Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

(3rd ed.)

— Chapter 1 —

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign &
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved.
1
 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

2
 Why Data Mining?

◼ The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes

◼ Data collection and data availability
◼ Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web,
computerized society
◼ Major sources of abundant data
◼ Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …
◼ Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation, …
◼ Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube
◼ We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!
◼ “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—Automated
analysis of massive data sets

3
 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

4
 What Is Data Mining?

◼ Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

◼ Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously
unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from
huge amount of data
◼ Alternative names
◼ Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, information
harvesting, business intelligence, etc.
◼ Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?
◼ Simple search and query processing
◼ (Deductive) expert systems

5
 Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process
◼ This is a view from typical
database systems and data
Pattern Evaluation
warehousing communities
◼ Data mining plays an essential
role in the knowledge discovery
process Data Mining

Task-relevant Data

Data Warehouse Selection

Data Cleaning

Data Integration

Databases
6
 Example: A Web Mining Framework

◼ Web mining usually involves

◼ Data cleaning
◼ Data integration from multiple sources
◼ Warehousing the data
◼ Data cube construction
◼ Data selection for data mining
◼ Data mining
◼ Presentation of the mining results
◼ Patterns and knowledge to be used or stored into
knowledge-base

7
 Data Mining in Business Intelligence

Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decision
Making

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
8
 KDD Process: A Typical View from ML and
Statistics

Input Data Data Pre- Data Post-

Processing Mining Processing

Data integration Pattern discovery Pattern evaluation

Normalization Association & correlation Pattern selection
Feature selection Classification Pattern interpretation
Clustering
Dimension reduction Pattern visualization
Outlier analysis
…………

◼ This is a view from typical machine learning and statistics communities

9
 Example: Medical Data Mining

◼ Health care & medical data mining – often

adopted such a view in statistics and machine
learning
◼ Preprocessing of the data (including feature
extraction and dimension reduction)
◼ Classification or/and clustering processes
◼ Post-processing for presentation

10
 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

11
 Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
◼ Data to be mined
◼ Database data (extended-relational, object-oriented, heterogeneous,

legacy), data warehouse, transactional data, stream

◼ Knowledge to be mined (or: Data mining functions)
◼ Association, classification, clustering, trend/deviation, outlier

analysis, etc.
◼ Descriptive vs. predictive data mining

◼ Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels

◼ Techniques utilized
◼ Data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics, pattern

recognition, visualization, etc.

◼ Applications adapted
◼ Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining,

stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.

12
 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

13
 Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?
◼ Database-oriented data sets and applications
◼ Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
◼ Advanced data sets and advanced applications
◼ Data streams and sensor data
◼ Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences)
◼ Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
◼ Object-relational databases
◼ Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
◼ Spatial data and spatiotemporal data
◼ Multimedia database
◼ Text databases
◼ The World-Wide Web

14
 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

15
Data Mining Function: (1) Generalization

◼ Information integration and data warehouse construction

◼ Data cleaning, transformation, integration, and
multidimensional data model
◼ Data cube technology
◼ Scalable methods for computing (i.e., materializing)
multidimensional aggregates
◼ OLAP (online analytical processing)
◼ Multidimensional concept description: Characterization
and discrimination
◼ Generalize, summarize, and contrast data
characteristics, e.g., dry vs. wet region

16
Data Mining Function: (2) Association and
Correlation Analysis
◼ Frequent patterns (or frequent itemsets)
◼ What items are frequently purchased together in your
Walmart?
◼ Association, correlation vs. causality
◼ A typical association rule
◼ Diaper → Beer [0.5%, 75%] (support, confidence)
◼ Are strongly associated items also strongly correlated?
◼ How to mine such patterns and rules efficiently in large
datasets?
◼ How to use such patterns for classification, clustering,
and other applications?
17
Data Mining Function: (3) Classification

◼ Classification and label prediction

◼ Construct models (functions) based on some training examples
◼ Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction
◼ E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify cars
based on (gas mileage)
◼ Predict some unknown class labels
◼ Typical methods
◼ Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support vector
machines, neural networks, rule-based classification, pattern-
based classification, logistic regression, …
◼ Typical applications:
◼ Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying stars,
diseases, web-pages, …

18
Data Mining Function: (4) Cluster Analysis

◼ Unsupervised learning (i.e., Class label is unknown)

◼ Group data to form new categories (i.e., clusters), e.g.,
cluster houses to find distribution patterns
◼ Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing
interclass similarity
◼ Many methods and applications

19
Data Mining Function: (5) Outlier Analysis
◼ Outlier analysis
◼ Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the general
behavior of the data
◼ Noise or exception? ― One person’s garbage could be another
person’s treasure
◼ Methods: by product of clustering or regression analysis, …etc.
◼ Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis

20
Time and Ordering: Sequential Pattern,
Trend and Evolution Analysis
◼ Sequence, trend and evolution analysis
◼ Trend, time-series, and deviation analysis: e.g.,

regression and value prediction

◼ Sequential pattern mining

◼ e.g., first buy digital camera, then buy large SD

memory cards
◼ Periodicity analysis

◼ Motifs and biological sequence analysis

◼ Approximate and consecutive motifs

◼ Similarity-based analysis

◼ Mining data streams

◼ Ordered, time-varying, potentially infinite, data streams

21
 Evaluation of Knowledge
◼ Are all mined knowledge interesting?
◼ One can mine tremendous amount of “patterns” and knowledge
◼ Some may fit only certain dimension space (time, location, …)
◼ Some may not be representative, may be transient, …
◼ Evaluation of mined knowledge → directly mine only
interesting knowledge?
◼ Descriptive vs. predictive
◼ Coverage
◼ Typicality vs. novelty
◼ Accuracy
◼ Timeliness
◼ …
22
 Chapter 1. Introduction
◼ Why Data Mining?

◼ What Is Data Mining?

◼ A Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

◼ What Kind of Data Can Be Mined?

◼ What Kinds of Patterns Can Be Mined?

◼ What Technology Are Used?

◼ Summary

23
Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Machine Pattern Statistics

Learning Recognition

Applications Data Mining Visualization

Algorithm Database High-Performance

Technology Computing

24
Why Confluence of Multiple Disciplines?

◼ Tremendous amount of data

◼ Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-bytes of
data
◼ High-dimensionality of data
◼ Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
◼ High complexity of data
◼ Data streams and sensor data
◼ Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
◼ Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
◼ Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
◼ Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
◼ Software programs, scientific simulations
◼ New and sophisticated applications
25
 Summary
◼ Data mining: Discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from
massive amount of data
◼ A natural evolution of database technology, in great demand, with
wide applications
◼ A KDD process includes data cleaning, data integration, data
selection, transformation, data mining, pattern evaluation, and
knowledge presentation
◼ Mining can be performed in a variety of data
◼ Data mining functionalities: characterization, discrimination,
association, classification, clustering, outlier and trend analysis, etc.

26
 Concepts and
Techniques

— Chapter 2 —

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber, and Pei. All rights reserved.

1
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your
Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

2
 Types of Data Sets
 Record
 Relational records
 Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,

timeout

season
coach

game
score
team

ball

lost
pla
crosstabs

wi
n
y

Document data: text documents: term-
frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
 Transaction data
 Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
 World Wide Web
Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0
 Social or information networks

Molecular Structures
 Ordered
TID Items

Video data: sequence of images

Temporal data: time-series
1 Bread, Coke, Milk

Sequential Data: transaction sequences 2 Beer, Bread

Genetic sequence data 3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial, image and multimedia: 4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk

Spatial data: maps
5 Coke, Diaper, Milk

Image data:

Video data:

3
 Attributes
 Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables):
a data field, representing a characteristic or
feature of a data object.

E.g., customer _ID, name, address
 Types:
 Nominal

 Binary


Numeric: quantitative

Interval-scaled: both the order and the exact
differences between the values are known.

Ratio-scaled: e.g height, money, age, weight etc.

4
 Attribute Types
 Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
 Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red,
white}
 marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
 Binary
 Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
 Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important

e.g., gender
 Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.

e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)

Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g.,
HIV positive)
 Ordinal
 Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude
between successive values is not known.
 Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
5
Discrete vs. Continuous
Attributes

6
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your
Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

7
Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical
Descriptions

 Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

 Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres.
frequencies
 Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi
indicating that approximately 100 fi % of data are
 xi
 Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of
coordinates and plotted as points in the plane

8
 Scatterplot Matrices

Used by ermission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Matrix of scatterplots (x-y-diagrams) of the k-dim. data [total of (k2/2-k) scatterplots]

9
Little problem for you

10
Little problem for you

11
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your
Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

12
Similarity and Dissimilarity

13
 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity
Matrix
 Data matrix
 n data points with  x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
 
p dimensions  ... ... ... ... ... 
 Two modes x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 
 Dissimilarity matrix
 n data points, but
 0 
 d(2,1) 0 
registers only the  
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
distance  
 A triangular matrix  : : : 
 d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0
 Single mode

14
 Proximity Measure for Nominal
Attributes
 Can take 2 or more states, e.g., red, yellow, blue,
green (generalization of a binary attribute)
 Method 1: Simple matching
 m: # of matches, p: total # of variables

d (i, j)  p p m
 Method 2: Use a large number of binary
attributes
 creating a new binary attribute for each of the
M nominal states

15
 Proximity Measure for Binary
Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data
Object i
 Distance measure for symmetric
binary variables:
 Distance measure for asymmetric
binary variables:
 Jaccard coefficient (similarity
measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

‫عين‬P‫قلم‬P‫يح‬PP‫سجلينف‬PP‫قل‬P‫طاب‬PPP‫ا ت‬P‫يه‬PP‫جد ف‬P‫لتيو‬P‫ت‬ ‫ال ا‬P‫لحا‬PP‫ هيعدد ا‬q

‫كون‬PP‫لتيي‬P‫ت‬
‫ال ا‬P‫لحا‬PP‫يعدد ا‬P‫ ه‬r ،1=‫لحقل‬PP‫لسجلينعند هذا ا‬PP‫يمة ا‬PP‫تق‬P‫كان‬P‫و‬
‫نفس‬PP‫ ل‬0‫ي‬P‫ساو‬PP‫يي‬P‫لثان‬P‫لسجلا‬PP‫ وا‬1‫ي‬P‫ساو‬PP‫) ي‬i(‫ل‬P‫ألو‬P‫لسجلا‬PP‫ا ا‬P‫يه‬PP‫ف‬ 16
 Dissimilarity between Binary
Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
 Gender is a symmetric attribute
 The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
 Let the values Y and P be 1, and the value N 0
0 1
d ( jack , mary )  0.33
2  0 1
11
d ( jack , jim )  0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary )  0.75
11 2
17
Standardizing Numeric Data
x
z  

s f 1n (| x1 f  m f |  | x2 f  m f | ... | xnf  m f |)

m f  1n (x1 f  x2 f  ...  xnf )
xif  m f
.

zif  s
f

18
 Example:
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
Data Matrix
x2 x4
point attribute1 attribute2
4 x1 1 2
x2 3 5
x3 2 0
x4 4 5
2 x1
Dissimilarity Matrix
(with Euclidean Distance)
x3
0 4 x1 x2 x3 x4
2
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 5.1 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

19
Distance on Numeric Data: Minkowski
Distance
 Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two
p-dimensional data objects, and h is the order (the
distance so defined is also called L-h norm)
 Properties
 d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
 d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
 d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
 A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric

20
Special Cases of Minkowski Distance
 h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
 E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are
different between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h = 2: (L2 norm) Euclidean distance

d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h  . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.

 This is the maximum difference between any component
(attribute) of the vectors

21
 Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan
x1 1 2 (L1)L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

Supremum
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3 0
x3 2 5 0
x4 3 1 5 0
22
 Ordinal Variables

 An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

 Order is important, e.g., rank
 Can be treated like interval-scaled
 replace x by their rank rif {1,..., M f }
if

 map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by

replacing i-th object in the f-th variable by
rif  1
zif 
Mf 1

 compute the dissimilarity using methods for

interval-scaled variables

23
 Ordinal Variables
There are three states for test-2: fair, good, and
excellent, that is, Mf D 3. For step 1, if we replace each value for
test-2 by its rank, the
four objects are assigned the ranks 3, 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Step
2 normalizes the
ranking by mapping rank 1 to 0.0, rank 2 to 0.5, and rank 3 to 1.0.
For step 3, we can
use, say, the Euclidean distance (Eq. 2.16), which results in the
following dissimilarity
matrix:

24
Little problem for you

25
Cosine Similarity

26
 Example: Cosine Similarity
 cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d|: the length of vector d

 Ex: Find the similarity between documents 1 and 2.

d1 = (5, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0)
d2 = (3, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)

d1d2 = 5*3+0*0+3*2+0*0+2*1+0*1+0*1+2*1+0*0+0*1 = 25
||d1||= (5*5+0*0+3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0) 0.5=(42)0.5
= 6.481
||d2||= (3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+1*1+1*1+0*0+1*1+0*0+1*1) 0.5=(17)0.5
= 4.12
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.94

27
28
29
Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your
Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

30
 Summary
 Data attribute types: nominal, binary, ordinal, interval-scaled,
ratio-scaled
 Many types of data sets, e.g., numerical, text, graph, Web,
image.
 Gain insight into the data by:
 Basic statistical data description: central tendency,
dispersion, graphical displays
 Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives
 Measure data similarity
 Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing.
 Many methods have been developed but still an active area of
research.

31