Chap 3

Renewable Energy
Prepared by : Siddharth Panchal

Chapter 3 : Wind Energy
▪ Basic principles of wind energy conversion –
▪ Classification of wind turbines
▪ Types of rotors
▪ Design of windmills
▪ Wind power generation curves
▪ Wind data and energy estimation
▪ Site selection considerations
▪ Merits and demerits of wind energy systems
Wind energy
▪ Wind is moving air caused by differences in air pressure within
our atmosphere.
▪ Air under high pressure moves naturally towards areas of low pressure.
▪ The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air flows.
▪ The term ‘wind energy’ describes the way we use wind to generate
mechanical power or electricity.
▪ This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding
grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical
power into electricity, to power homes, businesses, schools, hospitals...
Wind energy
▪ Wind turbine to convert the wind’s power into electricity.
▪ Wind turbines come in all shapes and sizes, but you’ll most likely
recognise them in their industrial form – armies of huge white propellers
on giant white stems, ranged over distant fields
▪ a wind turbine works in the opposite way to an electric fan.
▪ Fans use electricity to make wind. Wind turbines use wind to make
electricity.
▪ The wind in the atmosphere turns propeller-like blades around a rotor
which spins a shaft which connects to a generator to create electricity.
Wind energy
▪ A typical modern windmill looks as shown in the following figure.
▪ The wind-mill contains three blades about a horizontal axis installed on a
tower.
▪ A turbine connected to a generator is fixed about the horizontal axis.
Wind machine
▪ The machine that converts kinetic energy in the wind into usable form of
mechanical energy (usually shaft power).
▪ Wind machines are typically used for mechanical applications like water
pumping, grinding, woodcutting, or for AC or DC power generation in grid
connected or isolated mode.
▪ Wind turbines are classified into two general types: Horizontal axis and
Vertical axis.
▪ There are a number of available designs for both and each type has
certain advantages and disadvantages.
▪ However, compared with the horizontal axis type, very few vertical axis
machines are available commercially.
Horizontal axis wind mill
▪ This is the most common wind turbine design.
▪ In addition to being parallel to the ground, the axis of blade rotation is
parallel to the wind flow.
▪ Some machines are designed to operate in an upwind mode, with the
blades upwind of the tower. In this case, a tail vane is usually used to
keep the blades facing into the wind.
▪ Other designs operate in a downwind mode so that the wind passes the
tower before striking the blades.
▪ Some very large wind turbines use a motor-driven mechanism that turns
the machine in response to a wind direction sensor mounted on the
tower.
▪ Commonly found horizontal axis wind mills are aero-turbine mill with 35%
efficiency and farm mills with 15% efficiency.
Horizontal axis wind mill
Vertical axis wind mill
▪ Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for centuries, They are
not as common as their horizontal counterparts.
▪ The main reason for this is that they do not take advantage of the higher
wind speeds at higher elevations above the ground as well as horizontal
axis turbines.
▪ The basic vertical axis designs are the Darrieus, which has curved blades
and efficiency of 35%, the Giromill, which has straight blades, and
efficiency of 35%, and the Savonius, which uses scoops to catch the wind
and the efficiency of 30%.
▪ A vertical axis machine need not be oriented with respect to wind
direction.
wind mill examples
wind mill components
Windmill components
▪ Anemometer:
 Measures wind speed and transmit wind data to the controller
▪ Blades:
Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin.
Most turbines have either two or three blades.
▪ Brake
Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically, in emergencies.
▪ Controller:
Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph)
and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind
speeds above about 55 mph because they may be damaged by the high
winds.
Windmill components
▪ Gearbox:
 Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the
rotational speeds from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about
1,000-1,800 rpm
This is the rotational speed required by most generators to produce
electricity.
The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers
are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds
and don't need gear boxes.
▪ Generator:
Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction
generator
Windmill components
▪ High speed shaft:
 Drives the generator
▪ Low speed shaft:
Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm.
▪ Nacelle:
Sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a
helicopter to land on.
▪ Pitch:
Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to
keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce
electricity.
Windmill components
▪ Rotor:
 Blades and hub together form the rotor
▪ Tower:
Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the
structure of the turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller
towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
▪ Wind direction:
Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbines—like the one shown
here—face into the wind while downwind turbines face away..
▪ Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Windmill components
▪ Yaw drive:
 Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction
changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind
manually blows the rotor away from it.
▪ Yaw motor:
Powers the yaw drive
Design of horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)
▪ Design consideration in HAWT
The height of the wind energy converter (WEC) should be more than 30 m
altitude.
There only the wind velocity is higher . Few Narrow long blades to withstand
the extreme winds.
The structural dynamics to be studied completely to avoid fatigue failures of
rotors
▪ Mechanical control of HAWT
1. Pitch Control: Tilting of rotor blade angles from 0 -30° to absorb more
energy from the wind. The pitch angle is the angle between the direction of
wind and the direction perpendicular to the planes of blades.
2. Teethering Control: The up and down movement (swinging motion like
see-saw) of nacelle in the vertical direction. Higher wind speed, the nacelle
is inclined.
3. Yaw Control: The horizontal movement of nacelle to face the wind. Its
orientation or steering control for the axis of wind turbine in the direction of
wind.
▪ Drag design
 Drag force is the force parallel to the direction of the oncoming air flow due
both to viscous friction forces at the surface of the blade and to unequal
pressure on the blade surfaces facing toward and away from the oncoming
flow.
For the drag design, the wind literally pushes the blades out of the way.
▪ Lift design
 Lift force is the force perpendicular to direction of the oncoming air flow as
a consequence of the unequal pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of
blade.
The lift blade designs to employs the same principle that enables airplanes,
kites and birds to fly.
The blade is essentially an aerofoil, or wing.
When air flows past the blade, a wind speed and pressure differential is
created between the upper and lower blade surfaces.
The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the blade.
▪ Lift design
 When blades are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift
is translated into rotational motion.
Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher rotational speeds than drag
types and therefore well suited for electricity generation

▪ Selection of material
1. Properties of material
2. Capable of performing part’s function
3. Reliable
4. Safe to use
5. Physical attributes such as configuration, size, weight, and appearance sometimes
also serve functional requirements can be used.
6. The environment in which a product operates strongly influences service
performance.
7. A material must be readily available, and available in large enough quantity, for the
intended application.
8. The cost of the materials and the cost of processing the materials into the product or
part. The development and manufacture of satisfactory products at minimum cost is
to make a sound, economic choice of materials.
▪ Selection of material
Materials for the wind-turbine blade market include resins of glass fiber
reinforced polyester, glass fiber reinforced epoxy, and carbon fiber
reinforced epoxy.
“Combining glass fibers with a resin matrix results in composites that are
strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and dimensionally stable.
▪ Design key parameters
1. Wind speed
2. Site selection
3. Height
4. No of blades and blade length
5. Tip speed ratio
6. Generator
7. Tower
Wind speed
▪ The wind power density is the number of watts of electrical energy
produced per square metre of air space (W/m²). This value is normally
given at 10 m or 50 m above the ground.
▪ In general, the available wind generation capacity is determined by the
average wind speed over the year for each location.
▪ With large turbines, increases in wind speed lead to considerably larger
increases in energy output – when the wind speed doubles, the energy
produced can increase up to eight times.
Wind speed
Wind speed
▪ Wind speed fluctuates, which has an impact on wind electricity generation
capacity and operating characteristics. In general, wind speeds are as
follows:
▪ 8 kph (2 m/s) minimum is required to start rotating most small wind
turbines.
▪ 12.6 kph (3.5 m/s) is the typical cut-in speed, when a small turbine starts
generating power.
▪ 36–54 kph (10–15 m/s) produces maximum generation power.
▪ At 90 kph (25 m/s) maximum, the turbine is stopped or braked (cut-out
speed).
▪ an anemometer – giving average daily wind speed
▪ a wind totaliser – giving instantaneous wind speed and total wind over an
extended period.
Site selection
▪ wind energy site selection mainly focus on the places that has abundant
wind resource, stable wind direction, concentrated wind distribution
and little destructive wind speed, but the good natural resources in most
cases will be affected by many external factors such as the geography, the
traffic, the mineral resources, the meteorological disaster, the power grid
access and so on.
▪ The followings are some guidelines that provide detailed introduction about
the wind farm site selection from different aspects.
Site should have good source of wind
The distance between a turbine and the nearest obstacle should be at least
twice the turbine height, unless the turbine is more than twice the height of
the obstacle in which case the distance can be less.
Site selection
 Geography should be suitable. The best locations in terms of wind
resources are typically high on mountains, in large open fields, or on the
edge of bodies of water.
 Traffic conditions should be suitable. Therefore, traffic plans should be
made in advance to meet the requirement of transporting the wind turbines.
 Site should have easy power grid access condition. The small wind
power project should be near with the power grid (10-35kv), the larger wind
power project should be near with the power grid (110-220kv)
 The meteorological factor should be taken into consideration since
sometimes the weather may cause serious damages to the wind
turbines. For example Rain, drought, snow, extreme heat or cold, ice, or
wind. Violent, sudden and destructive to the environment related to,
produced by, or affecting the earth's atmosphere, especially the weather-
forming processes.
Height
Rotating a wind generator close to the ground is like mounting solar panels
in the shade.
At least Wind generator should be located at least 30 feet above without
any obstruction within 300 feet in any direction.
Short towers in turbulent locations cause drastically reduced power output,
and extreme physical stresses on the turbine and tower.
No of blades and blade length
Wind turbine manufacturers have to certify that their turbines are built, so
that they can withstand extreme winds which occur, say, during 10 min once
every 50 years.
To limit the influence of the extreme winds turbine manufacturers therefore
generally prefer to build turbines with a few, long, narrow blades.
In order to make up for the narrowness of the blades facing the wind,
turbine manufacturers prefer to let the turbines rotate relatively quickly.
Modern wind turbine engineers avoid building large machines with an even
number of rotor blades.
The most important reason is the stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd
number of rotor blades and at least three blades can be considered to be
similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic properties of the machine.
 A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a
machine with a stiff structure.
The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost blade bends
backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the
lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
Three blades have the particular advantage that the polar moment of inertia
with respect to yawing is constant, and is independent of the azimuth
position of the rotor.
This characteristic contributes to relatively smooth operation even while
yawing.
 A two- blade rotor, however, has a lower moment of inertia when the blades
are vertical than when they are horizontal.
This 'imbalance' is one of the reasons that most two-bladed wind turbines
use a teetering rotor.
Using more than three blades could also result in a rotor with a moment of
inertia independent of position, but more than three blades are seldom
used.
This is primarily because of the higher costs that would be associated with
the additional blades.
The Danish 3-bladed concept
 Most modern wind turbines are three-bladed designs
with the rotor position maintained upwind (on the
windy side of the tower) using electrical motors in their
yaw mechanism.
This design is usually called the classical Danish
concept and tends to be a standard against which
other concepts are evaluated.
The vast majority of the turbines sold in world markets
have this design.
The basic design was first introduced with the

renowned Gedser wind turbine. Another characteristic
is the use of an asynchronous generator.
Two-bladed (teetering) concept
 Two-bladed wind turbine designs have the advantage
of saving the cost of one rotor blade and its weight, of
course.
However, they tend to have difficulty in penetrating the
market, partly because they require higher rotational
speed to yield the same energy output.
This is a disadvantage both in regard to noise and
visual intrusion.
Lately, several traditional manufacturers of two-bladed
machines have switched to three-bladed designs.
Two-bladed (teetering) concept
Two- and one-bladed machines require a more
complex design with a hinged (teetering hub) rotor as
shown in the picture, i.e. the rotor has to be able to tilt
in order to avoid too heavy shocks to the turbine when
a rotor blades passes the tower.
The rotor is therefore fitted onto a shaft which is
perpendicular to the main shaft, and which rotates
along with the main shaft.
This arrangement may require additional shock
absorbers to prevent the rotor blade from hitting the
tower
One-bladed concept
One-bladed wind turbines exist and they save the cost
of another rotor blade.
If anything can be built, engineers will do it. One-
bladed wind turbines are not very widespread
commercially, however, because the same problems
that are mentioned under the two-bladed design apply
to an even larger extent to one-bladed machines.
In addition to higher rotational speed, and the noise

and visual intrusion problems, they require a
counterweight to be placed on the other side of the
hub from the rotor blade in order to balance the rotor
One-bladed concept
This obviously negates the savings on weight
compared to a two-bladed design.
The aesthetic factor of the appearance of imbalance is
another consideration.
The presumed advantage is thus that the turbine can
run at a relatively high tip speed ratio, and that the
cost should be lower because of the need of only one
blade.
Blade length
▪ Industrial wind turbines are a lot bigger than ones you might see in a
schoolyard or behind someone’s house.
▪ The widely used GE 1.5-megawatt model, for example, consists of 116-ft
blades atop a 212-ft tower for a total height of 328 feet. The blades sweep a
vertical airspace of just under an acre.
▪ The 1.8-megawatt Vestas V90 from Denmark has 148-ft blades (sweeping
more than 1.5 acres) on a 262-ft tower, totaling 410 feet.
▪ Another model being seen more in the U.S. is the 2-megawatt Gamesa G87
from Spain, with 143-ft blades (just under 1.5 acres) on a 256-ft tower,
totaling 399 feet.
▪ Many existing models and new ones being introduced reach well over 400
feet high.
Blade length
Rotor diameter vs wind power
Tip speed ratio
▪ TSR is the speed of the blade at its tip divided by the speed of the wind.
▪ For example, if the tip of a blade is traveling at 100 mph (161 kph) and the
wind speed is 20 mph (32 kph or 9 m/s), then the TSR is 5 (100 mph/20
mph). Simply put, the tip of the blade is traveling five times faster than the
speed of the wind.
Wind turbine towers
▪ The tower of the wind turbine carries the
nacelle and the rotor.
▪ Towers for large wind turbines may be
either tubular steel towers, lattice towers,
or concrete towers.
▪ Guyed tubular towers are only used for
small wind turbines (battery chargers
etc.)
Tubular steel towers
▪ Most large wind turbines are delivered with
tubular steel towers, which are manufactured
in sections of 20-30 metres with flanges at
either end, and bolted together on the site.
▪ The towers are conical (i.e. with their
diameter increasing towards the base) in
order to increase their strength and to save
materials at the same time.
Lattice towers
▪ Lattice towers are manufactured using welded
steel profiles.
▪ The basic advantage of lattice towers is cost,
since a lattice tower requires only half as
much material as a freely standing tubular
tower with a similar stiffness.
▪ The basic disadvantage of lattice towers is
their visual appearance, (although that issue
is clearly debatable).
▪ Be that as it may, for aesthetic reasons lattice
towers have almost disappeared from use for
large, modern wind turbines.
Guyed pole towers
▪ Many small wind turbines are built with
narrow pole towers supported by guy wires.
▪ The advantage is weight savings, and thus
cost.
▪ The disadvantages are difficult access around
the towers which make them less suitable in
farm areas.
▪ Finally, this type of tower is more prone to
vandalism, thus compromising overall safety.
Hybrid tower solutions
▪ Some towers are made in different
combinations of the techniques mentioned
above.
▪ One example is the three-legged built by
suzlon, which may be said to be a hybrid
between a lattice tower and steel tower.
Wind mill tower solutions
▪
Wind mill tower solutions
▪
Design calculations
▪ Kinetic energy:
Where, m = mass (kg)
V= velocity (m/s)
▪ Energy = power * Time
▪ density is a more convenient way to express the mass of flowing air; the
kinetic energy equation can be converted into a flow equation. Power in the
area swept by the wind turbine rotor
Design calculations
▪ Power of wind turbine:
▪ Cp = coefficient of performance (0.59 is maximum
according to bett’s law but you can take 0.39 for better
design)
▪ Ng = efficiency of generator (possibly 80% or more)
▪ Nb = gearbox/bearing efficiency. ( up to 95%)
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
▪ Material selection for vertical axis
wind turbine:
The fabricated structure should be
robust and mechanically strong.
Blades should be light in weight
The materials used inside the
generator must consists (par-tially)
electrically conductive materials
(metals).
The basic material is aluminium
which 80% in the composite material.
▪ Power available in the wind is given by Pw:
1
𝑃𝑊 = ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉 3
2
▪ 𝜌 = Density of air, 1.225 kg/m^3

▪ A = Turbine swept area
▪ V = Wind speed
▪ The mechanical power generated at the turbine is given as power available
at turbine, Pt
1
𝑃𝑡 = ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉 3
2
▪ Swept area of the VAWT is given as the product of height of the rotor to the
diameter of the rotor.
▪ A=H*D
▪ Where,
▪ H, is the height of the VAWT rotor in meters;
▪ D, is the diameter of the VAWT rotor in meters;
Difference between HAWT and VAWT
▪ Axis of rotation
▪ It is the main and biggest difference they have. As the name say horizontal
axis wind turbine have axis of rotation parallel to the ground and vertical axis
wind turbine have axis of rotation perpendicular to ground
▪ Number of blades working at a time
▪ If we take 3 blades wind turbine then in horizontal axis wind turbine all three
blades work at a time while in vertical axis wind turbine one blade work at a
time.
▪ Working wind direction
▪ Vertical axis wind turbine work in all wind directions while horizontal axis
wind turbine only works in a specific wind direction, when wind direction
change horizontal axis wind turbine have to move itself in the direction
▪ Efficiency at a given wind speed
▪ Because all blades of horizontal axis wind turbine work ata time so its
efficiency is much more than the vertical axis wind turbine.
▪ Area needed for installation
▪ Because of the axis of rotation area need for the horizontal axis wind turbine
is much more than needed for vertical axis wind turbine. Height is also a
concern for horizontal axis wind turbine but not for vertical axis wind turbine
▪ Location of installation
▪ Because of area needed and protection precision horizontal axis wind
turbine cannot installed near population whereas vertical axis wind turbine is
designed for installation in urban areas
Coriolis force
▪ The Coriolis force, which is generated from the earth's self-rotation, defl ects
the direction of atmospheric movements.
▪ In the north atmosphere wind is deflected to the right and in the south
atmosphere to the left.
▪ The Coriolis force depends on the earth’s latitude; it is zero at the equator
and reaches maximum values at the poles.
▪ In addition, the amount of deflection on wind also depends on the wind
speed; slowly blowing wind is deflected only a small amount, while stronger
wind deflected more.
▪ In large-scale atmospheric movements, the combination of the pressure
gradient due to the uneven solar radiation and the Coriolis force due to the
earth’s self rotation causes the single meridional cell to break up into three
convectional cells in each hemisphere: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and
the Polar cell
Coriolis force
Coriolis force
▪ The hot air rises at the equator and flows toward the North Pole in the upper
atmosphere
▪ This moving air is defl ected by Coriolis force to create the northeast trade
winds. At approximately north latitude 30°, Coriolis force becomes so strong
to balance the pressure gradient force. As a result, the winds are defected to
the west.
▪ The air accumulated at the upper atmosphere forms the subtropical high-
pressure belt and thus sinks back to the earth’s surface, splitting into two
components: one returns to the equator to close the loop of the Hadley cell;
another moves along the earth’s surface toward North Pole to form the
Ferrel Cell circulation, which lies between north latitude 30° and 60°.
Coriolis force
▪ The air circulates toward the North Pole along the earth’s surface until it
collides with the cold air flowing from the North Pole at approximately north
latitude 60°.
▪ Under the influence of Coriolis force, the moving air in this zone is deflected
to produce westerlies.
▪ The Polar cell circulation lies between the North Pole and north latitude 60°.
The cold air sinks down at the North Pole and flows along the earth’s
surface toward the equator.
▪ Near north latitude 60°, the Coriolis effect becomes significant to force the
airflow to southwest.
Wind power density
▪ Wind power density is a comprehensive index in evaluating the wind
resource at a particular site.
▪ It is the available wind power in airflow through a perpendicular cross-
sectional unit area in a unit time period.
▪ The classes of wind power density at two standard wind measurement
heights are listed
▪ Some of wind resource assessments utilize 50 m towers with sensors
installed at intermediate levels (10 m, 20 m, etc.). For large-scale wind
plants, class rating of 4 or higher is preferred.
Wind power density
Upwind and downwind turbine
▪ Based on the configuration of the wind rotor with respect to the wind flowing
direction, the horizontal-axis wind turbines can be further classified as
upwind and downwind wind turbines.
▪ The majority of horizontal-axis wind turbines being used today are upwind
turbines, in which the wind rotors face the wind.
▪ The main advantage of upwind designs is to avoid the distortion of the flow
field as the wind passes though the wind tower and nacelle.
▪ For a downwind turbine, wind blows first through the nacelle and tower and
then the rotor blades.
▪ This configuration enables the rotor blades to be made more flexible without
considering tower strike.
Direct drive and geared drive wind turbine
▪ According to the drivetrain condition in a wind generator system, wind
turbines can be classified as either direct drive or geared drive groups.
▪ To increase the generator rotor rotating speed to gain a higher power output,
a regular geared drive wind turbine typically uses a multi-stage gearbox to
take the rotational speed from the low-speed shaft of the blade rotor and
transform it into a fast rotation on the high-speed shaft of the generator rotor.
▪ The advantages of geared generator systems include lower cost and smaller
size and weight.
▪ However, utilization of a gearbox can significantly lower wind turbine
reliability and increase turbine noise level and mechanical losses.
On grid and off grid wind turbine
▪ Most medium-size and almost all large-size wind turbines are used in grid
tied applications.
▪ One of the obvious advantages for on-grid wind turbine systems is that there
is no energy storage problem
▪ As the contrast, most of small wind turbines are off-grid for residential
homes, farms, telecommunications, and other applications.
▪ However, as an intermittent power source, wind power produced from off-
grid wind turbines may change dramatically over a short period of time with
little warning.
▪ Consequently, off-grid wind turbines are usually used in connection with
batteries, diesel generators, and photovoltaic systems for improving the
stability of wind power supply.
On shore and off shore wind turbine
▪ Onshore wind turbines have a long history on its development.
▪ There are a number of advantages of onshore turbines, including lower
cost of foundations, easier integration with the electrical-grid network,
lower cost in tower building and turbine installation, and more
convenient access for operation and maintenance.
▪ Offshore wind turbines have developed faster than onshore since the 1990s
due to the excellent offshore wind resource, in terms of wind power intensity
and continuity.
▪ A wind turbine installed offshore can make higher power output and
operate more hours each year compared with the same turbine installed
onshore.
▪ In addition, environmental restrictions are more lax at offshore sites than at
onshore sites. For instance, turbine noise is no long an issue for offshore
wind turbines.
Wind power parameters
▪ Power coefficient (Cp)
▪ The conversion of wind energy to electrical energy involves primarily two
stages:
▪ in the first stage, kinetic energy in wind is converted into mechanical energy
to drive the shaft of a wind generator.
▪ The critical converting devices in this stage are wind blades.
▪ For maximizing the capture of wind energy, wind blades need to be carefully
designed.
▪ The power coefficient Cp deals with the converting effi ciency in the fi rst
stage, defined as the ratio of the actually captured mechanical power by
blades to the available power in wind:
▪ In the second stage, mechanical energy captured by wind blades is further
converted into electrical energy via wind generators. In this stage, the
converting efficiency is determined by several parameters.
▪ Gearbox efficiency ηgear
▪ The power losses in a gearbox can be classified as load-dependent and no-
load power losses.
▪ The load-dependent losses consist of gear tooth friction and bearing
losses and no-load losses consist of oil churning, wind age, and shaft
seal losses.
▪ The planetary gearboxes, which are widely used in wind turbines, have
higher power transmission efficiencies over traditional gearboxes.
▪ Generator efficiency ηgen
▪ It is related to all electrical and mechanical losses in a wind generator, such
as copper, iron, load, windage, friction, and other miscellaneous losses.
▪ Electric efficiency ηele
▪ It encompasses all combined electric power losses in the converter,
switches, controls, and cables.
▪ Therefore, the total power conversion efficiency from wind to electricity h t is
the production of these parameters,
Lanchester–Betz limit
▪ The theoretical maximum effi ciency of an ideal wind turbomachine was
derived by Lanchester in 1915 and Betz in 1920.
▪ It was revealed that no wind turbo machines could convert more than 16/27
(59.26%) of the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy.
▪ This is known as Lanchester–Betz limit (or Lanchester– Betz law) today
▪ ̅u1 and ̅u4 are mean velocities far upstream and downstream from the wind
turbine; ̅u2 and ̅u3 are mean velocities just in front and back of the wind
rotating blades, respectively.
▪ By assuming that there is no change in the air velocity right across the wind
blades (i.e. ̅u2 = ̅u3 ) and the pressures far upstream and downstream
from the wind turbine are equal to the static pressure of the undisturbed
airflow (i.e. p 1 = p 4 = p ), it can be derived that
▪ Thus, the power output of mechanical energy captured by wind turbine
blades is
▪ where a is the axial induction factor, defined as
▪ The power coefficient Cp deals with the converting efficiency in the first
stage, defined as the ratio of the actually captured mechanical power by
blades to the available power in wind:
▪ By putting value of ̅u1 into equation of Cp
▪ This indicates that the power coefficient is only a function of the axial
induction factor a .
▪ It is easy to derive that the maximum power coefficient reaches its maximum
value of 16/27 when a = 1/3
Power curve
Wind turbine control
▪ Wind turbine control systems continue to play important roles for ensuring wind
turbine reliable and safe operation and to optimize wind energy capture.
▪ The main control systems in a modern wind turbine include pitch control, stall
control (passive and active), yaw control, and others.
▪ Under high wind speed conditions, the power output from a wind turbine may
exceed its rated value.
▪ Thus, power control is required to control the power output within allowable
fluctuations for avoiding turbine damage and stabilizing the power output.
▪ There are two primary control strategies in the power control: pitch control and
stall control.
Pitch control
▪ The pitch control system not only continually regulates the wind turbine's
blade pitch angle to enhance the efficiency of wind energy conversion and
power generation stability, but also serves as the security system in case of
high wind speeds or emergency situations.
▪ It requires that even in the event of grid power failure, the rotor blades can be
still driven into their feathered positions by using either the power of backup
batteries or capacitors or mechanical energy storage devices
▪ Early techniques of active blade pitch control applied hydraulic actuators to
control all blades together.
▪ However, these collective pitch control techniques could not completely satisfy
all requirements of blade pitch angle regulation, especially for MW wind
turbines with the increase in blade length and hub height
Pitch control
▪ This is because wind is highly turbulent flow and the wind speed is
proportional to the height from the ground.
▪ Therefore, each blade experiences different loads at different rotation positions.
▪ As a result, more superior individual blade pitch control techniques have
been developed and implemented, allowing control of asymmetric aerodynamic
loads on the blades, as well as structural loads in the non-rotating frame such
as tower side-side bending.
▪ In such a control system, each blade is equipped with its own pitch actuator,
sensors and controller.
Pitch control
▪ In today’s wind power industry, there are primarily two types of blade
pitch control systems: hydraulic controlled and electric controlled
systems
▪ the hydraulic pitch control system uses a hydraulic actuator to drive the
blade rotating with respect to its axial centreline.
▪ The most significant advantages of hydraulic pitch control system include
its large driving power, lack of a gearbox, and robust backup power.
▪ Due to these advantages, hydraulic pitch control systems historically
dominate wind turbine control in Europe and North America for many
years.
Pitch control
▪ The electric pitch control systems have been developed alternatively with
the hydraulic systems.
▪ This type of control system has a higher efficiency than that of hydraulic
controlled systems (which is usually less than 55%) and avoids the risk of
environmental pollution due to hydraulic fluid being split or leaked
▪ In an electric pitch control system, the motor connects to a gearbox to
lower the motor speed to a desired control speed.
▪ A drive pinion gear engages with an internal ring gear, which is rigidly
attached to the roof of the rotor blade.
Pitch control
▪ Alternatively, some wind turbine manufacturers use the belt-drive structure
adjusting the pitch angle.
▪ The use of electric motors can raise the responsiveness rate and sensitivity of
blade pitch control.
▪ To enhance operation reliability, the use of redundant pitch control systems was
proposed to be equipped in large wind turbines
Stall control
▪ Besides pitch control, stall control is another approach for controlling and
protecting wind turbines.
▪ The concept of stall control is that the power is regulated through stalling the
blades after rated speed is achieved.
▪ Stall control can be further divided into passive and active control approaches.
▪ Passive stall control is basically used in wind turbines in which the blades are
bolted to the hub at a fixed installing angle.
▪ In low and moderate wind speeds, the turbine operates near maximum
efficiency.
▪ At high wind speeds, the turbine is automatically controlled by means of stalled
blades to limit the rotational speed and power output, protecting the turbine
from excessive wind speeds.
Stall control
▪ However, this control method has some disadvantages, such as
▪ Lower efficiency
▪ the requirement of external equipment at the turbine start
▪ larger dynamic loads acting on the blades, nacelle, and tower, dependence on
reliable brakes for the operation safety
▪ Compared with passive stall control, active control provides more accurate
control on the power output and maintains the rated power at high wind speeds.
▪ However, with the addition of the pitch-control mechanism, the active stall
control mode increases the turbine cost and decreases operation reliability.
Challenges in wind power generation
▪ Environmental impacts:
▪ One of the impacts is that poorly sited wind energy facilities may block bird
migration routes and hurt or kill birds.
▪ It has been reported by the US National Academy of Science that wind turbines
may kill up to 40,000 birds per year in US.
▪ Though this number is much smaller than the 80 million birds killed by cars
each year, it is important to evaluate the long-term influence on local
geography, seasonal bird abundance and the species at risk.
▪ To reduce the bird death, using bird scares to drive birds away from wind
farms has been considered.
▪ Environmental impacts:
▪ Today, this problem becomes less important. Before building a wind farm, a
series of environmental assessments have to be completed to avoid bird
migration routes and to minimize other environmental impacts.
▪ Once the wind farm is built, further monitoring takes place to better understand
the ongoing relationship between birds and the wind farm
▪ Wind turbine noise
▪ Wind turbine noise consists of aerodynamic noise from rotating blades and
mechanical vibration noise from gearboxes and generators.
▪ For a modern large wind turbine, aerodynamic noise from the blades is
considered to be the dominant noise source.
▪ A detailed review of available wind turbine noise standards, regulations, and
guidelines in Europe, North America, and Australia was made by Ramakrishnan
▪ Though the noise limits vary significantly country to country, the approximate
noise level at night times in most European countries and Canada ranges
from 35 to 40 dBA.
▪ Integration of wind power into grid
▪ With the increasing share of wind energy in the global power market, a large
amount of wind power is integrated into existing grids.
▪ Thus, the expected growth in wind power could soon exceed the current
capability of grids with today’s technology.
▪ To prepare this situation in advance, the influence of intermittent wind power on
the grid stability and system security must be properly addressed.
▪ The impacts of wind power to a power grid depend on the level of wind power
penetration, grid size and generation mix of electricity in the grid.
▪ Undoubtedly, there is no problem for low wind power penetration in a large
power grid.
▪ Thermal management of wind turbine:
▪ Large wind turbines are usually installed far away from urban areas and often
operate under severe climate conditions, thus experiencing large variations in
environmental temperatures.
▪ As a consequence, there is a need for a wind turbine to have a robust thermal
control system for maintaining temperature levels inside the nacelle within
specified limits.
▪ During turbine operation, heat is generated from electric/electronic devices
and rotating mechanical components (e.g. gearboxes and bearings) as a
result of various power losses.
▪ For ensuring safe and reliable operation and preventing failure of the turbine,
heat generated in the wind turbine must be dissipated efficiently.
▪ Wind turbine cooling includes:
Wind generator cooling
Electronic and electric equipment cooling
Gearbox cooling
Other components/subsystems cooling
▪ A method was proposed to utilize incoming wind to cool the wind turbine.
▪ This wind assisted cooling system sucks in wind flow from an air inlet port on
the top of the nacelle, fills the received airflow into the generator and finally
exhausts at the front of the nacelle.
▪ Some large wind generators use water or oil cooling for dealing with high
thermal loads.
▪ While the turbine benefits high cooling efficiency, it also suffers lower
reliability and higher cost for adding such a complex cooling system.
▪ The main challenge for electronic devices in a wind turbine is that they must
withstand a wide range of ambient temperatures, usually from –40 to +55°C.
▪ In addition, they must be protected from dusts and moisture, as well as
electrical shocks from lightning.
▪ There are several cooling modes in electronic cooling, including passive or
active air cooling, forced single- or multi-phase liquid cooling, and phase
change cooling.
▪ Under high ambient temperature conditions, a cooling or ventilation system
is necessary to prevent overheating of electronic devices.
▪ In cold climates, heating may be required for
▪ Warming up the lubrication oil in gearboxes
▪ Heating blades and hub to prevent them from icing over
▪ Raising the temperature inside the control cabinets toward a desired
temperature range to prevent electronic devices from malfunctioning
▪ Wind energy storage:
▪ The technologies for wind energy storage have been developed over
several decades to convert wind energy into various forms of energy,
including:
▪ Electrochemical energy in batteries and super capacitors
▪ Magnetic energy in superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
▪ Kinetic energy in rotating flywheels
▪ Potential energy in pumped water at higher altitudes
▪ Mechanical energy in compressed air in vast geologic vaults
▪ Hydrogen energy by decomposing water
▪ Among these techniques, the most popular method is to use batteries.
▪ However, there are some drawbacks to regular batteries, such as
cost, short lifetime, corrosion, and disposal concerns.
▪ Research and development of innovative batteries are underway.
▪ It has reported that lithium-ion battery technology is projected to provide
stationary electrical energy solutions to enable the effective use in
renewable energy sources.
▪ It is expected that safe and reliable lithium-ion batteries will soon be
connected to solar cells and wind turbines.
▪ Sodium-sulphur battery is another promising candidate for energy
storage.
▪ This type of batteries is preferably used to store renewable energy such
as wind, sunlight, and geothermal heat.
▪ Wind turbine lifetime:
▪ Modern wind turbines are designed for the lifetime of 20–30 years. A
critical challenge facing turbine manufacturers and wind power plants is
how to achieve the lifetime goals while at the same time minimize the
costs of maintenance and repair.
▪ However, improving the operational reliability and extending the lifetime
of wind turbines are very difficult tasks for a number of reasons
1. Wind turbines have to be exposed to various hostile conditions such as
extreme temperatures, wind speed fluctuations, humidity, dust, solar
radiation, lightning, salinity and frequent onslaughts of rain, hail, snow,
ice, and sandstorms.
▪ Wind turbine lifetime:
2. A modern wind turbine consists of a large number of components and
systems; each of them has its own lifetime. According to the Cannikin
law, failure must first occur in the component or system with the
shortest lifetime.
3. A wind turbine is subjected to a large variety of dynamic loads due to
wind fluctuations in speed and direction and numerous starts and
stops of the system. Some primary parts or components have to
withstand heavy fatigue loads
4. Advanced high-strength, fatigue-resistant materials are vital to some
key components in modern large wind turbines due to the continuous
increase in blade length, hub height, and turbine weight.
▪ Cost of electricity from wind turbine:
▪ Wind power is characterized by low variable costs and relatively high fixed
costs.
▪ The main factors governing wind power economics are:
▪ Investment costs, including wind turbines, foundations, and grid connection
▪ Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, including regular maintenance,
repairs, insurance, spare parts, and administration
▪ Wind turbine’s electricity production cost, which highly depends on the wind
turbine capacity, wind farm size, and average wind speed at the chosen site
▪ Wind turbine lifetime
▪ Discount rate
Wind-solar hybrid system
▪ Both wind and solar energy are highly intermittent electricity generation
sources.
▪ Time intervals within which fluctuations occur span multiple temporal scales,
from seconds to years.
▪ These fluctuations can be subdivided into periodic fluctuations (diurnal or
annual fluctuations) and non-periodic fluctuations related to the weather
change.
▪ In the summer, sunlight is intensive
and the sunshine duration is long but
there is less wind.
▪ In the winter, when less sunlight is
available, wind becomes strong.
▪ During a day, the sunshine is strong
while wind is weak.
▪ After sunset, the wind is strengthened
due to large temperature changes near
the earth’s surface.
▪ The analyses and test data of wind–solar hybrid power systems have shown
that the optimum combination of the wind–solar hybrid system lies between
0.70 and 0.75 of solar energy to load ratio with the minimized life cycle
cost.
▪ For all load demands, the levelled energy cost for the wind–solar hybrid
system is always lower than that of standalone solar or wind system
▪ The applications of wind–solar hybrid systems ranges extensively from
residential houses to municipal and industrial facilities, either grid
connected or standalone.
▪ The world’s largest wind–solar power test base, integrating wind power
photovoltaic power and energy storage, is being constructed at Zhangbei,
China. The project will have an installed capacity to generate 300 MW of
wind power, 100 MW of solar power and 75 MW of chemical energy
storage
Wind-hydro hybrid system
▪ In many locations of the world, hydropower is complementary with wind
power, while the seasonal wind power distribution is higher in winter and
spring but lower in summer and fall, hydropower is lower in the dry
seasons (winter and spring) but higher in the wet seasons (summer and
fall).
▪ Thus, the integration of wind and hydropower systems can provide significant
technical, economic, and systematic benefits for both systems.
▪ Taking a reservoir as a means of energy regulation, “green” electricity can be
produced with wind–hydro hybrid systems.
Wind-hydrogen hybrid system
▪ Hydrogen is an energy carrier and can be produced from a variety of
resources such as water, fossil fuels, and biomass.
▪ As a fuel with a high energy density, hydrogen can be stored, transported and
then converted into electricity by means of fuel cells at end users.
▪ It is widely recognized that wind power, solar power and other renewable
energy power generation systems can be integrated with the electrolysis
hydrogen production system to produce hydrogen fuel.
▪ The largest wind to- hydrogen power system in the UK has been applied to a
building that is fuelled solely by wind and “green” hydrogen power with the
developed hydrogen mini grid system technology.
▪ In this system, electricity generated from a wind turbine is mainly used to
provide to the building and excess electricity is used to produce hydrogen
using a state-of-the-art high-pressure alkaline electrolyser
Wind-diesel power generation system
▪ Wind power can be combined with power produced by diesel engine-
generator systems to provide a stable supply of electricity.
▪ In response to the variations in wind power generation and electricity
consumption, diesel generator sets may operate intermittently to reduce the
consumption of the fuel.
▪ It was reported that a viable wind–diesel stand-alone system can operate with
an estimated 50–80% fuel saving compared to power supply from diesel
generation alone.
▪ Wind–diesel hybrid power systems have been studied since 1995 in the US.
▪ Till now, many new techniques have been developed and a large number of
wind– diesel power generation systems have been installed all over the world

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Renewable Energy

Prepared by : Siddharth Panchal

The basic design was first introduced with the

In addition to higher rotational speed, and the noise

▪ 𝜌 = Density of air, 1.225 kg/m^3

▪ where a is the axial induction factor, defined as

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