Renewable Energy

Prepared by : Siddharth Panchal

Chapter 5 : Emerging Technologies
▪ Fuel cell
▪ Types of fuel cells
▪ Comparison of Electrolysis and the Fuel cell process
▪ Hydrogen energy
▪ Hydrogen production
▪ Hydrogen storage
▪ Nano-crystalline magnesium based nickel hydride
▪ Nuclear fusion
▪ Cold fusion
▪ Applications
▪ Merits and demerits
Fuel cells
▪ History
➢The developments leading to an operational fuel cell can be traced back to
the early 1800’s with Sir William Grove recognized as the discoverer in
1839.
➢Throughout the remainder of the century, scientists attempted to develop fuel
cells using various fuels and electrolytes.
➢Further work in the first half of the 20th century served as the foundation for
systems eventually used in the Gemini and Apollo space flights.
➢However, it was not until 1959 that Francis T. Bacon successfully
demonstrated the first fully operational fuel cell.
Fuel cells
▪ History
➢Proton exchange membrane fuel cells were first
used by NASA in the 1960’s as part of the
Gemini space program, and were used on
seven missions.
➢Those fuel cells used pure oxygen and
hydrogen as the reactant gases and were
small-scale, expensive and not commercially
viable.
➢NASA’s interest pushed further development, as
did the energy crisis in 1973.
➢Since then, fuel cell research has continued
unabated and fuel cells have been used
successfully in a wide variety of applications.
Fuel cell structure
▪ A fuel cell is an energy conversion device that converts the chemical energy
of a fuel directly into electricity without any intermediate thermal or
mechanical processes.
▪ Energy is released whenever a fuel reacts chemically with the oxygen in air.
▪ In an internal combustion engine, the reaction occurs combustively and the
energy is released in the form of heat, some of which can be used to do useful
work by pushing a piston.
▪ In a fuel cell, the reaction occurs electrochemically and the energy is
released as a combination of low-voltage DC electrical energy and heat.
▪ The electrical energy can be used to do useful work directly while the heat is
either wasted or used for other purposes.
Fuel cell structure
Fuel cell structure
▪ In galvanic (or “voltaic”) cells, electrochemical reactions form the basis in
which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
▪ A fuel cell of any type is a galvanic cell, as is a battery.
▪ In contrast, in electrolytic cells, electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy, such as in an electrolyzer or electroplater.
▪ A basic feature of fuel cells is that the electric current load determines the
consumption rate of hydrogen and oxygen.
▪ In an actual systems application, a variety of electrical loads may be applied
to the fuel cell.
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Batteries
▪ Fuel cells and batteries are both galvanic cells and therefore have many
similarities.
▪ Both fuel cells and batteries consist of an anode and a cathode in contact
with an electrolyte.
▪ Both devices generate electrical energy by converting chemical energy
from a high energy state to a lower energy state using an
electrochemical reaction.
▪ These reactions occur at the anode and cathode with electron transfer
forced through an external load in order to complete the reaction.
▪ Individual cells of both batteries and fuel cells generate only small DC
voltages, which are then combined in series to achieve substantial voltage
and power capacities.
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Batteries
▪ Fuel cells differ from batteries in the nature of their anode and cathode.
▪ In a battery, the anode and cathode are metals; zinc or lithium is typically
used for the anode and metallic oxides for the cathode.
▪ In a fuel cell, the anode and cathode are composed of gases often in
contact with a platinum catalyst to promote the power generating reaction.
▪ Hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich gas mixture is typically used as the anode
and oxygen or air as the cathode.
▪ Fuel cells also differ from batteries in the fundamental method in which the
chemical reactants are stored.
▪ In a battery, the anode and cathode form an integral part of the battery
structure and are consumed during use.
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Batteries
▪ Battery can only operate until these materials are fully consumed after
which it must either be replaced or recharged, depending on the nature of
the materials.
▪ In a fuel cell, the chemical reactants are supplied from an external
source so that its materials of construction are never consumed and do
not need to be recharged.
▪ A fuel cell continues to operate as long as reactants are supplied and the
reaction products are removed.
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Batteries

Battery Fuel cell

Comparison of Fuel Cells with Internal
Combustion Engines
▪ Fuel cells and internal combustion engines share similarities of form.
▪ Both fuel cells and internal combustion engines use gaseous fuel, drawn
from an external fuel storage system.
▪ Both systems use hydrogen-rich fuel.
▪ Fuel cells use pure hydrogen or a reformate gas mixture.
▪ Internal combustion engines typically use hydrogen-containing fossil fuels
directly, although they could be configured to operate using pure hydrogen.
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Internal
Combustion Engines
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Internal
Combustion Engines
▪ Both systems use compressed air as the oxidant; in a fuel cell engine the air
is compressed by an external compressor.
▪ In an internal combustion engine, the air is compressed internally through
piston action.
▪ Both systems require cooling, although engines operate at higher
temperatures than fuel cells.
▪ In some respects, fuel cells and internal combustion engines are
fundamentally different.
▪ Fuel cells react the fuel and oxidant electrochemically whereas internal
combustion engines react the fuel and oxidant combustively.
Comparison of Fuel Cells with Internal
Combustion Engines
▪ Internal combustion engines are mechanical devices that generate
mechanical energy while fuel cells are solid state devices that generate
electrical energy (although the systems used to support fuel cell operation
are not solid state).
▪ Pollution is related to the fuel composition and the reaction temperature.
▪ Fuel cell engines operating on pure hydrogen produce no harmful
emissions; those that operate on hydrogen rich reformate produce some
harmful emissions depending on the nature of the process.
▪ Internal combustion engines operating on pure hydrogen can be designed to
produce almost zero harmful emissions; those that run on conventional fuels
produce significantly more pollution.
Types of fuel cell
▪ There are two types of fuel cell: 1. High temperature and 2. Low temperature
▪ Types of fuel cells differ primarily by the type of electrolyte they employ.
▪ The type of electrolyte, in turn, determines the operating temperature, which
varies widely between types.
▪ High-temperature fuel cells operate at greater than 1100 ºF (600 °C).
▪ These high temperatures permit the spontaneous internal reforming of light
hydrocarbon fuels such as methane into hydrogen and carbon in the
presence of water.
▪ This reaction occurs at the anode over a nickel catalyst provided that
adequate heat is always available.
Types of fuel cell
▪ Internal reforming eliminates the need for a separate fuel processor, and
can use fuels other than pure hydrogen.
▪ These significant advantages lead to an increase in overall efficiency by as
much as 15%.
▪ During the electrochemical reaction that follows, the fuel cell draws on the
chemical energy released during the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
to form water, and the reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen to
form carbon dioxide.
▪ High-temperature fuel cells also generate high-grade waste heat, which can
be used in downstream processes for co-generation purposes.
Types of fuel cell
▪ High-temperature fuel cells react easily and efficiently without an expensive
noble metal catalyst, such as platinum.
▪ On the other hand, the amount of energy released by the electrochemical
reaction degrades as the reaction temperature increases.
▪ High-temperature fuel cells suffer from severe materials problems
▪ High-temperature operation does not lend itself easily to large-scale
operations and is not suitable where quick start-up is required.
▪ As a result, current high-temperature fuel cells applications have focused on
stationary power plants where the efficiencies of internal reforming and co-
generative capabilities outweigh the disadvantages of material breakdown and
slow start-up.
High temperature fuel cell
▪ Molten carbonate
▪ Solid oxide
1. Molten carbonate fuel cell
▪ Molten carbonate fuel cells use an
electrolyte that conducts carbonate
(CO32–) ions from the cathode to the
anode.
▪ This is the opposite of many other
types of fuel cells, which conduct
hydrogen ions from the anode to the
cathode.
▪ The electrolyte is composed of a
molten mixture of lithium and
potassium carbonates
1. Molten carbonate fuel cell
▪ This mixture is retained by capillary
forces within a ceramic support
matrix of lithium aluminate.
▪ At the fuel cell operating temperature,
the electrolyte structure is a thick
paste, and the paste provides gas
seals at the cell edges.
▪ Molten carbonate fuel cells operate at
about 1200 ºF (650ºC) and a pressure
of 15 to 150 psig (1 to 10 barg).
▪ Each cell can produce up to between
0.7 and 1.0 VDC.
1. Molten carbonate fuel cell
▪ Reaction at anode

▪ Reaction at cathode

▪ Combining both
1. Molten carbonate fuel cell
▪ Advantages:
▪ Support spontaneous internal reforming of light hydro-carbon fuels
▪ Generate high-grade waste heat
▪ Have fast reaction kinetics (react quickly)
▪ Have high efficiency
▪ Do not need noble metal catalysts
1. Molten carbonate fuel cell
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Require the development of suitable materials that are resistant to
corrosion, are dimensionally stable, have high endurance and lend
themselves to fabrication.
▪ Corrosion is a particular problem and can cause nickel oxide from the
cathode to dissolve into the electrolyte, loss of electrolyte, deterioration
of separator plates, and dehydration or flooding of the electrodes.
▪ Dimensional instability can cause electrode deformation that alters the
active surface area and may cause loss of contact and high
resistances between components.
1. Molten carbonate fuel cell
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Have a high intolerance to sulphur. The anode in particular cannot tolerate
more than 1-5 ppm of sulphur compounds (primarily H2S and COS) in
the fuel gas without suffering a significant performance loss.
▪ Have a liquid electrolyte, which introduces liquid handling problems
▪ Require a considerable warm-up period
2. Solid oxide fuel cells
▪ Solid oxide fuel cells use an electrolyte
that conducts oxide (O2–) ions from the
cathode to the anode.
▪ This is the opposite of most types of
fuel cells, which conduct hydrogen ions
from the anode to the cathode.
▪ The electrolyte is composed of a solid
oxide, usually zirconia (stabilized with
other rare earth element oxides like
yttrium), and takes the form of a
ceramic.
2. Solid oxide fuel cells
▪ Solid oxide fuel cells are built like
computer chips through sequential
deposition of various layers of material.
Common configurations include tubular
and flat (planar) designs.
▪ The designs differ in the extent of
dissipative losses within cells, in the
manner of sealing between the fuel and
oxidant channels, and in the manner
that cell-to-cell electrical connections
are made in a stack of cells.
2. Solid oxide fuel cells
▪ Metals such as nickel and cobalt can
be used as electrode materials.
▪ Solid oxide fuel cells operate at about
1830 ºF (1000 ºC) and a pressure of 15
psig (1 barg).
▪ Each cell can produce between 0.8 and
1.0 VDC.
2. Solid oxide fuel cells
2. Solid oxide fuel cells

Planner type Tubular type

2. Solid oxide fuel cells
▪ Advantages:
▪ support spontaneous internal reforming of hydrocarbon fuels.
▪ operate equally well using wet or dry fuels
▪ generate high-grade waste heat
▪ have fast reaction kinetics
▪ have very high efficiency
▪ can operate at higher current densities than molten carbonate fuel cells
▪ have a solid electrolyte, avoiding problems associated with handling liquids
▪ can be fabricated in a variety of self-supporting shapes and configurations
▪ do not need noble metal catalysts
Low temperature fuel cell
1. Alkaline fuel cells
2. Phosphoric acid fuel cells
3. Photon exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells
Alkaline fuel cells
▪ Alkaline fuel cells use an electrolyte that conducts hydroxyl (OH–) ions from
the cathode to the anode.
▪ This is opposite to many other types of fuel cells that conduct hydrogen ions
from the anode to the cathode.
▪ The electrolyte is typically composed of a molten alkaline mixture such as
potassium hydroxide (KOH). The electrolyte can be mobile or immobile.
▪ Mobile alkaline electrolyte fuel cells use a fluid electrolyte that continuously
circulates between the electrodes.
▪ The product water and waste heat dilute, heat the liquid electrolyte but are
removed from the cell as the electrolyte circulates.
Alkaline fuel cells
▪ Immobile alkaline electrolyte fuel cells use an
electrolyte that consists of a thick paste retained
by capillary forces within a porous support
matrix such as asbestos.
▪ The paste itself provides gas seals at the cell
edges.
▪ Product water evaporates into the source hydrogen
gas stream at the anode from which it is
subsequently condensed.
▪ The waste heat is removed by way of a circulating
coolant.
▪ Alkaline fuel cells operate at about 150 to 430 ºF (65
to 220 ºC) and a pressure of about 15 psig (1 barg).
Each cell can produce up to between 1.1 and 1.2
VDC.
Alkaline fuel cells
▪ Reaction
Alkaline fuel cells
▪ Advantages
▪ Operate at low temperature
▪ Have fast start up times (50% rated power at ambient temperature)
▪ Have high efficiency
▪ Need little or no expensive platinum catalyst
▪ Have minimal corrosion
▪ Have relative ease of operation
▪ Have low weight and volume
Alkaline fuel cells
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ They are extremely intolerant to CO2 (about 350 ppm maximum) and
somewhat intolerant of CO
▪ This is a serious disadvantage and limits both the type of oxidant and fuel
that can be used in an alkaline fuel cell.
▪ The oxidant must be either pure oxygen or air that has been scrubbed free
of carbon dioxide. The fuel must be pure hydrogen due to the presence of
carbon oxides in reformate.
▪ Have a liquid electrolyte, introducing liquid handling problems
▪ Require complex water management
▪ Have a relatively short lifetime
Phosphoric fuel cells
▪ Phosphoric acid fuel cells use an electrolyte
that conducts hydrogen ions (H+) from the
anode to the cathode.
▪ As its name implies, the electrolyte is
composed of liquid phosphoric acid within a
silicon carbide matrix material. (Some acid
fuel cells use a sulphuric acid electrolyte.)
▪ Phosphoric acid fuel cells operate at about
300 to 400 ºF (150 to 205 ºC) and a pressure
of about 15 psig (1 barg). Each cell can
produce up to about 1.1 VDC.
Phosphoric fuel cells
▪ Reaction:

▪ Thus, the fuel cell produces water that accumulates at the cathode.
▪ This product water must be continually removed to facilitate further
reaction.
Phosphoric fuel cells
▪ Advantages:
▪ They are tolerant of carbon dioxide (up to 30%). As a result, phosphoric acid
fuel cells can use unscrubbed air as oxidant, and reformate as fuel.
▪ Operate at low temperature, but at higher temperatures than other low-
temperature fuel cells. Thus, they produce higher grade waste heat that can
potentially be used in co-generation applications.
▪ They have stable electrolyte characteristics with low volatility even at
operating temperatures as high as 392 ºF (200ºC)
Phosphoric fuel cells
▪ The disadvantages are that they:
▪ can tolerate only about 2% carbon monoxide
▪ can tolerate only about 50 ppm of total sulfur compounds
▪ use a corrosive liquid electrolyte at moderate temperatures, resulting in material
corrosion problems
▪ have a liquid electrolyte, introducing liquid handling problems. The electrolyte slowly
evaporates over time.
▪ allow product water to enter and dilute the electrolyte
▪ are large and heavy
▪ cannot auto-reform hydrocarbon fuels
▪ have to be warmed up before they are operated or be continuously maintained at
their operating temperature
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
▪ Proton exchange membrane (PEM) (or
“solid polymer”) fuel cells use an
electrolyte that conducts hydrogen
ions (H+) from the anode to the
cathode.
▪ The electrolyte is composed of a solid
polymer film that consists of a form of
acidified Teflon.
▪ PEM fuel cells typically operate at 160 to
195 ºF (70 to 90 ºC) and a pressure of
15 to 30 psig (1 to 2 barg). Each cell can
produce up to about 1.1 VDC.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
▪ The advantages of PEM fuel cells are that they:
▪ are tolerant of carbon dioxide.
▪ As a result, PEM fuel cells can use unscrubbed air as oxidant, and
reformate as fuel.
▪ operate at low temperatures. This simplifies materials issues, provides for
quick startup and increases safety.
▪ use a solid, dry electrolyte. This eliminates liquid handling, electrolyte
migration and electrolyte replenishment problems.
▪ use a non-corrosive electrolyte. Pure water operation minimizes
corrosion problems and improves safety.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
▪ The advantages of PEM fuel cells are that they:
▪ have high voltage, current and power density
▪ operate at low pressure which increases safety
▪ have good tolerance to differential reactant gas pressures
▪ are compact and rugged
▪ have relatively simple mechanical design
▪ use stable materials of construction
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
▪ The disadvantages are that they:
▪ can tolerate only about 50 ppm carbon monoxide
▪ can tolerate only a few ppm of total sulfur compounds
▪ need reactant gas humidification
▪ Humidification is energy intensive and increases the complexity of the
system. The use of water to humidify the gases limits the operating
temperature of the fuel cell to less than water’s boiling point and therefore
decreases the potential for co-generation applications.
▪ use an expensive platinum catalyst
▪ use an expensive membrane that is difficult to work with
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
▪ Direct Methanol

Anode

Cathode
PEM Flow Field Plates
Assembling a PEM Fuel Cell Stack
Application of fuel cell
▪ Stationary power plants
Application of fuel cell
▪ Submarines

80 kW submarine fuel power plant

For german submarines
Application of fuel cell
▪ Buses
Hydrogen production
▪ Hydrogen is the fuel for low temperature fuel cell.
▪ However, for high temperature fuel cells hydrocarbon may be fed to fuel
cell instead of hydrogen.
▪ Hydrocarbon may be reformed in-situ in the fuel cell from the
hydrocarbon.
▪ It can be understood that the generation of hydrogen is one of the important
processes for the fuel cell application.
▪ We may generate hydrogen from any hydrogen atom containing species
(eg., hydrocarbon and water) using various techniques.
▪ A few of the important techniques are listed in the next slide.
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen production
▪ Hydrogen from hydrocarbon:
➢Since hydrogen doesn't exist on earth in free form, we must separate it
from other chemical species.
➢We can separate hydrogen atoms from biomass, or natural gas molecules.
➢Hydrogen can be produced from natural gas with approximately 80%
efficiency, or from other hydrocarbons to a varying degree of efficiency.
▪ Hydrogen from water:
➢Water is the another greatest source of hydrogen.
➢High purity (ideally 100%) hydrogen can be produced from water.
Hydrogen production
▪ Reforming of hydrocarbon:
➢The aim of the reforming is to generate hydrogen rich gas by hydrocarbons.
The reforming may be done with or without catalyst. Three types of major
reforming process are,
1. Steam reforming (SR)
2. Partial oxidation reforming (POR)
3. Auto thermal reforming (ATR)
Hydrogen production
▪ Steam reforming process:
▪ Steam is used to reform the hydrocarbon (say natural gas) using a catalyst.

▪ The above reaction is strongly endothermic.

▪ In subsequent reaction the CO can further be converted to CO2 and the
process is known as water-gas-shift reaction,
Hydrogen production
▪ Partial oxidation reforming:
▪ Partial reforming is the another technique for generation of hydrogen by
hydrocarbon for fuel cell.
▪ As the name indicates, less oxygen (stochiometry) is required to carryout
▪ POR. POR does not require catalyst if it is carried out at high temperature.
▪ Catalyst is required for the partial oxidation at low temperature, the process
is then known as catalytic partial oxidation reforming (CPOR).
▪ A typical POR is shown below,
Hydrogen production
▪ Auto thermal reforming (ATR)
▪ It is another technique for hydrogen generation.
▪ The name suggests that the temperature is not required externally.
▪ However, the thermal energy requirement is met by the system itself.
▪ The idea is that if the endothermic steam reforming reaction and the
exothermic POR occur together, there should not be any need of heat
addition or removal to/from the system.
Hydrogen production
▪ Hydrogen generation through electrolysis:
▪ Generation of hydrogen using electrolysis
is one of the oldest technique.
▪ In fact the concept of fuel cell came
during the electrolysis of water by Sir
William Grove in 1839.
▪ In electrolysis, the energy (or electrical
current) is required to dissociate water
molecules into hydrogen and water.
▪ The hydrogen formed in electrolysis is the
purest form of hydrogen. Electrolytic cell
is used for the electrolysis of water.
Hydrogen production
▪ Cathode reaction:

▪ Anode reaction:

▪ Overall reaction
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Hydrogen may be a prospective source or energy carrier for the future
because it is clean and sustainable.
▪ Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of feedstock.
▪ These include fossil resources, such as natural gas and coal, as well as
renewable resources, such as biomass and water, when we use the energy
input from renewable energy sources (e.g. solar, wind, hydro-power, etc.).
▪ Many process technologies like chemical, biological, electrolytic, photolytic,
and thermo-chemical may be used for the hydrogen production.
▪ Each technology is in a different stage of development, and each offers
unique opportunities, benefits and challenges.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Local availability of feedstock, the maturity of the technology, market
applications and demand, policy issues, and costs may influence the choice
and timing of the various options for hydrogen production.
▪ Several technologies are already available commercially for the industrial
production of hydrogen.
▪ However, major problem with hydrogen is its efficient storage system.
▪ The most common method to store hydrogen in gaseous form is in steel
tanks, although lightweight composite tanks designed to endure higher
pressures are also becoming popular.
▪ Gaseous hydrogen cooled to near cryogenic temperatures is another
alternative that can be used to increase the volumetric energy density of
gaseous hydrogen.
Hydrogen Storage
Hydrogen Storage
▪ The major techniques are shown below
1. Composite tanks
2. Cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2)
3. Chemical hydrides
4. Carbon based materials
5. Metal hydrides
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Composite tanks:
▪ There are several advantages with composite tanks.
▪ Their low weight meets key targets and the tanks are already commercially
available, well-engineered and safety-tested, since extensive prototyping
experience exists.
▪ Standard size tanks are available worldwide with specific code for pressures
in the range of 350-700 bar.
▪ Composite tanks does not require internal heat exchanger and may be used
for cryogas with extra fittings.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Composite tanks:
▪ Their main disadvantages are the
large physical volume required, the
fact that the ideal cylindrical shape
makes it difficult to conform storage
to available space, their high cost
(500-600 USD/kg H2), and the
energy penalties associated with
compressing the gas to very high
pressures.
▪ Figure in the next slide show a
representative sketch of a composite
tank.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ There are also some safety issues that still have not been resolved, such as the
problem of rapid loss of H2 in an accident.
▪ The long-term effect of hydrogen on the materials under cyclic or cold conditions is
also not fully understood. Hence, there is still need for more research and
development specifically:
▪ Research on material embrittlement, using new ad hoc fracture mechanics
techniques.
▪ Development of stronger and lower-cost construction materials, especially carbon
fibers.
▪ Development of an efficient and clean (i.e. without oils) 1000-bar compressor.
▪ The consideration of hydride-type compressors utilizing waste heat or solar energy.
▪ Development of techniques that recover the compression energy during vehicle
operation.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2)

▪ Cryogenic hydrogen, usually simply referred to as liquid hydrogen (LH2), has a

density of 70.8 kg/m3 at normal boiling point (–253°C)
▪ Critical pressure is 13 bar and critical temperature is –240°C.
▪ The theoretical gravimetric density of liquid H2 is 100%, but only 20 wt.% H2
can be achieved in practical hydrogen systems as of today.
▪ On a volumetric basis, the respective values are 80 kg/m3 and 30 kg/m3.
▪ This means that liquid hydrogen has a much better energy density than the
pressurized gas solutions mentioned above.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Cryogenic liquid hydrogen (LH2)

▪ However, it is important to recall that about 30-40% of the energy is lost when
liquid H2 is produced.
▪ The other main disadvantage with liquid H2 is the boil-off loss during
dormancy, plus the fact that super-insulated cryogenic containers are needed.
▪ The main advantage with liquid H2 is the high storage density that can be
reached at relatively low pressures.
▪ Liquid hydrogen has been demonstrated in commercial vehicles (particularly
by BMW), and in the future it could also be co-utilized as aircraft fuel, since it
provides the best weight advantage of any H2 storage.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Chemical hydrides:
▪ Some of the chemicals may be used to store the hydrogen gas.
▪ For example, Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) can be used to store the hydrogen
gas.
▪ In order to release the hydrogen, the sodium borohydride solution can be
catalytically hydrolyzed as per the reaction shown below,

▪ The theoretical maximum hydrogen energy storage density for this reaction is
10.9 wt.% H2.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Chemical hydrides:
▪ The main advantage with using NaBH4 solutions is that it allows for safe and
controllable on board generation of H2.
▪ The main disadvantage is that the reaction product NaBO2 must be
regenerated back to NaBH4 off-board.
▪ The use of NaBH4 solutions in vehicles may be prohibitively expensive.
▪ The required cost reduction is unlikely because of the unfavorable
thermodynamics.
▪ However, NaBH4 solutions may be used in high-value portable and stationary
applications.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Carbon based materials:
▪ Carbon-based materials have received a lot of attention in the research
community over the last decade.
▪ Carbon based materials mainly include graphene, fullerenes, and carbon
nano-tubes.
▪ H2 is stored on these carbon allotropes by molecular physisorption. However,
it is useful only at cryogenic temperatures.
▪ Pure H-chemisorptions has been demonstrated to be stored upto 8wt.% H2
with catalyst, but the covalent-bound H is liberated only at impractically high
temperatures (above 400°C with catalyst).
▪ Room temperature adsorption up to a few wt.% H2 is occasionally reported,
but has not been reproducible.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Carbon based materials:
▪ This requires a new bonding mechanism with energies between physisorption
and strong covalent chemisorption
▪ Hence, the potential for H2 storage in carbon-based materials is yet to be
established practically
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Metal hydride:
▪ The chemically bound hydrogen storage material is metal hydrides.
▪ Many metals and alloys will reversibly react with hydrogen to form a
hydride.
▪ A generic reaction is given in the figure on next slide.
▪ The regeneration of the metal can be accomplished either by increasing the
temperature or by reducing the pressure.
▪ To understand this behavior it is helpful to consider the pressure–
composition isotherm (PCI) for a metal hydride
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Metal hydride:
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Metal hydride:
▪ The PCI fig shows that the pressure increases the hydrogen uptake
increases
▪ The PCI plot also shows that there is a plateau above which pressure the
metal will hydride and in a closed system will continue to hydride until the
pressure of the system decreases down to that of the plateau pressure.
▪ The stored hydrogen can be released by reducing the pressure of the
system to a level below that of the plateau pressure.
▪ The plateau pressure is also temperature dependent, and increases with
temperature.
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Metal hydride:
Hydrogen Storage
▪ Metal hydride:
▪ Thus a hydride stable under a certain temperature and pressure will
decompose when the temperature is increased to a level where the plateau
pressure is now higher than the system pressure.
▪ The temperature needed for a 1 bar plateau pressure, T(1 bar), is a useful
characteristic of metal hydrides as this gives an indication of the minimum
working temperature for a store based on that material.
Nuclear energy
▪ Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy
to generate heat, which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to
produce electricity in a nuclear power plant.
▪ As a nuclear technology, nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear
fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.
▪ Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by
nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium.
▪ Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as
radioisotope thermoelectric generators.
▪ Generating electricity from fusion power remains at the focus of
international research. This article mostly deals with nuclear fission power
for electricity generation.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear power plant components
▪ Reactor assembly:
1. Nuclear fuel
2. Nuclear reactor core
3. Neutron moderator
Nuclear reactor core
4. Startup neutron source
5. Neutron poison
6. Coolant
7. Control rods
8. Reactor pressure vessel
Nuclear power plant components
▪ Steam generation
1. Boiler feed water pump
2. Steam generators
▪ Power generation:
1. Steam turbine
2. Electrical generator
3. Condenser
4. Cooling tower
Source of neutron
▪ Primary sources, used for startup of a fresh reactor core; conventional
neutron sources are used. The primary sources are removed from the
reactor after the first fuel campaign, usually after few months, as neutron
capture resulting from the thermal neutron flux in an operating reactor
changes the composition of the isotopes used, and thus reduces their
useful lifetime as neutron sources. Californium-252 (spontaneous fission)
▪ Plutonium-238& beryllium, (α,n) reaction
▪ americium-241 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction
▪ polonium-210 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction
▪ radium-226 & beryllium, (α,n) reaction
Neutron moderator
▪ In nuclear engineering, a neutron moderator is a medium that reduces the
speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable
of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235 or a similar
fissile nuclide.
▪ Commonly used moderators include regular (light) water (roughly 75% of
the world's reactors), solid graphite (20% of reactors) and heavy water (5%
of reactors).
▪ Beryllium has also been used in some experimental types, and
hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility.
Types of nuclear reactor
1. Pressurised water reactors
2. Boiling water reactors
3. Pressurised heavy water reactors
Pressurized water reactor
▪ PWR is the most common type of nuclear reactor, representing about 60%
of all nuclear power reactors in the world. PWRs are adopted in countries
such as the United States, France, Japan, Russia and China.
▪ PWRs use light water (ordinary water) for neutron moderation* and reactor
heat removal.
▪ The water inside the primary cooling circuit of PWR is under high pressure,
and it will not turn into steam even under high temperature.
▪ The primary circuit and the secondary circuit are completely separated, and
heat energy will be transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit.
Pressurized water reactor
▪ With a lower pressure in the secondary circuit, steam is raised to drive a
turbine-generator to produce electricity.
▪ These reactors use U235 of a typically 3%-4.5% enrichment.
▪ PWR's two cooling systems separate the reactor cooling water and
steam for power generation.
▪ In the event of necessary venting, steam released will be free from
radioactive products.
Pressurized water reactor
Boiling water reactor
▪ BWRs use U235 of a typically 2%–4% enrichment and account for around 20%
of all nuclear power reactors. BWRs are adopted in countries such as the
United States, Japan and Sweden.
▪ BWRs use light water for neutron moderation and reactor heat removal. The
heat raises steam directly in their reactor pressure vessel to drive a turbine-
generator to produce electricity.
▪ BWR's basic design is similar to that of PWR, except that it uses only one
single circuit in which the water is at lower pressure. As the water around the
core of the reactor always contains some traces of radionuclides, should
necessary venting occur, any steam released could contain radioactive
products.
Boiling water reactor
Pressurized heavy water reactor
▪ PHWR was developed in the 1950s and is widely used in countries such as
Canada and India. PHWR represents about 10% of all nuclear power reactors
in the world.

This type of reactor uses Uranium at its natural level of around 0.7% U235
concentration with no enrichment. It uses heavy water* for neutron moderation
and reactor heat removal.
▪ Heavy water absorbs the fewest neutrons among common moderator material
so that it will least suppress the chain reaction.
▪ This heavy water flows inside pressure tubes filled with Uranium, taking away
reactor heat and delivering it to an adjoining circuit to raise steam and drive a
turbine-generator for production of electricity.
Pressurized heavy water reactor
▪ PWHR's pressurised tube
design enables refueling of the
reactor during operation, by
isolating individual pressure
tubes from the cooling circuit.
▪ Heavy water refers to water in
which the ordinary hydrogen
atoms (containing only 1 proton
in the nucleus) are replaced by
heavier hydrogen atoms
(containing 1 proton and 1
neutron in the nucleus), which
can help achieve a more
efficient fission process.