Perception

Chapter Outline

• Perception Defined
• Factors Influencing Perception
• Perceptual Errors
• Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?
• Personality
• Emotions
 Perception
1. What is perception?
2. What causes people to have different perceptions of
the same situation?
3. Can people be mistaken in their perceptions?
4. Does perception really affect outcomes?
 Perception

• What Is Perception?
• Perception is a psychological process through
which an individual takes in, codifies and
interprets stimuli in the environment, by way
of his senses.

• Why Is It Important?
 Situation 1
• You have a job. Your boss is close friends with one of
your coworkers. You screw something up at work and
you're appropriately reprimanded for it. You percieve
their reprimand as being harsher for you than it would
be for your coworker. You believe you've been
mistreated even though you haven't been, because of
the perception of favorable treatment. Appeals to logic
do not land, because emotionally you're already
convinced of the unfairness of the situation.
 Situation 1
• Imagine you're driving and your car breaks down. To
make matters worse, your phone is dead. You pull off
into the closest parking lot, which just happens to be for
a strip club. You walk in to use the phone to call a tow
truck. As you're walking out, your spouse's best friend
drives by and happens to see you walking out.
• This is what the phrase “perception is reality” means.
No one can know your true intentions, no one sees what
you say or do in privacy. We are judged by our actions
and words that others can see and hear.
 Why We Study Perceptions
• To better understand
• We don’t see reality. We interpret
• The attribution process guides our behaviour,
Factors that Influence Perception
The Situation The Perceiver

• Time
• Attitudes
• W ork setting • Motives
• Social setting • Interests
• Experience
• Expectations

Perception

The Target

• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• P r oximity
 Perceptual Errors

• Attribution Theory
• Selective Perception
• Halo Effect
• Contrast Effects
• Projection
• Stereotyping
 Attribution Theory

• When individuals observe behaviour, they

attempt to determine whether it is internally or
externally caused.
– Distinctiveness
– Consensus
– Consistency
 Person Perception: Attribution Theory

Suggests that perceivers try to “attribute” the

observed behavior to a type of cause:

– Internal – behavior is believed to be under the

personal control of the individual
– External –the person is forced into the behavior by
outside events/causes

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 Determinants of Attribution
Distinctiveness – whether an individual displays
different behaviors in different situations (the
uniqueness of the act)
Consensus – does everyone who faces a similar
situation respond in the same way as the
individual did
Consistency – does the person respond the same way
over time

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 Determination of Attribution

3-19
 Attribution Errors

• Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors
and overestimate that of internal factors.

• Self-Serving Bias
Occurs when individuals overestimate their own (internal)
influence on successes and overestimate the external influences
on their failures.

3-20
 Shortcuts Used in Judging Others
• Selective Perception – a perceptual filtering process based on
interests, background, and attitude. May allow observers to
draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation.
• Halo Effect – drawing a general impression based on a single
characteristic.
• Contrast Effects – our reaction is influenced by others we have
recently encountered (the context of the observation).
• Stereotyping – judging someone on the basis of the perception
of the group to which they belong.

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 The Link Between Perception and Decision Making

Decision making occurs as a reaction to a

perceived problem
• Perception influences:
– Awareness that a problem exists
– The interpretation and evaluation of information
– Bias of analysis and conclusions

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 Rational Decision-Making Model
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.

Seldom actually used: more of a goal than a

practical method

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 Assumptions of the Model
• Complete knowledge of the situation
• All relevant options are known in an unbiased
manner
• The decision-maker seeks the highest utility

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 Bounded Rationality
The limited information-processing capability of human
beings makes it impossible to assimilate and understand
all the information necessary to optimize
So people seek solutions that are satisfactory and
sufficient, rather than optimal (they “satisfice”)
Bounded rationality is constructing simplified models
that extract the essential features from problems without
capturing all their complexity

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 Decision Making in Bounded Rationality
Simpler than rational decision making, composed of
three steps:

1. Limited search for criteria and alternatives –

familiar criteria and easily found alternatives
2. Limited review of alternatives – focus alternatives,
similar to those already in effect
3. Satisfying – selecting the first alternative that is
“good enough”

3-26
 Intuitive Decision Making

• An non-conscious process created

out of distilled experience
• Its is the ability to have a grasp
on a situation or information
without the need for reasoning.
• Increases with experience
• Can be a powerful complement to
rational analysis in decision
making

3-27
Intuitive decision-making
 Common Biases and Errors
• Overconfidence Bias
As managers and employees become more knowledgeable
about an issue, the less likely they are to display overconfidence
• Anchoring Bias
A tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to
adequately adjust for subsequent information
• Confirmation Bias
Seeking out information that reaffirms our past choices and
discounting information that contradicts past judgments

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 Common Biases and Errors
• Availability Bias
The tendency to base judgments on information that is readily
available
• Escalation of Commitment
Staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it
is wrong
• Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe falsely that we could have accurately
predicted the outcome of an event after that outcome is already
known
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 Organizational Constraints on
Decision Making

• Performance evaluations
• Reward systems
• Formal regulations
• Self-imposed time constraints
• Historical precedents

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 Attribution Theory

• Fundamental Attribution Error

– The tendency to underestimate external factors.
• Self-Serving Bias
– The tendency to attribute one’s successes to
internal factors.
 Perceptual Errors
• Selective Perception
– People selectively interpret.
– It is a perceptual process in which a person
only perceives what he desires to and sets
aside or ignores other perceptions or
viewpoints.
 Perceptual Errors
– Halo Effect
– The tendency for an impression created in one
area to influence opinion in another area.
– Drawing a general impression
• Contrast Effects
– A person’s evaluation
 Perceptual Errors
• Projection
– Attributing one’s own characteristics
• Stereotyping
– Judging someone
• Prejudice
– An unfounded dislike
 Why Do Perceptions and
Judgment Matter?
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
– A concept that proposes a person will behave in
ways consistent with how he or she is perceived
by others.
 Personality
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts
and interacts with others.
• Personality Determinants
– Heredity
– Environmental Factors
– Situational Conditions
• Personality Traits
– Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s
behaviour.
• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• The Big Five Model
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

• Personality test to determine how people usually act or feel in

particular situations.
• Classifications:
– Extroverted (E) or Introverted (I)
– Sensing (S) or Intuitive (N)
– Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
– Perceiving (P) or Judging (J)
• Combined to form types, for example:
– ESTP
– INTJ
 The Big Five Model

Classifications
• Extraversion
– friendly, outgoing
– spend a lot of time maintaining and enjoying
– Agreeableness
– Highly agreeable = value harmony more
– Low agreeable = focus more on their own needs
• Conscientiousness
– Highly conscientious = pursues fewer goals,
– Low conscientious = tend to be more easily distracted
 The Big Five Model

• Emotional Stability
– Positive emotional stability = calm, enthusiastic
– Negative emotional stability = nervous,
depressed,
• Openness to Experience
– Extremely open = fascinated by novelty
– Not open = appear more conventional
 Big Five Personality Factors

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-41
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Major Personality Attributes
Influencing OB
• Locus of Control
• Machiavellianism
• Self-Esteem
• Self-Monitoring
• Risk-Taking
• Type A Personality
• Type B Personality
• Proactive Personality
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-42
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Locus of Control

• The degree to which people believe they are in

control of their own fate.
– Internals
• Individuals who believe that they control what
happens to them.
– Externals
• Individuals who believe that what happens to them
is controlled by outside forces such as luck or
chance.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-43
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Machiavellianism

• Degree to which an individual is pragmatic,

maintains emotional distance, and believes that
ends can justify means.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-44
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Self-Esteem

• Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking of

themselves.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-45
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Self-Monitoring

• A personality trait that measures an

individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to
external situational factors.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-46
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Risk-Taking

• Refers to a person’s willingness to take

chances or risks.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-47
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Type A Personality

– Moves,
– Impatient
– Multitasks
– Dislikes leisure
– Obsessed with numbers

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-48
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Type B Personality

– Never suffers
– Doesn’t need to display
– Plays for fun
– Can relax

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-49
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Proactive Personality

• A person who identifies opportunities, shows

initiative, takes action, and perseveres until
meaningful change occurs.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-50
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 What Are Emotions?
• Two related terms:
– Emotions
• Intense feelings
– Moods
• less intense than emotions

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-51
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Choosing Emotions: Emotional
Labour
• When an employee expresses organizationally-
desired emotions during interpersonal
interactions.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-52
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Emotional Intelligence

• Noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies

that influence a person's ability to interact with others.
• Five dimensions
– Self-awareness
– Self-management
– Self-motivation
– Empathy
– Social skills

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-53
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Negative Workplace Emotions

• Negative emotions can lead to negative

workplace behaviours:
– Production
– Property
– Political
– Personal aggression

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-54
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Summary and Implications

1. What is perception?
– Perception is the process by which individuals
organize and interpret their impressions in order
to give meaning to their environment.
2. What causes people to have different
perceptions of the same situation?
– Perceptions are affected by factors in the
perceiver, in the object or target being
perceived, and in the context or situation.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-55
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Summary and Implications

3. Can people be mistaken in their perceptions?

– Shortcuts, such as attribution theory, selective
perception, halo effect, contrast effects,
projection, and stereotyping are helpful and
even necessary, but can and do get us in
trouble.
4. Does perception really affect outcomes?
– Perceptions often affect productivity more than
the situation does.
Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-56
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
 Summary and Implications

5. What is personality and how does it affect behaviour?

– Personality helps us predict behaviour.
– Personality can help match people to jobs, to some
extent at least.
6. Can emotions help or get in the way when we’re
dealing with others?
– They can hinder performance, especially when emotions
are negative.
– They can also enhance performance.

Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-57
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada