Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering On The Quality of Tofu Sheet

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Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering on the Quality of

Tofu Sheet
a a d b b c
Bin Xia , Da-Wen Sun , Li-Te Li , Xiu-Qu Li & Eizo Tatsumi
a
FRCFT Group , Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering , University College
Dublin , National University of Ireland , Dublin, Ireland
b
School of Food Science and Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing, China
c
Japan International Research Centre for Agricultural Sciences , Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
d
FRCFT Group , Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering , University College
Dublin , National University of Ireland , Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland
Published online: 04 Sep 2006.
To cite this article: Bin Xia , Da-Wen Sun , Li-Te Li , Xiu-Qu Li & Eizo Tatsumi (2003) Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering on
the Quality of Tofu Sheet, Drying Technology: An International Journal, 21:1, 129-145, DOI: 10.1081/DRT-120017287
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/DRT-120017287
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DRYING TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 129–145, 2003
Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering on the

Downloaded by [University of Winnipeg] at 06:26 23 August 2014
Quality of Tofu Sheet
Bin Xia,1 Da-Wen Sun,1,* Li-Te Li,2 Xiu-Qu Li,2

and Eizo Tatsumi3
1
FRCFT Group, Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering,
University College Dublin, National University of
Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
2
School of Food Science and Engineering, China Agricultural
University, Beijing, China
3
Japan International Research Centre for Agricultural Sciences,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
ABSTRACT
As a new dewatering technology with high efficiency and energy

saving, electro-osmotic dewatering can be applied to food processing.
The objective of this work was to study the effect of combined field
dewatering (CFD) involving electro-osmosis and mechanical
pressure on the quality of tofu sheet. Combined field dewatering
*Correspondence: Da-Wen Sun, FRCFT Group, Department of Agricultural

and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, National University of
Ireland, Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland; Fax: þ353-1-475-2119; E-mail:
dawen.sun@ucd.ie.
129
DOI: 10.1081/DRT-120017287 0737-3937 (Print); 1532-2300 (Online)

Copyright & 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com
130 Xia et al.
was performed on the dewatering process of tofu sheet for 10 to

30 min at a voltage ranging from 30 to 50 V under various pulse-
time ratio (tþ ¼ 120 s, t ¼ 5 s) electric field and 0.047 MPa pressure
field. The texture and structure of tofu sheet after treatments were
examined by a rheometer and scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The result showed that the three quality indexes, i.e., hardness,
tensile strength, and ductility of tofu sheet near the anode were
45%, 30%, and 12% higher respectively than those dewatered by
common mechanical pressure method. However, those near the
cathode were 15%, 25%, and 10% lower respectively. When the
electric field was applied for 10 min at 30 V, these indexes reached

their maximum values. Meanwhile, the tofu sheet structure near
the anode was more compact and homogeneous than that near
the cathode. The result indicated that CFD could enhance the
quality of tofu sheet.
Key Words: Combined field dewatering (CFD); Dewatering;

Electro-osmosis; Electro-osmotic dewatering (EOD); Mechanical
pressure; Tofu sheet; Quality; Scanning electro microscope (SEM);
Zeta potential.
INTRODUCTION
Soy foods are generally regarded as one of the most healthy foods
as they are easy to digest, low in calories, high in protein and low in
cholesterol, and they can reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer.[1]
The number of consumers who consider soy and soy products to be
healthy has continued to rise significantly.[2] Tofu sheet, as a kind of
soy foods, is very popular in East Asia region including China. Manual
production is still the common way of making tofu sheet, and the tofu
sheet is dewatered by mechanical pressure. However, pressure dewatering
has the disadvantage of low efficiency and casual quality variation.
Usually, there is no quality index for these types of tofu sheet and
the quality control is mainly based on the experience of the worker.
This will hold back the development of tofu sheet process. Therefore,
it is necessary to improve the processing technology with standard
mechanical technique.
Electro-static phenomena and electro-dynamic phenomena have
been widely studied in many research areas,[3–8] especially in drying
technology.[9–18] Electro-osmosis, as a kind of electro-dynamic phe-
nomena, has been used in environmental engineering for dewatering
Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 131
those materials with fine particles such as soil, sludge, and clay.[19–34]
Many investigations about the influence of operating conditions such
as voltage and electric current on electro-osmotic dewatering have been
carried out.[35–40] A few studies have been done to enhance the dewatering
efficiency.[41–44] However, it is only a few years ago that electro-osmotic
dewatering combined with mechanical pressure which is also called the
combined field dewatering (CFD) began to be applied to the food
processing industry. Several studies have been carried out on the electro-
osmotic dewatering of bio-materials. Lightfoot and Raghavan[45] inves-
tigated the effect of electro-osmosis on the dewatering of seaweed. It is

found that electro-osmosis significantly improved conventional pressure
dewatering of kelp and resulted in significant total energy savings over
the conventional method. Chen et al.[46] carried out laboratory experi-
ments on CFD of vegetable sludge and mine tailings, and the result
indicated that CFD technique was more effective than electro-osmosis
and pressure dewatering for vegetable waste sludge. Furthermore, Orsat
et al.[47,48] studied the combined field dewatering of vegetable waste,
brewer’s spent grain, apple pomace and bull kelp. Although the technique
of CFD involving mechanical pressure and electro-osmosis has been
significantly developed in the past few years, there is little study on the
effect of electro-osmosis dewatering on the quality of bio-materials.
Hardness, tensile strength and ductility are the three important quality
indexes of tofu sheet. High value of these three indexes will give
consumers better mouthfeel and overall acceptability. Therefore,
the objective of this work was to study the effect of CFD on the
quality of tofu sheet and processing efficiency, so as to improve
the development of mechanization and standardization of tofu sheet
processing and ultimately to obtain tofu sheet with a consistent and
desirable quality.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials and Sample Preparation
Soybean (Variety: KeFeng 6) was collected from Genetics Research

Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The soybean has a water
content of 12% (wet basis). Food grade calcium sulphate was purchased
from a local manufacturer (Shuang Huan Chemicals Ltd., Beijing,
China).
132 Xia et al.
The procedure of making tofu sheet was as follows:
. One kilogram washed soybean was soaked in tap water at room

temperature (25 C) for 12 h, the ratio of the soybean and tap water
was 1:3.
. The soybeans were then drained and ground at a speed of 1410 rpm
with distilled water (soybean:distilled water ¼ 1:9).
. The mash was drained with fine mesh polyester cloth and the
soymilk (600 g) was heated to 98 C and maintained for 5 min for
sterilization. Then the soymilk was cooled to 85 C.

. The coagulant of 2.4 g calcium sulphate (CaSO42H2O) was
dissolved in 5 mL of distilled water. The soymilk and the coagulant
were then poured into a beaker simultaneously to mix and the
mixture was stirred for 1 min.
. The mixture of soymilk-coagulant was put into a water bath at
80 C for 10 min to form the tofu.
. The coagulated tofu was minced in a blender and 150 g tofu mash
was put on a cheesecloth and wrapped.
. The tofu mash was dewatered with the combined field (electro-
osmosis and mechanical pressure).
. Tofu sheet was finally obtained after unwrapping the cheesecloth.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE
The experiment of combined field dewatering involving electro-

osmosis and mechanical pressure was performed with a lab-scale
apparatus designed by the author, which is illustrated in Fig. 1. It
consists of a frame (Fig. 2), an electric field generation system and data
acquisition system. Figure 2 shows that the electric field was only applied
on the left-hand side. In this case, the effect of electro-osmosis and mechan-
ical pressure can be compared. Each side of the frame was perforated for
draining. The two square electrodes were made of 40 mm thick titanium in
order to reduce the electrodes corrosion and pollution of tofu sheet. The
bottom electrode made of platinum is perforated with about 15 holes of
0.5 mm diameter. The timer, relay and DC power (as shown in Fig. 1)
can offer different pulse-time ratio electric field (Fig. 3), which was
designed to improve the electro-osmotic dewatering efficiency.[49] The
data acquisition system was used to record data of temperature, voltage,
and electric current during the dewatering process.

Figure 1. Schematic view of lab-scale apparatus for electro-osmotic and pressure

dewatering of tofu sheet.
Key: 1, timer; 2, DC power; 3, relay; 4, PC; 5, data acquisition system;
6, electrode; 7, load; 8, tofu sheet; 9, filter cloth; 10, plate; 11, frame; 12,
temperature sensor; 13, perforated electrode.
Figure 2. Schematic view of the tofu sheet frame.
Tofu mash was put into the frame to form the tofu sheet after it was
wrapped with cheesecloth. Two different dewatering treatments
were performed, that is, the combined field dewatering was applied on
the left-hand side of the frame, and only pressure was applied on the
right-hand side. According to the results of experiments,[49] nine
experimental conditions were applied. Table 1 gives different values of
time, voltage, and pressure for each sample while dewatering. Under
each condition four tofu sheets (150 mm 70 mm) were made (one for
CFD near cathode, one for CFD near anode, and the other two for
134 Xia et al.

Figure 3. Different electrical field.
Table 1. Experimental conditions of combined field dewatering.
Conditiona
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Voltage (V) 30 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 50
Time (min) 10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30
Pressure (N) 490 490 490 490 490 490 490 490 490
a
Three replicates were made for each condition.
mechanical pressure). Each condition was repeated three times. Besides

water content, three quality indexes, i.e., hardness, tensile strength, and
ductility of each sample were introduced and measured after tofu sheets
were dewatered. Combined field dewatering did not give significant effect
on the color change of tofu sheet because of the application of different
pulse-time ratio electric fields and the titanium electrodes in the experi-
ments. The data reported was the average of the three replicates. The
definitions of hardness, tensile strength, and ductility were given as follows:
Sheering force ðgÞ
Hardness ðg=mm2 Þ ¼ ð1Þ
Cross section area of sample ðmm2 Þ
Maximum stretching force ðgÞ
Tensile strength ðg=mm2 Þ ¼ ð2Þ
Cross section area of sample ðmm2 Þ
Maximum stretching length ðmmÞ

Ductility ¼ ð3Þ
Sample original length ðmmÞ
The water content of each sample was measured with a FD-260
infrared moisture meter (Reeotech Co., Japan). Hardness, tensile strength
and ductility of tofu sheet were measured using a rheometer
(RT-2002D.D, Reeotech Co., Japan). Tofu sheet sample was cut into
a cuboidal cake (70 mm 25 mm) for tensile strength and ductility
measurement and cut into a cylindrical cake ( ¼ 30 mm) for hardness
measurement. The dimensions of samples were measured with a vernier
caliper (HGL01, Hangzhou Tools and Measurement Co., China). A 2 kg

load was used for the measurement of the three indexes with the moving-
head speed of 60 mm min1. The speed of recording chart was
100 mm min1. Each measurement was repeated three times at room tem-
perature. Coefficients of variation for all measurements were less than 5%.
The microstructure of tofu sheet was observed by a scanning electron
microscope (SEM, AMRAY-1901FE, Amray Co., USA). Four samples
of tofu sheet were prepared. These samples were from tofu sheets near
anode and near cathode dewatered by CFD, tofu sheet dewatered by
mechanical pressure only, and tofu sheet bought from local supermarket
as control. The tofu sheet samples were first fixed with 2.5% (w/v)
glutaraldehyde solution and then taken through a graded (20, 40, 60,
80, 90, 100%) ethanol dehydration series. After that they were put into
a critical point dryer, mounted and placed in a gold coater (30 nm thick)
to finish sputter-coating process. Four micrographs (6000) were taken
using an attached camera on the SEM.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Comparison of Water Content
Figure 4 shows the comparison of the water content of tofu sheet

samples dewatered by CFD (CFD near anode and CFD near cathode)
and by mechanical pressure only. It is found that the water content of
tofu sheet near anode was lower than those of near cathode and by
mechanical pressure. This indicates that the combined field dewatering
was more efficient than mechanical pressure for water removal. When an
electric field is applied across the tofu mash, the electric double layer
causes water molecules to move towards the cathode,[49] consequently
the dewatering velocity increased.
136 Xia et al.

Figure 4. Water content of tofu sheet.
Comparison of Quality Indexes
Figure 5 presents the comparison of the three quality indexes,

namely, hardness (5a), tensile strength (5b), and ductility (5c) of tofu
sheet. Basically, similar overall trends can be seen from these three
figures. It is shown that the value of hardness, tensile strength, and
ductility of tofu sheet dewatered by CFD near anode were 45%,
30%, and 12% higher than those by mechanical pressure. However,
the three indexes of tofu sheet dewatered by CFD near cathode were
15%, 25%, and 10% lower than those by mechanical pressure. This
suggests that the CFD method will strengthen the hardness, tensile
strength, and ductility of tofu sheet near anode, but at the same time
it will lower the three quality indexes of tofu sheet near cathode. It is
obvious that CFD will affect the quality indexes of tofu sheet especially
the hardness and tensile strength.
SEM micrographs of tofu sheet are shown in Fig. 6. It can be
observed that the microstructure of tofu sheet near anode is more
compact than the other three ones. Furthermore, the pore size of its
network is relatively small and homogeneous. This is the reason why
the three quality indexes of tofu sheet near anode were the highest. As
tofu sheet is mainly made from soybean protein and tofu sheet mash
has a pH of 5.92, the zeta potential is negative.[49] The soybean protein

Figure 5. (a) Hardness of tofu sheet; (b) tensile strength of tofu sheet; and
(c) ductility of tofu sheet.
(continued)
with negative charge and the polarization of water molecules near the
solid–liquid interfaces form the so-called electrical double layer. This
electric double layer causes the water to move towards the cathode
when an electric field is applied and thus electro-osmotic dewatering
occurs.[50] When the water in the tofu sheet near anode is carried
away to the cathode, the network of tofu sheet became compact and
homogeneous under the external pressure and accordingly the three
quality indexes increased.
138 Xia et al.

Figure 5. Continued.
Figure 6. SEM micrographs of tofu sheet. A, Microstructure of tofu sheet near

anode dewatered by CFD; B, microstructure of tofu sheet near cathode dewatered
by CFD; C, microstructure of tofu sheet dewatered by mechanical pressure only;
D, microstructure of tofu sheet of control.
The pore size of network to tofu sheet near cathode is larger but homo-
geneous. This will result in lower value of hardness, tensile strength, and
ductility and consequently poor quality. However, the pore size of net-
work of tofu sheet dewatered by mechanical pressure and that of control
are even larger and irregular, indicating that the pressure is not homo-
geneous and stable, which causes the water to flow in arbitrary directions.
Effect of Voltage and Time

The dewatering rate is affected by voltage and time during CFD

process.[51] Figures 7a–c show the comparison of the three quality indexes
of tofu sheet near anode under different times and voltages. It was found
that the three quality indexes reached their maximum values simulta-
neously when the electric field is applied for 10 min at 30 V.
Figures 7a–c also show that when the electric field is applied at 30 V, the
value of hardness decreases with increasing time and similar phenomena
were observed for the tensile strength and ductility. These results suggest
that the condition of 10 min and 30 V can be applied during the tofu sheet
processing for better product quality.
Figure 7. (a) Hardness of tofu sheet near anode in different time and voltage;
(b) tensile strength of tofu sheet near anode in different time and voltage; and
(c) ductility of tofu sheet near anode in different time and voltage.
(continued)
140 Xia et al.

Figure 7. Continued.
CONCLUSIONS
The effect of combined field dewatering involving electro-osmosis and

mechanical pressure on the quality of tofu sheet was investigated, and the
results indicated that:
1. CFD increased the dewatering velocity of tofu sheet compared

with that by mechanical pressure only.
2. SEM micrographs showed that the network of tofu sheet near
anode was compact and homogeneous and the hardness, tensile
strength, and ductility of tofu sheet were increased significantly,

if CFD dewatering was used.
3. When the electric field was applied for 10 min at 30 V for CFD
dewatering, the three quality indexes of tofu sheet near anode
reached their maximum values simultaneously.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Japan

International Research Centre for Agricultural Sciences for their
financial support towards this project.
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Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering On The Quality of Tofu Sheet

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Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering On The Quality of Tofu Sheet

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This article was downloaded by: [University of Winnipeg]

On: 23 August 2014, At: 06:26

Drying Technology: An International Journal

Effect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering on the Quality of

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/DRT-120017287

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Eﬀect of Electro-Osmotic Dewatering on the

Quality of Tofu Sheet

Bin Xia,1 Da-Wen Sun,1,* Li-Te Li,2 Xiu-Qu Li,2

As a new dewatering technology with high eﬃciency and energy

*Correspondence: Da-Wen Sun, FRCFT Group, Department of Agricultural

DOI: 10.1081/DRT-120017287 0737-3937 (Print); 1532-2300 (Online)

130 Xia et al.

was performed on the dewatering process of tofu sheet for 10 to

electric ﬁeld was applied for 10 min at 30 V, these indexes reached

Key Words: Combined ﬁeld dewatering (CFD); Dewatering;

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 131

tigated the eﬀect of electro-osmosis on the dewatering of seaweed. It is

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials and Sample Preparation

Soybean (Variety: KeFeng 6) was collected from Genetics Research

132 Xia et al.

The procedure of making tofu sheet was as follows:

. One kilogram washed soybean was soaked in tap water at room

sterilization. Then the soymilk was cooled to 85 C.

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

The experiment of combined ﬁeld dewatering involving electro-

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 133

Figure 1. Schematic view of lab-scale apparatus for electro-osmotic and pressure

Figure 2. Schematic view of the tofu sheet frame.

134 Xia et al.

Figure 3. Diﬀerent electrical ﬁeld.

Table 1. Experimental conditions of combined ﬁeld dewatering.

mechanical pressure). Each condition was repeated three times. Besides

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 135

Maximum stretching length ðmmÞ

caliper (HGL01, Hangzhou Tools and Measurement Co., China). A 2 kg

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Comparison of Water Content

Figure 4 shows the comparison of the water content of tofu sheet

136 Xia et al.

Figure 4. Water content of tofu sheet.

Comparison of Quality Indexes

Figure 5 presents the comparison of the three quality indexes,

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 137

138 Xia et al.

Figure 6. SEM micrographs of tofu sheet. A, Microstructure of tofu sheet near

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 139

Eﬀect of Voltage and Time

The dewatering rate is aﬀected by voltage and time during CFD

140 Xia et al.

The eﬀect of combined ﬁeld dewatering involving electro-osmosis and

1. CFD increased the dewatering velocity of tofu sheet compared

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 141

strength, and ductility of tofu sheet were increased signiﬁcantly,

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Japan

1. Messina, M.; Messina, V.; Setchell, K. How Soyfoods Can Lower

142 Xia et al.

8. Wang, W.C.; Sastry, S.K. Eﬀects of thermal and electrothermal

Dewatering 2002, 10 (3/4), 429–442.

Electro-Osmotic Dewatering of Tofu Sheet 143

Journal 1991, 28 (1), 74–83.

144 Xia et al.