or her k n o w l e d g e
t h r o u g h the result. Therefore there d o e s n o t exist a t r u t h of science for
the s u b j e c t — e v e n t h o u g h this w o u l d n o d o u b t a v o i d a certain d i s c o n ­
t e n t — b u t i n s t e a d there d o e s exist a t r u t h of the subject for science, w i t h
w h i c h o n e a n s w e r s the q u e s t i o n 'Che Vuoi? ' ('What d o y o u desire?),
a c c o r d i n g to the f o r m u l a t i o n L a c a n b o r r o w e d f r o m C a z o t t e ' s n o v e l ,
The Devil in Love (see D o r 1986).
T h i s t e a c h i n g w h i c h goes b e y o n d i n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h serves as a n
e x a m p l e , is w h a t constitutes the e d u c a t i o n a l process. E d u c a t i o n has to
d o w i t h the n o r m , w i t h the i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n of the r u l e , w i t h the a d v e n t
of that d i s c o r d a n t t h i r d p e r s o n — t h e f a t h e r — a s representative of the
law. E d u c a t i o n transmits a k n o w l e d g e f r o m ' o n e ' to ' a n o t h e r ' . T h e
i n c l u s i o n of this t h i r d element offers the subject a m e a n s of e n t r y i n t o
reality. E d u c a t i o n is the l a w of spirit. F r o m a p a t e r n a l referent—the
s y m b o l i c l a w — i t f o r m s , l i m i t s , a n d t r i m s one's p a s s i o n s for another.
B u t e d u c a t i o n itself, as o n e of F r e u d ' s three i m p o s s i b i l i t i e s , is o n l y p o s ­
sible if o n e takes into account that the u n c o n s c i o u s is present i n a l l the
processes of l e a r n i n g .
If t e a c h i n g is a n effect of a transfer(ence), t h e n l e a r n i n g is the effect
of a jouissance, a n d the c o n s e q u e n c e of a desire. W h e n a c h i l d learns
s o m e t h i n g , w e s h o u l d ask ourselves why does he d o it? F o r w h o m , or
w h a t ? W h a t m o t i v e is at w o r k ? A n d w h a t m a k e s the task easy or d i f f i ­
cult for h i m ?
T h e real m e a n i n g of the p r o b l e m a t i c of desire, as related to n e e d
a n d d e m a n d , a n d as f o r m u l a t e d b y L a c a n , c a n o n l y be e l u c i d a t e d if w e
start f r o m F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the first experiences of satisfaction
( F r e u d 1915), T h i s first experience of the c h i l d after b e i n g b o r n , breast­
f e e d i n g , c o m e s as a s u r p r i s e . T h e c h i l d ' s c r y is a call o u t of o r g a n i c
n e e d , b u t h e d o e s not k n o w w h a t to expect i n response to his call. In
reality, the c h i l d is not ' a s k i n g f o r ' a n y t h i n g , b u t is m e r e l y e x p r e s s i n g
his u n p l e a s u r e at a state of tension that results f r o m a lack. W h e n the
m o t h e r i n t e r v e n e s , so as to r e d u c e this t e n s i o n w i t h the n o u r i s h m e n t
that she offers, she i n a u g u r a t e s the p r o c e s s of desire i n the c h i l d . T h e
m n e s i c trace of this first s a t i s f a c t i o n — t h e pleasure of s u c k i n g — t r a n s ­
f o r m s the b o d y ' s organic n e e d into a drive, the d e m a n d of a desire, a n d
it does this r i g h t f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a n d for a l l time.
In effect, f r o m this m o m e n t o n , n e e d is a l r e a d y attached to the r e p ­
resentation of the p e r c e p t i o n of the object w h i c h offers satisfaction (the
breast), at the s a m e time that the o r g a n i c tension is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a n
 Teresa Celdran 173

a i m : the r e d u c t i o n of that n e e d . W h e n this process is repeated, the n e e d

t r i g g e r e d b y l a c k is t r a n s f o r m e d into a d r i v e j o i n e d to a d e m a n d for
satisfaction. B u t the m n e s i c trace w i t h w h i c h it is a s s o c i a t e d — i t s ' p s y ­
chic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' — i s c h a r g e d w i t h tension b y the d r i v e . T h e p s y ­
c h o l o g i c a l effect of this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n the n e w l y - b o r n c h i l d a m o u n t s
to a n h a l l u c i n a t o r y a n t i c i p a t i o n , since it is i m p o s s i b l e for the c h i l d to
distinguish between the real and its representation. The very
d y n a m i s m of this process constitutes the essence of desire, a n d b y its
v e r y n a t u r e it c a n n o t be satisfied i n reality, since its realisation is not i n
o r g a n i c satisfaction (the 'feed'), b u t instead i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the
scene. T h i s u n e x p e c t e d pleasure, w i t h its effect of s u r p r i s e , inscribes
the c h i l d i n his t u r n i n the register of the m o t h e r ' s desire, w h o i n r e a l ­
ity interprets the c h i l d ' s n e e d s a n d r e s p o n d s to his d e m a n d . T h e m o t h ­
er, t h e n , as bearer of a signification, is c o n v e r t e d into a p s y c h i c r e p r e ­
sentative for the c h i l d of his o w n n e e d s — t h a t is, into the p r i m o r d i a l
signifier of his desire.
M o r e o v e r , w h e n the m o t h e r a c c o m p a n i e s h e r response w i t h l o v i n g
words a n d gestures, demand is i n s c r i b e d i n desire as something
b e y o n d itself, w h e r e the l o v i n g jouissance w h i c h the m o t h e r p r o v i d e s is
also a d d e d to the satisfaction of n e e d . H o w e v e r , the m o s t p r o f o u n d
d i m e n s i o n of desire, b o r n f r o m the relation w i t h the O t h e r — t h e m o t h ­
e r — i n her q u a l i t y as signifier, cannot be f u l l y satisfied b y a n y object,
b u t o n l y b y the v e r y presence of that O t h e r itself, w h i c h constitutes the
basis of the s y m b o l i c statute b y w h i c h the c h i l d w i l l pass f r o m object to
subject. It is because of this state of affairs that desire c a n n o t h a v e a n
object i n reality, a n d therefore appears i n t r i n s i c a l l y tied forever to a
lack. W h a t is l a c k i n g constitutes the m e t o n y m y of desire i n the h i s t o r y
of the subject, w h i c h grants m e a n i n g to its subjectivity b y m e a n s of its
s y m b o l i c realisations.
The puissances of the b o d y w h i c h constitute its p r i m o r d i a l l a n g u a g e
a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h the c h i l d is o p e n e d u p to the w o r l d w i l l be p r o ­
g r e s s i v e l y d i s p l a c e d b y other objects. T h e pleasures of l e a r n i n g a n d
i n c o r p o r a t i n g k n o w l e d g e represent a s e c o n d a r y source of 'symbolic
n o u r i s h m e n t ' , t h r o u g h w h i c h the subject reconstitutes the lost object.
Acquired knowledge a n d p a r t i c u l a r skills h a v e a l w a y s to d o w i t h
l a c k — ' t h e lack of b e i n g ' , as L a c a n p u t s i t — o f s o m e t h i n g lost forever i n
the t i m e p r i o r to s p e e c h , w h i c h has to be r e c o n s t r u c t e d , d i s c o v e r e d
a n e w t h r o u g h i n v e n t i o n , the creative act at the basis of a n y a n d all
knowledge.
174 From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning

T h e r e are three passions w h i c h s u r r o u n d a n d d e l i m i t desire: l o v e ,

hate a n d i g n o r a n c e . T h e first t w o — L a c a n tells u s — u n d e r different
p o l a r i t i e s create a n object b y extraction f r o m a desire to k n o w . T h e
t h i r d , b y contrast, is a p a s s i o n 'not to k n o w ' , to k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t
oneself, n o r a b o u t the u n c o n s c i o u s w h i c h presides o v e r a l l o u r actions.
F r o m this h a t r e d of k n o w l e d g e are b o r n the evils that p l a g u e o u r s o c i ­
ety: stress, b o r e d o m , the t e d i u m of the inescapable existential v o i d
w h i c h the subject of i g n o r a n c e sees o p e n e d u p . D a n g e r lies m o r e often
i n the d e n i a l of k n o w l e d g e t h a n i n d i s c o v e r y . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s w i l l
c a r r y o n b e i n g there w h e t h e r w e w a n t to k n o w or not. A s the S p a n i s h
s i n g e r J. M . Serrat p u t it: ' T r u t h is n e v e r s a d : there is n o r e m e d y for it'.
T h e risks w h i c h this p a s s i o n for i g n o r a n c e carry w i t h it lie i n the effects
t h e y h a v e o n the e d u c a t i o n a l process; i n this case, e d u c a t i o n seems a n
i m p o s s i b i l i t y . H o w e v e r , h u m a n creativity consists p r e c i s e l y i n the p l a c ­
i n g of l i m i t s o n the i m p o s s i b l e , limits w h i c h are constituted as the
effect of a l a w b u t are the p r o d u c t of l o v e .

1
Translated from Spanish by Philip Derbyshire
 P S Y C H O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS OF WRITER IDENTITY:

T O W A R D S A H O R N E Y A N U N D E R S T A N D I N G

Celia Hunt

M y e x p e r i e n c e as a tutor of creative w r i t i n g of l o n g - s t a n d i n g leads m e

to the v i e w that there are t w o m a i n areas of l e a r n i n g i n v o l v e d i n cre­
ative w r i t i n g : f i r s t l e a r n i n g to master the craft of w r i t i n g a n d , s e c o n d ,
l e a r n i n g to f i n d a ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' or ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' . T h e first, l e a r n ­
i n g to m a s t e r the craft of w r i t i n g , is o b v i o u s ; i n the case of fiction, w i t h
w h i c h I a m p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d , it w i l l i n v o l v e the a c q u i s i t i o n a n d
p r a c t i c e of a repertoire of n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h as characterisa­
t i o n , d i a l o g u e , setting, p o i n t of v i e w , as w e l l as p l o t t i n g a n d structur­
i n g . T h e s e c o n d , l e a r n i n g to f i n d a w r i t i n g v o i c e or w r i t i n g identity, is
m u c h less o b v i o u s , a n d I w i l l discuss it i n d e t a i l i n this chapter.
M y research w i t h students of creative w r i t i n g over the past four
y e a r s i n t o the benefits of w r i t i n g fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y as a first stage
in a 'writing apprenticeship' 1
reveals that a significant p r o p o r t i o n of
a p p r e n t i c e writers experience difficulties i n the s e c o n d of these t w o
areas of l e a r n i n g . In a t t e m p t i n g to u n d e r s t a n d these difficulties I h a v e
f o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l the ideas of the G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n p s y c h o ­
analyst K a r e n Horney.

Learning to find a 'writing voice' or 'writing identity'

It is u s e f u l , w h e n t h i n k i n g about the n o t i o n of ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' , to d i s ­

t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the r e a d e r ' s a n d the w r i t e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e . A reader
e n g a g e d w i t h a n o v e l w i l l be able to identify a p a r t i c u l a r style or tone
i n the w r i t i n g . If she is familiar w i t h other n o v e l s b y the s a m e author,
she m i g h t notice that certain themes or certain t u r n s of p h r a s e recur
r e g u l a r l y . T h e s e c o u l d be s a i d to constitute the ' v o i c e ' of the n o v e l or
the ' v o i c e ' of a p a r t i c u l a r author w h i c h recurs t h r o u g h o u t his or her
oeuvre . 2
F r o m the w r i t e r ' s perspective the t e r m ' v o i c e ' w i l l h a v e differ­
ent c o n n o t a t i o n s . O n the one h a n d , a w r i t e r m a y struggle to f i n d the
r i g h t n a r r a t i v e ' v o i c e ' for a p a r t i c u l a r character o r for a first p e r s o n n a r ­
rator o f a n o v e l or story. O n the other, she m a y feel that, i n a m o r e g e n ­
eral sense, she has ' f o u n d her v o i c e ' , w h i c h m a k e s her relationship
w i t h h e r w r i t i n g m o r e fluid a n d comfortable. F i n d i n g a ' w r i t i n g v o i c e '
i n this latter, i n t e r n a l sense, or f i n d i n g a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' , as it m i g h t
176 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

a l s o be c a l l e d , i s , i n m y v i e w , c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i f a w r i t e r is to h a v e
a w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her w r i t i n g a n d to be able to l e a r n h o w to
a d o p t m a n y different n a r r a t i v e voices,
S e a m u s H e a n e y ' s d e f i n i t i o n of ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' c o m e s closest to w h a t
I m e a n here: ' F i n d i n g a v o i c e m e a n s that y o u c a n get y o u r o w n f e e l i n g
i n t o y o u r o w n w o r d s a n d that y o u r w o r d s h a v e the feel o f y o u a b o u t
t h e m ' ( H e a n e y 1980: 43). T h i s entails a n a b i l i t y to d e l v e i n t o the i n n e r
w o r l d , i n o r d e r to create w r i t i n g w h i c h , w h i l s t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a u t o b i ­
o g r a p h i c a l i n the strict sense, is d e e p l y p e r s o n a l , i n that it d r a w s o n the
w r i t e r ' s feelings a n d e m o t i o n s . P e o p l e n e w to w r i t i n g — a n d s o m e t i m e s
also p e o p l e w h o h a v e b e e n w r i t i n g for s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e — d o n o t
a u t o m a t i c a l l y m a k e this ( i n m y v i e w ) necessary c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
w r i t i n g a n d the i n n e r life. T h e i r w r i t i n g m a y be t e c h n i c a l l y w e l l craft­
e d b u t , l a c k i n g feelings a n d e m o t i o n s , it d o e s n o t c o m e a l i v e o n the
page.
M y course ' A u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d I m a g i n a t i o n ' , w h i c h n o w forms the
first of a three course Certificate i n C r e a t i v e W r i t i n g , w a s s p e c i f i c a l l y
d e v i s e d to h e l p students f i n d their w r i t i n g v o i c e or w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y i n
the i n t e r n a l sense o u t l i n e d above, b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m to engage
m o r e c l o s e l y w i t h their feelings a n d e m o t i o n s . O v e r the ten w e e k s o f
the course they engage i n free w r i t i n g , g e t t i n g i n t o u c h w i t h s p o n t a ­
n e o u s i m a g e r y a r i s i n g f r o m the u n c o n s c i o u s ; they e x p l o r e e a r l y m e m ­
o r i e s , t h i n k i n g t h e m s e l v e s b a c k i n t o the e x p e r i e n c e of the past t h r o u g h
s e n s o r y i m a g e r y a n d e x p a n d i n g those m e m o r i e s t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n ;
t h e y w r i t e f r o m p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e m s e l v e s w h e n t h e y w e r e y o u n g ,
t r y i n g to f i n d a p p r o p r i a t e v o i c e s for t h e m s e l v e s at different ages; t h e y
c o n s i d e r the w a y s that places they h a v e l i v e d i n or v i s i t e d h a v e c o n ­
t r i b u t e d to their o w n i n t e r i o r l a n d s c a p e s ; t h e y w r i t e a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m different p o i n t s of v i e w , p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s as n a r r a t o r s i n fanta­
s y o r h i s t o r i c a l settings, l e a r n i n g about the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m ­
s e l v e s as a u t h o r a n d the roles they i n h a b i t o n the page; t h e y d r a m a t i s e
m o m e n t s f r o m their l i v e s t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e ; t h e y p l o t t h e i r l i v e s u s i n g
a t i m e l i n e , i d e n t i f y i n g s i g n i f i c a n t m o m e n t s a n d p e o p l e a n d places i n
t h e i r l i v e s , a n d a l l t h r o u g h o u t this w o r k t h e y are e n c o u r a g e d to engage
w i t h the feeling tone of their w r i t i n g , to m o v e b e y o n d the surface to the
felt i n t e r i o r .
3

T h i s intense focus o n themselves a n d their e x p e r i e n c e often b r i n g s

a b o u t p r o f o u n d changes i n s t u d e n t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p to their w r i t i n g . 4

L o r n a , for e x a m p l e , h a d b e e n w r i t i n g for m a n y years a n d w a s p r o d u c ­

i n g w r i t i n g w h i c h she d e s c r i b e d as ' t e c h n i c a l l y p r o f i c i e n t ' , b u t she 'felt
 Celia Hunt 177

there w a s s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g at the heart of it'. E x p l o r i n g herself i m a g ­

i n a t i v e l y for several m o n t h s e n a b l e d h e r 'to i d e n t i f y that I h a v e b e e n
too d e t a c h e d f r o m m y w r i t i n g , w r i t i n g o n l y w i t h m y h e a d a n d not m y
heart. T h e free w r i t i n g technique has h e l p e d w i t h [this] p r o b l e m . I a m
n o w u s i n g [it] r e g u l a r l y as a m e a n s of freeing u p m y i m a g i n a t i o n a n d
c a n see the w a y m y w r i t i n g has progressed as a result'. P h i l , w h o w a s
accustomed to w r i t i n g n o n - f i c t i o n , r e g a r d e d his fiction w r i t i n g as
'well-written, but uninteresting—too dry'. Writing autobiographically
l e d to a b r e a k t h r o u g h , i n w h i c h he opened up to a n experience he w a s
t r y i n g to w r i t e about, so that instead of w r i t i n g i n his f o r m e r rather
impersonal style—writing from a distance—he was now inside the
w r i t i n g . A n d r e a , w h o w a s c o m p l e t e l y n e w to w r i t i n g , s a i d that f i c t i o n ­
a l i s i n g herself h a d p r o v i d e d her w i t h a s o l i d g r o u n d f r o m w h i c h to fic­
tionalise b e y o n d her o w n experience. A s another student p u t it, ' . . . w r i t ­
i n g f r o m experience [gives] one a s o l i d base a n d t h e n [lets] the i m a g i ­
n a t i o n s o a r ' . These students h a d l e a r n e d to h a v e confidence i n their
5

own material and confidence in engaging with their o w n inner

processes for the p u r p o s e of w r i t i n g . T h i s gave t h e m a stronger sense
of rootedness i n themselves, a l l o w i n g t h e m to g a i n the necessary d i s ­
tance f r o m w h i c h to explore their o w n material i m a g i n a t i v e l y . In other
w o r d s they h a d d e v e l o p e d a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' w h i c h e n a b l e d a flexi­
ble, w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n their w r i t i n g , b e t w e e n f r e e d o m a n d c o n ­
trol.

Mechanisms of artistic creation

M a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c writers discuss this flexible, w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p b e t w e e n p s y c h i c f r e e d o m a n d control i n artistic creation. B o t h
F r e u d a n d J u n g , for e x a m p l e , r e g a r d it as a special gift of the artist. 6

M a r i o n M i l n e r identifies t w o different m o d e s of attention i n the artis­

tic process: the b e a m - l i k e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the m i n d o n external objects
w h i c h is characteristic of conscious t h i n k i n g , a n d the b r o a d h o v e r i n g
attention w i t h the b o d y ( M i l n e r 1989: 29-40). T h i s latter m o d e of atten­
tion, w h i c h she likens to a d o m e , as o p p o s e d to the s h a r p - p o i n t e d n e s s
of the f o r m e r , is c r u c i a l , she believes, for the contact one n e e d s w i t h the
inner ' w o m b - s p a c e ' w h e r e a k i n d of d r e a m i n g goes o n ( M i l n e r 1989:
37). It is i n this i n t e r n a l s p a c e — W i n n i c o t t ' s 'transitional space'—that
the i m a g i n a t i o n c a n w o r k o n the r a w m a t e r i a l of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d
b e g i n the process of t r a n s f o r m i n g it into art.
178 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

E n g a g i n g w i t h this internal space i n v o l v e s the artist i n a ' t e m p o r a r y

g i v i n g u p of the d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ego, w h i c h stands apart a n d tries to see
things objectively a n d rationally a n d w i t h o u t e m o t i o n a l c o l o u r i n g ' ,
a n d m e r g i n g i n a n 'aesthetic m o m e n t ' w i t h the object one is creating
( M i l n e r 1993: 27). In l e a r n i n g h o w to engage i n artistic creation, the
artist has to cultivate the 'internal gesture' ( M i l n e r 1952: 72), as she
describes this inner ' s t a n d i n g apart' or s h e l v i n g of the ego or critical
faculty, w h i c h allows the u n c o n s c i o u s contents to be accessed v i a the
i m a g i n a t i o n . O n l y w h e n this has o c c u r r e d d o e s the critical faculty
c o m e b a c k into p l a y to d e v e l o p the m a t e r i a l into its final artistic f o r m .
T h e F r e n c h feminist, H e l e n e C i x o u s , refers to the process of s h e l v ­
i n g the critical faculty as ' d e - e g o i s a t i o n ' ; it is 'this state of w i t h o u t - m e ,
of d i s p o s s e s s i o n of m e , that w i l l m a k e the possession of the a u t h o r b y
the characters p o s s i b l e ' ( C i x o u s , i n Sellers 1996: xiv). She is r e f e r r i n g
here s p e c i f i c a l l y to the w r i t i n g of stage d r a m a , b u t a s i m i l a r p o i n t
a p p l i e s to the w r i t i n g of fiction a n d c a n also b e a p p l i e d i n a m o r e g e n ­
eral w a y to the process of f i n d i n g m a t e r i a l for one's w r i t i n g , of 'step­
p i n g b a c k ' a n d a l l o w i n g oneself to be p o s s e s s e d b y one's s p o n t a ­
n e o u s l y a r i s i n g ideas. T h i s state of ' w i t h o u t - m e ' is precisely what
M i l n e r calls 'the i m a g i n a t i v e b o d y ' , a n aspect of the m i n d w h i c h feels
like a b o d y , ' i n that its essential q u a l i t y is a sense of extension i n s p a c e '
( M i l n e r 1971: 36). She discusses this i n relation to her attempts to b r i n g
her d r a w i n g s of objects to life, to g i v e t h e m action, to c o n v e y o n the
p a p e r w h a t she calls their ' s p i r i t u a l life'. She d i s c o v e r e d that: 'My
w h o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h other p e o p l e as w e l l as objects, w o r k s of art,
n a t u r e , m u s i c c o u l d d e p e n d u p o n w h a t I d i d w i t h this i m a g i n a t i v e
body rather t h a n w i t h m y concentrated intellectual m i n d ' ( M i l n e r
1971: 36). W h a t M i l n e r is t a l k i n g a b o u t here s o u n d s v e r y s i m i l a r to
w h a t F r e n c h feminists call ' w r i t i n g w i t h the b o d y ' (Jones 1991), w h i c h
they i d e n t i f y as a specifically f e m i n i n e attribute, a l t h o u g h it is a v a i l ­
able to b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n . I a m n o t sure that w e n e e d to i d e n t i f y it
as s p e c i f i c a l l y f e m i n i n e , a l t h o u g h w h e n M i l n e r refers to the t w o differ­
ent m o d e s of attention as the s h a r p - p o i n t e d b e a m - l i k e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
w i t h the m i n d a n d the b r o a d , h o v e r i n g , d o m e - l i k e attention w i t h the
b o d y , o n e c a n see the o r i g i n of the f e m i n i n e / m a s c u l i n e associations. I
w o u l d prefer to say that ' w r i t i n g w i t h the i m a g i n a t i v e b o d y ' is o n e side
of the t w o f o l d process of e n g a g i n g i n creative w r i t i n g : the i n t u i t i v e ,
creative f a c u l t y rather t h a n the critical f a c u l t y g o v e r n e d b y the e g o .
T h e m a i n difficulty w i t h the process of s h e l v i n g the critical f a c u l t y
is that it i n v o l v e s the artist i n a ' t e m p o r a r y loss of the sense of s e l f
 Celia Hunt 179

( M i l n e r 1993: 17) a n d exposes h i m to the chaos of his i n n e r w o r l d . A n

a r t i s t therefore, n e e d s to h a v e a strong e n o u g h sense of self, so that h e
c a n 'accept chaos as a t e m p o r a r y stage' ( M i l n e r 1971: 76). W h a t I a m
c a l l i n g a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' , t h e n , i n the i n t e r n a l sense d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ,
is a s t r o n g e n o u g h sense of self to facilitate 'the i n t e r n a l gesture', the
mechanism of s h e l v i n g the critical faculty, w h i c h a l l o w s 'positive
r e g r e s s i o n ' into the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d the h o l d i n g o p e n of the ' i n t e r n a l
s p a c e ' w h e r e the i m a g i n a t i o n sets to w o r k o n the r a w m a t e r i a l of the
u n c o n s c i o u s a n d transforms it into art.

Psychological blocks to learning to find a writing identity

F o r s o m e p e o p l e , l e a r n i n g to 'shelve the critical f a c u l t y ' i n o r d e r to give

their f i c t i o n a l narrators a n d characters a life of their o w n is relatively
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F o r others there are p r o b l e m s w i t h this process. My
o w n e x p e r i e n c e p r o v i d e s a g o o d e x a m p l e . In the e a r l y 1980s I b e g a n
w r i t i n g a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l called Stages. T h i s w a s a first p e r s o n
a c c o u n t of a p e r i o d i n m y life i n the 1970s w h e n I w a s travelling
a r o u n d A u s t r a l i a a n d the East w i t h a y o u n g A u s t r i a n m a n , ' K l a u s ' ,
w h o s e n o m a d i c w a y of life a n d ' o u t s i d e r ' stance t o w a r d s the o r g a n i s e d
w o r l d I h a d a d o p t e d . I w a s i n m y e a r l y 20s, h a d a b a n d o n e d m y h a p ­
hazard and unhappy attempts at l e a r n i n g , h a v i n g p a s s e d up the
o p p o r t u n i t y to go to u n i v e r s i t y , a n d h a d not f o u n d a n y satisfactions i n
the secretarial w o r k w h i c h I h a d u n d e r t a k e n after l e a v i n g s c h o o l . I
w a n t e d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n to r e m o v e m y s e l f f r o m the w o r l d of w o r k ,
to lose m y s e l f a n d m y i n a b i l i t y to f i n d f u l f i l m e n t i n m y life, i n the vast­
ness of A u s t r a l i a ' s h i n t e r l a n d . T h e story w a s t o l d f r o m the p o i n t of
v i e w of a ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' , representing m y s e l f at the time of w r i t ­
i n g , s o m e t e n years after the events, w h e n I w a s back i n E n g l a n d , m a r ­
r i e d to a m u c h o l d e r m a n , ' H u g o ' , a n d , as I l i k e d to t h i n k then, m u c h
m o r e m a t u r e , self-assured, a n d i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d c e r t a i n l y free of the
p r o b l e m s w h i c h h a d afflicted m e i n m y twenties. I n d e e d , m y c o n s c i o u s
i n t e n t i o n for the n o v e l w a s to s h o w h o w I h a d m a n a g e d to o v e r c o m e
the p r o b l e m s of the earlier p e r i o d of m y life a n d h a d started d o i n g
s o m e t h i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d f u l f i l l i n g ; i n other w o r d s h o w I h a d m a d e
the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one stage of m y life to the next, as the title of the
novel implied.
I took extracts of the d e v e l o p i n g n o v e l to a creative w r i t i n g class
a n d s h o w e d t h e m to the tutor. She w a s quite c o m p l i m e n t a r y , b u t n o t e d
that there w e r e ' t w o voices i n the n a r r a t i v e ' . T h i s w a s greatly p e r t u r b ­
180 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

i n g . W h i l s t I t h o u g h t I h a d o n e n a r r a t o r telling the s t o r y of the past

f r o m the perspective of the present, i n fact I h a d t w o quite different
first p e r s o n narrators representing m y s e l f at different p o i n t s i n m y life,
a n d this m a d e the n a r r a t i v e inconsistent a n d c o n f u s i n g . I w o r k e d h a r d
at t r y i n g to integrate the t w o v o i c e s o n the page, b u t w i t h o u t success.
A f t e r m u c h struggle, I d i v i d e d the n o v e l i n t o t w o separate n a r r a t i v e s ,
so that I h a d a first p e r s o n past tense n a r r a t i v e f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w
of m y 70s narrator, a n d first p e r s o n p r e s e n t tense d i a r y entries f r o m the
p o i n t of v i e w of m y 80s narrator. W h e n , after a l o n g a n d p a i n f u l five
y e a r s , the n o v e l w a s c o m p l e t e d , it w a s o v e r 500 p a g e s i n l e n g t h a n d
rather u n w i e l d y . It w a s , nevertheless, t a k e n o n b y a L o n d o n literary
agent, w h o s u g g e s t e d that I s h o u l d r e m o v e the present tense d i a r y
entries, l e a v i n g the past tense n a r r a t i v e i n the v o i c e of the 70s narrator.
T h i s I d i d , b u t w i t h m i s g i v i n g s , as it left c o m p l e t e l y o u t of a c c o u n t h o w
the n a r r a t o r h a d m a n a g e d to o v e r c o m e h e r earlier p r o b l e m s a n d thus
u n d e r m i n e d w h a t I s a w as the m a i n p o i n t of the n o v e l . N e e d l e s s to say,
the n o v e l d i d not f i n d a publisher, a n d it w a s w i t h relief that I f i n a l l y
p u t it a w a y i n a d r a w e r .

It w a s s o m e time later that I realised that the p r o b l e m w i t h the n o v e l

s t e m m e d f r o m the fact that the 80s narrator, i.e. m y s e l f at the time of
w r i t i n g , h a d clearly not m o v e d o n i n terms of h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e and
a b i l i t y to fulfil herself. She was still as d e p e n d e n t a n d n a i v e as she h a d
b e e n i n the 70s. In the s a m e w a y that she h a d attached herself to K l a u s
a n d t a k e n o n his i d e n t i t y a n d his Tife s o l u t i o n ' , she h a d s i m p l y t a k e n
7

on Hugo's i d e n t i t y a n d was s i m i l a r l y t r y i n g to l i v e t h r o u g h h i m .
C l e a r l y , there were i m p l i c a t i o n s for m y sense of i d e n t i t y at the time of
w r i t i n g w h i c h I d i d not w a n t to see. I h a d h a d to k e e p strict c o n t r o l
o v e r m y ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' i n o r d e r to ensure that she c o r r e s p o n d ­
e d to the w a y I s a w myself. In other w o r d s , I was i m p o s i n g a n i d e n t i ­
ty o n h e r w h i c h w a s at o d d s w i t h the w a y she w o u l d h a v e b e e n if I h a d
b e e n able to 'shelve the critical faculty' a n d g i v e h e r a s p o n t a n e o u s life
of her o w n . T h u s , there was a conflict b e t w e e n the rhetoric of the n o v e l
a n d m y ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' , s u c h that the n o v e l p r o v e d extremely
d i f f i c u l t to write. O n e c o u l d p e r h a p s describe this as t r y i n g to d r i v e a
car w i t h the h a n d - b r a k e o n . 8

S o m e of the students w h o took p a r t i n m y research suffered f r o m

s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s of w r i t i n g identity w h i c h were i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h their
w r i t i n g of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l l y b a s e d fiction. ' S a r a h ' , for e x a m p l e , c a m e
9

to m y creative w r i t i n g course w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g a n o v e l

b a s e d o n a p e r i o d of her past i n G r e e c e i n the 1960s w h i c h w o u l d
 Celia Hunt 181

' s h o w the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings' of that t i m e . 1 0

Early on in
the c o u r s e she g a v e m e a section of the draft to r e a d . T h e piece w a s n a r ­
r a t e d i n the first p e r s o n b y a y o u n g w o m a n o n h o l i d a y i n Greece w h o ,
w h i l s t f e e l i n g a l i e n a t e d f r o m the r e m a i n d e r of her party, meets b y
c h a n c e i n the h o t e l w h e r e they are s t a y i n g a G r e e k m a n , a n d they
b e c o m e l o v e r s . T h e w r i t i n g w a s v i s u a l l y s t r o n g b u t the e x p e r i m e n t a l
a p p r o a c h u s e d , m i n g l i n g past a n d present i n a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y f i l m i c
style, w a s o n l y p a r t l y successful. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r , was
that, w h i l s t the piece w a s w r i t t e n i n the first p e r s o n , it d i d not reveal
v e r y m u c h at all a b o u t the narrator, a n d this m a d e the text v a g u e a n d
c o n f u s i n g . T h i s , it t r a n s p i r e d , w a s not a n e w p r o b l e m for S a r a h ; p e o p l e
w h o h a d r e a d h e r w r i t i n g s h a d often o b s e r v e d that she w a s not present
i n h e r fictions. S h e d e s c r i b e d her m e t h o d of w o r k i n g as follows: 'First
I w r i t e the p i e c e , t h e n I stuff m y s e l f into it'. So a l t h o u g h Sarah's w i s h
w a s to ' s h o w the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings of that p a r t i c u l a r
m o m e n t ' , there w a s clearly a p r o b l e m for her i n e n g a g i n g e m o t i o n a l l y
w i t h h e r n a r r a t o r w h o w a s to serve as a v e h i c l e for her own feelings.
T h e r e s e e m e d to b e a difficulty i n r e v e a l i n g herself o n the p a g e to o t h ­
ers, or p e r h a p s m o r e significantly (in a w a y s i m i l a r to m y o w n e x p e r i ­
ence) of r e v e a l i n g herself to herself.

T h e w r i t i n g S a r a h d i d w h i l s t a t t e n d i n g the creative w r i t i n g c o u r s e
p r o v e d v e r y h e l p f u l for this p r o b l e m , a l t h o u g h it w a s n o t w i t h o u t its
t r a u m a s . She f o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l the exercise I call 'objectifying
the s e l f , w h i c h requires students first to w r i t e about themselves i n the
t h i r d p e r s o n e n g a g i n g i n a n e v e r y d a y p u r s u i t a n d , t h e n , to place the
character they h a v e n o w created out of themselves i n a fictional setting
i n w h i c h t h e y b e c o m e the first p e r s o n n a r r a t o r of s o m e o n e else's story.
T h u s t h e y create a narrator w h o is still themselves b u t at s e v e r a l fic­
tional removes.
O u t of this exercise S a r a h created a fictional n a r r a t o r / c h a r a c t e r w h o
e n c a p s u l a t e d a n aspect of herself w h i c h she h a d c l e a r l y b e e n at p a i n s
to k e e p h i d d e n . S h e d e s c r i b e d it as the 'bossy, d o m i n e e r i n g ' p a r t of h e r ­
self, a n d it w a s n o t altogether to her l i k i n g , a l t h o u g h she also 'felt like
c e l e b r a t i n g it'. T h e clarification of this p a r t of h e r i d e n t i t y e n a b l e d
S a r a h to feel m o r e confident i n b e i n g present o n the p a g e i n her fic­
tions, a n d she w a s t h e n able to g o o n to f i n d a v o i c e for the first p e r s o n
n a r r a t o r of h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l w h i c h c o n v e y e d 'the e m o t i o n s ,
sensations a n d feelings' of her 60s self. L i k e m e , S a r a h h a d b e e n u n a b l e
to s u s p e n d the critical faculty a n d a l l o w a n a r r a t o r / c h a r a c t e r b a s e d o n
herself to d e v e l o p a life of her o w n ; she h a d h a d to control the n a r r a ­
182 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

tive, because she d i d not w a n t aspects o f herself o f w h i c h she d i s a p ­

p r o v e d to e m e r g e o n the p a g e .

The theoretical writings of Karen Homey

K a r e n H o r n e y O s theoretical w r i t i n g s enable us to u n d e r s t a n d these

p r o b l e m s of l e a r n i n g to f i n d a w r i t i n g identity. K a r e n H o r n e y (1885­
1952) w a s a s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n F r e u d i a n w h o left h e r native G e r m a n y
i n the e a r l y 1930s a n d m a d e h e r career i n A m e r i c a , first i n C h i c a g o
under Franz Alexander, then as a member of the N e w York
P s y c h o a n a l y t i c Institute. S h e s u b s e q u e n t l y set u p h e r o w n institute i n
N e w Y o r k , w h i c h continues to operate. S h e is the a u t h o r of five m a j o r
books ( H o r n e y 1937, 1939a, 1942, 1946, 1951) a n d m a n y separately
p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s . H e r v i e w s u n d e r w e n t s e v e r a l significant c h a n g e s
d u r i n g h e r lifetime. She is best k n o w n for h e r e a r l y p a p e r s o n the p s y ­
c h o l o g y of w o m e n ( H o r n e y 1967), w h i c h w e r e the first to take s e r i o u s
issue w i t h F r e u d ' s ideas o n female sexuality ( G a r r i s o n 1981: 673).
H o w e v e r , she q u i c k l y m o v e d a w a y f r o m h e r feminist c o n c e r n s 11
to
focus o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l factors i n the f o r m a t i o n o f personality, a n d i n
p a r t i c u l a r o n the role of social a n d c u l t u r a l factors ( H o r n e y 1937). T h e
late p h a s e of h e r w o r k , w h i c h B e r n a r d Paris calls h e r ' m a t u r e t h e o r y '
(Paris 1994), concentrates o n b o t h i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c fac­
tors i n p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r ( H o r n e y 1951).

F u n d a m e n t a l to H o r n e y ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t
is the n o t i o n that there is a 'real s e l f . She w a s the first p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
t h i n k e r to use this t e r m ( H o r n e y 1939b: 130), a n d it is this m o r e t h a n
a n y other aspect of h e r w o r k w h i c h m a k e s h e r t h e o r y p r o b l e m a t i c a l i n
the p o s t - m o d e r n w o r l d . ' R e a l s e l f is n o w r e g a r d e d as a n o u t m o d e d
essentialist n o t i o n , i m p l y i n g a fixed u n i t a r y substance which will
' u n f o l d i n definite, innate stages t o w a r d s its " n a t u r a l e n d " o r p u r p o s e
(adult m a t u r i t y / h e a l t h ) ' (Flax 1993: 99). T h i s , h o w e v e r , is to m i s u n d e r ­
s t a n d H o r n e y O s i d e a . W h i l s t there are certainly m o m e n t s i n H o r n e y ' s
w r i t i n g s w h e n it does s o u n d l i k e a n essentialist n o t i o n , she stresses
that real self is n o t a fixed entity b u t a set of ' i n t r i n s i c potentialities', the
' " o r i g i n a l " force t o w a r d i n d i v i d u a l g r o w t h a n d f u l f i l m e n t ' , a ' p o s s i b l e
s e l f , felt rather t h a n seen ( H o r n e y 1951: 17, 158). W h i l s t these ' i n t r i n ­
sic potentialities' are the c o n s e q u e n c e of o u r genetic m a k e - u p , they c a n
o n l y b e actualised t h r o u g h i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships i n the o u t s i d e
w o r l d . T h u s , the w a y p e o p l e ' s potentialities d e v e l o p is v e r y much
d e p e n d e n t o n the w a y they interact w i t h the social a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i ­
 Celia Hunt 183

r o n m e n t , a n d the d o m i n a n t narratives therein. ' R e a l s e l f , then, o n

H o r n e y ' s v i e w , is b o t h innate a n d the p r o d u c t of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s expe­
rience w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r social w o r l d .
H o r n e y does n o t discuss the n o t i o n of ' r e a l s e l f i n great detail i n her
w r i t i n g s ; her m a i n focus is o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p s y c h i c processes
1 2

w h i c h ensue w h e n a p e r s o n loses t o u c h w i t h 'real s e l f or b e c o m e s self­

alienated ( H o r n e y 1951: 13). N e u r o s i s , 1 3
for H o r n e y , is the consequence,
i n the first instance, of difficult i n t e r p e r s o n a l relations i n c h i l d h o o d .
L i k e C a r l R o g e r s , she is of the v i e w that h e a l t h y p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l ­
o p m e n t requires a n e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h the c h i l d receives u n c o n d i ­
t i o n a l p o s i t i v e r e g a r d f r o m its parents, a n d thus d e v e l o p s a feeling of
safety a n d b e l o n g i n g . In s u c h c o n d i t i o n s of g o o d object relating, the
c h i l d w i l l be able to d e v e l o p its potentialities, a l t h o u g h , as I h a v e s a i d ,
the e n v i r o n m e n t w i l l p l a y a significant role i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h
potentialities d e v e l o p a n d the f o r m they take. In the absence of s u c h
c o n d i t i o n s , the c h i l d is l i k e l y to b e c o m e a n x i o u s a n d feel 'isolated a n d
helpless i n a p o t e n t i a l l y hostile w o r l d ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 41). T h i s basic
anxiety causes the c h i l d to a b a n d o n its innate d r i v e to d e v e l o p its
p o t e n t i a l a n d i n s t e a d to f i n d ' w a y s to c o p e w i t h this m e n a c i n g w o r l d '
( H o r n e y 1946: 42). E c h o i n g the e m e r g e n c y r e a c t i o n of fight, flight a n d
s t i b m i s s i o n i n a n i m a l b e h a v i o u r , H o r n e y suggests that the c h i l d w i l l
m o v e against people a n d b e c o m e hostile, away from people a n d b e c o m e
d e t a c h e d , or toward people a n d b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t ( H o r n e y 1946: 42).
Social a n d c u l t u r a l factors w i l l p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t role here i n d e t e r m i n ­
i n g the choice of one defence over another, so that girls w i l l t e n d to
m o v e t o w a r d s p e o p l e a n d o v e r v a l u e l o v e , w h i l s t b o y s w i l l t e n d to
m o v e against p e o p l e a n d o v e r v a l u e p o w e r .

U n l e s s f a v o u r a b l e life circumstances i n t e r v e n e , then b y the time the

c h i l d has b e c o m e a n a d u l t these defensive c h i l d h o o d strategies w i l l
h a v e d e v e l o p e d into w h a t H o r n e y calls life solutions. S h e identifies
three m a i n k i n d s , w h i c h she regards as ' d i r e c t i o n s of development'
rather t h a n clear-cut 'types': self-effacing, expansive a n d resigned, with
expansiveness b e i n g d i v i d e d into the narcissistic, perfectionistic and
arrogant-vindictive ( H o r n e y 1946: 187-290, 191). E a c h of these solutions
i n v o l v e s w h a t P a r i s calls a ' b a r g a i n w i t h fate' (1991), a k i n d of d e v i l ' s
pact, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the s o l u t i o n is a d h e r e d to r i g i d l y i n e x c h a n g e
for certain benefits. F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o a d o p t s the self-effac­
i n g s o l u t i o n w i l l try to g a i n safety, l o v e a n d esteem t h r o u g h d e p e n ­
dency, h u m i l i t y a n d self-sacrificing ' g o o d n e s s ' . H e r ' b a r g a i n ' w i l l r u n :
'If I a m h e l p f u l a n d s u b m i s s i v e a n d d o n o t seek m y o w n g a i n or glory,
184 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

I w i l l be treated w e l l b y fate a n d other p e o p l e ' . 1 4

T h e a d o p t i o n of a s i n ­
gle life s o l u t i o n , s u c h as self-effacement, c a n b r i n g a b o u t a certain free­
d o m f r o m the i n n e r conflicts r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m self, a n d
this c a n p r o v i d e a sense of i d e n t i t y a n d a degree of security. H o w e v e r ,
as a l l three life solutions t e n d to be present s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , this a p p a r ­
ent stability is illusory, for the other solutions w h i c h have been
r e p r e s s e d i n t o the u n c o n s c i o u s s i m p l y generate n e w conflicts, w h i c h i n
t u r n r e q u i r e further r e m e d i e s .
T h i s intrapsychic d e v e l o p m e n t , o r i g i n a l l y set i n m o t i o n b y the inter­
personal difficulties i n c h i l d h o o d , H o r n e y regards as c r u c i a l i n c o n s o l i ­
d a t i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g the c h o s e n life s o l u t i o n , a n d this c o n c e p t i o n
f o r m s the core of her later w o r k . She calls it the search for glory (Horney
1946:17-39). Because a p e r s o n has m o v e d a w a y f r o m the centre of h i m ­
self, 15
h a s b e c o m e self-alienated, his ' i n n e r strength a n d coherence' are
severely i m p a i r e d a n d h e cannot d e v e l o p self-confidence (Horney
1946: 20). H e therefore feels inferior to other p e o p l e a n d needs a m e a n s
of l i f t i n g h i m s e l f above t h e m . H e does this t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n , b y
c r e a t i n g w h a t H o r n e y calls a n idealised image of h i m s e l f ( H o r n e y 1946:
22). T h e elements w h i c h go to m a k e u p the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e are n o t
a r b i t r a r y ; t h e y d e r i v e f r o m 'the materials of his o w n s p e c i a l e x p e r i ­
ences, his earlier fantasies, his p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s , a n d also his g i v e n fac­
u l t i e s ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 22), a n d they w i l l b e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y h i s
c h o s e n s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o a d o p t s the self-effacing
s o l u t i o n m a y create a n i d e a l i s e d i m a g e of herself as the perfect w i f e
a n d m o t h e r ; i n her b e h a v i o u r she w i l l t r y to please others a n d to be
e x q u i s i t e l y sensitive to their needs, a n d w i l l a v o i d e x p r e s s i n g direct
hostility. W h e n successful, this w i l l enable her to d e r i v e a substitute
self-esteem.
B e c a u s e the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e is a p o t e n t i a l source of substitute self­
e s t e e m , the d r i v e to realise this i m a g e i n reality, to b e c o m e the idealised
self, is v e r y s t r o n g . T h u s , the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e generates w h a t H o r n e y
calls the pride system ( H o r n e y 1946: 111), a series of m e c h a n i s m s w h o s e
function it is to b l u d g e o n the p e r s o n to achieve the impossible
d e m a n d s of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e . First, it gives rise to intense p r i d e i n
the characteristics of the idealised image, and this neurotic pride
( H o r n e y 1946: 86-109) justifies the n e e d to m a k e neurotic claims o n o t h ­
ers. Neurotic claims ( H o r n e y 1946: 40-63) are w i s h e s or needs t u r n e d
o u t w a r d s . T h e y ' a s s u m e a right, a title' to special treatment b y other
p e o p l e , b y institutions a n d b y life i n g e n e r a l , a title ' w h i c h i n reality
d o e s n o t exist' ( H o r n e y 1946: 42), b u t w h i c h a p e r s o n feels is d u e to
 Celia Hunt 185

h i m b y v i r t u e of h i s s u p e r i o r status. Internally, there is a s i m i l a r l y coer­

cive r e g i m e : w h a t H o r n e y calls shoulds ( H o r n e y 1946: 64-85) are a c o n ­
stant battery of i n n e r dictates w h i c h d e m a n d that a p e r s o n should
b e c o m e the s u p r e m e b e i n g of his i m a g i n a t i o n , w i t h utter d i s r e g a r d for
' w h a t he c a n feel or d o as he is at p r e s e n t ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 67).
F a i l u r e to l i v e u p to the i n n e r dictates leads to a n i n n e r t u r n i n g
against oneself or, as H o r n e y calls it, the f o r m i n g of the i d e a l i s e d
i m a g e ' s c o u n t e r p a r t , the despised image. T h e r e s u l t i n g self-hate a n d self­
c o n t e m p t l e a d to self-belittling a n d self-frustrating m e c h a n i s m s , a n d —
i n extreme c a s e s — t o self-destructiveness, of b o t h gross or subtle k i n d s
( H o r n e y 1946: 110-154).
T h e w h o l e p i c t u r e is m a d e e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s
existence of different life s o l u t i o n s , so that not o n l y are there conflicts
w i t h i n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l life s o l u t i o n b e t w e e n i d e a l i s e d a n d d e s p i s e d
i m a g e s , b u t conflicts b e t w e e n s o l u t i o n s themselves. F o r e x a m p l e , a
w o m a n w h o is p r e d o m i n a n t l y self-effacing w i l l be d r i v e n to be s u b ­
s e r v i e n t to others a n d w i l l f i n d it a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to be e x p a n s i v e .
S h e w i l l thus t e n d to a v o i d a n y situations w h i c h i n v o l v e assertiveness
or c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s . H o w e v e r , if she has repressed the e x p a n s i v e s o l u ­
t i o n , then she w i l l b e d r i v e n i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , to exercise
p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l o v e r others, a n d to excel i n e v e r y t h i n g she does.
This internal tug-of-war between o p p o s i n g aspects of herself will
r e s u l t i n a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e w h a t e v e r she does is w r o n g , a n d thus she
w i l l feel e n d l e s s l y t o r m e n t e d . A p e r s o n c a u g h t u p i n s u c h a conflict
m a y w e l l m o v e i n s t i n c t i v e l y t o w a r d s the d e t a c h e d s o l u t i o n w h i c h ,
H o r n e y says, often serves to k e e p the conflict b e t w e e n self-effacement
a n d e x p a n s i v e n e s s o u t of awareness. T h e task of therapy, for H o r n e y ,
is to d i s m a n t l e this c o m p l e x i n t r a p s y c h i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d to re-estab­
l i s h contact w i t h the real self, thus setting h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t i n
motion again. 1 6

Towards a Horneyan understanding of problems of writer identity

T h e r e are three m a i n , interrelated factors w h i c h are central to u n d e r ­

standing problems of w r i t e r i d e n t i t y f r o m the H o r n e y a n p o i n t of
v i e w : the i n h e r e n t r i g i d i t y of the defensive character s t r u c t u r e —
1 7

because of the conflicts b e t w e e n the different life solutions a n d the ten­

d e n c y to b e c o m e e n t r a p p e d i n o n e d o m i n a n t s o l u t i o n ( H o r n e y 1951:
310-311); the lack of self-confidence r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m real
self ( H o r n e y 1951: 310); a n d the threat f r o m the ' i n n e r t y r a n n y ' r e p r e ­
186 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

s e n t e d b y the p r i d e s y s t e m ( H o r n e y 1951:118). I shall take e a c h of these

in turn.
A s I h a v e s a i d a b o v e , the defensive character structure c o m e s into
b e i n g i n the first instance to d e f e n d the c h i l d against basic a n x i e t y
w h i c h has b e e n a r o u s e d b y a n e n v i r o n m e n t that threatens the e m e r ­
g e n c e of its i n d i v i d u a l i t y A s the defensive character structure d e v e l ­
o p s a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c factors c o m e into p l a y , its f u n c t i o n b r o a d e n s , to
provide also the defences n e e d e d to protect the adult from the
i n c r e a s e d a n x i e t y a n d p a i n of i n n e r conflicts, a n d the destructive
effects of the p r i d e s y s t e m ( H o r n e y 1951: 297). T h e r e c a n be little flexi­
b i l i t y w i t h i n s u c h a defensive structure: ' R i g i d c o n t r o l t h r o u g h w i l l
p o w e r a n d r e a s o n i n g is... [a] ... s t r e n u o u s m e a n s of a t t e m p t i n g to b i n d
together all the d i s c o n n e c t e d parts of the p e r s o n a l i t y ' ( H o r n e y 1951:
172). W h e r e a p a r t i c u l a r life s o l u t i o n has b e c o m e d o m i n a n t , it w i l l be
r i g i d l y a d h e r e d to. L o o s e n i n g c o n t r o l m e a n s r u n n i n g the risk of b e i n g
p l u n g e d into self-torment, or of s w i t c h i n g i n t o one of the other life
solutions.
Instead of the central o r g a n i s i n g a g e n c y of the p s y c h e b e i n g d e r i v e d
f r o m r e a l self, it w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d b y the defensive character struc­
ture a n d the c o m p u l s o r y narrative of s h o u l d s a p p r o p r i a t e to the d o m ­
i n a n t life s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , if a m a n ' s e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n d e m a n d s
of h i m that he s h o u l d be p o w e r f u l a n d c o n t r o l l i n g i n a l l situations,
t h e n h e w i l l h a v e difficulty b r i n g i n g to life o n the p a g e a character
b a s e d o n h i m s e l f w h o is w e a k a n d v u l n e r a b l e a n d a l l o w s h i m s e l f to be
o p p r e s s e d b y others. H e cannot a l l o w his d o m i n a n t i m a g e of h i m s e l f
to be s u s p e n d e d or s h e l v e d . S i m i l a r l y if a w o m a n ' s d o m i n a n t n a r r a t i v e
of s h o u l d s tells h e r that she m u s t be g o o d , t h e n r e p r e s e n t i n g herself o n
the p a g e as less t h a n g o o d contravenes the rules of her s o l u t i o n a n d
w i l l arouse anxiety. O r a character r e p r e s e n t i n g repressed tendencies
c a n be p o r t r a y e d accurately b u t c o n d e m n e d b y the rhetoric. A d o m i ­
n a n t s o l u t i o n h a s to be a d h e r e d to r i g i d l y , because it p r o v i d e s a m u c h
n e e d e d sense of i d e n t i t y a n d a p s e u d o - s e l f - e s t e e m w h i c h c a n , to a n
extent, s u s t a i n a p e r s o n , i n the absence of g e n u i n e self-esteem ( H o r n e y
1951: 23).
In m y o w n case, the d o m i n a n c e of a self-effacing s o l u t i o n m a d e it
i m p o s s i b l e , w i t h o u t great struggle, to represent m y s e l f o n the p a g e i n
a n y other w a y . W h i l s t i n the rhetoric of the n o v e l I w a n t e d to s h o w that
m y 70s self h a d m o v e d o n a n d b e c o m e m o r e e x p a n s i v e , the 80s n a r r a ­
tor c o u l d not c o u n t e n a n c e this, as it c o n t r a v e n e d the i n t e g r i t y of m y
d o m i n a n t self-effacing s o l u t i o n . In spite of this, today, w h e n I r e a d the
 Celia Hunt 187

n o v e l , I c a n see, w i t h the benefit of h i n d s i g h t , that there is a subtle

e x p a n s i v e n e s s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the v o i c e a n d actions of the 70s n a r r a ­
tor w h i c h has e s c a p e d the c e n s o r s h i p of the 80s narrator. T h e n o v e l
s e e m s to represent the struggle b e t w e e n the self-effacing a n d e x p a n ­
sive s o l u t i o n s , a struggle w h i c h b o t h narrators h a v e tried to r e s o l v e
t h r o u g h different f o r m s of d e p e n d e n t d e t a c h m e n t .
F o r S a r a h , o n the other h a n d , her d o m i n a n t e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n ,
w h i c h itself w a s l a r g e l y k e p t out of awareness, p r e v e n t e d her f r o m r e p ­
r e s e n t i n g herself i n h e r n o v e l i n the guise of a v u l n e r a b l e young
w o m a n w h o fell v i c t i m to a rather u n s c r u p u l o u s o l d e r m a n . T h i s is
b e c a u s e , i n the e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n , w e a k n e s s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y are not
allowed.
T h e l a c k of self-confidence r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m real self is
a serious problem i n a person's a b i l i t y to engage in learning.
T h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e of h e r theory, H o r n e y differentiates b e t w e e n a
h e a l t h y a n d a n u n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t of self. In a h e a l t h y d e v e l o p ­
m e n t , r e a l s e l f — w h i c h at the outset is u n k n o w n , p o t e n t i a l — g r o w s a n d
d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h g o o d object-relating. T h e c h i l d f i n d s p e o p l e , s i t u a ­
tions a n d experiences w h i c h h e l p it to d e v e l o p its potential. T h i s p r o ­
v i d e s the c h i l d w i t h a sense of its o w n w o r t h , w i t h a feeling of s e l f - c o n ­
f i d e n c e , a n d a n i n c r e a s e d a b i l i t y to m a k e choices.
In a n u n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t the s i t u a t i o n is m u c h m o r e c o m p l i ­
cated. R e a l self d i s a p p e a r s f r o m v i e w , so that self-esteem d o e s not
develop naturally. In its absence, emergency measures h a v e to be
taken. S e l f - i d e a l i s a t i o n o c c u r s , a n d this has to be protected b e c a u s e , if
it is u n d e r m i n e d , its o p p o s i t e p o l e — s e l f - h a t e — w i l l be e v o k e d ( H o r n e y
1951: 112). T h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , w h e r e real s e l f - w o r t h a n d self-esteem
w o u l d n o r m a l l y reside, is m i s s i n g , thus a l l o w i n g this see-saw to o p e r ­
ate. O n e c o u l d say that a l i e n a t i o n f r o m self leaves a h o l e i n the m i d d l e
of the p s y c h e . It is '...the subjective feeling of...being r e m o v e d from
[oneself]' ( H o r n e y 1951: 160). T h e self is d e - c e n t r e d , m o v e s a w a y f r o m
its heart. R a t h e r t h a n a 'space for the i m a g i n a t i o n ' , a safe h o l d i n g e n v i ­
r o n m e n t i n h a b i t e d b y b e n i g n presence, there is absence, or it m a y be
f i l l e d w i t h anxiety or be e x p e r i e n c e d as t h r e a t e n i n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y
dangerous. 1 8
A s T r e v o r P a t e m a n says,

I m a g i n a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y fails us w h e n the space w h i c h w e are

g i v e n i n w h i c h to exercise it... creates a sense of anxiety rather
t h a n a sense of o p p o r t u n i t y . ( P a t e m a n 1997: 4)
188 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

S t u d e n t s often refer to a sense of d a n g e r or d i s c o m f o r t w h e n t r y i n g

to w r i t e . A p o w e r f u l critic i n the h e a d is constantly l o o k i n g o v e r their
s h o u l d e r a n d f i n d i n g fault w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h e y w r i t e ; ' T h e critical eye
b r e a t h i n g d o w n the creative n e c k ' , as one s t u d e n t p u t it. T h i s w a s cer­
t a i n l y m y o w n p r o b l e m w h e n I started to w r i t e f i c t i o n . W h e n I tried to
get i n t o u c h w i t h m y ' i n n e r v i s i o n ' , I felt that i n o r d e r to k e e p the i n n e r
space o p e n I h a d to p r i s e it apart b y sheer effort of w i l l , as if I w e r e h a v ­
i n g c o n s t a n t l y to l e a n against a h e a v y s w i n g d o o r w h i c h , i f I l o o s e n e d
m y g r i p , w o u l d s w i n g b a c k a n d s l a m shut. N e e d l e s s to say, this w a s a n
e x h a u s t i n g process w h i c h m a d e w r i t i n g a t i r i n g a n d d i s p i r i t i n g u n d e r ­
t a k i n g . T h e space w i t h i n w h i c h m y i n n e r v i s i o n l i v e d w a s t h r e a t e n i n g ,
f i l l e d w i t h anxiety, a n d often I p r e f e r r e d n o t to g o there, e v e n t h o u g h I
h a d a s t r o n g desire to w r i t e .
T h i s sense of i n n e r d a n g e r is a direct c o n s e q u e n c e of the p r i d e sys­
t e m ' s c a p a c i t y to inflict p u n i s h m e n t for c o n t r a v e n t i o n of its rules, the
f a i l u r e to l i v e u p to the unrealistic expectations of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e
( H o r n e y 1951:118). T h u s , the space w h e r e creativity o c c u r s a n d w h e r e
contact is m a d e w i t h the d e v e l o p i n g self ( M i l n e r 1989: 37) b e c o m e s dif­
ficult to enter, or m a y be c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k e d off. T h e d e s i r e to create
has to b e r e p r e s s e d : ' H e does n o t e m b a r k o n a n y serious p u r s u i t s c o m ­
m e n s u r a t e w i t h his gifts lest he fail to be a b r i l l i a n t success. H e w o u l d
like to w r i t e or to p a i n t a n d does not d a r e to start' ( H o r n e y 1951: 107).
O r if it is n o t r e p r e s s e d , attempts to create w i l l b e w r a c k e d w i t h a n x i ­
ety or h a m p e r e d b y self-torment:

...a w r i t e r is i n h i b i t e d i n d o i n g creative w o r k because of s e v e r a l

factors w i t h i n h i m s e l f w h i c h m a k e w r i t i n g a n o r d e a l . H i s w o r k
therefore p r o c e e d s s l o w l y ; h e f i d d l e s a r o u n d or d o e s i r r e l e v a n t
t h i n g s . Instead of b e i n g s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h h i m s e l f for this afflic­
t i o n , a n d e x a m i n i n g it, h e calls h i m s e l f a l a z y g o o d - f o r - n o t h i n g
o r a f r a u d w h o is n o t really interested i n his w o r k . ( H o r n e y 1951:
124-5)

F o r c r e a t i v i t y to occur, there n e e d s to be a c a p a c i t y to be a l o n e w i t h
the s p a c e w i t h i n oneself (Winnicott 1965), a n d this c a n be d o n e m u c h
m o r e e a s i l y if that space is b e n i g n , if there is a sense that o n e is present
to o n e s e l f i n that space. S h e l v i n g the critical f a c u l t y c a n n o t e a s i l y o c c u r
if the s p a c e for the i m a g i n a t i o n is threatening.
 Celia Hunt 189

The role offictionalautobiography in learning to find a writing identity

In m y w o r k w i t h students of creative w r i t i n g I h a v e f o u n d that e n c o u r ­

a g i n g t h e m to fictionalise themselves a n d their experience can h e l p
those w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l blocks to l e a r n i n g to o v e r c o m e s o m e of their
w r i t i n g difficulties. T h i s k i n d of w r i t i n g seems to p r o v o k e a confronta­
t i o n w i t h self w h i c h c a n h e l p t h e m to i d e n t i f y the p r o b l e m s a n d s o m e ­
times to w o r k t h e m t h r o u g h . In m y o w n case it forced m e to see that
w h i l s t I t h o u g h t I h a d m o v e d b e y o n d m y d o m i n a n t self-effacing s o l u ­
t i o n — a s represented b y m y 70s n a r r a t o r — I w a s still l o c k e d into it.
W h i l s t I n o w felt m u c h m o r e c o n f i d e n t a n d e x p a n s i v e , I c o u l d o n l y be
so because I h a d attached m y s e l f to a n e x p a n s i v e p a r t n e r a n d w a s able
to c h a n n e l m y o w n expansiveness t h r o u g h h i m . T h i s clarification of
m y s e l f h e l p e d m e , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y , to f i n d a m o r e
s o l i d sense of m y o w n identity, a n d this i n t u r n e n a b l e d m e to o v e r ­
c o m e m y p r o b l e m s w i t h l e a r n i n g a n d to e m b a r k o n u n i v e r s i t y studies.
In S a r a h ' s case, w r i t i n g fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y h e l p e d her to clarify
her d o m i n a n t expansiveness a n d to see its negative as w e l l as its p o s i ­
tive effects. T h i s e n a b l e d her not o n l y to f i n d the v o i c e for her a u t o b i o ­
g r a p h i c a l n o v e l , b u t to m a k e p o s i t i v e major changes at w o r k , w h e r e
her e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n a n d the c o n t r o l she t e n d e d to exercise over o t h ­
ers h a d b e e n a s o m e t i m e s d a m a g i n g feature of her relationships.

It is the m e t a p h o r i c a l nature of f i c t i o n w h i c h facilitates these

insights a n d subsequent changes. A s I h a v e s a i d elsewhere (Hunt
1998a, 1998c), fiction d e m a n d s the skills of ' s h o w i n g ' as w e l l as
' t e l l i n g ' . In order to animate the w r i t i n g , the writer has to efface herself
a n d to a l l o w h e r characters a n d narrators to c o n v e y their o w n feelings
a n d e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e a n d action (Booth 1991). W h e n we
w r i t e fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y , w e are forced to engage w i t h our own
feelings a n d e m o t i o n s i n a w a y w h i c h w e m a y not be able to d o so eas­
i l y i n the n o r m a l course of o u r lives. F i c t i o n also allows the writer,
rather t h a n h a v i n g to confront herself h e a d - o n , to create instead p l a y ­
f u l m e t a p h o r s for self, as S a r a h d i d , w h i c h c a n be d e e p l y r e v e a l i n g a n d
s u b v e r t internal defences, thus l o o s e n i n g the h o l d of r i g i d i n t e r n a l
structures. N o t only, t h e n , d o e s this enable writers to l e a r n h o w to
d e v e l o p a stronger w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y — w h i c h m a y h e l p t h e m engage
m o r e freely i n the i n n e r dialectic b e t w e e n the critical faculty a n d the
u n c o n s c i o u s contents, a n d thus increase the p o s s i b i l i t y of their creating
m o r e effective f i c t i o n — t h e y are also b e i n g e n a b l e d to d e v e l o p as p e o ­
ple.
190 Psychological Problems of Writer Identity

T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , risks i n v o l v e d i n u n d e r t a k i n g this k i n d of w o r k

i n the c l a s s r o o m . E n c o u r a g i n g p e o p l e to e n g a g e m o r e closely w i t h
their i n n e r lives s o m e t i m e s m e a n s that they w i l l h a v e to confront diffi­
cult o r p a i n f u l p e r s o n a l issues i n the course of their w r i t i n g . S u r e l y , one
m i g h t say, this is the d o m a i n of t h e r a p y rather t h a n e d u c a t i o n . M y
e x p e r i e n c e leads m e to believe that a lot of g o o d ' t h e r a p e u t i c ' w o r k can
be d o n e i n the c l a s s r o o m , as l o n g as one creates a ' h o l d i n g e n v i r o n ­
m e n t ' w i t h i n w h i c h students c a n feel sufficiently safe to a l l o w their
s o m e t i m e s difficult material to e m e r g e . 19

Notes

1
To be published as Therapeutic Dimensions of Autobiography in Creative Writing (Hunt 2000).
2 I am using the term 'voice here in a similar way to Foucault's notion of 'author-function'

(cf. Foucault 1977).

3 For a more detailed outline of my course see Hunt 1995,

4 90% of the students (a sample of 50) who completed questionnaires for my research report­

ed that the course had helped them to develop as writers. 74% reported that writing fiction­
al autobiography had helped them to overcome problems with their writing.
51 am grateful to the students mentioned for allowing me to quote from questionnaires com­
pleted as part of my research.
6 Leader 1991 contains a very useful summary.
7 This is a term used by Karen Horney, which I discuss below.
8 On the conflict between rhetoric and character in fiction, see Paris 1997 and Hunt 1998b.
9 I have discussed the case of 'Sarah' in more detail in Hunt 1998a.
10 The quotations are from Sarah's essay written at the end of the course and from the inter­
views undertaken as part of my research. I am very grateful to Sarah for allowing me to quote
from these documents.
1 1
Paris (1994: 92-96, 232-238) discusses possible reasons for this.
1 2
Christopher BollasO elaboration of Winnicott's notion of 'true self6 (Bollas 1987, 1989)
provides a useful extension of Horney's notion of 'real self.
13 Horney's definition of neurosis changed and developed over time, along with her views
as a whole. The major features of neurosis which she identifies are basic anxiety and alien­
ation from self, leading to disturbances in relations with self and others, in particular 'a cer­
tain rigidity in reaction and a discrepancy between potentialities and accomplishments'
(Horney 1937: 22).
14 Horney's 'life solutionsO can usefully be thought of as 'self-conceptsd, which contain a
narrative, including a powerful narrative of 'shoulds' which determines how a person should
behave, what she should be doing with her life, what sort of relationships she should be
engaging in, etc. This is discussed below.
15 Horney uses the male pronoun throughout her books, except when discussing specific
case studies.
16 See Paris 1994, Part V, for a full account of Horney's mature theory.
l ^ Whilst Horney does not discuss problems of creative writing or writer's block as such, her
chapter 'Neurotic Disturbances in Work', in Neurosis and Human Growth, focuses specifically
 Celia Hunt 191

on 'creative work in the broadest sense of the word' (Horney 1951; 310), and some of the
examples she uses are of creative writers.
18 Milner's discussion of the space for the imagination as inhabited by monsters is relevant
here (Milner 1971: 35-44).
19 These topics are discussed in greater detail in Hunt 2000.
 WINNICOTT A N D EDUCATION

Val Richards

Introduction

W i n n i c o t t ' s w r i t i n g s b r i n g together a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
the m i n d a n d a n existential v i s i o n of h u m a n life. H e offers a s t r i k i n g l y
i n t e r p e r s o n a l , a n d social p e r s p e c t i v e o n h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s .
T h e ideas w h i c h s h a p e d W i n n i c o t t ' s v i s i o n i n c l u d e a s t r o n g i n f u ­
s i o n of N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y R o m a n t i c i s m . T h i s is a n essentialist stance,
w h i c h bears little r e l a t i o n to the m o d e r n i s t n o t i o n of the self as a n
'absent centre'. H o w e v e r , t h r o u g h his i m m e n s e clinical experience,
W i n n i c o t t a r r i v e d at a v i e w of the self w h i c h — e v e n t h o u g h t it is
r e g a r d e d as ' a n e n t i t y ' — i s nevertheless p r o b l e m a t i c a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y
unresolved:

T h e r e is m u c h u n c e r t a i n t y i n m y o w n m i n d about the m e a n i n g
of ' S e l f . . . F o r m e the self, w h i c h is not the ego, is the p e r s o n w h o
is m e , w h o is o n l y m e , w h o has a totality b a s e d o n the o p e r a t i o n
of the m a t u r a t i o n a l process. A t the s a m e time the self has p a r t s ,
a n d i n fact is constituted of these parts. (Winnicott 1989: 271)

In the first part of this chapter, I w i l l focus o n W i n n i c o t t ' s ideas o n

e a r l y i n f a n t n e e d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . In the s e c o n d , I g o o n to e x p l o r e
h o w these concepts m i g h t be a p p l i e d — b o t h to the fostering of creative
a n d effective l e a r n i n g , a n d to the d i s c o v e r y a n d r e c o v e r y of d i s t u r b e d
creativity.

A t the heart of W i n n i c o t t ' s t h o u g h t is his insistence that the infant's

self—its c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g i n time a n d s p a c e — i s at first held b y the
mother, 1
b o t h literally a n d f i g u r a t i v e l y T h e s u p r e m e i m p o r t a n c e of
this 'facilitating e n v i r o n m e n t ' i n W i n n i c o t t ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a l m o d e l is
e p i t o m i s e d b y his o b s e r v a t i o n that: ' T h e r e ' s n o s u c h t h i n g as a b a b y '
(Winnicott 1960a: 39). T h i s w a s uttered as a c h a l l e n g i n g corrective to
w h a t h e s a w (perhaps a little unfairly) as the near a u t o n o m y of the
infant i n M e l a n i e K l e i n ' s v i e w s o n the c h i l d ' s internal w o r l d . W h a t is
 Vol Richards 193

c r u c i a l i n W i n n i c o t t ' s a p h o r i s m , h o w e v e r , is the w a y it refers not o n l y

to the o b v i o u s p h y s i c a l care of the b a b y — o n w h i c h it is, of course,
a b s o l u t e l y d e p e n d e n t — b u t also to the p e r h a p s less o b v i o u s belief that
at first the b a b y cannot thrive w i t h o u t e m o t i o n a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l
holding.
A central feature of parental h o l d i n g is the p a r t p l a y e d b y m a t e r n a l
' m i r r o r i n g ' . F o r W i n n i c o t t ' s infant, the reflection it perceives of itself is
t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n the i m a g e of another p e r s o n , u p o n the expres­
sion on its mother's face. W i n n i c o t t writes:

W h a t does the b a b y see w h e n he or she l o o k s at the m o t h e r ' s

face? I a m s u g g e s t i n g that, o r d i n a r i l y , w h a t the b a b y sees is h i m ­
self or herself. In other w o r d s the m o t h e r is l o o k i n g at the b a b y
and what she looks like is related to what she sees there. (Winnicott
1990: 112)

W i n n i c o t t suggests, then, that for the b a b y to experience full narcis­

sistic c o n f i r m a t i o n of itself, its o w n self-image has to be m e d i a t e d b y
another. T h e infant's i m a g e of itself is contingent u p o n the m o t h e r ' s
g i v i n g b a c k the infant's i m a g e to her c h i l d . T h i s suggests, then, not
o n l y the f u n d a m e n t a l l y interactional nature of f a v o u r a b l e l e a r n i n g
e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t also the d e p e n d e n c e of the learner o n the other for the
i n i t i a t i o n of e d u c a t i v e processes.
M i r r o r i n g is a v e r y c o m p l e x process w h i c h is s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y
the factor of time. A l t h o u g h the process occurs m o r e or less s i m u l t a n e ­
o u s l y , there is nevertheless a sequence i n v o l v e d : firstly, the mother must
see the c h i l d , a n d t h e n r e s p o n d to w h a t she sees, so that the c h i l d m i g h t
t h e n l o o k at the mother, a n d f i n a l l y see (or apperceive) himself. It is a
k i n d of b e n i g n cycle i n w h i c h the m o t h e r is r e p e a t e d l y g i v i n g the
i n f a n t b a c k to h i m s e l f . T h r o u g h s u c h affirmation a n d c o n f i r m a t i o n the
c h i l d ' s i n n e r self, his integration, is g r a d u a l l y b u i l t u p . T h e c h i l d ' s
e a r l y l e a r n i n g is t h u s situated s q u a r e l y i n a n i n t e r p e r s o n a l process, a n d
is totally d e p e n d e n t o n the reflection of the o t h e r . 2

W i n n i c o t t p a r a p h r a s e s the s i t u a t i o n of the infant as f o l l o w s :

W h e n I l o o k I a m seen, so I exist.
I c a n n o w afford to l o o k a n d see.
I n o w l o o k creatively a n d w h a t I a p p e r c e i v e I also perceive.
In fact I take care not to see w h a t is n o t there to be seen (unless I
a m tired). (Winnicott 1990: 114)
194 Winnicott and Education

H o w e v e r , this early, absolute d e p e n d e n c e o n the m o t h e r for its

' g o i n g - o n - b e i n g ' is b a l a n c e d b y W i n n i c o t t ' s n o t i o n of the infant's o w n
self. T h i s self d e r i v e s u l t i m a t e l y f r o m the infant's o w n earliest ' s p o n t a ­
n e o u s g e s t u r e ' — t h a t is, its own instinctual expression within the security
of being held. A l l later creativity a n d l e a r n i n g is v i e w e d b y W i n n i c o t t as
i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m this p r i m a r y root. C r e a t i v i t y is thus p o s i t e d as a
' p r i m i t i v e a l i v e n e s s ' rather t h a n — a s i n the classical t h e o r i e s — a s a sec­
o n d a r y process or c o m p e n s a t o r y d i s p l a c e m e n t .
In a d d i t i o n , f o r m i n g a v i t a l b o o s t to this process of i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l ­
o p m e n t , W i n n i c o t t places a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s o n the part p l a y e d b y hate.
In the n u r s e r y , the hate a n d a m b i v a l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d b y a m o t h e r
t o w a r d s her infant serves as a n i n v o l u n t a r y b u t c r u c i a l element i n the
process of differentiation b e t w e e n t h e m , facilitating the b a b y ' s own
c a p a c i t y for l o v e a n d hate. T h i s d y n a m i c also a p p l i e s to w h a t h a p p e n s
i n the c l a s s r o o m a n d i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . W i n n i c o t t ' s
assertion that ' T h e m o t h e r hates her b a b y f r o m the w o r d g o ' (Winnicott
1949: 201) is a robust corrective to the s e e m i n g d e l i c a c y of m a t e r n a l
m i r r o r i n g . T h e c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g of hate a n d aggression w i t h the motifs
of h o l d i n g a n d m i r r o r i n g h i g h l i g h t s h o w W i n n i c o t t ' s ideas are d e c i ­
s i v e l y r o o t e d i n the real w o r l d of the i n t e r p e r s o n a l , as w e l l as i n the
intrapsychic w o r l d .

***

F r o m h o l d i n g a n d m i r r o r i n g — w h i c h are t i n g e d w i t h a h e a l t h y a n d
necessary degree of h a t e — d e v e l o p s the ability to p l a y , a n d what
W i n n i c o t t f a m o u s l y d e s c r i b e d as 'transitional p h e n o m e n a ' .
T h e latter, a c c o r d i n g to W i n n i c o t t , arise f r o m that p o i n t of d e v e l o p ­
m e n t at w h i c h the baby, a l t h o u g h still essentially a part of its m o t h e r ,
is also b e g i n n i n g to r e g a r d her as a separate p e r s o n . W i n n i c o t t there­
fore pictures a n intermediate state, b e t w e e n a b a b y ' s i n a b i l i t y and his
g r o w i n g a b i l i t y to recognise a n d accept reality. U l t i m a t e l y the c h i l d
w i l l b e c o m e able to enjoy the o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the two areas of d e p e n ­
d e n c e a n d s e p a r a t i o n , able to initiate p l a y and to r e s p o n d to his m o t h ­
e r ' s s t i m u l u s . T h i s transition f r o m d e p e n d e n c e to s e p a r a t i o n enables
the c o n c e p t i o n of a series of tensions, e a c h h e l d i n a dialectic r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p . A r o u n d the p r i m a r y t e n s i o n b e t w e e n ' i n n e r a n d o u t e r ' r e v o l v e
other o p p o s i t i o n s s u c h as ' m e a n d not m e ' , ' l o v e a n d hate', ' i l l u s i o n
 Val Richards 195

a n d r e a l i t y ' , 'concrete a n d s y m b o l i c ' , a n d — a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of the lat­

ter—'meaning and non-meaning'.
T h e o v e r r i d i n g q u e s t i o n w h i c h W i n n i c o t t addresses here is: h o w is
m e a n i n g m a d e a n d u n - m a d e b y each i n d i v i d u a l ? F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e
of l e a r n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n , W i n n i c o t t ' s e m p h a s i s o n the i m p o r t a n c e of
transitional p h e n o m e n a indicates h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s n o t p r i m a r i l y
f r o m a ' t a k i n g i n ' of the outside, n o r p r i m a r i l y f r o m a ' p u t t i n g i n ' b y
s o m e o n e o n the o u t s i d e . Rather it occurs p r e c i s e l y t h r o u g h a n inter­
m i n g l i n g i n the space between i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e .
T h e c h i l d ' s first use of s y m b o l s d e p e n d s o n his or her p e r c e p t i o n
that o n e t h i n g c a n stand for another, as if it w e r e that other. T h i s c u l m i ­
nates i n the s u p r e m e a c h i e v e m e n t of v e r b a l representation. T h e s h a k y
'as if factor i n this process is the h a l l m a r k of the transitional.
T h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s o n the crucial t r a n s i t i o n f r o m ' m e ' to 'not m e ' ,
f r o m the concrete to the s y m b o l i c , W i n n i c o t t r e p e a t e d l y e v o k e s the p r e ­
cariousness a n d f l u i d i t y of the relationship b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d outer,
i l l u s i o n a n d reality, a n d — s u p r e m e l y — b e t w e e n me a n d not me. In these
o p p o s i t i o n s , 'as i f is a l w a y s i n d a n g e r of s l i p p i n g into 'is the s a m e
a s ' — t h a t is, the s y m b o l , s i g n , or w o r d , is a l w a y s i n d a n g e r of b e c o m ­
i n g m o r e real t h a n its referent. T h e space i n w h i c h i l l u s i o n m i g h t
b e c o m e e q u a t e d w i t h reality is the p a r t i c u l a r source a n d p r o v i n c e of all
f o r m s of p l a y i n g a n d c r e a t i v i t y — b u t also of m a d n e s s :

I a m s t a k i n g here a c l a i m for a n i n t e r m e d i a t e state b e t w e e n a

b a b y ' s i n a b i l i t y a n d his g r o w i n g ability to recognise a n d accept
reality. I a m therefore s t u d y i n g the substance of illusion, that
w h i c h is a l l o w e d to the infant, a n d w h i c h i n a d u l t life is inherent
i n art a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d yet b e c o m e s the h a l l m a r k of madness
w h e n a n a d u l t p u t s too p o w e r f u l a c l a i m o n the c r e d u l i t y of o t h ­
ers, f o r c i n g t h e m to a c k n o w l e d g e a s h a r i n g of i l l u s i o n that is not
their o w n . (Winnicott 1990: 3)

W h a t characterises the transitional stage or state is, t h e n — p r i m a r i ­

l y — t h e f r a g i l i t y of the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. If the ten­
s i o n b e t w e e n the t w o b e c o m e s too great or the l i n k s n a p s , then w h a t
was transitional becomes instead 'the hallmark of madness'.
W i n n i c o t t ' s a l m o s t c a s u a l w a r n i n g that this w i l l o c c u r ' w h e r e a n a d u l t
puts too great a c l a i m o n the c r e d u l i t y of others' a l l u d e s to the t y r a n ­
n i c a l effects of a p e r s o n ' s p a r a n o i d o r p s y c h o t i c o m n i p o t e n t fantasies.
P e r h a p s w e m i g h t extend this w a r n i n g to the c l a s s r o o m , a n d take it as
196 Winnicott and Education

a reference to the effects o n c h i l d r e n a n d students of a n y p o w e r f u l f i g ­

ure w h o seeks to i n d o c t r i n a t e or b r a i n w a s h , b y d e s t r o y i n g t r a n s i t i o n a l
phenomena.
N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the precariousness of the transitional, h o w e v e r ,
a n d 'the necessity of i l l u s i o n ' , W i n n i c o t t further asserts that:

n o h u m a n b e i n g is free f r o m the s t r a i n of relating i n n e r a n d outer

reality, a n d that relief f r o m this s t r a i n is p r o v i d e d b y a n i n t e r m e ­
d i a t e area of experience... w h i c h is n o t c h a l l e n g e d . (Winnicott
1990: 13)

T h i s f i n d s s u p p o r t i n M a r i o n M i l n e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i l l u s i o n :

Moments of i l l u s i o n are necessary for symbol formation,

m o m e n t s w h e n the m e not m e d o not h a v e to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d .
M o m e n t s w h e n the i n n e r a n d outer s e e m to c o i n c i d e , n e e d e d for
r e s t o r i n g b r o k e n l i n k s , b r i d g e s , to the outer w o r l d , as w e l l as
f o r m i n g the first b r i d g e s . A s necessary for h e a l t h y l i v i n g as n i g h t
d r e a m s s e e m to b e — a n d as p l a y i n g is. ( M i l n e r 1969: 417)

T h u s , i n a n i m p o r t a n t sense, w h e r e v e r transitional c o n d i t i o n s are

recreated o r recur a m o n g s t a n d w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , w h a t takes p l a c e
i m p l i e s a b u i l t - i n 'regressive' element, w h i c h necessarily b l u r s the o r i g ­
i n a l l y h a r d - w o n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, b e t w e e n the
concrete a n d s y m b o l i c . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y this blurring w h i c h affords a
'relief f r o m the s t r a i n ' . T h e participants i n m o m e n t s of i l l u s i o n b e c o m e
automatically more open and more childlike, more omnipotent and
m o r e v u l n e r a b l e , i n a w i l l i n g a n d i n v o l u n t a r y s u s p e n s i o n of disbelief.
F o r instance, the t o d d l e r w h o p o u r s out p r e t e n d c u p s of tea, offer­
i n g t h e m to y o u a n d to h e r i n v i s i b l e friends, is far f r o m m a d . She
k n o w s t h e y are not real. B u t i n o r d e r to enjoy the satisfaction a n d i n n e r
e n r i c h m e n t of p l a y the t o d d l e r — a n d , i n d e e d , c h i l d r e n a n d adults of a l l
a g e s — w i l l i n g l y s u s p e n d their disbelief, i n o r d e r to r e v e l i n the b l u r r i n g
b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, the h a l l m a r k of the transitional.
T h e i m p l i c i t m o d e l of l e a r n i n g o n offer here, t h e n , is neither that of
'teacher a n d taught as separate i n d i v i d u a l s ' , n o r of a n o m n i p o t e n t l y
m e r g e d p a i r or m a s s . It is, rather, a dance of separateness a n d together­
ness, a m o v i n g i n a n d out of m e r g i n g , the ' p o t e n t i a l ' space c o n s t a n t l y
o p e n i n g a n d c l o s i n g . In contrast to K l e i n i a n a n d F r e u d i a n t h o u g h t , i n
w h i c h the infant's f o r b i d d e n desire for the b o d i e s of its parents is c o n ­
 Val Richards 197

stantly d i s p l a c e d o n t o objects i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d , i n W i n n i c o t t a n d

M i l n e r w e e n c o u n t e r i n s t e a d a n alternation b e t w e e n f u s i o n a n d apart­
ness. For Klein, there is a s e v e r a n c e between baby a n d breast.
W i n n i c o t t ' s c o n c e p t o f the t r a n s i t i o n a l , h o w e v e r , i m p l i e s that g r a d u a ­
t i o n t o w a r d s the s y m b o l i c rests n o t o n the d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a n object
w h i c h i s i r r e c o v e r a b l y lost, b u t — i n s t e a d — o n the loss of the fusion
b e t w e e n the breast a n d the infant's m o u t h . M i l n e r a d d s to this her s u g ­
gestion that the p e r p e t u a l tensions of the t r a n s i t i o n a l are best e n v i s ­
a g e d i n the p h a n t a s y o f a c o n t i n u i n g relationship b e t w e e n m o u t h a n d
breast.
P a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s — t h o s e i n w h i c h transactions d e p e n d o n a p a r ­
ticular k i n d o f relational contract u n d e r s p e c i a l i s e d c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as
theatre, for instance, o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y — e m p l o y the creative pressure
w h i c h arises f r o m the p r e c a r i o u s balance b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality.
A p h a n t a s y o f relating is also central to e a c h of these situations. T h i s has
b e e n d e s c r i b e d v i v i d l y b y the c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n H u i z i n g a :

T h e a r e n a , the c a r d - t a b l e , the m a g i c circle, the t e m p l e , the stage,

the screen, the t e n n i s - c o u r t , the court o f justice, etc. are a l l i n
f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n p l a y - g r o u n d s — t h a t i s , f o r b i d d e n spots, iso­
lated, h e d g e d round, hallowed, within which special rules
o b t a i n . . . A l l are t e m p o r a r y w o r l d s w i t h i n the o r d i n a r y w o r l d
d e d i c a t e d to the p e r f o r m a n c e o f a n act apart. ( H u i z i n g a , i n F a r h i
1991: 10)

T h i s c l o s e l y echoes W i n n i c o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n that:

playing has a place a n d a t i m e . It is n o t inside b y a n y u s e of the

w o r d . . . N o r is it outside, that is to say, it is n o t p a r t of the r e p u d i ­
ated w o r l d , the n o t - m e , that w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l has d e c i d e d to
recognise ( w i t h w h a t e v e r d i f f i c u l t y a n d e v e n p a i n ) as t r u l y exter­
n a l , w h i c h is o u t s i d e m a g i c a l control. (Winnicott 1990: 41)

I m p l i c i t i n these d e s c r i p t i o n s of p l a y i n g p o s s e s s i n g ' a place a n d a

t i m e ' is the w h o l e d i m e n s i o n of semiotics. T h i s is a d i s c i p l i n e i n w h i c h
a n a l y s i s of the ' c o d e s ' w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r setting demonstrates the
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of the elements w i t h i n the setting, a n d the c o n t r i b u ­
t i o n o f e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t i n the m a k i n g o f m e a n i n g . U n d e r the h e i g h t ­
e n e d c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e d b y the s e t t i n g — w h e t h e r this is the theatre,
therapy, o r the c l a s s r o o m — t h e p l a y o f signs w i t h i n the d e s i g n a t e d
198 Winnicott and Education

s t r u c t u r e causes certain elements to leap out, p r o d u c i n g h u g e e x p l o ­

s i o n s of m e a n i n g for the p a r t i c i p a n t s — a s K e i r E l a m p u t it: 'all that is on
the stage is a sign' (Elam 1983: 7).
T o c o n t i n u e w i t h the theatre as a n e x a m p l e , b e s i d e s the s u p r e m a c y
of s p o k e n (or s u n g ) w o r d s , these ' s i g n s ' w o u l d i n c l u d e a l l the p r o p s of
l i g h t i n g , s o u n d , c o s t u m e a n d scenery. T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is u n l e a s h e d
when, i n s t i n c t i v e l y , the participants (audience and performers)
attribute a s p e c i a l significance to all the f o r m s of p l a y i n g w h i c h o c c u r
w i t h i n the c o r d o n e d - o f f place a n d time. O n c e c o n s e q u e n c e of this is a
r e v e r s i o n to o r i g i n a l , m o r e p r i m i t i v e m o d e s of s y m b o l i s a t i o n and
m e a n i n g - m a k i n g . T h e s e c a n b o r d e r u p o n ' s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n ' — t h a t is,
the p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h the s y m b o l , the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , the
n a m e a l o n e , snatches the properties of the t h i n g s y m b o l i s e d . H o w e v e r ,
as I h o p e I h a v e e m p h a s i s e d a b o v e , it is this bordering on w i t h o u t q u i t e
t o p p l i n g i n t o s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n , w h i c h is the s o u r c e of t r a n s f o r m i n g
i m a g i n a t i v e activity. R e g r e s s i v e states c a n b e either fruitful or fateful.
T h e y are facilitated b y the ' p l a c e a n d t i m e ' b u t a l s o — a b o v e a l l — b y the
r e l a t i o n s h i p to the significant i n v e s t e d figure(s), whose words and
silence are e n d o w e d w i t h a m u l t i t u d e of m e a n i n g s a n d i n t e n t i o n s .

T h i s process c a n also be o b s e r v e d i n therapy, as i n the f o l l o w i n g

illustration:
A p a t i e n t i n a l o n g a n d s o m e t i m e s s t o r m y a n a l y s i s , reacted s t r o n g ­
l y to signs of sleepiness i n the n o r m a l l y attentive therapist. T h e p a t i e n t
h a d b e e n r e l a t i n g matters of v i t a l m o m e n t . H e r a n g e r at the therapist
p e r s i s t e d into the next session, e v e n t h o u g h , to her s u r p r i s e , the t h e r a ­
pist demonstrated complete recall of the p r e v i o u s d a y ' s material,
d e s p i t e the a p p a r e n t inattentiveness. A s the p a t i e n t d e s c e n d e d the
stairs after the session, h o w e v e r , she h e a r d w h a t s o u n d e d l i k e a click,
which—she realised—always s o u n d e d as she c a m e a n d w e n t . She
b e c a m e i n s t a n t l y c o n v i n c e d that her sessions w e r e t a p e - r e c o r d e d , i r r a ­
t i o n a l l y a s s u m i n g that w h a t the therapist c o u l d n o t listen to ' l i v e '
c o u l d — a n d w a s — p l a y e d b a c k later. A f t e r a sleepless n i g h t s p e n t f u m ­
i n g at the therapist's p e r f i d y , a tiny c h i n k a p p e a r e d i n the patient's cer­
tainty a n d , b y the time she reached h e r session, the c o n v i c t i o n h a d n o w
s h r u n k to a fantasy, w h i c h she d i s c l o s e d to the therapist. T h e latter
d r o p p e d the analytic stance, e x p r e s s i n g bafflement c o n c e r n i n g the
' c l i c k ' , a n d i n v i t e d the patient to p o i n t o u t the next time it o c c u r r e d .
Instead of the sinister s w i t c h of a tape recorder, it p r o v e d to be the
s m o k e a l a r m , a n d the patient's s u s p i c i o n s s u b s i d e d .
 Val Richards 199

T h i s is a clear e x a m p l e of h o w , w i t h i n a sealed s i g n i f y i n g structure,

b o t h patients b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n a s t r a i n i n g of the b a l a n c e between
i l l u s i o n a n d r e a l i t y r e s u l t i n g i n a b e n d i n g of the a n a l y t i c frame. T h e
patient's shakiness a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y c a u s e d her to m i s t r u s t a n d to rise
u p i n r e a c t i o n against the analyst's u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s l e e p y response. T h e
tangle of actions a n d reactions, projections a n d introjections, resulted
i n the p a r a n o i d f o r e g r o u n d i n g of a single i n n o c u o u s element i n the
total setting: the m i s r e c o g n i s e d s o u n d of a s m o k e a l a r m . E v e r y t h i n g
w i t h i n this s p a c e — ' o n the s t a g e ' — i s i n d e e d a s i g n , a n d the o v e r l o a d ­
i n g of one p a r t i c u l a r signifier exposes the thinness of the 'as i f w h i c h ,
o n this o c c a s i o n , h a d to be b r e a c h e d b y the therapist as w e l l as the
patient. F u r t h e r m o r e , the e x a m p l e also illustrates h o w a l l elements i n
the setting are e x p e r i e n c e d as a n extension of the analyst a n d , p e r h a p s
m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the w a y i n w h i c h u n c o n s c i o u s , p r i m i t i v e anxiety
triggers a n inextricable c o m b i n a t i o n of h e i g h t e n e d m e n t a l activity a n d
emotions. T h i s i n s e p a r a b i l i t y of i m a g i n a t i o n a n d the a t t r i b u t i o n of
m e a n i n g is w e l l - i l l u s t r a t e d b y a n e x a m p l e f r o m one of Brecht's p l a y s ,
i n w h i c h he s o u g h t to d e m o n s t r a t e c o o l l y a n d c l i n i c a l l y m a n ' s i n h u ­
m a n i t y to m a n . Instead of a h u m a n figure, Brecht chose to represent the
v i c t i m b y a s a w d u s t - f i l l e d c l o w n . Yet e v e n at the sight of a s a w d u s t
m a n n i k i n h a v i n g its leg ' a m p u t a t e d ' , s o m e spectators i n the a u d i e n c e
fainted a w a y ( R e d m o n d 1981).

***

T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s h e i g h t e n i n g of m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d of e m o t i o n is
associated, at the transitional stage, w i t h the c h i l d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to a
special p o s s e s s i o n or b e l o n g i n g , a ' t r a n s i t i o n a l o b j e c t ' — s u c h as a t e d d y
b e a r — w h i c h b e c o m e s the central feature of the transitional area. It is
the r e l a t i o n s h i p to this object w h i c h affords a g r a d u a t i o n (rather t h a n a
single, giant leap) a w a y f r o m m e r g e r w i t h the mother towards the
c a p a c i t y to use s y m b o l s . T h e transitional object assists the c h i l d i n p e r ­
c e i v i n g itself a n d its m o t h e r as separate b e i n g s , e v e n w h i l s t they
r e m a i n interrelated.
T h e o r i g i n a l i t y of W i n n i c o t t ' s t h o u g h t appears p a r t i c u l a r l y i n his

insistence that the transitional object is, l i k e the breast, created b y the

child:

Of the transitional object it can be said that it is a matter of agreement

betiueen us and the baby that we will never ask the question : 'Did you
200 Winnicott and Education

conceive of this or was it presented to you from without?' The impor­

tant point is that no decision on that point is expected. The question
not to he formulated. (Winnicott 1990: 12)

T h e f u n c t i o n of a transitional o b j e c t — s u c h as the f a m i l i a r t e d d y —
c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n three p r i n c i p a l senses, w h i c h a l l h a v e a b e a r i n g
u p o n the t h e o r y a n d practice of l e a r n i n g a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of s y m ­
b o l f o r m a t i o n . Firstly, it stands p a r t l y for the m o t h e r (breast, bottle);
s e c o n d l y , p a r t l y for the c h i l d ' s o w n self; a n d , t h i r d l y — b u t of the
u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e — i t exists as a n actual object i n the w o r l d .
W i n n i c o t t writes:

It is t r u e that the p i e c e of b l a n k e t (or w h a t e v e r it is) is s y m b o l i ­

c a l of s o m e part-object, s u c h as the breast. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the

p o i n t of it is n o t its s y m b o l i c v a l u e so m u c h as its actuality. Its n o t

b e i n g the breast (or the mother), a l t h o u g h real, is as i m p o r t a n t as

the fact that it stands for the breast (or m o t h e r ) . ( W i n n i c o t t 1990:

6).

B e c a u s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d infant occurs f r o m
the very beginning, and because—during the phase of infantile
omnipotence—the infant has n o i d e a that this m o t h e r is other, the
i n f a n t g r o w s a c c u s t o m e d to w h a t it takes to be p e r p e t u a l self c o m m u ­
n i c a t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h a p r e s u m e d p a r t of itself. H e n c e the
t r a n s i t i o n a l stage, w i t h the b e g i n n i n g s of s e p a r a t i o n , m u s t i n c l u d e
s o m e sense of l o s s of self, as w e l l as loss of m o t h e r . T h e t e d d y bear
h e l p s c o m p e n s a t e for this s e e m i n g loss of ' m e ' , as m o t h e r b e c o m e s
' y o u ' or ' o t h e r ' . T h e b e a r comes to represent n o t o n l y the mother, b u t
a l s o the ' m e o u t there', thus b e c o m i n g the first of the n u m b e r l e s s series
of ' o t h e r s i n f u s e d b y the s e l f i n a l l areas of experience. T h e n e e d to
h a v e p a r t of oneself outside is a major i m p e t u s for the c o n f e r m e n t of
i m a g i n a t i v e life a n d i m a g i n a t i v e qualities onto the object, a n d for s u p ­
p l y i n g the object w i t h the f u n c t i o n of a c o m m u n i c a t i n g alter ego,
w h i c h the infant o n c e took for g r a n t e d i n the f o r m of the mother. T h i s
is c a p t u r e d p o w e r f u l l y i n the f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n b y the c h i l d h e r o ­
ine of W i l l i a m M a y n e ' s novel, Cuddy:

A t that m o m e n t she b e c a m e certain that B e o w u l f w a s not o n l y a

b e a r she h a d k n o w n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of h e r life, b u t a p e r s o n

 Vol Richards 201

i n his o w n r i g h t , i n his o w n way, d e p e n d i n g o n her to m a k e the

w o r l d u n d e r s t a n d h i m . ( M a y n e 1998: 83)

T h u s , for W i n n i c o t t , the e a r l y relationship to the t e d d y bear inspires

creative activity w i t h materials f r o m the o u t s i d e w o r l d just as m u c h as
the infant's o r i g i n a l p o s s e s s i o n of the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . I m m e r s i o n of the
self i n p a i n t , p l a s t i c i n e , s a n d or m u s i c a l s o u n d , revives the transitional
state of b o t h creating s o m e t h i n g that is not self, a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g a sen­
s u a l satisfaction a k i n to the o r i g i n a l transitional r e l a t i o n s h i p of m o t h ­
e r - i n f a n t - t e d d y bear. It to the relationship w i t h the transitional object
that w e c a n trace the source o f the t r a n s f o r m i n g properties of the i m a g ­
i n a t i o n , for i n the transitional object appears the first l i b e r a t i o n of the
i m a g i n a t i o n b y m e a n s of a s y m b o l , a n d the first experiences of i m a g i ­
n a t i v e interaction.
T h i s i n f u s i o n o f the transitional object w i t h the self prepares the
g r o u n d for w h a t W i n n i c o t t regards as later identifications w i t h key fig­
ures, b o t h real a n d i n fantasy. T h e s e identifications are the basis o f
e m p a t h y a n d of the i n v e n t i o n of fictional, i m a g i n a r y characters, n o u r ­
i s h e d b y pleasure i n h e a r i n g , telling, a n d — e v e n t u a l l y — w r i t i n g stories.
T h e s e possibilities d e v e l o p once the c h i l d sees the m o t h e r / o t h e r as a
real p e r s o n . It is b y e n t e r i n g into the d o m a i n of the s y m b o l i c that the
self, h a v i n g a c h i e v e d a degree o f separateness, p r o c e e d s , consciously
a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y , to aspire t o w a r d s b e c o m i n g either like or unlike oth­
ers o r a n o t h e r — t o identify, that is, w i t h k e y figures a n d patterns of
behaviour experienced i n the c h i l d ' s life. T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n arises
u n c o n s c i o u s l y as w e l l as consciously, b o t h b y i m i t a t i o n a n d r e p u d i a ­
t i o n , a n d i n v o l v e s a v i t a l a c t i n g - o u t i n p l a y for the establishment of
p e r s o n a l identity.
T h e transitional object exists for the c h i l d to p l a y w i t h , to i d e n t i f y
w i t h as a p r o j e c t i o n o f the self, to use, to d o things to, a n d — m o s t essen­
t i a l — t o destroy i n fantasy, e v e n to hate. It is these p r i m i t i v e yet v i t a l
emotions w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to W i n n i c o t t , h e l p p r o p e l the c h i l d into
e x t e r n a l i t y — t h e reality of separateness.
I n d e e d , the f u n c t i o n o f the transitional object as a genuine piece of
external reality has p e r h a p s b e e n under-stressed. In this c a p a c i t y a b o v e
all others it serves as a p a r a d i g m o f the dialectic b e t w e e n the concrete
a n d s y m b o l i c , b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, w h i c h motivates all l e a r n ­
i n g . F o r i n c o n c e d i n g the existence of the bear for its o w n sake a n d i n
its o w n right, the c h i l d — a s w e l l as e n g a g i n g i n m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d
a d a p t a t i o n to external r e a l i t y — i s also p u l l i n g against the s y m b o l i c , b y
202 Winnicott and Education

r e a l i s i n g that ' a bear is a bear is a b e a r ' . F o r the c h i l d , w h a t also counts

a n d matters a b o u t the b e a r — a p a r t f r o m its s y m b o l i c c o n n o t a t i o n s — i s
its v e r y 'thereness' or 'Bearness'. T h e r e is v a l u e i n the v e r y concrete­
ness a n d s i n g u l a r i t y of the object. T h i s d i m e n s i o n of ' n o n - m e a n i n g '
confers status u p o n the manifest, the surface, the concrete, i n contrast
to the ' d e e p e r ' or the ' h i d d e n ' . N o n - m e a n i n g allows for the p o s s i b i l i t y
of r a n d o m n e s s , a n d subverts the urge t o w a r d s constant p a t t e r n i n g a n d
m e a n i n g - m a k i n g . T h e 'thisness' of the c h i l d ' s first p o s s e s s i o n obstructs
the u n i v e r s a l d r i v e to insist that 'reality' a l w a y s possesses m e a n i n g
b e y o n d the i m m e d i a t e a n d g i v e n . 'Bearness' invites i m m e r s i o n i n the
i m m e d i a t e , for its own sake.
T h e transitional object also a c c o m m o d a t e s , therefore, the v a l u e of
the thing-in-itself. It liberates patient a n d analyst, teacher a n d p u p i l , to
accept—when a p p r o p r i a t e — t h e absence of c o n n e c t i n g l i n k s , or to
reject interpretations a n d explanations. It p r o v i d e s a m e a n s of f a c i n g
the p o s s i b l e r a n d o m n e s s of things, w h i c h so outrages o u r o m n i p o t e n t
a s s u m p t i o n of p a t t e r n a n d m e a n i n g .

II

...the patient... m u s t be a l l o w e d to c o m m u n i c a t e a s u c c e s s i o n of
ideas, thoughts, impulses, sensations that are n o t linked...
[T]here is r o o m for the i d e a of u n r e l a t e d t h o u g h t sequences
w h i c h the analyst w i l l d o w e l l to accept as s u c h , n o t a s s u m i n g
the existence of a significant thread. (Winnicott 1 9 9 0 : 55)

W i n n i c o t t ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of the n e e d to conceptualise ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' is

e n s h r i n e d b o t h i n his concept of the transitional object a n d i n his a n a ­
lytic w o r k — i n c o m m e n t s s u c h as the above, i n w h i c h h e w a r n s that the
analyst's insistence o n c l e v e r l y d i s c o v e r i n g a coherent theme m a y be
f a i l i n g the patient's p r i m a r y n e e d to be free to ' c o m m u n i c a t e n o n ­
sense'.
T h i s is i m p o r t a n t l y elaborated b y Bollas, i n his attempt to define the
w a y i n w h i c h W i n n i c o t t ( a m o n g others) represents a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e
f r o m m o r e o r t h o d o x practice:

Each of the authors [from the Independent Group of

P s y c h o a n a l y s t s ] believes that the success of a n analysis rests not
s i m p l y o n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of u n c o n s c i o u s conflicts into c o n ­
scious awareness, b u t also o n f u n d a m e n t a l l y n e w p s y c h i c expe­
 Val Richards 203

riences generated b y the analytic situation, i n particular, those

s p o n s o r e d b y transference states. N a t u r a l l y , s o m e transference
experiences are interpreted a n d cease to be u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t cer­
t a i n uses the a n a l y s a n d m a k e s of the analyst are of a different
c a t e g o r y of m e a n i n g f r o m that represented b y the concept of
r e p r e s s e d u n c o n s c i o u s conflict. W h e n W i n n i c o t t i n t r o d u c e d the
t e r m 'true self' to s t a n d for i n h e r i t e d potential that f o u n d its
e x p r e s s i o n i n s p o n t a n e o u s action, I t h i n k he c o n c e p t u a l i s e d a
feature of the analytical r e l a t i o n s h i p (and of life) that h a d hereto­
fore b e e n u n t h e o r i s e d . (Bollas 1989: 8)

T h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n is n o t h i n g less t h a n the realisation that for

p s y c h i c , e m o t i o n a l r e c o v e r y — a n d for the d e v e l o p m e n t of the capacity
for m e n t a l a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g intellectual p r o g r e s s — i t m a y at times be
m o r e effective to a l l o w a p a r t i c u l a r experience to operate u p o n the
senses, e m o t i o n s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , entirely u n m e d i a t e d b y analytic
e n d e a v o u r . T h i s , I suggest, c o m p l e t e l y b y p a s s e s the analyst's attempt
to render 'conscious' h i d d e n disturbances, but—instead—strikes
d i r e c t l y at the u n c o n s c i o u s , the o r i g i n a l 'true s e l f .
In terms of the relationship b e t w e e n teacher a n d student, this
a p p r o a c h b y p a s s e s the teacher's n e e d to extract m e a n i n g f r o m the stu­
d e n t , or i m p o s e it o n h i m or her. It is instead the total experience—like
the theatrical s i t u a t i o n m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r — r a t h e r t h a n i n the single
e l e m e n t of explicit interpretation ( a l t h o u g h this is i m p o r t a n t ) w h i c h
reaches, h e a l s — a n d teaches. A s C o l e r i d g e p u t it:

T h e I m a g i n a t i o n is the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g characteristic of m a n as a
p r o g r e s s i v e b e i n g ; a n d . . . it o u g h t to be carefully g u i d e d a n d
s t r e n g t h e n e d as the i n d i s p e n s i b l e m e a n s a n d i n s t r u m e n t of a m e ­
l i o r a t i o n a n d refinement. ( C o l e r i d g e , q u o t e d i n W a l s h 1960: 23-4)

W a l s h c o m m e n t s that ' I m a g i n a t i o n is the air i n w h i c h n e w k n o w l ­

e d g e breathes, as it is the salt p r e s e r v i n g the s a v o u r of the o l d .
Knowledge d o e s not keep a n y better t h a n f i s h ' (Walsh 1960: 24).
I n d e e d , as is often p o i n t e d o u t , scientific d i s c o v e r i e s s p r i n g f r o m a
p r i o r i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n , w h i c h leads to a h y p o t h e s i s , so that the n e w
discovery becomes the c o n s u m m a t i o n of an original imaginative
gleam.
In terms of W i n n i c o t t ' s theories o n transitional p h e n o m e n a , then,
the s t u d e n t s h o u l d 'create' for h i m or herself w h a t is l y i n g there to be
204 Winnicott and Education

f o u n d . T h e s t u d e n t — g i v e n the s k i l f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n of
the t e a c h e r — i s t h e n m o r e l i k e l y to ' p l a y ' , to l e a r n t h r o u g h b e i n g r e c e p ­
t i v e to the m a t e r i a l ( w h i c h b e c o m e s the e d u c a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t of a n
a n a l y t i c interpretation).
T h i s , h o w e v e r , is i n stark contrast w i t h h o w generations of c h i l ­
d r e n — i n c l u d i n g e v e n the m o s t g i f t e d — h a v e d e v e l o p e d the c o n v i c t i o n
that k n o w l e d g e b e l o n g s n o t to the s h a r e d ' i n t e r m e d i a t e ' area of m i n ­
g l e d i l l u s i o n a n d r e a l i t y w h i c h is 'neither i n s i d e n o r o u t s i d e ' , b u t
i n s t e a d to b l o c k s of facts, w h i c h are to be t a k e n ' i n ' f r o m ' o u t there'.
B y w a y of a n i l l u s t r a t i o n , c o n s i d e r — f o r i n s t a n c e — t h e experience of
r e a d i n g 'The Sick Rose' b y W i l l i a m Blake:

O Rose, t h o u art sick.

T h e invisible w o r m
T h a t flies i n the n i g h t
In the h o w l i n g s t o r m

H a s f o u n d out t h y b e d
O f c r i m s o n joy,
A n d his d a r k secret l o v e
D o e s t h y life destroy. (Blake 1983: 39)

B y m e a n s of a false b u t frequent d i c h o t o m y , readers t e n d to b e

d r a w n p r i m a r i l y to the s y m b o l i c levels of the p o e m , to its meanings a n d
a m b i g u i t i e s , w h i c h m a y t o u c h o n sexual c o r r u p t i o n , possessiveness,
f e m a l e helplessness, r a p e , a n d so o n . It is as if matters s u c h as these
w e r e s o m e h o w of m o r e a c c o u n t t h a n the p o r t r a y a l a n d s e n s u a l e x p e r i ­
e n c e of the manifest scene, a n d the a u r a l satisfaction i n the w a y the
r h y m e m i r r o r s the m o v e m e n t of the d r a m a t o w a r d s its d a r k c o n s u m ­
m a t i o n . W h o is to say that the ' w e i g h t i e r ' , s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s of the
p o e m possess greater i m p o r t a n c e t h a n its m o r e direct effects?
T h i s false d i c h o t o m y , w h i c h d i s p l a c e s a p o t e n t i a l l y u n i f i e d response
to the p o e m , s u r e l y parallels the e x c l u s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h i n p s y ­
c h o a n a l y s i s u p o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n contrast to Bollas's d e s c r i p t i o n of
W i n n i c o t t ' s w a y of w o r k i n g .
W i n n i c o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n that the patient needs to be free to ' c o m m u ­
nicate n o n s e n s e ' o c c u r s i n the context of a p o r t r a y a l of the k i n d s of
e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h p r o m o t e d i s c o v e r y , recovery, a n d creative l i v i n g .
D e s p i t e the celebration of h e a l t h t h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s , W i n n i c o t t ' s
m a i n c o n c e r n is w i t h the effects of loss. I n d e e d , h e distinguishes
 Vol Richards 205

b e t w e e n t w o degrees o f loss. O n e type of loss is that w h i c h concerns a

h a l f - r e m e m b e r e d d e p r i v a t i o n , o c c u r r i n g at a p o i n t at w h i c h there is
s o m e m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l separateness, a n d a d e v e l o p i n g capacity
for s y m b o l i s a t i o n . H o w e v e r , loss m a y also b e l o n g to a m o r e p r o f o u n d
d i s t u r b a n c e i n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s v e r y c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g , p r i o r to a n y
sense o f the m o t h e r as other. C l i n i c a l l y , b o t h types of loss m a y manifest
themselves as tendencies t o w a r d s feeling u n r e a l , f r a g m e n t e d , or d i s s o ­
ciated, because the patient has b e e n cut adrift i n time a n d space.
It w a s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , W i n n i c o t t ' s w o r k w i t h regressed a d u l t s w h i c h
e x p o s e d these areas of earliest infant d i s t u r b a n c e . H e r e g a r d e d these as
m o m e n t s of i m p i n g e m e n t w h i c h h a d resulted i n a ' s p l i t t i n g ' o f the self
into a 'true s e l f — t h a t h i d e s away, for s a f e t y — a n d a c o m p l i a n t 'false
s e l f , w h i c h protects the p e r s o n a l i t y f r o m further d i s r u p t i o n , b u t at the
e x p e n s e of s p o n t a n e i t y a n d a u t o n o m y :

In analysis o f a False Personality, the fact m u s t b e r e c o g n i s e d that

the analyst c a n o n l y talk to the False Self o f the patient a b o u t the
patient's T r u e Self. It is as if a n u r s e brings a c h i l d a n d at first the
analyst discusses the c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m s , a n d the c h i l d is not
d i r e c t l y contacted. A n a l y s i s d o e s n o t start u n t i l the n u r s e h a s left
the c h i l d w i t h the analyst, a n d the c h i l d has b e c o m e able to
r e m a i n alone w i t h the analyst a n d has started to play. (Winnicott
1960b:151)

H e r e , W i n n i c o t t describes a d i v i d e d p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h lacks a n y
access to a centred, integrated self capable of p l a y i n g — a n d , therefore,
of l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d , the o n e w h o m i g h t p l a y (but w h o , at first, m i g h t
be m i s t a k e n for the ' n u r s e ' ) , is m e r e l y a 'false s e l f , a s t a n d - i n , f e n d i n g
off a n y fullness of contact. C o n s e q u e n t l y , o r t h o d o x interpretations,
w h i c h seek to ' t e l l ' or 'teach' are entirely u n h e l p f u l because they c a n ­
n o t r e a c h the m o s t v i t a l yet dissociated core o f the self, the ' c h i l d '
w h o m the ' n u r s e ' h a s b r o u g h t . Instead, for the n u r s e to leave the c h i l d
w i t h the analyst, a n d for the c h i l d to b e c o m e able to r e m a i n alone w i t h
the analyst a n d start to play, w h a t is n e e d e d is a ' n e w experience i n a
s p e c i a l k i n d of setting'.
T h e o r t h o d o x a n a l y t i c task of m a k i n g conscious the u n c o n s c i o u s ,
p r i m a r i l y b y m e a n s of interpretation, m u s t g i v e w a y to the p r o v i s i o n
of a n u r t u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t — a little a k i n to the o r i g i n a l m o t h e r a n d
infant r e l a t i o n s h i p . H e r e , the quest for conscious m e a n i n g is s u s p e n d ­
e d i n o r d e r to a l l o w a phase of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' , w h i l s t the g r o u n d for
206 Winnicott and Education

' p l a y i n g ' is p r e p a r e d . T h r o u g h the d e v e l o p i n g transference relation­

s h i p , a n y p a i n w h i c h has b e e n split-off m a y be actualised a n d inte­
g r a t e d w i t h i n the analytic setting. T h e r e is a r e n e w e d — p o s s i b l y e v e n a
b r a n d - n e w — o p p o r t u n i t y for a relaxation of those defences activated
b y earlier pressures o n the personality. T h e patient is t h e n freed for
p r i m i t i v e experiences of h e i g h t e n e d m e a n i n g - m a k i n g , t h r o u g h s y m ­
bolic equation:

T h e c o u c h a n d the p i l l o w s are there for the patient's use. T h e y

w i l l a p p e a r i n ideas a n d d r e a m s a n d then w i l l stand for the a n a ­
lyst's b o d y , breast, arms, h a n d s etc., i n a n infinite v a r i e t y of
w a y s . In so far as the patient is regressed (for a m o m e n t or for a n
h o u r or o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of time) the c o u c h is the analyst, the
p i l l o w s are breasts, the analyst is the m o t h e r at a certain past era.
I n the extreme it is n o l o n g e r true to say of the c o u c h that the
c o u c h represents the analyst; the c o u c h is the analyst. (Winnicott
1954: 288)

T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of these analytic ideas a n d experiences for v i e w s

o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of l e a r n i n g entail the r e c o g n i t i o n that compliance in
a child or s t u d e n t — w h i c h w a s pathologised a n d i d e n t i f i e d as a
defence b y W i n n i c o t t , but is too often p r i z e d b y teachers a n d p a r e n t s —
m a y b e a s i g n of sickness rather t h a n health. C o m p l i a n c e c a n often b e
u n d e r s t o o d as a reactive rather t h a n a n a u t o n o m o u s response, a r i s i n g
f r o m a d i s s o c i a t e d part of the personality, the 'false s e l f . A b s o r p t i o n of
i n s t r u c t i o n i n d u l l obedience c a n easily b e c o m e a substitute for v i t a l
learning; imitation too often replaces creative identification.
W i n n i c o t t ' s a p p r o a c h , i n contrast, focuses o n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s o w n d i s ­
c o v e r y of m e a n i n g , rather t h a n the analyst or teacher's i m p o s i t i o n of
m e a n i n g . W i n n i c o t t also insists o n p r o v i d i n g a place for the p o s s i b i l i t y
of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' .
R e a d i n g W i n n i c o t t , w e also encounter the s u g g e s t i o n that l e a r n i n g
is m o r e effective if, i n the presence of the teacher, the i m a g i n a t i o n , the
u n c o n s c i o u s d e p t h s of the self are accessed, e n a b l i n g the m a t e r i a l of
the l e s s o n to be g r a s p e d a n d p o s s e s s e d from within. T h i s enables s t u ­
dents to realise—in the fullest sense of the w o r d .
R e g r e s s i o n w h i c h borders o n a s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n , d u r i n g w h i c h the
t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality is all b u t lost, c a n , i n a c o n t a i n e d
therapeutic s i t u a t i o n , p r o v e creative a n d h e a l i n g . H o w e v e r , i n s o m e
schools of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h o u g h t a s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n is taken p r i ­
 Val Richards 207

m a r i l y as a n i n d i c a t i o n of p a t h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o s i s . In contrast, f r o m
W i n n i c o t t ' s perspective, the recognition of the dialectic b e t w e e n i l l u ­
s i o n a n d reality also encompasses the possibility of its t e m p o r a r y c o l ­
lapse. A collapse m a y i n d e e d occur at certain d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages
a n d i n certain h e i g h t e n e d states, whether of disturbance or of ecstasy
In these instances the hierarchical relationship b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n d
representation is r e v e r s e d ; the s y m b o l itself is n o longer the represen­
tation of a reality b u t actually replaces that reality. It b e c o m e s m o r e
w e i g h e d d o w n w i t h m e a n i n g than is ' a p p r o p r i a t e ' .
A s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of this it is possible to cite the results of tests b y
p s y c h o l o g i s t s s u c h as Piaget a n d Vygotsky. E v e n t h o u g h the n a m e of a
t h i n g d o e s not reflect—or h a v e a n y intrinsic relationship t o — t h e p r o p ­
erties of that t h i n g , y o u n g c h i l d r e n tend to a s s u m e otherwise. In
r e s p o n s e to questions s u c h as ' W h y is a c o w called a c o w ? ' , they
r e p l i e d : 'Because it has h o r n s ' ; a n d to ' W h y is i n k called i n k ? ' they
a n s w e r e d : 'Because it is u s e d for w r i t i n g ' ( V y g o t s k y 1962: 128-9).
It m i g h t be a r g u e d that, here, m o r e m e a n i n g than is w a r r a n t e d is
b e i n g attached b y the c h i l d r e n to the s y m b o l , the w o r d , the n a m e . B u t
this extends also into n o r m a l a d u l t life, w h e r e the m e a n i n g of a p o e m ,
a s a y i n g , a n artefact, is s o u g h t t h r o u g h its possible ' f u r t h e r ' or ' d e e p ­
e r ' m e a n i n g s , rather than in itself—as w e e x p l o r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
B l a k e ' s ' T h e Sick Rose'.
T h e patient's regression to a m o r e p r i m i t i v e state of m i n d a n d feel­
i n g — t h r o u g h o u t w h i c h the analyst acts as a mirror, ' g i v i n g b a c k to the
patient w h a t the patient has c o m m u n i c a t e d ' — l e a d s to a f o r m a t i o n of
'the basis of a sense of s e l f , a n d to a n e x p r e s s i o n of T A M , I a m alive,
I a m m y s e l f (Winnicott 1990: 56). O n l y f r o m s u c h a sense of self can the
activity o f l e a r n i n g b e c o m e p r o p e r l y integrated into the personality,
w i t h o u t the k i n d of 'split-off intellect' w h i c h tends to characterise cer­
tain s c h i z o i d or 'false s e l f academics.

***

H o w e v e r , w h i l e transient regression to these m o r e p r i m i t i v e e m o t i o n ­

al a n d m e n t a l states m a y b e h e a l i n g , W i n n i c o t t w a r n s that i n the l o n g
t e r m d i s r u p t i o n o f the balance b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n d object has serious
consequences:

T h e ' d e p r i v e d c h i l d ' is n o t o r i o u s l y restless a n d u n a b l e to play,

a n d has a n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of capacity to experience i n the c u l ­
208 Winnicott and Education

t u r a l f i e l d . . . [A] s t u d y of the effects of loss at a n y e a r l y stage

i n v o l v e s us i n l o o k i n g at this i n t e r m e d i a t e area, or p o t e n t i a l
space b e t w e e n subject a n d object. F a i l u r e of d e p e n d a b i l i t y or
loss of object m e a n s to the c h i l d a loss of the p l a y area, a n d loss
of m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l . (Winnicott 1990: 101-2)

T h e s e o m i n o u s w o r d s refer less to the ' infant ' i n the a d u l t , b u t

m o r e to the actual flesh a n d b l o o d c h i l d , w h o m a y e v e n h a v e reached
a m e a s u r e of separateness p r i o r to d e p r i v a t i o n . T h e l o s s of the p l a y
a r e a ' a n d of ' m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l ' refers to the f a d i n g of the internal
object or mother, a n d to the s i m u l t a n e o u s f a d i n g of the 'as i f faculty
d e r i v e d f r o m the tension b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. T h e r e is a d i m ­
m i n g of the p e r c e p t i o n that a is like b or is unlike b. Instead, a becomes
the same as, or more important than b.
S y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n w h i c h , i n the short t e r m , enables the k i n d of
b e n i g n regression suggested b y W i n n i c o t t ' s a c c o u n t of the regressed
a d u l t patient, c a n , i n the l o n g t e r m , lead to e m o t i o n a l p a r a l y s i s a n d the
s t u n t i n g of the life of the m i n d . T h e capacity to create a s y m b o l i c
w o r l d — p r i m a r i l y f r o m w o r d s , b u t also f r o m other c u l t u r a l f o r m s — i s
i n t e r r u p t e d . T h e ' p l a y area', the space that keeps object a n d s y m b o l
a p a r t , is closed.
Winnicott's account of the loss of 'meaningful symbol', whilst
f o c u s e d specifically u p o n e m o t i o n a l a n d m a t e r n a l d e p r i v a t i o n , i m p l i c ­
i t l y recognises that a d e p r i v i n g m o t h e r is o n l y a first l i n k — a l b e i t
v i t a l — i n a vast c h a i n of e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d social factors, w h i c h
h a v e f o r g e d the m o t h e r herself. A l s o chief a m o n g these elements is the
p a r e n t i n g that the m o t h e r herself o r i g i n a l l y r e c e i v e d .
It is, t h e n , for a w h o l e tangle of reasons that d e p r i v e d c h i l d r e n , w h o
are ' n o t o r i o u s l y restless a n d u n a b l e to p l a y ' , suffer a deficit i n e x p e r i ­
ence of the c u l t u r a l field. T h e i r ' p l a y i n g ' expresses itself generally
t h r o u g h physical action a n d monosyllabic communication. T h e y func­
t i o n m o r e b y acting-out or b y w i t h d r a w a l t h a n b y e n t e r i n g that arena
w h e r e entire s h a r e d edifices arise, b u i l t entirely u p o n the exchange of
w o r d s a n d other s y m b o l s — h o u s e s of cards, i n the best possible sense.
F r o m the w h o l e range of possible v e r b a l constructions, the s y m b o l ­
i c a l l y d e p r i v e d i n d i v i d u a l is c o n f i n e d to f o u r m a i n f o r m s : assertion,
n a r r a t i o n , attack a n d interrogation, all of w h i c h are b o u n d largely to
the present tense. These f o r m s of e x p r e s s i o n e x c l u d e the potential
e n r i c h m e n t of s p e c u l a t i o n , the l i b e r a t i o n of the c o n d i t i o n a l tense; they
e x c l u d e p l a n n i n g a n d a m b i t i o n , e x p a n s i o n of the self t h r o u g h concepts
 Vol Richards 209

of ' t o m o r r o w ' ; a n d t h e y exclude r e m i n i s c e n c e , the past that l e n d s s u b ­

stance a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n to identity. T h e y also e x c l u d e the necessary
sadness of f o r m u l a t i n g w h a t ' m i g h t h a v e b e e n ' .
T h e entire d i m e n s i o n of i m a g i n a t i v e p l a y i n g a n d s h a r e d abstract
t h o u g h t , w h i c h , u n d e r the right c o n d i t i o n s , b e g i n s v e r y e a r l y o n ,
d e p e n d s o n the capacity to r o a m a n d r o v e b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l phases,
between the real a n d the i m a g i n a r y U n f o r t u n a t e l y , then, i n those
w h o s e c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g is i n t e r r u p t e d , a n d i n the s y m b o l i c a l l y
d e p r i v e d , this basic tool for l e a r n i n g is d a m a g e d . Patently, for c h i l d r e n
i n this p o s i t i o n , the w h o l e business o f teaching a n d l e a r n i n g o n l y
serves to stultify a n d frustrate f u r t h e r — l i k e b e i n g o r d e r e d to p l a y
chess w i t h a chess b o a r d , b u t n o pieces.
F o r W i n n i c o t t , the chief h a l l m a r k o f lack a n d loss w a s — f r e q u e n t ­
l y — d i s s o c i a t i o n a n d d e p e r s o n a l i s a t i o n . I n those w h o suffer d e p r i v a ­
t i o n at the later stage, w h e n the self has benefited a l r e a d y f r o m a g o o d ­
e n o u g h e a r l y e n v i r o n m e n t , these s y m p t o m s m a y b e allied to a n t i ­
social tendencies, a n d e v e n to feeling real o n l y t h r o u g h s o m e v i o l e n t
act. N e v e r t h e l e s s , W i n n i c o t t argues, s u c h manifestations of v i o l e n c e
c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a n S . O . S . , as the e x p r e s s i o n of s o m e k i n d o f h o p e
for the restoration of that lost g o o d . I d e a l l y this occurs i n the f o r m of a
r e c o v e r e d or b r a n d n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r else i n the p r o v i s i o n of a
secure, c o n t a i n i n g f r a m e w o r k i n a g o o d residential h o m e .
A t this p o i n t , t h e n , w e m i g h t f i n d o u r s e l v e s c o n s i d e r i n g the i m p o r ­
tance of the ' a r c h e t y p a l father', a s t r o n g - e n o u g h c o n t a i n i n g figure
w h o — w h e t h e r parent, teacher, or a n a l y s t — i s capable o f s u r v i v i n g the
c h i l d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n or v i o l e n c e . N o t o n l y is this father a s t r o n g - e n o u g h
figure, h e also p r o v i d e s a s t r o n g - e n o u g h structure. W h e n the father
interposes b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d c h i l d , f a m i l y l o v e u n d e r g o e s n o t a c o n ­
traction b u t a n e x p a n s i o n into a space a n d a f r a m e w o r k , for w h i c h
' h o m e ' is b o t h the literal n a m e , a n d also s y m b o l i c of the e q u i v a l e n t
e x p a n d i n g internal space. F r o m here, the c h i l d b e g i n s to t h i n k a n d l i n k
a n d to 'challenge the p a r e n t s ' l a n g u a g e , to b e , o n e m i g h t say, a b a d
e n o u g h c h i l d ' (Wright 1984: 99). A s W i n n i c o t t avers:

If the h o m e c a n s t a n d u p to all the c h i l d c a n d o to d i s r u p t , h e set­

tles d o w n to p l a y B u t first, the test m u s t be m a d e . T h e c h i l d
needs to b e c o n s c i o u s of a f r a m e w o r k if h e is to feel free.
(Winnicott 1992: 115)
210 Winnicott and Education

T h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of the father, as the t o u g h barrier w h i c h c o m ­

p l e m e n t s the features of the m a t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , represents also
those aspects of l e a r n i n g w h i c h d e p e n d o n r i g o u r , c o n t a i n m e n t a n d
c o n t r o l . If the m a t e r n a l stands for i m a g i n a t i v e f r e e d o m , the p a t e r n a l
e m b o d i e s the i m p o r t a n c e of rules a n d d i s c i p l i n e , of a constructive use
for rote l e a r n i n g , of f u r n i s h i n g the m i n d i n a n o r g a n i s e d way. If, i n
W i n n i c o t t , the transitional object is the h a r b i n g e r of the s y m b o l i c , at its
m o s t e m b r y o n i c a n d f l u i d , then w i t h the father the s y m b o l i c arrives
f u l l y f l e d g e d . If, i n the d o m a i n of the transitional, w i t h m o t h e r a n d
t e d d y bear, the m a k i n g of m e a n i n g is f l u i d a n d p r o v i s i o n a l , w i t h the
a r r i v a l of the father the steel links of the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n are f o r g e d .
H o w e v e r , W i n n i c o t t d o e s not elaborate o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
l a n g u a g e a n d the p a t e r n a l i n his w r i t i n g s .
T h e degree to w h i c h the paternal is a n essential part of the role of
the teacher, therapist or carer, is suggested i n the f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n .
A y o u n g p l a y m a n a g e r d e s c r i b e d his abortive attempt to r u n a n
e x p e r i e n t i a l g r o u p , at the request of s o m e adolescent b o y s . It l o o k e d
p r o m i s i n g , because the initiative h a d c o m e f r o m the b o y s themselves.
Yet w h i l s t e l e v e n of the twelve y o u t h s were c o - o p e r a t i v e , it t o o k o n l y
one to w r e c k the w h o l e venture. A l l he d i d to cause chaos to d e s c e n d
w a s m e s s a r o u n d w i t h a telephone. ' W h a t c o u l d I h a v e d o n e to p r e v e n t
the spread of chaos? 7
pleaded the facilitator. I n e v i t a b l y he was
s w a m p e d w i t h suggestions, i n c l u d i n g trenchant interpretations of the
w a y w a r d y o u t h ' s u n c o n s c i o u s n e e d — a s s i g n a l l e d b y his p h o n e p l a y —
for a less e x p o s e d f o r m of contact t h a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a live g r o u p .
Insisting that he h a d a l r e a d y tried m o s t of these ideas, the p l a y - w o r k ­
er at last realised that his p r i o r u n c o n s c i o u s v i s i o n of h i m s e l f as g r o u p
l e a d e r h a d b e e n of a tender, n u r t u r i n g , entirely ' m a t e r n a l ' figure.
However, exploring Winnicott's conceptualisation of the father
a l l o w e d h i m to i n c o r p o r a t e other, ' p a t e r n a l ' qualities, w h i c h h e l p e d
t o u g h e n his relationship w i t h the y o u n g s t e r s . T h r o u g h d r a w i n g o n a
stronger, m o r e ' p a t e r n a l ' part of himself, the b o y s e x p e r i e n c e d a m o r e
satisfactory c o n t a i n m e n t .
If there is a failure i n the structure of this s t r o n g - e n o u g h i n t e r n a l
' h o m e ' , W i n n i c o t t suggests, then:

C h i l d r e n d e p r i v e d of h o m e life m u s t either be p r o v i d e d w i t h
s o m e t h i n g p e r s o n a l a n d stable w h e n they are yet y o u n g e n o u g h
to m a k e use of it to s o m e extent, or else they m u s t force u s later
to p r o v i d e stability i n the shape of a n a p p r o v e d s c h o o l or i n the
 Val Richards 211

last resort four walls i n the shape o f a p r i s o n cell. (Winnicott

1992: 119)

T h i s inexorable trajectory t o w a r d s the four w a l l s of a p r i s o n cell, as

a b e t t e r - t h a n - n o t h i n g ' h o m e ' for d i s t u r b e d youngsters, h i g h l i g h t s the
tenacious n e e d i n all of us for our e n v i r o n m e n t to reflect elements of
b o t h the o r i g i n a l m a t e r n a l h o l d i n g — a s i n W i n n i c o t t ' s picture of the
regressed adult p a t i e n t — a n d of the t o u g h - e n o u g h paternal f r a m e ­
w o r k , w h i c h w i l l w i t h s t a n d the i n d i v i d u a l ' s attempts to w r e c k the
w o r k i n h a n d , a n d i n d e e d the w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t itself.
T h u s , u p o n the educator, is p l a c e d the challenge of b e c o m i n g a facil­
itator, w h o b o t h h o l d s a n d contains, a n d w h o also continues the p r i v i ­
l e g e d task of m e d i a t i n g that reality first e x p e r i e n c e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l
i n its m o t h e r ' s arms:

T h e w o r l d , the w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t , nature a n d society, ' e d u ­

cates' the h u m a n b e i n g : it d r a w s out his p o w e r s , a n d makes h i m
grasp a n d penetrate its objections. W h a t w e t e r m e d u c a t i o n , c o n ­
scious a n d w i l l e d , means a selection by man of the effective world
w h i c h is concentrated a n d manifested i n the educator. (Buber,
q u o t e d i n Britton 1962)

Notes

1 'Mother' here such be taken to imply also any number of mother 'stand-ins', which might

indeed include the father.

2 This is in opposition to the more self-sufficient infant in Freudian and Lacanian theory.

 LIFELONG UNLEARNING

Trevor Pateman

M y U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y contains h u n d r e d s of m o d e r n books—mostly
s h e l v e d as ' P s y c h o l o g y ' — w h i c h h a v e the w o r d ' L e a r n i n g ' i n their
titles. It h a s just o n e b o o k w h i c h uses the w o r d ' U n l e a r n i n g ' : Julia
P e n e l o p e ' s Speaking Freely: Unlearning the Lies of the Fathers' Tongues
(1990).
T h i s is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g . P e o p l e w h o live i n acquisitive societies
w i l l t e n d to write b o o k s about h o w to acquire things, n o t h o w to get
r i d of t h e m , a n d this is w h a t a c a d e m i c psychologists h a v e also d o n e —
as a matter of the routines of their d i s c i p l i n e , of course, n o t of c o n ­
scious i d e o l o g y T h a t s a i d , i n order to a v o i d the trap of c o n s p i r a c y the­
ory, the rhetoric of l e a r n i n g p s y c h o l o g y is often transparent e n o u g h to
facilitate i d e o l o g i c a l d e c o n s t r u c t i o n . L e a r n i n g theorists, for e x a m p l e ,
c o n c e r n themselves w i t h things they call acquisition a n d retention, but
n e v e r w i t h giving away o r expulsion.
L e a r n i n g theorists are hoarders rather t h a n wasters.
N e v e r t h e l e s s there are b o o k s i n the l i b r a r y — e v e n m o d e m books—
w h i c h are i n fact, if n o t i n title, about unlearning. T h e y are s h e l v e d
u n d e r ' P s y c h o a n a l y s i s ' a n d ' R e l i g i o n ' , yet w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d as c o n ­
frontations w i t h theories of l e a r n i n g or w i t h the i d e o l o g y of l e a r n i n g
theory
W h a t I w o u l d like to d o i n this essay is to set o u t s o m e o f the w a y s
i n w h i c h w e u n l e a r n t h i n g s , a n d to stress the p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e of
the fact that w e d o u n l e a r n . M y a i m is to m a k e a start at r e s t r a i n i n g the
i m p e r i a l a m b i t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g theory, w h o s e designs o n c o l o n i s i n g the
mind are s u c c i n c t l y expressed i n the c u r r e n t p h r a s e 'Lifelong
L e a r n i n g ' . T h i s , to m e , seems a classic case of ' P r o d u c e r C a p t u r e ' .
T h o s e w i t h a v e s t e d interest i n L e a r n i n g ( p r i n c i p a l l y teachers) have
e n c o u r a g e d u s to forget U n l e a r n i n g as the other half of the dialectic of
c o g n i t i v e life.
 Trevor Pateman 213

II

T h e essays I w r i t e are sometimes rejected b y a c a d e m i c journals o n the

g r o u n d s that they read too m u c h l i k e the texts of i n f o r m a l talks. T h i s is
h i g h p r a i s e to m e , b u t since it is n o t so to others I w i l l b e g i n this p a p e r
w i t h s o m e t h i n g s u i t a b l y f o r m a l . It is a i m e d at b r i n g i n g the d o m a i n of
l e a r n i n g theories a n d the d o m a i n of u n l e a r n i n g t h e o r y ( w h i c h still
r e m a i n s to b e constructed) into a strictly s y m m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A l e a r n i n g theory is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the w a y s — f o r , presumably,
there are m o r e than o n e — i n w h i c h a p e r s o n or subject, S, w h o at a
p o i n t i n t i m e does n o t k n o w h o w to d o s o m e t h i n g , x, o r that s o m e ­
t h i n g , p, is the case, arrives at a state later i n time w h e r e they d o k n o w
h o w to x o r that p is the case. So S m o v e s , for e x a m p l e , f r o m n o t k n o w ­
i n g h o w to speak a first or a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e to k n o w i n g h o w to d o so,
or S m o v e s f r o m n o t k n o w i n g the K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s of E n g l a n d to
k n o w i n g that t h i n g .
A t h e o r y o f u n l e a r n i n g , o n the other h a n d , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the
w a y s i n w h i c h a p e r s o n or subject, S, w h o at a p o i n t i n time does k n o w
h o w to d o x o r that p is the case arrives at a state later i n t i m e w h e n they
d o n o t k n o w h o w to x o r that p. S o S m o v e s f r o m k n o w i n g h o w to
s p e a k a l a n g u a g e to not k n o w i n g h o w to d o so, o r f r o m k n o w i n g the
K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s of E n g l a n d to n o l o n g e r k n o w i n g that t h i n g .
H o w e v e r , before a n y o n e k n o w s w h a t is h a p p e n i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s —
at this p o i n t — w i l l h a v e i n d i c a t e d that the w o r d ' k n o w ' is b e i n g u s e d
h e r e generically, to s u b s u m e 'believe' (or v i c e versa), a n d so I a m n o w
i n d i c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y this o n their behalf.

Ill

Y o u m a y w e l l h a v e u n d e r s t o o d this little b i t of f o r m a l i s m — w h i c h is
n o w o v e r a n d d o n e w i t h — b y g e n e r a t i n g for y o u r s e l f a n e x a m p l e of a
w a y i n w h i c h u n l e a r n i n g occurs, a n d I w o u l d not b e s u r p r i s e d if the
e x a m p l e y o u c a m e u p w i t h w a s that oi forgetting. In any, case, forgetting
is m y o w n o p e n i n g e x a m p l e of a w a y i n w h i c h w e u n l e a r n s o m e t h i n g .
T h e r e is a l o t to b e s a i d about it, a n d here I a i m to b e n o m o r e t h a n
i n f o r m a l a n d suggestive.
Teachers ( a n d those w h o , like p o l i t i c i a n s , t h i n k f o r teachers) are
p l e a s e d w h e n y o u l e a r n s o m e t h i n g v e r y w e l l . A n d h a v i n g learnt s o m e ­
t h i n g v e r y w e l l is e v i d e n c e d b y n o t forgetting i t — i d e a l l y , n o t forget­
t i n g it ever. If w e taught c h i l d r e n their tables properly t h e n they w o u l d
214 Lifelong Unlearning

never—barring n a t u r a l disasters s u c h as A l z h e i m e r ' s Disease—forget

t h e m . A n d they w o u l d h a v e a teacher to t h i n k for that. L e a r n i n g is
g o o d , a n d s h o u l d a l l o w us to feel g o o d ; f o r g e t t i n g — o n the other
h a n d — i s b a d , a n d o u g h t to m a k e us feel b a d .
I w a n t to say, h o w e v e r , that this attitude is i r r a t i o n a l , e v e n i n the
d o m a i n o f w h a t w e l e a r n at school.
C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e , w h y it is that metric m e a s u r e m e n t is m a k i n g
s u c h s l o w progress i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . It is s i m p l y that p e o p l e
k n o w their I m p e r i a l m e a s u r e m e n t s so w e l l that they w i l l n o t a n d c a n ­
not forget them. T h e y are p r o u d of w h a t they k n o w , a n d are able to use
it f a i r l y effortlessly. A s a result E u r o c o m p u t a t i o n is still a lot further off
t h a n a single E u r o p e a n currency. It w i l l h a v e to w a i t for the l o n g r u n
w h e n w e are a l l d e a d . B u t h a d o u r s c h o o l s y s t e m b e e n less g o o d at
i n s t i l l i n g i n us o u r c r a z y m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m , w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n
able to forget it m o r e readily, a n d to m o v e o n to d e p l o y something
m o r e u s e f u l . A s it is, w e l i v e i n a society full of p e o p l e w h o are p r o u d
of k n o w i n g h o w m a n y f u r l o n g s there are i n a m i l e , a n d w h o are total­
l y u n w i l l i n g to forget it.
Interestingly, w h e n it c o m e s to the c o n d u c t of o u r p e r s o n a l l i v e s , the
v i r t u e s o f forgetting are m u c h m o r e frequently c o m m e n d e d , a n d the
fact that forgetting is r o o t e d i n attitude m u c h m o r e w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d .
W e c a n choose to forget things, a n d are often e n c o u r a g e d to d o so:
T o r g e t it!' is s t a n d a r d a d v i c e to the a g g r i e v e d . I m a g i n e t r y i n g that line
o n p e o p l e c o m m i t t e d to m a i n t a i n i n g that there are f o u r t e e n p o u n d s i n
a stone...
In o u r p e r s o n a l lives it is a fault to refuse to f o r g i v e a n d forget. I n
o u r p o l i t i c a l lives, too, w e are aware that it is m e m o r y w h i c h m a i n t a i n s
c o n f l i c t s — l i k e those i n N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d — w e l l b e y o n d their r a t i o n a l
duration.
L i k e w i s e , i n o u r c o g n i t i v e lives o u r m e m o r i e s (or zohat we know)
often p r o v e a n obstacle to e n g a g i n g p r o p e r l y w i t h the w o r l d a r o u n d
us. It is a c o m m o n p l a c e that w h a t w e see is often i n f l u e n c e d b y w h a t
w e t h i n k there is to see, w h i c h m i g h t be taken as a n a r g u m e n t for
t h i n k i n g less a n d w i t h less c o n v i c t i o n . W e s h o u l d p e r h a p s c a r r y o u r
k n o w l e d g e lightly, a n d a l w a y s be r e a d y to let g o of it.
S u c h ideas h a v e h a d at least one p e d a g o g i c a l e m b o d i m e n t , i n the
practices of m o d e r n i s t v i s u a l arts e d u c a t i o n — b r o a d l y , i n that p r a c t i s e d
or i n s p i r e d b y the B a u h a u s . If, for e x a m p l e , y o u force r i g h t - h a n d e d s t u ­
dents to d r a w w i t h their left, y o u d e n y t h e m the h a b i t of f a l l i n g b a c k
o n w h a t they a l r e a d y k n o w . C o m i n g f r o m a v e r y different b a c k g r o u n d ,
 Trevor Pateman 215

the c o g n i t i v e scientist D a v i d M a r r (1982) a r g u e d that the serious w o r k

of v i s u a l artists i n v o l v e s t h e m i n u n l e a r n i n g the routines of h a b i t u ­
a l i s e d seeing, a n d regressing f r o m 3 - D to w h a t h e c a l l e d ' t w o a n d a half
D ' v i s i o n . T h i s w a s w h a t C e z a n n e w a s t r y i n g to achieve t h r o u g h his
e n d l e s s r e p a i n t i n g of M o n t St V i c t o i r e ; l e a r n i n g i n order to forget, a n d
f o r g e t t i n g i n o r d e r to l e a r n .

IV

F o r g e t t i n g is o n e of the w a y s i n w h i c h w e e n d u p not k n o w i n g w h a t
o n c e w e d i d k n o w . It is a t e r m w h i c h covers b o t h the m e a n s e m p l o y e d
a n d the result: b y ' d o i n g forgetting' (as the e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s might
p u t it) w e e n d u p h a v i n g forgotten. W h e n w h a t w e k n o w has a n i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l c o n t e x t — a s w i t h r e l i g i o u s or p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s — f o r g e t t i n g often
takes the f o r m of lapsing. W e b e c o m e a l a p s e d C a t h o l i c , or l a p s e d m e m ­
ber of the L a b o u r Party. In these cases a loss o f interest ('a w i t h d r a w a l
of l i b i d i n a l energy') i n i t i a l l y disconnects us f r o m certain r o u t i n e p r a c ­
tices, s u c h as g o i n g to C h u r c h or p a r t y meetings, a n d m a y e v e n t u a l l y
result i n o u r forgetting the doctrines to w h i c h w e were committed—
forgetting, p e r h a p s , i n n o t so v e r y different a w a y f r o m w h i c h w e
m i g h t forget a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e as a result of never p r a c t i s i n g it.
L a p s i n g s e e m s , t o b e t e m p o r a l l y b o u n d e d : w h e n e n o u g h years h a v e
p a s s e d , y o u cease to b e a l a p s e d m e m b e r of the L a b o u r P a r t y a n d
b e c o m e instead s o m e o n e w h o was once a m e m b e r of the L a b o u r P a r t y
T h i s l i n g u i s t i c a l l y m a r k e d shift recognises that a real c h a n g e i n the
state o f one's relations to the object h a s o c c u r r e d . D i s e n c h a n t m e n t , loss
of f a s c i n a t i o n , d i s i n v e s t m e n t , are processes w h i c h e n d i n f u l l s e p a r a ­
t i o n f r o m the object. O u t s i d e s u c h o b v i o u s l y institutional contexts as
c h u r c h e s a n d parties, there are other k i n d s of l a p s i n g . O n e ' s r e a d i n g i n
a p a r t i c u l a r subject or of a p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r c a n lapse. T h i s is often
d e s c r i b e d negatively, as w h e n w e regret ' n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h ' the lit­
erature i n s u c h - a n d - s u c h a field. B u t e v e n here l a p s i n g c a n h a v e its
o w n p o s i t i v e d y n a m i c . I n d e e d , m y sense o f w h a t it is to l e a d a n i n t e l ­
l e c t u a l life p r o v o k e s m e to suggest that this o u g h t to i n v o l v e a great
deal of lapsing.
H o w e v e r , this c l a i m requires s o m e contextualisation a n d justifica­
tion.
T h o u g h I a m quite c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a d m i r i n g of those w h o r e m a i n
monogamous t h r o u g h o u t l o n g m a r i t a l relationships, I d e s p a i r o v e r
p e o p l e w h o r e m a i n w i t h the s a m e ideas, the s a m e theories, the s a m e
216 Lifelong Unlearning

subjects, t h r o u g h o u t their intellectual lives. O f t e n e n o u g h , it seems that

t h e y are l i v i n g off w h a t they b a n k e d i n their a c a d e m i c y o u t h . T h e y are
f a i l i n g to m o v e o n w a r d s a n d o u t w a r d s . Yet moving out is w h a t the
i n t e l l e c t u a l life is all about; it is w h a t m a k e s it a n a d v e n t u r e rather t h a n
a n e n t r e n c h m e n t . T h i s is n o t ( t h o u g h it c o u l d be) a n a p o l o g y for d i l e t ­
t a n t i s m — f o r w h a t the U t o p i a n socialist C h a r l e s F o u r i e r c a l l e d 'the b u t ­
terfly p a s s i o n ' . A n artist d o e s not start o u t w i t h a style, n o r d o e s a
w r i t e r start o u t w i t h a voice. Rather, they h a v e to achieve these things.
S i m i l a r l y , a n intellectual life does not start w i t h a v i s i o n , b u t has to
a c h i e v e one. A n d it is achievable o n l y t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t , not t h r o u g h
the reiteration of w h a t one r e a d i n one's y o t i t h . ( O n c e , for e x a m p l e , I
d i d k n o w ' W h a t M a r x S a i d ' , because I r e a d it fairly conscientiously.
N o w I h a v e l a p s e d a n d I n o longer k n o w . T h i s is h o w it s h o u l d be.)
W h a t is p o t e n t i a l l y s h o c k i n g i n this, I s u p p o s e , is the lack of reverence
it d i s p l a y s . B u t a l t h o u g h one s h o u l d p e r h a p s be careful i n one's treat­
m e n t of p e o p l e , one's treatment of ideas, theories, b o o k s , o u g h t to be
careless. T h e y are there for use, that's all. T h e r e is n o h a r m i n l a p s i n g ,
n o h a r m i n n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h e v e r y last jot a n d tittle that s o - a n d - s o
wrote.

B u t relatively painless forgetting a n d l a p s i n g are not a l w a y s p o s s i b l e .

S o m e things c a n o n l y be got r i d of b y m o r e o b v i o u s l y e x p u l s i v e a c t s —
those of rejection a n d repudiation. P e o p l e leave churches a n d parties b y
s t o r m i n g o u t o n t h e m , t u r n i n g a n g r i l y o n t h e m , k i c k i n g u p a great d e a l
of d u s t w h i c h r o u t i n e l y finds its w a y onto p u b l i s h e r s ' lists for a season
o r t w o . S o m e t i m e s , y o u c a n only, get r i d of s o m e t h i n g b y p u r g i n g
y o u r s e l f . T h i s is a traumatic w a y of u n l e a r n i n g f r o m w h i c h there are n o
i m m e d i a t e gains: n o n e w k n o w l e d g e a u t o m a t i c a l l y replaces that w h i c h
is r e p u d i a t e d a n d m o r e or less r a p i d l y u n l e a r n t .
Rejection and r e p u d i a t i o n often enough leave us wondering
w h e t h e r u n l e a r n i n g has really o c c u r r e d i n s o m e o n e . Sometimes it
s e e m s that the p e r s o n r e m a i n s attached, at s o m e l e v e l , to the ideas or
the i n d i v i d u a l s t h e y h a v e superficially, rejected. T h i s s u s p i c i o n is c o n ­
f i r m e d w h e n p e o p l e r e t u r n to the f o l d or r e t u r n to their partners. In
other w o r d s , s o m e rejections a n d r e p u d i a t i o n s are cases of w h a t F r e u d
c a l l e d ' n e g a t i o n ' (Die Verneinung). N e g a t i o n is n o t a f o r m of u n l e a r n ­
i n g ; it is s i m p l y a d e n i a l of w h a t one k n o w s a n d feels (cf. F r e u d 1925:
235-6). H o w e v e r , it m a y be i n t e n d e d to b r i n g about u n l e a r n i n g — t h a t
 Trevor Pateman 217

is, to b r i n g about a state i n w h i c h one really does not k n o w or feel the

thing denied.

VI

In s o m e w a y s less traumatic t h a n rejection a n d r e p u d i a t i o n is the

m u c h - s t u d i e d p h e n o m e n o n of conversion, i n w h i c h one m o v e s r a p i d l y
f r o m k n o w i n g o n e set of things to k n o w i n g another b u t i n c o m p a t i b l e
set, w i t h o u t a n y o b v i o u s i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d or process of u n l e a r n i n g .
In o u r p e r s o n a l lives, a n e q u i v a l e n t to c o n v e r s i o n m i g h t be the
e x a m p l e of a p e r s o n w h o m o v e s easily a n d q u i c k l y out of one h a p p y
or u n h a p p y r e l a t i o n s h i p into a n o t h e r — e q u a l l y h a p p y or u n h a p p y —
b u t w i t h a different p e r s o n . T h i s defies o u r sense that, b e t w e e n the
t w o , there o u g h t to be a p e r i o d of m o u r n i n g — a p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h
one l o o s e n s the o l d attachment before g o i n g o n to f o r m the n e w one.
(cf. F r e u d 1917: 243-5). O u r n o t i o n that m o u r n i n g o u g h t to intercede
g i v e s us s o m e i n s i g h t into the nature of c o n v e r s i o n . F o r if the p e r s o n
w h o m o v e s out of one r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d straight into another is s o m e ­
t i m e s accurately d e s c r i b e d as incapable of m o u r n i n g , t h e n the same
m i g h t be s a i d of the enthusiastic convert. Just as the f o r m e r lacks the
a b i l i t y to be w i t h o u t a partner, so the latter lacks the ability to be w i t h ­
o u t a set of g u i d i n g beliefs. Just as one cannot tolerate b e i n g alone, the
o t h e r c a n n o t tolerate b e i n g i g n o r a n t . In m y v i e w , the ability to be alone
a n d the ability to be i g n o r a n t are absolutely f u n d a m e n t a l not o n l y to
o n e ' s p e r s o n a l life, b u t also to intellectual l i f e — a thesis a r g u e d at
l e n g t h i n A n t h o n y S t o r r ' s interesting b o o k Solitude. As a mode of
u n l e a r n i n g , I g i v e c o n v e r s i o n l o w m a r k s , a n d I c o m m e n d those (start­
i n g i n the West w i t h Socrates—see P a t e m a n 1999) w h o h a v e s h o w n us
the v a l u e of the state of n o t - k n o w i n g , the v a l u e of i g n o r a n c e .

VII—EXCURSUS

I g n o r a n c e m i g h t also be characterised as a state of o p e n n e s s to n e w

i n s i g h t s , to n e w k n o w l e d g e . It is a resistance to closure. W h a t i n the
W e s t has c o m e to b e called ' m e t a p h y s i c s ' is n o w o n l y d o - a b l e w i t h i n a
space m a r k e d o u t b y s u c h resistance. 1 w i l l elaborate a bit o n this...
A fairly c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w has it that the domain of science
(physics) c o m p r i s e s e v e r y t h i n g c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h it is fairly clear w h a t
the questions are, h o w to go a b o u t a n s w e r i n g t h e m (the q u e s t i o n of
m e t h o d ) , a n d w h a t counts as a (good) answer. W h e n F r e u d c l a i m e d i n
218 Lifelong Unlearning

The Interpretation of Dreams that d r e a m s w e r e the ' r o y a l r o a d ' to the

u n c o n s c i o u s he w a s , a m o n g other things, strengthening h i s c l a i m to
b r i n g the vinconscious m i n d into the d o m a i n o f science, b y i d e n t i f y i n g
a s o u n d m e t h o d for a n s w e r i n g the questions w e m i g h t h a v e about it.
A c c o r d i n g , t h e n , to this c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w , the d o m a i n of meta­
p h y s i c s c o m p r i s e s e v e r y t h i n g o n w h i c h w e are unclear w h a t the ques­
tions are, h o w to a n s w e r t h e m , a n d w h a t o n earth is to c o u n t as a g o o d
a n s w e r . A r t i s t s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s of art h a v e often e n o u g h m a d e the
c l a i m that art c a n p r o v i d e a m e t h o d for m e t a p h y s i c s , w h i c h is p e r h a p s
m o r e a s s u r e d t h a n the p r a y e r a n d m e d i t a t i o n historically p r i v i l e g e d
a m o n g the major religions. W h i l s t d i f f e r i n g f r o m o n e another i n this
w a y , artists a n d believers m i g h t a g r e e — a n d , I think, w o u l d b e right to
a g r e e — t h a t the success of their m e t h o d s c a n n o t be w i l l e d , a n y m o r e
t h a n y o u c a n w i l l cleverness o r originality. It is a matter of luck o r
grace—depending o n w h e t h e r y o u r v i s i o n is secular o r r e l i g i o u s —
w h e t h e r , t h r o u g h art or p r a y e r o r m e d i t a t i o n , y o u c o m e u p w i t h s o m e ­
t h i n g w h i c h begins to focus a m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n or begins to p r o ­
v i d e the g l i m m e r i n g s of a m e t a p h y s i c a l answer. T h e results cannot b e
g u a r a n t e e d a n d , if s o u g h t for too h a r d , m a y e l u d e u s e v e n m o r e d e c i ­
sively. Y o u c a n n o t — a c c o r d i n g to this v i e w — s i t d o w n to w r i t e 'meta­
p h y s i c a l p o e m s ' . T h a t w o u l d b e to confuse m e t h o d a n d result. Y o u c a n
o n l y sit d o w n to write p o e m s , a n d it is n o t for y o u as their author to
d e c l a r e that they are s o m e m e t a p h y s i c a l lager i l l u m i n a t i n g the parts
w h i c h other arts cannot reach. T h a t is for y o u r readers a n d for poster­
i t y to feel a n d j u d g e . T h e a i m s of m e t a p h y s i c s are, b y d e f i n i t i o n , seek­
i n g to g a i n s o m e h o l d o n ultimate questions a n d answers. But those
s a m e a i m s c o m p e l it to h u m i l i t y i n its m e t h o d s . T h e w i l l to p o w e r —
m a n i f e s t i n the e x a m p l e I h a v e g i v e n as the d r i v e to c o n t r o l the results
of o n e ' s artistic efforts—is a n i n s u p e r a b l e obstacle to a c h i e v i n g the out­
c o m e s d e s i r e d . If art is i n d e e d the m e t h o d of m e t a p h y s i c s , then a suc­
cessful poem w i l l i l l u m i n a t e some d a r k corner of o u r existence,
w h e t h e r w e w i l l it o r not. Poetry, u n l i k e r h u b a r b , cannot b e forced.
A n d w h e n it is forced the p o e m itself is d r o w n e d out b y the h i s t r i o n ­
ics, the sophistry, of the poet. W e f i n d o u r s e l v e s l i s t e n i n g to the poet's
n e u r o s i s a n d n o t to i n t i m a t i o n s of the u n c o n s c i o u s o r the d i v i n e .
T h a n k s i n large measure to Plato's Socrates, the W e s t e r n intellectu­
al t r a d i t i o n is a n t i - s o p h i s t i c a l . F r e u d b e l o n g s to that t r a d i t i o n insofar as
h e r e c o g n i s e d a n d insisted that i n neurosis it is often e n o u g h b y o u r
o w n s o p h i s t r y that w e d e c e i v e ourselves. W e thereby d e p r i v e o u r ­
selves of s u c h insights as are actually w i t h i n o u r o r d i n a r y h u m a n
 Trevor Pateman 219

capacities to achieve. Instead, w e are b l i n d e d b y the rhetoric o f e m p t y

words .

VIII

C l o s e l y related to c o n v e r s i o n , b u t actually distinct, is the epiphany,

w h i c h is c a u s a l l y effective i n s w i t c h i n g u s f r o m o n e set of beliefs to
another. H o w e v e r , the e p i p h a n y is effective o n l y because s o m e inner
p r e p a r a t i o n o r w o r k h a s already b e e n d o n e — s o m e d o u b t or dissatis­
faction a l r e a d y exists, s o m e i n k l i n g that w e are l o o k i n g at things or
g o i n g at things the w r o n g way. Sometimes there m a y be n o m o r e than
a sense o f ' s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g ' .
E p i p h a n i e s are s o m e t i m e s b i g events i n p e o p l e ' s lives, t r a n s p o r t i n g
a b e l i e v e r f r o m o n e r e l i g i o n to another, or s w i t c h i n g a scientist f r o m
one t h e o r y to another. E q u a l l y , they c a n be quite m o d e s t events, the
k i n d of t h i n g teachers m a y h a v e r e a d about i n r o m a n t i c e d u c a t i o n a l
theory, a n d c a n h o p e for i n the c l a s s r o o m : events w h i c h s u d d e n l y c a p ­
ture a c h i l d ' s interest a n d l e a d the c h i l d into a s u s t a i n e d e n g a g e m e n t
w i t h s o m e t h i n g quite new.
E p i p h a n i e s c o u l d be better u n d e r s t o o d , b u t they t e n d to b e neglect­
e d o u t s i d e of w r i t i n g s o n religion, p e r h a p s because they c a n neither be
p r e d i c t e d n o r c o n t r o l l e d . A teacher c a n h o p e for t h e m , b u t c a n n o t e n g i ­
neer them. They enable fast-track unlearning a n d learning, and
because of this w e s h o u l d be m o r e grateful a n d m o r e interested i n
t h e m t h a n w e are.
T h a t I h a v e u s e d the w o r d ' s w i t c h i n g ' to describe e p i p h a n i e s s u g ­
gests that they m a y also have s o m e t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i t h the switches
s t u d i e d i n Gestalt p s y c h o l o g y T h e s e s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t of as
a p p l y i n g o n l y to t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d r a w i n g s — t h e i r m o s t t y p i c a l e x e m ­
plar. F o r instance, a s w i t c h is often i n v o l v e d i n s o l v i n g l o w - l e v e l p r a c ­
tical p r o b l e m s . W h e n I w a s a c h i l d , b o t h raspberries a n d strawberries
c o u l d b e h u l l e d — t h a t is, the central p l u g c o u l d be p u l l e d o u t b y
p u l l i n g o n the stalk. F o r strawberries, h o w e v e r , this is n o l o n g e r true:
m o d e m varieties are g r o w n for l o n g e r shelf-life a n d a n o n - p u l l a b l e
p l u g assists this. P u l l i n g o n the stalk, y o u s i m p l y m a k e a mess, b u t for
a l o n g time that is w h a t I d i d . T h e n I realised that the t h i n g to d o is to
treat a m o d e r n s t r a w b e r r y like a carrot: y o u h a v e to slice off the top...
T h i s is h a r d l y a n e p i p h a n y , b u t it is a s w i t c h , i n w h i c h a n o l d w a y of
g o i n g a b o u t things h a d to be unlearnt.
220 Lifelong Unlearning

IX

T h e r e is also a sort of opposite to the e p i p h a n y , w h i c h consists i n

u n p i c k i n g one's cognitive route u n t i l one locates the source of a n error.
L i k e A r i a d n e , w e j o u r n e y b a c k a l o n g the w a y w e h a v e t r a v e l l e d . It is a
c o m m o n e n o u g h w a y of f i n d i n g a mistake i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l c a l c u l a ­
t i o n , b u t occurs m o r e widely. It is o b v i o u s l y less d r a m a t i c i n its m a n i ­
festations t h a n c o n v e r s i o n or e p i p h a n y , but o u g h t n o t — f o r all t h a t — b e
n e g l e c t e d as a m e a n s of u n l e a r n i n g . There is n o t h i n g w h i c h says a pri­
ori that u n l e a r n i n g has to be a n u n m e t h o d i c a l business, e v e n if, as a
matter of fact, it often is.
A lot o f psychotherapists w o u l d be h a p p y to say that their w o r k
consists i n assisting p e o p l e to u n l e a r n h a b i t u a l w a y s of g o i n g about
t h i n g s , a n d that this i n v o l v e s g o i n g over real-life examples of p e r s o n a l
history, a l m o s t as if they were mathematical p r o b l e m s i n w h i c h a m i s ­
take has s o m e w h e r e been m a d e . Sometimes part of the therapist's
w o r k is to give a n a m e to the defective strategy b e i n g u s e d b y the
client. E r i c Berne's p o p u l a r b o o k Games People Play (1968) names
d o z e n s of s u c h strategies. C o m m o n sense h a d already n a m e d m a n y of
these: ' C u t t i n g off one's nose to spite one's face'; ' D o g i n a m a n g e r ' ;
' C r y i n g W o l f ! ' , a n d so o n a n d so forth.
In other w o r d s , o n e m i g h t s a y that the m e t h o d of A r i a d n e is o n e
w h i c h a i m s at d i a g n o s i s as w e l l as cure. If w e are asked ' W h e r e d o y o u
t h i n k y o u w e n t w r o n g ? ' , the q u e s t i o n d e m a n d s reflexive attention to a
precise step-by-step d e s c r i p t i o n of w h a t w e d i d w h i c h e n d e d u p w i t h
u s getting it w r o n g . T h e q u e s t i o n is m o t i v a t e d b y the belief that the
w a y w e w e n t w r o n g w i l l itself p r o v e to be s i g n i f i c a n t — p a r t of a repet­
itive p a t t e r n , p e r h a p s , whether i n the w a y w e d o maths, or i n the w a y
w e l e a d o u r lives. S o if w e say (for example): ' W e l l , I went w r o n g w h e n
I c o n c e d e d rather t h a n h o l d i n g m y g r o u n d ' , it is easy for the therapist
to f o l l o w w i t h the question: ' D o y o u often d o t h a t ? ' — w h i c h almost
s e e m s to p r o v o k e a n affirmative response. T h e therapeutic task is t h e n
c o n c e i v e d as i n s o m e sense l a y i n g bare the m i s g u i d e d character of the
patient's h a b i t u a l strategy, a n d i n f i n d i n g a w a y to enable t h e m , i n
f u t u r e , to a v o i d t y i n g the knot i n w h i c h they h a v e h a b i t u a l l y tied t h e m ­
selves. T h e therapeutic a i m is to b r i n g about a certain k i n d of u n l e a r n ­
i n g b y m e a n s o f careful u n r a v e l l i n g .
 Trevor Pateman 221

T h e gentleness of A r i a d n e ' s m e t h o d o f u n l e a r n i n g m a y s e e m s o m e ­
times t o o cautious, too liable to result i n m e r e l y p i e c e m e a l repairs o f
c o g n i t i v e structures. It does n o t g o to the root o f t h i n g s ; does n o t tear
u p a n d start over a g a i n . T h e r e is a m o r e r a d i c a l m e t h o d w h i c h asserts
the v a l u e of the b l a n k sheet, the v a l u e of s w e e p i n g a w a y the past, a n d
s t a r t i n g o v e r f r o m the g r o u n d u p w a r d s — i n a s l o g a n : I destroy and I
build (Destruam et Aedificabo).
T h e w o r l d s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o l o g y , as w e l l as of politics a n d
r e l i g i o n , h a v e a l w a y s k n o w n radicals w h o w a n t to k n o c k y o u (or it)
d o w n before they b u i l d y o u (or it) u p again. A n d n o t a l l o f t h e m are
m a d megalomaniacs, though some have been.
A m o n g the p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s , there are those w h i c h tell the therapist
n o t to b e satisfied u n t i l y o u h a v e c r i e d o r s c r e a m e d or a d m i t t e d to
d e p r a v e d lusts. T h i s seems to be c o m m o n e n o u g h k n o w l e d g e for it to
h a v e m a d e its w a y into a recent f i l m , Good Will Hunting, w i t h its d e p i c ­
t i o n of a therapist w h o s e coup de theatre is to m a k e h i s patient cry. O n c e
he has d o n e that, h i s job is all b u t over. W o u l d that it w e r e that s i m p l e . . .
T h e p a r a d i g m , h o w e v e r , for the ' d e s t r o y a n d b u i l d ' a p p r o a c h m a y
w e l l b e to p u t s o m e o n e t h r o u g h ' C o l d T u r k e y ' . I n the case of a d d i c t i o n ,
this m a y b e the m o s t e f f e c t i v e — p e r h a p s the o n l y e f f e c t i v e — a p p r o a c h
to u n l e a r n i n g , a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h a i m s at w h a t o n e m i g h t call total
unlearning.
T h e inherent danger, h o w e v e r , is that the patient goes totally to
pieces, c o n s e q u e n t l y C o l d T u r k e y is a route to u n l e a r n i n g o n w h i c h
o n e m u s t be m a s s i v e l y s u p p o r t e d . H e n c e , the structure of s u c h o r g a n ­
isations as A l c o h o l i c s A n o n y m o u s .

XI

C o l d T u r k e y , as a process v o l u n t a r i l y u n d e r t a k e n as a cure, is another

t r a u m a t i c f o r m o f u n l e a r n i n g , o f w h i c h yet a n o t h e r v a r i a n t r e m a i n s to
b e listed a n d b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d . T h i s is the u n l e a r n i n g b r o u g h t about
u n d e r c o m p u l s i o n , b y the i m p o s i t i o n o f sanctions w h i c h m a y escalate
a l l the w a y to b o d i l y torture. T h i s is the m u c h - s t u d i e d p h e n o m e n o n o f
brainwashing.
T h e o r i g i n o f a l l p u n i s h m e n t - i n d u c e d u n l e a r n i n g is to be f o u n d i n
s c h o o l s w h i c h , w o r l d - w i d e , for m o s t o f their existence, h a v e o p e r a t e d
o n the p r i n c i p l e that error c a n b e beaten o u t o f c h i l d r e n . A v e r s i o n ther­
222 Lifelong Unlearning

a p i e s are m e r e l y a m i n o r v a r i a n t o n this venerable t r a d i t i o n , o f w h i c h

P a v l o v p r o v i d e s the m o s t o b v i o u s m o d e m avatar. H o w e v e r , it is a tra­
d i t i o n w h i c h raises issues far too large a n d c o m p l e x for m e to e x p l o r e
i n this s h o r t study. I s h a l l s i m p l y list p u n i s h m e n t - i n d u c e d u n l e a r n i n g
as a t y p e w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n a n y c o m p l e t e c o v e r a g e of m y
topic.

XII

B y w a y of c o n c l u s i o n , I w a n t to b r i n g into focus t w o r e c u r r e n t motifs

of this essay. First of a l l , I h a v e i n m a n y places i n d i c a t e d that w e a l w a y s
s t a n d i n a n e m o t i o n a l relationship to w h a t w e know or believe.
K n o w l e d g e a n d belief are n e v e r ' c o l d ' . T h i s m e a n s that o u r feelings c a n
act to enable or frustrate b o t h o u r l e a r n i n g a n d o u r u n l e a r n i n g . T h e
p s y c h o l o g i s t ' s c h a p t e r o n ' M o t i v a t i o n ' c o u l d be greatly e n r i c h e d —
i n d e e d , replaced—by the m a n y chapters i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s o n o u r affec­
tive relations to o u r objects, i n c l u d i n g s u c h i n a n i m a t e objects as o u r
k n o w l e d g e , ideas, theories, beliefs, h u n c h e s , c o m m i t m e n t s a n d v a l u e s .
A l r e a d y , c o m m o n sense p r o v i d e s us w i t h a n e n t r y into u n d e r s t a n d i n g
this affective r e l a t i o n s h i p to o u r k n o w l e d g e b y a l l o w i n g us to s p e a k of
b e i n g p r o u d of o u r l e a r n i n g , jealous of o u r k n o w l e d g e , i n s e c u r e i n o u r
beliefs, tired of o u r o w n ideas, confident of o u r Tightness, u n w i l l i n g to
c o n c e d e w e m i g h t b e w r o n g , k e e n to k n o w m o r e , hesitant i n a p p l y i n g
w h a t w e k n o w . T h i s list is r e a d i l y e x p a n d e d .
S e c o n d l y , I h a v e at v a r i o u s p o i n t s l i k e n e d o u r relationship to ideas
to o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e . E v e r y d a y m e t a p h o r s r e c o g n i s e this
p a r a l l e l i s m also: w e c a n be w e d d e d to o u r ideas, be intellectual b u l l y ­
b o y s , h a v e a love-affair w i t h F r e u d , a n d so o n . Insofar as p s y c h o a n a l y ­
sis h a s v a s t l y e x t e n d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , it
c o u l d also e x t e n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o u r c o g n i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . We
m i g h t t h e n be able to see, for e x a m p l e , that the l u r e of a c c u m u l a t i n g
e d u c a t i o n a l qualifications is n o t so v e r y different f r o m a n i n v i t a t i o n to
m a r r y s o m e o n e for their m o n e y — e x c e p t , of course, that the m o n e y i n
this instance is o u r o w n .
I n terms of its content, this essay is about d i s p o s i n g of q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
rather t h a n about g a i n i n g t h e m . It is about w h a t w e once k n e w b u t
n o w k n o w n o longer. It has offered a t y p o l o g y of the w a y s i n w h i c h w e
may cease to k n o w a n d believe, sometimes finding s o m e t h i n g to
r e p l a c e w h a t is g i v e n u p (as i n conversion), s o m e t i m e s n o t (as i n for­
getting). It has also s u g g e s t e d s o m e m e r i t i n w h a t , a p p r o p r i a t i n g a
 Trevor Pateman 223

p h r a s e , w e m i g h t call, generically, losing it. T h e architect M i e s v a n der

R o h e once c a m e u p w i t h the m e m o r a b l e s l o g a n 'Less is m o r e ' (Hughes
1980: 168). M y p r o p o s a l is that s u c h m i n i m a l i s m has a p a r t to p l a y i n
o u r c o g n i t i v e life. W e s h o u l d n ' t w o r r y t o o m u c h about feeling that w e
k n o w less t h a n w e once d i d , or about l o n g p e r i o d s o f d o u b t a n d u n c e r ­
tainty i n w h i c h w e feel i g n o r a n t a n d u n a b l e to c o m e u p w i t h q u i c k
answers. T h e painter M a r k R o t h k o l i k e d to remark: 'Silence is so a c c u ­
rate' (Breslin 1993: 306). I t h i n k this is a phrase w o r t h remembering
w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the b r a s h p o l i t i c i a n or the e v e n brasher a c a d e ­
m i c w h o c a n p u t a s p i n o n e v e r y t h i n g , w h o has a n instant d i a g n o s i s
a n d a cure for all ills. S u c h q u a c k doctors s h o u l d r e m i n d us a l w a y s to
p r a y for a f u l l w o r d a n d a cautious t o n g u e .

This paper was first presented at a Faculty Seminar of the University of

Sussex Institute for Education, November 1998.1 would like to thank Duncan
Barf or d and Robin Morris for their encouragement and help.
 APPENDIX: QUOTATIONS A N DA P H O R I S M S

T h e f o l l o w i n g list of quotations o n the theme of l e a r n i n g w a s a s s e m ­

b l e d w h i l s t s e a r c h i n g for the title of this book. Because the great major­
i t y o f the f o l l o w i n g w e r e h a r v e s t e d f r o m the internet, n o c l a i m s are
m a d e as to their a c c u r a c y o r a u t h e n t i c i t y

** *

It is a m o n g the c o m m o n p l a c e s of e d u c a t i o n that w e often first c u t off

the l i v i n g root a n d t h e n t r y to replace its n a t u r a l f u n c t i o n s b y artificial
m e a n s . T h u s w e s u p p r e s s the c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y a n d t h e n w h e n h e lacks
a n a t u r a l interest i n l e a r n i n g he is offered special c o a c h i n g for his
scholastic c o a c h i n g for h i s scholastic difficulties.
— A l i c e Duer Miller

B y l e a r n i n g y o u w i l l teach, b y teaching y o u w i l l l e a r n .
— L a t i n Proverb

C r e a t i v i t y is a type of l e a r n i n g process w h e r e the teacher a n d p u p i l are

l o c a t e d i n the s a m e i n d i v i d u a l .
— A r t h u r Koestler

C u r i o s i t y is the w i c k i n the candle of l e a r n i n g .

— W i l l i a m A . W a r d (1921-1994), U S C o l l e g e A d m i n i s t r a t o r .

D o n o t confine y o u r c h i l d r e n to y o u r o w n l e a r n i n g , for they w e r e b o r n

i n a n o t h e r time.
— C h i n e s e Proverb

E d u c a t i o n is l e a r n i n g w h a t y o u d i d n ' t e v e n k n o w y o u d i d n ' t k n o w .
— D a n i e l B o o r s t i n (b.1914), U S H i s t o r i a n .

E d u c a t i o n is not f i l l i n g a bucket, b u t l i g h t i n g a fire.

— W i l l i a m Yeats

E v e n a thief takes t e n years to l e a r n h i s trade.

—Japanese Proverb
 Appendix 225

H e w h o is a f r a i d to ask is a s h a m e d of l e a r n i n g .
— D a n i s h Proverb

H e w h o is n o t satisfied w i t h h i m s e l f w i l l g r o w ; h e w h o is n o t sure of
his o w n correctness w i l l l e a r n m a n y things.
— C h i n e s e Proverb

H o w is it that so often... I get the feeling I've w o r k e d h a r d to l e a r n

s o m e t h i n g I a l r e a d y k n o w , or k n e w , once.
— L i n d a E l l e r b e e (b.1944) U S Broadcast Journalist

I h a v e l e a r n e d t h r o u g h o u t m y life as a c o m p o s e r chiefly t h r o u g h m y
m i s t a k e s a n d p u r s u i t s of false a s s u m p t i o n s , n o t m y e x p o s u r e to founts
of w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e .
— I g o r Stravinsky

I h a v e n e v e r i n m y life l e a r n e d a n y t h i n g f r o m a n y m a n w h o agreed
with me.
— D u d l e y Field Malone

I h a v e n e v e r m e t a m a n so i g n o r a n t that I c o u l d n ' t l e a r n s o m e t h i n g
from him.
—Galileo

I've k n o w n countless people w h o were reservoirs of l e a r n i n g , yet

never h a d a thought.
— W i l s o n M i z n e r (1876-1933) U S P l a y w r i g h t a n d A u t h o r

If a m a n w i l l b e g i n w i t h certainties, he s h a l l e n d i n d o u b t s , b u t if he
w i l l b e content to b e g i n w i t h d o u b t s , he s h a l l e n d i n certainties.
— F r a n c i s B a c o n (1561-1626)

In a time of drastic c h a n g e it is the learners w h o inherit the future. T h e

l e a r n e d u s u a l l y f i n d themselves e q u i p p e d to l i v e i n a w o r l d that n o
l o n g e r exists.
— E r i c H o f f e r (1902-1983) U S W r i t e r a n d P h i l o s o p h e r

It is a l w a y s the season for the o l d to learn.

—Aeschylus
226 Appendix

I r r e g u l a r i t y a n d w a n t of m e t h o d are o n l y s u p p o r t a b l e i n m e n of great

l e a r n i n g o r g e n i u s , w h o are often too f u l l to b e exact, a n d therefore they

c h o o s e to t h r o w d o w n their pearls i n h e a p s before the reader, rather

t h a n b e at the p a i n s of s t r i n g i n g t h e m .

— J o s e p h A d d i s o n (1672-1719) Essayist a n d P l a y w r i g h t

It is p a r a d o x i c a l that m a n y educators a n d parents still differentiate

b e t w e e n a time for l e a r n i n g a n d a time for p l a y w i t h o u t seeing the v i t a l

connection between them.

— L e o B u s c a g l i a (1925-1998) U S A u t h o r a n d E d u c a t o r

It is w h a t w e t h i n k w e k n o w already that often p r e v e n t s u s f r o m

learning.

— C l a u d e B e r n a r d (1813-1878) F r e n c h P h y s i o l o g i s t

T o b e p r o u d o f l e a r n i n g is the greatest i g n o r a n c e .

— J e r e m y Taylor

T h e r e is n o t a f l o w e r or b i r d i n sight, o n l y a s m a l l screen o n w h i c h lines

are m o v i n g , w h i l e the c h i l d sits almost m o t i o n l e s s , p u s h i n g at the k e y ­

b o a r d w i t h o n e finger. A s a l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , it m a y b e m e n t a l l y

r i c h , b u t it is p e r c e p t u a l l y extremely i m p o v e r i s h e d . N o smells o r tastes,

n o w i n d or b i r d s o n g (unless the c o m p u t e r is p r o g r a m m e d to p r o d u c e

electronic tweets), n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s o i l , water, s u n l i g h t , w a r m t h ,

the actual l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t is a l m o s t autistic i n quality, i m p o v e r ­

i s h e d sensually, emotionally, a n d socially.

—John Davy

T i l l a m a n c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r they be truths o r n o t , his u n d e r s t a n d i n g

is b u t little i m p r o v e d , a n d t h u s m e n of m u c h r e a d i n g , t h o u g h greatly

l e a r n e d , b u t m a y be little k n o w i n g .

— J o h n Locke

L e a r n of the s k i l f u l ; h e that teaches himself, h a s a fool for h i s master.

—Benjamin Franklin

L e a r n to u n l e a r n .

— B e n j a m i n Disraeli

 Appendix 227

L e a r n i n g . . . s h o u l d b e a j o y a n d full of excitement. It is life's greatest

a d v e n t u r e ; it is a n illustrated e x c u r s i o n i n t o the m i n d of n o b l e a n d
l e a r n e d m e n , n o t a c o n d u c t e d tour t h r o u g h a jail.
— T a y l o r C a l d w e l l (1900-1985) E n g l i s h N o v e l i s t

L e a r n i n g a n d sex u n t i l r i g o r mortis.
— M a g g i e K u h n (1905-1995) U S A c t i v i s t a n d S o c i a l W o r k e r

L e a r n i n g carries w i t h i n itself certain d a n g e r s because o u t of necessity

o n e has to l e a r n f r o m one's enemies.
— L e o n Trotsky

L e a r n i n g is w h a t m o s t adults w i l l d o for a l i v i n g i n the 21st century.

—Perelman

L e a r n i n g m a k e s the w i s e wiser a n d the fool m o r e f o o l i s h ,

— J o h n R a y (1627-1705) E n g l i s h N a t u r a l i s t

L E A R N I N G , n . T h e k i n d of i g n o r a n c e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the s t u d i o u s .
— A m b r o s e Bierce, The Devils Dictionary.

L o v e of l e a r n i n g is a pleasant a n d u n i v e r s a l b o n d , since it deals w i t h

w h a t o n e is a n d n o t w h a t o n e h a s .
— F r e y a Stark, F r e n c h - E n g l i s h T r a v e l Writer

M a n is the o n l y creature that dares to light a fire a n d l i v e w i t h it. T h e

reason? Because h e alone has l e a r n e d h o w to p u t it o u t .
— H e n r y J a c k s o n V a n d y k e , Jr. (1852-1933) U S C l e r g y m a n a n d A u t h o r

T e a c h i n g is m o r e difficult that l e a r n i n g because w h a t t e a c h i n g calls for

is this: to let l e a r n . T h e real teacher, i n fact, let n o t h i n g else b e l e a r n e d
t h a n l e a r n i n g . H i s c o n d u c t , therefore, often p r o d u c e s the i m p r e s s i o n
that w e p r o p e r l y l e a r n n o t h i n g f r o m h i m , i f b y l e a r n i n g w e n o w s u d ­
d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d m e r e l y the p r o c u r e m e n t of u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n .
— M a r t i n Heidegger

M e n l e a r n w h i l e t h e y teach.
—Seneca
228 Appendix

M o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n l e a r n i n g h o w to recall things is f i n d i n g w a y s to
forget things that are cluttering the m i n d .
— E r i c Butterworth

N e v e r l e a r n to d o a n y t h i n g ; if y o u d o n ' t l e a r n , y o u ' l l a l w a y s find

s o m e o n e else to d o it for y o u .
— M a r k Twain

N o c h i l d o n earth w a s ever m e a n t to b e o r d i n a r y a n d y o u c a n see it i n

t h e m , a n d they k n o w it, too, b u t then the times get to t h e m , a n d they
w e a r o u t their brains l e a r n i n g w h a t folks expect, a n d spend their
s t r e n g t h t r y i n g to rise o v e r those s a m e folks.
— A n n i e D i l l a r d (b.1945) U S A u t h o r

O n e p o u n d of l e a r n i n g requires ten p o u n d s of c o m m o n sense to a p p l y

it
— P e r s i a n Proverb

I g n o r a n c e of a l l things is a n e v i l neither terrible n o r excessive, n o r y e t

the greatest o f a l l ; b u t great cleverness a n d m u c h l e a r n i n g , if they be
a c c o m p a n i e d b y a b a d t r a i n i n g , are a m u c h greater m i s f o r t u n e .
—Plato

T e a c h i n g is the r o y a l r o a d to l e a r n i n g .
— J e s s a m y n West (1902-1984) U S A u t h o r

T h a t is w h a t l e a r n i n g is. Y o u s u d d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g you've
u n d e r s t o o d all y o u r life, b u t i n a n e w w a y .
— D o r i s Lessing

T h e b o o k w r i t t e n against fame a n d l e a r n i n g has the a u t h o r ' s n a m e o n

the title-page.
— R a l p h Waldo Emerson

T h e chief object of e d u c a t i o n is n o t to l e a r n things b u t to u n l e a r n

things.
— G . K . Chesterton
 Appendix 229

T h e eagle n e v e r lost so m u c h time as w h e n he s u b m i t t e d to l e a r n f r o m

the crow.

— W i l l i a m Blake

T h e l e a r n i n g process is s o m e t h i n g y o u can incite, literally incite, like a

riot.

— A u d r e L o r d e (1934-1992) U S Poet a n d F e m i n i s t

T h e m a n w h o is too o l d to l e a r n w a s p r o b a b l y a l w a y s too o l d to learn.

— H e n r y S. H a s k i n s

T h e p u r p o s e of l e a r n i n g is g r o w t h , a n d o u r m i n d s , u n l i k e o u r bodies,

c a n c o n t i n u e g r o w i n g as w e continue to live.

— M o r t i m e r A d l e r (b.1902) U S P h i l o s o p h e r , E d u c a t o r a n d E d i t o r

T h e real object of e d u c a t i o n is to h a v e a m a n i n the c o n d i t i o n of c o n ­

t i n u a l l y a s k i n g questions.

— B i s h o p Creighton

T h e trouble w i t h l e a r n i n g f r o m experience is that y o u never graduate.

— D o u g Larson

T h e w i s e are i n s t r u c t e d b y reason, average m i n d s b y experience, the

s t u p i d b y necessity a n d the brute b y instinct.

— M a r c u s Tullius Cicero

T h e r e is n o s u c h w h e t s t o n e , to s h a r p e n a g o o d w i t a n d e n c o u r a g e a

w i l l to l e a r n i n g , as is praise.

— R o g e r A s c h a m (1515-1568)

T h e r e is o n l y o n e t h i n g m o r e p a i n f u l than l e a r n i n g f r o m experience

a n d that is n o t l e a r n i n g f r o m experience.

—Archibald McLeish

W e l e a r n g e o l o g y the m o r n i n g after the earthquake.

— R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n (1803-1882)

W h o dares to teach m u s t n e v e r cease to learn.

— J o h n Cotton Dana

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240 Index

Bleandonu 98

INDEX
blurring 196

body 25, 28, 39, 40, 46, 47, 92,107, 108,111­

abstract 37, 43, 48, 52, 73, 74, 80, 85,103,
113,116-118, 138,144,146,150, 167,172,

145, 147, 163, 209

173, 177,178, 201, 206

abstraction(s) 15, 74, 85, 97, 98

Bollas, Christopher 89,190, 202-204

accommodation 60, 63
Bonaparte, Marie 24

acquisition 39, 98,168,175, 212

Bornstein, Steff 27

acting 45, 68, 73, 85,94, 99, 111, 112,141,

Bowlby 147

151, 201, 208

breast 47, 50, 51,106,107,109, 110,114,

action(s) 28, 31, 33, 45, 47, 53, 71, 74, 87, 94,
132-135,172, 197,199, 200, 206

99, 101-103,114,116,119,174,178,187,
bad 107,110

189, 199, 203, 208

good 50,110

addiction 137, 221

Brierley, Marjorie 147,148

adults, regressed 205

British Confederation of Psychotherapists,

affective relation 118

The 148,154

aggressive 54, 89,110,118,119,123

British Psycho-Analytical Society 143, 146­
Alcoholics Anonymous 221
148

Alexander, Franz 19,182

Brockbank 20, 22,

alpha function 85, 87, 90, 92,104, 105

Brown, Joanne 36

analytical psychology 64, 65, 57, 70

Bruner, Jerome 43-46

Anthony E.J. 44, 54, 64, 72, 217

business world 34

anthropology 144

anus 132
castration 24, 112,154

children 23, 24, 29, 33, 40, 43-45, 62, 64, 66,

anxiety(ies) 24, 25, 27, 36, 37, 39-42, 46, 56,

88-90, 98, 99,107,110,112-115,117-119,

72, 80-82, 95,106-108,113, 119-121, 123,

131, 148-150,152,181,186-188,190,199
126-132, 137, 196, 204, 207-210, 212, 220

basic 183, 186,191

Chomsky 77

apprehension(s) 50, 55, 73, 74, 77

Churchill, Winston 41

archetypes 65, 66, 70, 74, 76, 77

Cixous, Helene 178

Ariadne 220, 221

classical psychoanalysis 46, 47

Aristotle 36
clinical practice 27,139, 141,143,144,148,

assimilation 46, 57, 59, 60, 63

151,154

attachment 119,125,147, 217

clitoris 108,109,132

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

clues 29, 35

119
verbal 29, 31

attitude(s) 50, 56, 61, 74, 84, 91, 94,101,110,

visual 29, 31

112, 115, 124-126, 158,165, 214

cognition 47, 51, 53, 54, 80

attuning antennae 33
cognitive psychologist 42

audience 37, 51, 94, 198,199

cognitive science 35

autistic children 40
cognitivism 12, 42, 60

autistic spectrum 115

cognitivist 43, 57, 63

autobiography 175,176,189,190
cold turkey 221

collective unconscious 70, 74, 76, 77

Baldwin, James Mark 68

comprehension 50, 51, 73,162

behaviourism 12, 42, 58-60, 63

compulsory narrative 186

behaviourist 43, 57, 59, 70

concepts 18, 26, 37, 40, 60, 74, 76, 84, 85, 87,

belief 130,153,193, 220

90, 92, 104, 133, 161,164,192, 208

believe 11, 45,106,108,109,128,135,153,

concern and love 111

190, 213, 222

concrete 48, 73, 74, 80, 95, 97,114,119,122,

Berne, Eric 220

195, 196, 201, 203

beta elements 85, 92,102,104

condensation 160,166,170

Bion, Wilfred 13, 26, 84, 85, 87-98,101-105,

conditioning 58, 60, 63

133-135, 144

 Index 241

coniunctio 71, 72, 81

directed thinking 67-69, 74-76, 79, 80,

conscientizacao 94,103,104
Discourse of the University 34,152,158,165

conscious 12, 30, 45, 46, 54, 67, 70, 72, 74-78,
Discourse of the Master 152,165

80, 82, 87, 95,107, 108, 114, 126, 151,

discourse theory 140, 153

179, 202, 203, 205, 209, 211, 212

disintegration 88,122,

conscious system 76
displacement(s) 160, 166, 171,194,197

conscious thinking 41, 45, 68,177

double chain 161

consensus 80, 90,170

dreams 45, 46, 74, 77, 87, 91,150,168,196,

contact barrier, the 87, 90, 92

296, 218

container/contained 89, 90, 96,101,102,105

dynamics 21, 26, 27, 36, 37, 74, 77, 78, 87,

container/contained (or M,F) 87, 89

124,127,150

containment 96,150, 210

control 23, 26, 59, 78, 80, 82, 95,113,127,

eating 51, 53, 54, 62, 104, 121

147,158, 162, 163, 165, 166,170, 177,

Ebbinghaus 19

180,181,185,186,189,197, 210, 218

education 12-14,17-20, 23-26, 31-34, 36, 37,

Controversial Discussions, the 144,146-149,

57, 59, 61, 62, 72, 80, 84, 85, 94, 97,

151,152,155
102-104,154,169-172,174,190,195, 211,

conversion 217, 219, 220, 222,

214, 221, 223

counter-transference 71, 72,142

educationalist 44, 46, 84, 101

creation 156,167, 169,177, 178

educators 41, 42, 56

creative 36, 56, 72, 75, 77, 82, 96,120,145,

ego 26, 34, 35, 47-50, 52, 54, 55, 58-62, 66-68,

173,178, 188, 191, 192, 197, 201, 204, 206

70, 82, 91, 109, 110, 114, 115, 118, 157,

creativity 13,18, 24, 35, 58, 65, 72, 82, 140,

178,192

174,186,188,192,194,195
authentic 157

crib 143
body 92

criterion of judgment 69
deceiving nature of the 26

critical faculty 178-181,188, 189

discriminating 178

cross-modal exchanges 28, 40

learning 80, 81

culture 26, 57, 70, 77, 78,139, 144, 145

over adapted 82

cure 95, 140, 152, 153, 220, 221, 223

pleasure 50, 51, 53, 54, 58

curiosity 23, 24, 41, 42, 79-81, 106, 107, 113,

reality 50, 51, 53, 58

114,118, 119, 123, 125, 129

ego-strength 68, 72

fimile 19

daddy 117,120,121
emotions 27, 57, 64,162,176,181,189,199,

death drive 79
201, 202

death instinct 62, 106, 109

empathy 118, 201

de-egoisation 178
Empiricist 130,131, 133

deintegration 66, 70
enlightenment 19, 34, 75

depressive 111, 131

enunciation 170,171

depressive position 88, 89, 92, 95,109-111

envy 92,112,127,129,132,141

Descartes 93
epiphany 219, 220

desire(s) 13, 25, 35, 60, 61, 82, 91, 95, 99,112,
epistemology of practice 21

113, 116, 132, 153, 156, 158, 167-174, 188,

epistemophilic instinct 92,107, 108,112, 113,

196
129

despised image 185

essentialist 22, 182,192

destroy and build 221

evolution 11,12, 84, 85, 87, 90, 93-95, 102,

Dewey, John 19, 20

104, 127, 161

dialogue 64-66, 69, 74, 75, 80, 85,101-104,

expansive 183,185-187,189

175, 176, 189

expulsion 117, 144, 212

Dick 115-118
extravert 69, 74

Die Verneinung 216

direct threat 25
faeces 117,125

directed (thinking) 53, 68, 70, 72, 79

Fairbairn, W.R.D. 106, 130

242 Index

False Personality 205

Green, Andre 93, 98

false self 205-207

Grigg 154

familiarisation 52, 53
group facilitators 27

fantasy(ies) 36, 66, 74-79, 84,108,155,165,

groups 17, 24, 26, 27, 36, 81, 82, 90,143, 146,

176,184,195,198, 201
149

father 37, 77-79, 91, 106, 108, 111-113, 115,

guilt 25, 39, 111, 113,114,116,118, 124, 127,

116, 118, 119, 123,127-129, 132, 172,

129

209-211

fear of exclusion, the 148

hate 106,128, 174, 185, 186, 194, 201

fear of independent thinking, the 148

heterosexuality 109

feeling tone 176

Horney, Karen 14,146,173,182-188,190,

feelings 37, 57, 73,106-108, 111, 113,114,

191

122,123,126, 128-130,150 176,181,189,

human behaviour 159, 163,164, 167,168

222
humanism 12, 42, 57

femininity phase 109,112,113, 116, 132

humanist 18, 43, 60, 62, 63

feminism 144
Huxley, Aldous 160

Fenichel 25

Ferenczi, Sandor 62,144

idea(s) 12,15,16,18,19, 24, 26-28, 32, 34, 36,

Ficino 18
37, 47, 50, 51, 55, 56, 60, 68, 79, 88, 89,

fiction 175,177-180, 188-190

95, 107, 109, 110, 121, 140, 149, 161,164,

fictional autobiography 174, 189,190

170,182, 200, 202

fictional narrator/character 179,181

idealised image 184,185,188

figure(s) 13,14, 85, 111, 148,165,196,198,

idealist 130

199, 201, 209, 210

identification 25, 29, 54, 55, 88, 89, 92,105,

find 14,17, 26, 30, 36, 51, 55, 57, 71, 76, 81,
114,116,125-127, 201, 206

100,101, 111, 133,137,142,148,153,156,

identity 48, 62, 128,132, 175-177, 179-182,

175, 179-183, 185,189, 209, 218

184-186, 189, 201, 209

fitness 11
illusion 61,157,194-197,199, 201, 204,

fitness, physical 11
206-208

fixed thoughts 133

images 46, 67, 70, 71, 74,118,130, 161, 185

Fordham, Michael 65-67

imaginary characters 201

forgetting 14, 95,140, 213-216, 222

imaginary, the 169, 209

Foulkes, S.H. 26
imaginary trace 168

Four Discourses 34
imagination 13, 18, 58, 75, 79, 164, 176-179,

framework narrator 179,180

184,185,187,188,191,198, 199, 201,

freedom 95, 177, 184, 210

203, 206

Freire, Paolo 13, 84, 91, 94, 97, 98,101-104

imaginative body 178

Freud, Sigmund 13, 24, 26, 30, 35, 38, 39, 41,
imaginative playing 209

45-51, 54, 55, 58-60, 62, 84, 91, 92,106,

imitate 67,149

108, 109, 112, 132,143, 144,146,147,152,

imitation 28, 50, 201, 206

153, 158,167, 169, 171, 172,177,182,

impossibility 152, 174

216-218, 222
impossible profession 61

Freud, Anna 23, 24, 146

impotence 25,152

Froebel 19
inertia 79

Information Processing/IP 76, 77

gap 35, 59, 122

innate aggression 106

gender 18, 21, 22, 37, 38, 112, 144

inner vision 188

genital impulses 108

inspiration 29, 95

Gestalt Psychology 159, 219

intellectual enjoyment 38

Gilligan 22
intellectual inhibition 23-25

giving away 212

intelligence 12, 23

Glover, Edward 146-148, 155

intentions 164, 198

Gnostics, The 92
interior 176

 Index 243

internal space 177 - 79, 209

Laplanche & Pontalis 47, 48, 54, 62

International Psycho-Analytic Association

Lashley 20

146,148
Lave, Jean 21

interpretation(s) 18, 39, 45, 70, 84, 95, 97,

learn, desire to 60, 99

105, 118, 1121, 143, 153, 155, 160, 163,

learning 20, 22, 27, 36, 42-44, 53, 54, 57, 60,

164, 196, 202-205, 210, 218

67, 78, 81, 83, 93, 100, 109, 136,137

intrinsic potentialities 182

about 54, 78, 83, 93,137

introjecting 109
active theory of 67

introvert 69
attuned 27

introverted thinking 70
barrier to 100

intuition 75, 79, 89, 93, 95, 117

blockages in 44

investigation 19, 29, 42 = 44, 53,123,173

categories of 22

IQ 44
difficulty 43, 44, 53, 81

experience 20,136

Isaacs, Susan 146, 148,155 inhibition of 109

orientations to 22

jokes 38
situations 36, 42, 57, 60

Jones, Ernest 24,147

strategies and approaches 22

jouissance 40,164,168,169,172,173
legitimate peripheral participation 21

judgment(s) 31, 49 - 51, 53, 68, 69, 72,138

less is more 143, 223

Julian of Norwich 92
lies 13,17, 57, 91,150, 161,163,169,174, 212

Jung, Carl 13, 64-72, 74-77, 79, 144,147,177

life solutions 183-186

K 91, 93, 97
life, psychical 21, 36

K activity, the 97
Liss, Edward 39

Kant 92, 133

Locke, John 19

Kernberg, Otto 140, 154

love 29, 34, 42, 52, 62, 64, 106, 111, 113, 115,

Klein, Erich 24
124, 126, 156,172,174,183,194, 204,

Klein, Melanie 13, 23-25, 36, 84, 92,106-109,

209, 222

111, 112,114-118,123,129-133,135,143,
love, fear of losing 25

146, 148, 152, 192, 197

loving 52-54, 62, 107, 110, 111, 116, 131, 173

know 11,18,19, 23, 31, 32, 35, 36, 53, 64, 82,

93, 97, 107, 108, 113, 114, 120, 121, 123,

madness 195

133, 142-144, 154, 162, 163, 165, 168, 171,

Mahler, Gustav 24

172, 174, 213-217, 222, 223

manipulation 29, 75, 171

knowing 21, 35, 91, 97, 98, 103, 166, 213-215,

Master 151-153, 160,165,166

217
master signifier 131

knowledge 11,15, 19, 21, 22, 25, 30, 34-37,

matched actions 28

39, 43, 51, 56, 58, 60, 63, 64, 68, 70, 72,
matriarchal 37

73, 75, 78, 80, 94, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 98,
McGill 20, 22

103, 108, 113, 117, 118, 131-136, 140, 141,

meaning(s) 12, 24,39, 61, 64, 66, 68-70, 72,

145, 147,151,153,156-158,165,167-169,
73, 75, 77, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90, 92, 93, 95,

171-174, 203, 204, 214, 216, 217, 221, 222

102, 115, 118, 145, 151, 154, 160, 162, 163,

Kohler 20
165-167, 170-173, 192, 195, 197-199,

201-208

Lacan, Jacques 13,14, 30, 32, 34-36, 40, 54,

memory 36, 93, 95, 214

55, 143, 144, 146, 150,152,153, 158-161,

mental pain 42

164-168,170, 172-174
mental representation 160

lack of being 168

mental space 125

language 13,15, 29, 34, 40, 44, 48, 50, 51, 52,
metaphysics 217, 218

55, 68-70, 77, 80, 103, 104,108, 113, 114,

metaphors 15, 92, 189, 222

130, 154,156, 158-162, 166-168,170,171,

metonymy 159-161,166,167,173

173, 209, 210, 213, 215

Mill, James 19

Langue 160
Mill, John Stuart 19

244 Index

Milner 177 - 180, 188, 191,196, 197

paradigmatic axis 160

mimicry 28
paradoxes 65, 67, 97, 138

mirror 55, 207

paranoia 35,105

mirror stage 54, 55

paranoid-schizoid 88

mirroring 193,194
paranoid-schizoid perspective 110

modernist 192, 214

paranoid-schizoid position 88, 92, 95, 109,

modes of functioning 73
111

Moraglia 76, 77
Parker, Theodore 14

mother 25, 27, 28, 33, 36, 37, 44, 47, 66, 70,
parole 159,160

71, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 95, 96,106-120,

patriarchal 37

124-129, 131-133, 172, 173, 184, 192-194,

Pavlov 20,163, 222

199-201, 205, 206, 208-211

penis 25, 109,111-114, 116-119, 121, 125-127,

motherhood 33
131, 132

mothering 33,125
perceptions 49, 66, 75, 77, 90, 91, 94,103,

mother's insides 113,114,120,125-127

104,106

motivation 22, 52, 56, 64,141, 222

Perelberg, Josef 154

mourning 131, 217

personal records of achievement 26

moving out 216

personality, divided 205

multiple vertices 87, 90, 97,100

perversity 108,120,123

mummy 117,120,121
phallic phase 132

myth-making 77
phantasy(ies) 13, 25, 37, 45-47, 49-58, 60, 62,

myths 77, 78, 157

89, 106, 107,110-113, 116-119, 125, 126,

130,131,135,153,155, 197

narcissism 109,147, 156

phantasy management 56

narrators 176, 179, 180, 187, 189

phenomena 32, 38, 78, 85,168, 194-196, 203

National curriculum 82
phobia(s) 137

nature/nurture 65,130
Piaget, Jean 60, 159, 160,163, 207

negation 53, 216

Plato 18, 92, 218

negative capability 95
Platonic 130. 132 - 135

negative reinforcement 58
pleasure(s) 38, 47-50,108,137, 138, 140,172,

neurones 48
173, 201

neuropsychology 21
pleasure principle 91

neurotic 44, 46, 53, 55,107,140,184,190

point de caption 165

neurotic claims 184

polymorphous perversity 108

no-breast 134
Pope, Alexander 18,19

nursing 40, 128

Popper, Karl 14, 149

possession 50, 93,151, 167,178,199, 201,

O 90, 91
202

object 13, 25, 43, 51, 58, 72,108-111,114,119,

post-Kleinian approach 36

127,131-134,145,151,152,156,157,161,
post-Kleinian model 36

162, 165,166,170,172-174,178,183,197,
preconscious 65

200, 202, 207, 208, 215

predicate 55, 58

choice 108,132
pre-emptive metaphor 43

damaged 117
prehension 73, 78

transitional 13,199-202, 210

Price, Heather 36

object-relating 109, 187

primary process 47, 49, 52, 58, 167

obsessional 39
primary process thinking 47, 53, 62

Oedipus Complex 90, 111, 112,131,132,142

primitive aliveness 194

Other, the 166, 173

process model 91

over-determined 146
projecting 68, 109

projections 119,128,199

pain 35, 42, 48, 91,102,103,115,135,137,

projective identification 87-89, 92,105, 125,

148, 187, 197, 206

126

paradigm 71, 74, 81, 85, 88, 92, 97, 201, 221
Ps <-> D 87, 88

 Index 245

psychiatry 113, 144

rejection 216, 217

psychical trace 160

relationships 69, 78, 80, 90, 94,97,104,113,

psychoanalysis 12-15,17, 22-27, 30, 32-35,

126, 131,154,158, 182,189,190, 214, 222

37-39, 41-44, 46, 47, 50, 57, 59-61, 64, 76,

repetition 18,19,130,171

84, 105, 130,136,138-147,149,150,

representation 91, 92, 98, 160, 161, 164, 168,

152-154, 160-162, 165, 169, 204, 210, 222

172, 173,195, 198, 207

psychoanalytic 12,13,15, 23, 25, 26, 30, 31,

repressed 65, 76, 77,107,151,171,184-186,

34, 36, 40-42, 44, 46, 50-54, 56-58, 60-63,

188, 203

84, 87, 90, 92, 93, 99,115,130,136,

repression 23, 44, 53

138-141, 143-145, 151, 152, 154, 176, 182,

repudiation 14, 201, 216, 217

192, 206
resigned 129,183

interaction 138
resistance 82, 217

theory 12,14, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 57, 60,
retained her faeces 124

72, 90, 93, 98-100,135,136,139,141,151

retention 125, 212

psychology 19, 20, 25-27, 39, 41, 63-67, 72,

reverie 89, 95

159-163, 168,180, 210, 219, 221

Riviere, Joan 146,148

psychotherapy 30, 56, 84, 98, 115, 119,

Rogers, Carl 60-62, 182

136-140,142,146, 148,152,154,189,197
rote-learning 18, 72, 210

psychotic 85,114,140, 195

Rousseau 19, 20

psychotic processes 87

sacrifice 25, 78

qualifications 222
sadism 24, 25,113,114,116,117,123,127,

quality 18, 28, 31, 58, 59, 96, 110, 136, 137,
129

172, 178
sadistic impulses 107,113, 116,125

quantities 45, 71, 80, 82, 106,113,126,127,

Salzberger-Wittenberg, Isca 36, 43, 46,149

130,158, 200, 210

Saussure 159-161,165

schizophrenic 115

racism 144
Schmideberg, Melitta 25,146

radicals 221
Schon, Donald 20, 21, 30, 31, 40

Rat Man 39
science 30, 34, 35, 77,140, 141, 157,158,

real 15, 20, 50, 51, 53, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69-71,
163-165,168-172, 217, 218

73, 75, 78, 79, 85, 93, 99, 106,115, 119,

scientific method 78, 162, 163, 165

125, 129, 153, 167, 168, 184, 194-196, 200,

Second World War 26,147,154

201, 209, 215, 220

secondary process 47, 57, 58

real self 182, 183,185-187,190

secondary process thinking 47-49, 52, 53,

real, the 152, 167-169, 172, 173, 209

194

Realist 130,135
security 133,194

reality 41, 45-47, 49, 50-55, 57, 58, 61, 67-69,

seduction 29

75, 84, 90-93, 97, 103,104, 106, 112, 115,

Segal, Hanna 114,115

116,119,130,131,135,148,153,168,169,
selected fact, the 87-89, 92, 95

171-173, 184, 194-197, 199, 201, 202, 204,

self 27, 47, 49, 60-62, 66, 68, 81, 88, 102, 104,

206-209
109, 111, 122, 126,129, 178,181, 184-194,

external 62, 87, 88, 90,103,104, 130, 131,

200, 201, 205-209

201
analysis 24, 26

internal 131
confidence 184,187

reality principle 91
effacement 184,185

reality-testing 51, 90
effacing 183-187, 189

reason 12,15, 45, 140, 150, 157, 158, 160,162,

regulation 159

170, 171
semiotics 197

refind 51
sessions 29, 31,117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 142,

reflective practice 20, 21

198

regression 37, 95,179, 206-208

sex 23, 106, 108, 121, 130, 137,144

Reich, Wilhelm 144

abuse 106, 130,144

246 Index

sexual curiosity 23,106

talking cure 140

life 137
teacher 11-15,17, 20, 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 32,

processes 108
41, 42, 44, 52, 58, 61-63, 72, 81, 84, 94-97,

sexuality 23, 38, 107-109, 120,15, 131,141,

99,103,150,172,196, 202-204, 206, 209,

154,182
210, 214, 219

sexually abused 122,123

teaching 9,10, 12,17, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29­
Sharpe, Ella Freeman 24,148,152,153
32, 24, 26, 41, 42, 56-58, 61, 62, 84, 93, 97,

short sessions 142

99, 100, 143-145, 149, 152, 163, 169, 171,

short-circuited cognition 47
172, 209

sign 160-163,165,195,198,199, 206

teaching, adult 41

significance 20, 25, 43, 44,102,161,163, 170,

technique 17, 21, 59, 84,147, 152, 177

198
Tennant, Mark 41

signification 160-162,165,166,169-171,173
The Grid/Grid 85, 87, 94, 97,101,104,105

signified 161,165 - 168

theory 12,17,19, 34, 35, 38, 43, 52, 54, 57, 58,

signifier(s) 34, 40, 61,114,151,160-162,165,

65, 69, 70, 74, 81, 85, 91-93, 98-101,107,

166, 168, 169, 171, 173,199

109, 123, 131-135, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145,

silence 198, 223

155, 158, 161,165, 182, 187, 190, 200,

skills 19, 33, 60, 98,173,189

211-213, 219

sociology 144,154
thinking 17,19, 26, 29-31, 34, 36, 41, 45-49,

Socrates 217, 218

52, 53, 57, 60, 66-72, 74-80, 82, 84, 85,

soma-psychotic 85
87-89, 91-94, 96, 98,100-104,107,130,

sound-image(s) 160,161
133-136, 141,142, 147, 148, 154, 156, 158,

speaker 37
175-177, 214

special rewards 25
Thorndike 20

speculative systems 35
totality 48,159,190

speech 34, 40, 68, 74, 108, 114, 159, 160, 167,
tradition 18, 92,130,141, 142,144-146, 148,

170,173
149,151,152,155, 218, 222

spiritual life 178

training analysis 139,154, 155

splitting 88, 92,109,110, 126,144, 205

training experience 149

St Augustine 92
transference 27, 34, 35, 71, 72, 127, 131,153,

Steiner, Rudolf 19,146, 148,153,154

203, 206

Stern, Daniel 27-29

transformation(s) 71-73, 75, 78, 84, 87, 90,

Stock-Whitaker, Dorothy 26
91, 99, 102,103, 105, 159, 160, 202

subject 11,14,19, 30, 34, 46, 52, 54, 57, 58,

transitional 13,177,194-197,199-203, 210

62, 87, 99,129,153,177, 215

transitional space 177

subject (in the context of a person) 44, 103,

trauma 106,140

141,151, 157, 166-174, 208, 215

Troyes, Chretien de 36

surface 22, 30,176, 202

true self 203, 205

switching,186, 219
true word 101,102,104

symbol formation 114-118, 196, 200

truth 14, 34, 42, 53, 88, 91, 93, 97, 102, 105,

symbol, meaningful 208

130,151,156-158,163,168,169,171, 172,

symbolic
174

equation 198, 206, 208

meanings 204
unconscious contents 178,189

representation 73,168
unconscious knowledge 108, 131,132

symbolic, the 168, 172, 173,195, 197, 201,

unconscious phantasy(ies) 41, 44, 46, 47, 52,

206, 210
55, 89, 96, 106,109, 110, 125, 126,130,

symbolisation 118,198, 205

147

symbols 195, 199, 208

unconscious, the 25, 38, 44, 45, 53, 71, 74-77,

Symington, J. 91, 92
89, 104, 107, 158-161, 163 164, 166-172,

Symington, N. 91, 92
174,176-179,184,189, 202, 205, 206, 218

understanding 12,13, 24, 27, 29, 34, 36-39,

42, 43, 46, 55, 56, 61, 62, 72, 73, 75, 94,
95, 97-99,101,103,104,108,115,121,
141,149,153,154,161,162,182,183,
185,192, 202
undirected (thinking) 67, 75, 76
United Kingdom Council for
Psychotherapy 148, 154
unlearning 14, 212, 213, 215-217, 219-222

vagina 108,109,114,131,132
vertex 90
Vico, Giambattista 92, 93
voice 14,109,157,175,176,180,181, 187,
190, 216

Watson 20
Wenger, Etienne 21
Williams, Raymond 14,144, 149,152
Winnicott, Donald 10,13, 62,106,109,177,
188,190,192-197, 199-211
wit 14, 38
without-me 178
Wittels, Franz 23
Wittgenstein 93
Wolff 42, 60
womb-space 177
world, external 47, 50, 51, 101, 102,106
world, internal 13, 37, 106, 110, 131,192
words 19, 33,102,107,108,114,115,117,
119, 120, 1440,, 143, 149,150, 153,155,
156, 162,166, 170, 173, 176, 198, 208, 219
writing 15, 32, 33, 38,42, 84,120,140,
175-181,188-190, 201, 207

creative 14, 175, 176, 178-181, 189, 190

free 176, 177

identity 175-77,179,180,182,189

voice 175, 176

with the body 178

writing course, creative 180,181

Learning is the most basic means by which we
can change ourselves. Of all the activities of the
mind, learning is perhaps the most fundamental,
yet one of the most provocative and difficult to
understand.

This book contains ten new essays by

educationalists, psychotherapists and academics,
who confront the many problems associated
with the mystery of learning. What is learning?
How are ideas 'transmitted from one mind to
1

another? What makes a good teacher?

Chapters are devoted to theories of learning

implicit in the work of Freud, Jung, Klein, Bion,
Winnicott, and Lacan. Other topics explored
in this comprehensive and thought-provoking
collection include how to teach
'psychoanalytically'; the links between learning
and 'writer's block'; and the problems inherent in
teaching psychoanalysis itself.
Cover design and image
by Julia Ingle

KARNAC BOOKS
6 PEMBROKE BUILDINGS
LONDON NWIO 6RE
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
ISBN I 85575 286 7