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Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications

Lalitha A. Kolahalam a, I.V. Kasi Viswanath b,⇑, Bhagavathula S. Diwakar c,⇑, B. Govindh d, Venu Reddy e,c,⇑,1,
Y.L.N. Murthy f
a
Department of Chemistry, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Guntur 522502, India
b
Chalapati Institute of Engineering and Technology, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh 522034, India
c
Department of Engineering Chemistry, SRKR Engineering College, Bhimavaram 534204, Andhra Pradesh, India
d
Department of S&H, Raghu Institute of Technology, Visakhapatnam, India
e
Nanotechnology Research Center, SRKR Engineering College, Bhimavaram 534204, Andhra Pradesh, India
f
Department of Organic Chemistry, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530003, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The recent past in the technological development evidenced that evolution in Nanotechnology and
Received 9 May 2019 nanoscience is the key factor. Nanotechnology is multidisciplinary science which deals with physics,
Received in revised form 19 June 2019 chemistry, materials science and other engineering sciences. The applications of Nanotechnology are
Accepted 11 July 2019
spreading in almost all the branches of science and technology. The present review article highlighted
Available online xxxx
the types of nanoparticles and their synthesis methods, characterization techniques. There are many
techniques and applications are reported in the last five years but here we strictly focused on the general
Keywords:
synthetic approaches and applications of the nanomaterials which provide a general idea to the young
History of nanotechnology
Classification of Nanomaterials
researchers.
Preparation methods Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Characterization techniques Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International
Applications Conference on Applied Sciences and Technology (ICAST-2019): Materials Science.

1. Introduction
Over the last century nanotechnology branch is flourishing to a
great extent. And today many types of research are directly or indi-
rectly related to the nanotechnology. Nanotechnology can be sta-
ted as the developing, synthesizing, characterizing and
application of materials and devices by modifying their size and
shape in nanoscale” In each and every stream the prefix ‘‘nano”
is using as a keyword even in advertising the products also. Actu-
ally the word ‘‘nano” is derived from the Greek word nanos or Latin
word nanus means which ‘‘dwarf”. It is the combination of physics,
chemistry, material science, solid state, and biosciences. So pro-
found knowledge in one field will not be sufficient, the combined
knowledge of physics, chemistry, material science, solid state,
and biosciences is required. The applications of Nanotechnology
⇑ Corresponding authors at: Department of Engineering Chemistry, SRKR
Engineering College, Bhimavaram 534204, Andhra Pradesh, India (V. Reddy).
E-mail addresses: viswanath.ivk@gmail.com (I.V. Kasi Viswanath), bsd2020@
gmail.com (B.S. Diwakar), rvenu8@gmail.com (V. Reddy).
1
Co-Corresponding author.
are spreading in almost all the branches of science and technology.
The difference between the nanoscience and nanotechnology is the
nanoscience gives the knowledge about the arrangement of atoms
and their basic properties at nanoscale whereas the nanotechnol-
ogy is the technology used in governing the matter at the atomic
level for the synthesis of the novel nanomaterials with different
characteristics [1]. The nanotechnology getting attention in almost
all engineering branches but the common people didn’t get the
knowledge about its existence in daily life but its vast usage in
the medicine, engineering, environment, electronics, defense, and
security is still increasing (Fig. 1). Even though so much work
was done using this technology but still have space for developing
the new novel nanomaterials in various fields for the progress of
mankind. The researchers are fascinated and working for the pro-
gress of knowledge in terms of their size, capability, and expendi-
ture. So special interest on the miniaturization of the device with
economical is focusing mainly in the field of medicine, electronics.
In upcoming days the nanotechnology controls mankind in living,
working and communicating fields. So this gives interest in this

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
2214-7853/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Applied Sciences and Technology (ICAST-2019): Materials
Science.

Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
2 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Dimensionality Type of Nanomaterial

Zero dimensional
One Dimensional
Two dimensional
Three dimensional or
Bulk nanomaterials
Nanoparticles, quantum dots
Nanorods, nanotubes, nanowires
Nanofilms, nanolayers.
Core shells, a bundle of nanowires,
a bundle of nanotubes.

The nanomaterials are of different types based on their morphology,

size, properties and the constituent in it. They are carbon-based
nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanomaterials,
polymeric nanomaterials, lipid-based nanomaterials.

1.1. Carbon based nanomaterials

The main constituent in this type of nanomaterials is the car-

Fig. 1. The role of nanoscience and nanotechnology in science and engineering.
subject and leads to the discussion of the basic and major topics of
nanotechnology.
The basic and the key elements of nanotechnology are the
‘‘nanomaterials”. The nanomaterials are the materials with less
than 100 nm size ones at least in one dimension. That means they
have very less size than that of microscale. The nanomaterials are
usually 10
9 m in size that means it is one billionth of a meter. The
nanomaterials show different physicochemical properties than the
bulk material which inherently depends on their size and shape.
Surprisingly the nanomaterials produce a unique character with
new characteristics and capabilities by modifying the shape and
size at the nanoscale level. Nanomaterials may be of different
shapes like nanorods, nanoparticles, nanosheets which can be
characterized based on their dimensionality. Nanomaterials with
zero-dimensional are nanoparticles, one dimensional is nanorods
or nanotubes and two dimensional are generally films and layers
type one. These are categorized mainly for the single isolated nano-
materials. By the interaction of two or more particles, their physi-
cal properties will alter. These particles of different constituents
are called bulk or three-dimensional nanomaterials.
Based on the dimensions of nanoscale (<100 nm) they are clas-
sified as follows.
(1) Zero-dimensional nanomaterials (0-D): In this, all the three
dimensions of the nanomaterials are in the nanoscale range.
Nanoparticles will come into this classification.
(2) One dimensional nanomaterial (1-D): In this, in any one
dimension it will be in nanoscale range and remaining two
dimensions are out of the nanoscale range. Nanorods or nan-
otubes or nanowires are related to this class.
(3) Two-dimensional nanomaterials (2-D): Any two dimensions
are in nanoscale range and remaining one dimension is out
of it. These include nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoatings.
(4) Three dimensional or bulk nanomaterials (3-D): In any
dimension, these nanomaterials are not in nanoscale range.
That means in three arbitrarily dimensions they are
>100 nm scale. These include nanocomposites, core shells,
multi nanolayers, bundles of nanowires, bundles of nan-
otubes [2].
bon. Carbon nanotubes and fullerenes are related to this type. Basi-
cally, the CNTs are embedded with graphene sheets which are
rolled into a tube. These are much stronger than steel and can be
useful for structural enhancement. The CNTs are of a single-
walled type and multi-walled type.
Fullerenes are the hollow cage structure particles with sixty or
more carbon atoms. These are allotropes of carbon. Its structure
similar to hollow football with pentagonal and hexagonal carbon
units is organized in a regular pattern. They show good electrical
conductivity, electron affinity, and high strength [1,2].
1.2. Metal based nanomaterials
The starting materials of the metal nanomaterials are divalent
and trivalent metal ions. There are different methods for the
preparation of metal nanoparticles like chemical or photochemi-
cal methods. By using reducing agents the metal ions are reduced
to the metal nanoparticles. These have a high surface area and
have the good adsorption ability of small molecules. They are
widely used in different research areas, environmental and
bioimaging studies. Not only a single nanoparticle but also the
mixing of two or more nanoparticles with the size control can
also be achieved. By doping different metals even the rare earth
metals can change the main element characteristics. By doping
different elements in different constitutions their properties also
get vary [3–6].
1.3. Semiconductor nanomaterials
Semiconductor nanomaterials have metallic and non-metallic
properties. They exhibit wide band gaps by modifying it shows dif-
ferent properties. These are widely used in photocatalysis, elec-
tronic devices. For instance, ZnS [7], ZnO [8], CdS [9], CdSe [10],
CdTe [11] are related to group II-VI semiconductor materials.
GaN [12], GaP [13], InP [14], InAs [14] are from group III-V. In
recent times, semiconductor grapheme nanocomposites attracted
the researches. The graphene can improve the physical and chem-
ical properties of the semiconductor. For gas sensing sensitivity
[15–17], piezoelectric properties [18,19] graphene composites
materials can be utilized.
1.4. Nanocomposites
The nanocomposite is a polyphase solid material where one of
the phases has one, two or three dimensions of less than
100 nm. Nanocomposites have a high surface to volume ratio
which differs from typical composites. Based on the size and the
shape the physicochemical properties may differ as follows [2,20].

Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Size Activity
<5nm Catalytic activity
<20 nm Changing the hard magnetic material to soft
<50 nm To change the refractive index
<100 nm For achieving superparamagnetism
There are different types of nanocomposites like that of nanomate-
rials. The different types are Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites
(CMNC), Metal Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNC) and Polymer
Matrix Nanocomposites (PMNC).
In them, the polymer composite of graphene-based composites
is developing in recent days to a large extent. Graphene is com-
posed of carbon moiety. The single layer carbon atoms arranged
in hexagonal matrix [21,22]. It exists with zero band gap and the
electrons are almost as the massless particles which consist of
the good electrical medium in 2D [23]. The precursor of graphene
is graphene oxide (GO) whose electronic conductivity [24] is very
less. So the conversion of GO to reduced graphene oxide rGO gives
better results with good conductivity. There are different methods
like Exfoliation method [25–27], CVD method [28,29], thermal
reduction [30,31], chemical reduction [32–34], multistep reduction
method [35–38] to convert the GO to rGO. The different types of
semiconductor graphene family nanocomposites are a metal
oxide/grapheme nanocomposites, metal chalcogenide/grapheme
nanocomposites. The metal oxides possess a variety of applica-
tions. In them ZnO [39,40], In2O3 [41], TiO2 [42], MnO2 [43],
Fe2O3 [44] shows the photocatalytic, photovoltaic, drug delivery
[45], gas sensors [46,47], batteries [48,49] and cytotoxicity activi-
ties [50]. The basic key role for these applications is the interaction
of matter with surroundings.
1.5. Different properties of the nanomaterials
The nanomaterials with in the critical size (<100 nm) show
unique and fascinating properties led to an interest in them. These
properties of nanomaterials are different from the bulk material.
While the macro-structured properties are identical to their bulk.
On decreasing the particle size the number of particles on the sur-
face increases. The coordination number for surface atoms is less
than the inner atoms and so they mobile easily. Based on the sur-
face property we can apply the nanomaterials in various fields like
catalysis, functional coatings, adsorbents, nanoelectronics, sensors.
The excitation, emission, chemical reactivity, and stability prop-
erties are also size-dependent properties at nano-regime. Not only
had the size the shape also played an important role in judging the
nanomaterial property. When the nanoparticle size is nearer to the
de Broglie wavelength limit and diameter is less than the quasipar-
ticle interaction then they exhibit quantum size effects. The con-
trolling and manipulation of nanomaterials properties is possible
by controlling their size during their synthesis by using different
methods. Due to having more surface area they can be applied as
catalysts. Mostly the metal nanoparticles can be utilized as good
catalysts. By using the surface phenomenon the nanomaterials
can be applied in the following fields [1].
Electronic property of a metal is based on their electronic band
structure. The band structure depends upon the particle size. The
delocalized bands are seen in the molecular states. The band struc-
ture of nanocrystal is in between the discrete states of atoms (and
molecules) and continuous bands of crystals. The adjacent lines
energy separation depends on the size of the particle. On decreas-
ing the size the separation of energy levels increases. The metallic
character decreases and gradually changes to the semiconductor
nature.
Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
3
There are different types of magnetic materials like dia, para,
Ferro, antiferro, ferromagnetic materials. The soft and hard mag-
netic materials are different types of magnetic materials based
on their coercivity. The soft materials have low coercivity with
small hysteresis area and these materials can be magnetized by a
low magnetic field. The hard magnets are contrasted to this. The
coercivity will change based on the particle size. Generally on
increasing the surface area and decrease in grain size the coercivity
and saturation magnetization increases. So the nanoparticles have
the more surface area with less grain size and show high magnetic
strength. If further, the particle size decreased then the ferromag-
netic particles changes to paramagnetic materials due to instabil-
ity. These paramagnetic materials behave in a different way from
the bulk material and so they called as superparamagnetic. The
magnetic materials can be applicable in data storage capacity, elec-
tronic circuits, actuators, transformers, power generators and
many more.
The nanomaterials show novel optical properties. The interac-
tion of the material with light is known as the optical property
which depends on the size, shape, doping, surface characteristics,
and also on the surrounding environment interaction. This prop-
erty is due to the due to their surface plasmon and quantum con-
finement of electrons. Free electron density and the dielectric
medium of the nanomaterial will judge the surface plasmon reso-
nance energy. Gold particle exhibits the surface plasmon resonance
band at 520 nm, for silver, it is at 410 nm. The size-dependent
Optical properties depend upon the size. For instance, a 2.3 nm size
CdSe emits blue light whereas the 5.5 nm size CdSe emits red light.
Based on the optical properties the nanomaterials can use in poly-
mers to increase their refractive index. In LCD’s and LED’s, better
resolution images can develop. They can applicable for optoelec-
tronic materials. All the properties mainly depend on the size
and shape of nanomaterials. So the controlling and manipulation
of nanomaterials properties is possible by controlling their size
during their synthesis by using different methods [51].
2. Synthesis of nanomaterials
The synthesis of nanoparticles can be done by three different
approaches. They are as follows.
(1) Biological methods
(2) Physical methods
(3) Chemical methods
(i) The biological method is simple and easy, generally with a
single step, eco-friendly. In this context, we can use the
microorganisms and also the different plant parts for the
preparation of the nanomaterial’s [52].
2.1. Synthesis of nanomaterial’s by the use of microorganisms
The different microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae can be
used for the preparation of different nanomaterials from the aque-
ous solution of metal salts.
2.1.1. Use of bacteria
By biomineralization process, the living organisms will partici-
pate in synthesizing the nanoparticles by using a protein. For
instance, at the bottom of the sea, in anaerobic conditions magne-
totactic bacteria prepare the magnetic particles as a compass to the
direction of their preferred habitat by the use of magnetosomes
which is a protein-coated for the synthesis of nanosized magnetic
iron oxide crystals [53,54]. In in vitro conditions, the core diameter
of 20–45 nm homogeneous particles may be produced [55–57]. In
4 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
spite of all this, in medical applications magnetosomes shows good
magnetic properties may be as hyperthermia [58,59].
By using the photosynthetic bacteria like Rhodopseudomonas
capsulata He et al. prepared 10–20 nm size gold nanoparticles
extracellularly. The bacterial enzyme Nicotinamide Adenine Dinu-
cleotide Hydride (NADH)-dependent reductase plays a major role
in the reduction of gold ions to gold nanoparticles. They observed
that pH in the growth medium controls the shape and morphology
of the nanoparticles [60]. Extracellular production of palladium
nanoparticles by using Pseudomonas cells which are found in the
alpine site was reported by Schluter et al. [61].
2.1.2. Use of fungi
Fusarium oxysporum fungus was used for the preparation of
extracellular silver nanoparticles. These are long term stable
nanoparticles due to the enzymatic activity of NADH-reductase.
The higher amount of protein secretion is observed in fungal cells
than the bacterial cells [62]. Nowadays in food, animal feed,
medicines, paper, and textile industry, T. reesei is widely using.
2.1.3. Use of algae
Singaravelu et al. proposed the extracellular gold nanoparticles
preparation from Sargassum wightii algae. Within 12 h of incuba-
tion 95% production was achieved [63]. Research regarding the
nanoparticle preparation by the use of algae is not explored more.
The disadvantages of this process are some bacteria, fungi and
algae are pathogenic and therefore safety measures want to build
up.
2.1.4. Synthesis of nanomaterials by the use of biological templates
By using the biological process, the synthesis of nanomaterials
within the organism can be achieved. To achieve this biological
templates are the major tools. They produce unique and sophisti-
cated nanostructures by using the biological templates like DNA
and proteins. Biosensors [64], bioNEMS, bioelectronics systems
[65] can be designed through this nanoparticles. Proteins are the
main constituent elements for nanocomposite materials.
For instance, in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the intracellular iron
– storage protein is Ferritin. It stores in the form of iron oxide
and releases it in a controlled fashion. In humans, it acts as a buffer
and controls at the iron deficiency and iron overload conditions. It
has a protein shell in which the iron oxide core is embedded in it.
To obtain apoferritin the core with iron oxide can be selectively
dissolved without damaging the surrounded protein. In the empty
core of Apoferritin again iron oxide or any other desired nanopar-
ticle can be filled. Now the protein with inorganic nanocomposite
is obtained. In horse spleen ferritin, Fan et al synthesized the gold
nanoparticles [66]. Yttrium phosphate radionuclide nanoparticle
was prepared inside the apoferritin by Wu et al and conjugated
with biotin [67]. The DNA templates are also useful in assembling
the nanoparticles. Plasmids are the closed circular DNA molecules
which are found in various bacterial species. 5–10 nm CdS DNA
nanoparticle conjugate can be synthesized by the spin coating of
the mixture of cadmium perchlorate and plasmid DNA.
2.1.5. Preparation of nanomaterials by using different plant parts
The plants and plant extracts have also been used for the syn-
thesis of the nanoparticles. The metal nanoparticles get reduced
by the phytochemicals present in the plants. The phytochemicals
like flavones, organic acids, quinonesare naturally acted as good
reducing agents for nanoparticle preparation. The gold nanoparti-
cles of different shapes are synthesized from the biomass of Med-
icago sativa (alfalfa) plant [68], Pelargonium graveolens
(Geranium)plant leaves [69]. Bimetallic Au, Ag, and bimetallic Au
core-Ag shell nanoparticles are synthesized from Azadirachta indica
(neem)leaves. The sugars and/or terpenoids in this plant acts as
Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
reducing agents [70]. Gold nanotriangles are prepared from Aloe
vera leaf extract [71]. Silver, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and copper
nanoparticles are also synthesized by using various plants like
Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) [72], Helianthus annuus (sun-
flower) [73].
2.2. Physical route of synthesis of nanomaterials
(ii) The physical methods are categorized to ‘‘top-down” and
‘‘bottom-up” approaches. In ‘‘top-down” approach the larger mate-
rials are pulverized into smaller particles by mechanical milling
technique. The main disadvantage of this method is the toughness
of getting the desired particle size and shape [74]. When compared
to regular particles of the same size the deviation of magnetic char-
acteristics of the prepared samples by milling process is observed
due to the defects of lattice parameters which were developed
due to the milling process [75]. In the ‘‘bottom-up” method either
liquid or gaseous phase, nanoparticles are condensed in which the
larger materials are formed by the chemical combination of the
smaller ions.
2.2.1. Laser evaporation method
Laser evaporation is the promising bottom-up method for the
preparation of magnetic nanopowders. The laser has been used
to evaporate the raw metal oxides which are the starting materials
of synthesis. Hence, the Nanoparticles are formed outside the
evaporation zone by fast condensation and nucleation due to the
steep temperature gradient [76,77]. By the adjustment of the laser
power and atmosphere composition in the evaporation chamber,
the size of the particles and magnetic phase can be changed [78].
2.2.2. RF plasma method
Another physical method is the RF Plasma method which
requires a high temperature. By using high voltage RF coils encased
around the evacuated system the metal is heated beyond its evap-
oration point. Helium gas is then passed into the system and the
coils in the region form high temperature. On the He gas atoms,
the nucleation of metal vapour occurs. Through diffusion, it enters
in to the colder collector rod and the nanoparticles are formed [51].
2.2.3. Thermal decomposition or thermolysis
The decomposition caused due to the heat. This is an endother-
mic reaction. This heat breaks the chemical bonds in the compound
and splits into the smaller ones. Hyeon et al prepared the iron
oxide nanoparticles by thermal decomposition method [110]. Park
et al prepared 13 nm size monodispersed nanoparticles [111]. In
biomedicine for the treatment of cancer, the monodispersed
nanoparticles are the convenient ones. Kelly et al proposed that
for the preparation of monodispersed nanoparticles by thermal
decomposition, coordination compounds and metallocenes are
the best precursors [112,113]. Before conducting the thermal
decomposition the coordination compounds want to subject to
the stabilizing agents and capping agents. By changing stabilizing
agents and capping agents or changing the concentration of pre-
cursors or the solvents or the time of the reaction the size and mor-
phology alters. Sometimes the stabilizing agent itself acts as a
capping agent also. For instance, by using lithium azide, LiN3 small
lithium particles can be made. In an evacuated quartz tube the
material is placed and heated to 400 °C. The LiN3 decomposes
around 370 °C and releasing N2 gas. After a few minutes, all the
N2 gas has been removed in which the pressure drops. The left
out lithium atoms combine to form the metal colloidal particles.
The least size nanoparticles of less than 5 nm can be obtained by
this method [79].
 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 5

2.3. Chemical route of synthesis of nanomaterials Mnþ þ ne
! M 0 M nþ is a metal

(iii) For the preparation of nanoparticles, the chemical method Simultaneously oxidation reaction also occurs which can be
shows a variety way of bottom-up synthesis techniques. For gas depicted as follows,
or liquid phases, this method is majorly applicable. By using this X m
ne
! X m
n ðX m is reducing agentÞ
method the pure and controlled particle size can be obtained. In
the bottom-up technique, there are several methods for the prepa- The whole reaction occurs in the liquid state but the final com-
ration of nanoparticles. The size, type of nanomaterial, ease of pound collected in the solid state. So this process also called reac-
method and the properties of nanocomposite will judge the appro- tive crystallization.
priate method for preparation. Sol–gel method, co-precipitation,
hydrothermal technique, solvothermal, sonochemical, pyrolysis, 2.3.2. Sol–gel method
vapour deposition, microemulsion, microwave assisted, intercala- At first, the sol–gel method was developed for the preparation
tion, ion-exchange, and reflux are the different methods of of glass and ceramic materials at low temperature. In this method
synthesis. first, the metal alkoxide solution undergoes hydrolysis with water
or alcohols in presence of acid or base followed by polycondensa-
2.3.1. Co-precipitation method tion. Due to polycondensation, the liquid phase was changed into
This is the simple and common method and widely used for the the gel phase by the removal of the water molecules in the solution
preparation of a variety of nanoparticles. This method requires the and also the increases the viscosity of the solution. After all the
aqueous medium for precipitation. The uniform nanoparticles can water molecules were condensed then the gel phase changes into
be achieved by using this process [80–86]. R5. In a short, the co- the powder phase (Fig. 2). Some additional heat is required to
precipitation method involves the mixing of two or more water- get the fine crystalline nature to the powder [91–95].
soluble salts of generally divalent and trivalent metal ions. In them This method was useful for the preparation of oxides, compos-
mostly the trivalent metal ions contain the soluble salts. These ites, and hybrids of organic and inorganic ones. The basis of the
water-soluble salts undergo reaction and get reduced to form sol–gel method is inorganic polymerization reactions. The main
finally at least one water-insoluble salt which gets precipitated. advantage of this method is its simple procedure. But the purity
The solution needsto be stir continuously which may or may not is less in this method due to the formation of composites in it. So
follow the heat conditions subject to the reaction conditions and post-treatment is required for the purification of the sample.
also on the reducing agent [87–89]. Usually, by using this method,
the particles show less crystalline nature. Heat energy can be 2.3.3. Hydrothermal method
applied to boost up the degree of crystallinity into the particles In this method, the solutions are subjected to high pressure and
[90]. The whole process is maintained in the alkaline medium by temperature. The main advantage of this method is the preparation
adding common reducing agents like ammonia solution, sodium
hydroxide and many more for maintaining the required pH. Size
of the nanoparticles depends upon several factors viz., the ratio
of a salt selected, pH of the solution, temperature of reaction med-
ium maintained and type of the base used
Through filtration or centrifugation, the solvent can be sepa-
rated out and further purified and dried. By doping different rare
earth metals into the ferrites, doped ferrites can also be prepared.
In biomedical applications, the usage of very small size nanoparti-
cles is needed. So by using this method the biocompatible nanopar-
ticles can also be prepared. For the formation of nanoparticles this
method involves by the following processes nucleation, growth,
coarsening (Ostwald ripening), agglomeration and stabilizing pro-
cesses. In them, the nucleation and growth are the main steps.
Nucleation is the process of occurrence of smallest elementary
particles of the new thermodynamic phase. The main factor for
the nucleation process is the degree of supersaturation. In super-
saturation state, the solution contains dissolved materials in more
concentration than the solvent could be dissolved. So the solute
exceeds the equilibrium solubility. In the growth process to reduce
the surface energy of smaller particles the larger particles will con-
sume them. This process is known as coarsening or Ostwald ripen-
ing. To decrease the surface energy agglomeration may also occur.
Without controlling the coarsening and agglomeration the parti-
cles may continue to grow beyond the nanorange. Some capping
or stabilizing agents are helpful to cease the growth of nanomate-
rials. The capping agents bind to the nanoparticle surface through
chemisorption of charged species and produce the electrostatic
(vander Waals) repulsion on its surface. If the repulsive forces
are strong then the stable nanoparticles will form or else the coag-
ulation will occur [1]. There isa number of reducing agents such as
hydrogen (H2), metal borohydride (NaBH4, LiBH4), hydrazine
hydrate (N2H4H2O) and hydrazine dichloride (N2H42HCl).
The reduction reaction will be as follows: Fig. 2. Schematic representation of Sol-Gel method.

Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
6 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
of good quality crystals with controlling the composition. In
1:2 mol ratios the divalent and trivalent transition metal salts are
mixed together [96–100]. To get the homogeneous solution mix
the organic solvent with constant stirring to the above solution.
Then the solutions are brought into the sealed vessel or commonly
called autoclave (bomb). By heating, the autogenous increase of
pressure takes place which will directly raise the solvents above
their boiling points. The temperature adjustment and time are
dependent on the type of the nanoparticle to be synthesized
[101]. This is a good method for the preparation of the least size
nanoparticles which can be applied in the biological field. Copper
ferrites, a typical magnetic nanoparticle were synthesized by using
the hydrothermal method and its cytotoxic nature was observed
by MTT test. Their cellular response in human breast cancer cells
(MCF-7) was observed [102]. By the selection of suitable solvents
and also by varying factors like temperature, pressure, pH, aging
time, the concentration of reactants and time of the reaction the
controlled and desired size, morphology and surface chemistry of
nanoparticles will be produced. Highly homogeneous nanoparti-
cles can be achieved by using this technique. Without post-
annealing treatments development of the least size nanoparticles,
in the desired crystalline phase at relatively lower temperatures
is possible in this method. This attracted so many researchers than
the traditional methods. By using this method single crystals, zeo-
lites [103], oxides [104], single crystals, many doped metals [105],
selenides and sulphidesare prepared.
2.3.4. Sonochemical method
The sonochemical method is the safe and rapid one. This
method produces the cavities (bubbles) by ultrasonic irradiation
in a liquid medium. This ultrasound energy diffuses in the medium
and increases the massive energy inside the bubble with a high
temperature of nearly 5000 K and 20 MPa pressure and autoge-
nously collapses the bubbles itself which lead to the chemical exci-
tation of the matter in inside and surroundings. This method is
useful in the synthesis of metals like CoS2 [106], alloys [107], oxi-
des [108], selenides like CdSe, ZnSe [109].
2.3.5. Microwave-assisted synthesis
The microwave assisted method is started at 1950s only but the
wide acceptance is gained from the last two decades. The micro-
wave radiations are directly transferred to the materials by heating
with movable electric charges using EMR. Here the electromag-
netic energy is converted to thermal energy [114]. The frequencies
range of 1 and 2.5 GHz is using and so 100–200 °C temperature will
develop. It requires a shorter reaction time so that the more time
taking reactions can be completed in a few minutes [115,116].
Using this method narrow size distributed small size particles
can be prepared. Colloidal metals, ferrites, oxides, selenides [117]
are prepared by using this method. The improved mode of the
microwave synthesis is microwave polyol process which was
developed by Fievet, al. In presence of polyalcohols, the metal pre-
cursors are subjected to microwaves. Then they produce the metals
in the colloid state.
3. Characterization of nanomaterials
The nanoparticles exhibit different physicochemical properties.
On varying their size and even a small dimension in nanoscale they
will exhibit different properties. To examine their properties char-
acterization of nanoparticles wants to be done with different
instruments. They are UV Spectrophotometer, Fourier Transform
Infrared (FT-IR) Spectroscopy, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM),
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM), Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM),
Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID), Energy
Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray Photoelectron Spec-
troscopy (XPS), Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM), Mossbauer
Spectroscopy (MS), Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) and
Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) [167].
3.1. Determination of surface morphology, surface area, size and shape
of nanoparticles:
The main feature of exhibiting the specific physic * chemical
character of the nanoparticle is based on their size and shape.
The surface morphology can be done by using the AFM, TEM, and
FESEM. The images obtained by using these techniques will give
an idea about the shape of nanoparticles of which whether they
are in spherical shape or rod shape or with pores. The diameter
of the nanoparticles can also calculate. On comparison with SEM,
TEM will give information regarding the compositional, morpho-
logical and crystallinity of nanoparticles. In SEM a beam of elec-
trons interact with atoms of the sample and they produce
various signals. These signals will provide information about sur-
face topography and composition of the sample. So at least the sur-
face of the samples should be electrically conductive. In the case of
nonconductive samples, the surface coating must be done with
ultrathin electrically conducting material. AFM will also do the
same job as SEM and TEM but it works for only dry samples.
HRTEM, FESEM, XRD are mainly used for size calculation of
nanoparticles. When compared with light microscopes TEM can
capture the image at high resolution. So detailed and clear infor-
mation of nanoparticles will be achieved. The orientation of the
crystal, aggregation state, electron structure, lattice spacing, and
electron phase shift can also be achieved by using the TEM instru-
ment. The determination of the size of the nanoparticle can be
done easily by using the TEM [118,119]. In them by using XRD
spectroscopy size determination can be done by using Scherrer
equation. The sharp XRD peaks are convenient for the determina-
tion of the size of nanoparticles. But in case of non-crystalline
nanoparticles, the XRD peaks are broad and not easy to determine
the size than TEM. By using XRD the very small nanoparticles size
can also be not determined. Photon correlation spectroscopy,
Mossbauer spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering (DLS) are
useful for the calculation of mean particle size and size distribu-
tion. Brunauer Emmet Teller (BET) method is useful to determine
the surface area of nanoparticles.
3.2. Determination of elemental and mineral composition
When EDS joined with SEM and TEM instruments elemental
composition determination along with surface morphology can
be done. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS)
and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAA) are useful for the ele-
mental calculation. But for AAA spectroscopy usage the solid
nanoparticles will not use directly. Before usage, they need to dis-
solve in the appropriate acids or bases. Determination of mineral
composition of the aggregated crystalline nanoparticle can be done
by using XRD. Percentage crystallinity and unit cell dimension cal-
culation can also be done by using XRD [168]. XPS also provide the
elemental composition information
3.3. Determination of types of structures and bonds in nanoparticles
The structure and bonding characteristics can be achieved by
using several methods. The common techniques like FT-IR, XPS,
TGA, Raman Spectroscopy (RS) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy
(XAS) are useful. The metal–oxygen bonds will be confirmed by the
FT-IR, and XPS. XPS is also useful for the surface configuration of
nanoparticles. The data regarding oxidation state, the binding
 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
energy of materials with the elemental composition can be
recorded. Raman spectroscopy is used to find the structure and
also to know the spinel lattice of the compound. XAS will give
the wide range of information about the oxidation states, neigh-
boring atoms, coordination number, bond length, the required ele-
ment’s, electronic configuration [120,121].
3.4. Determination of magnetic properties of nanoparticles
EPR, VSM, and SQUID are useful in the investigation of magnetic
properties of nanoparticles. The paramagnetic centers and free
radicles can be detected by EPR technique. The different samples
like crystals, thin films, powders, liquids, gases can be investigated
by using the SQUID instrument. It is a very sensitive instrument. At
constant applied external magnetic field the Hs, magnetic satura-
tions, residual magnetization can be determined, by using SQUID
and VSM [122,123]. By using Mossbauer Spectroscopy the wide
range of information can be obtained. The information related to
the bonding, structural, magnetic characters, oxidation and spin
states, covalence and electronegativity can be obtained.
4. Applications of nanoparticles
Ferrite nanoparticles are almost widely used in each and every
field due to their magnetic, electrical, optical and chemical proper-
ties. Their applications range from medical to modern industries.
They are applied in the area of biomedical [124], wastewater treat-
ment, catalyst, information technologies. They are used as sensors
and biosensors [125] in which electrochemical, optical, piezoelec-
tric and magnetic field are applicable. In energy storage devices
[126] they are applicable in the form of electrodes which are useful
for the preparation of batteries and supercapacitors. In recording
media also they are applicable in audio and video tapes. In addi-
tion, they are used in isolators, shifters, and circulators also. They
are also useful in wastewater treatment [127] and also in the dye-
ing industry [128]. They are used in a microwave device.
4.1. In medicine for diagnosis and drug delivery: [application in
medicine]
Since 1965 nanotechnology applied to the medicinal field. In
medicinal imaging, they are applicable due to their wide range of
different properties. It spreads mainly in four areas targeted phar-
maceutics, tissue engineering comes on molecular engineering and
biosensor biosensors & diagnosis. In the targeted pharmaceuticals
area the nanoparticle is to the diseases especially the cancer
tumors. For this application of releasing the drug at the targeted
site through the blood circulation, the nanoparticle must be in
the least size (Cobabeeg 2003). The nanoparticles will release the
drug at the targeted site under stimulation. There are different
types of stimuli like physical–chemical, biological, temperature
and electricity. Based on these stimuli the drug will be released.
For drug delivering and targeting mainly gold, titanium, magnetic
nanoparticles or quantum dots are used. When these nanoparticles
are combined with polymers good and improved output will
observe. Among all the nanoparticles the gold nanoparticles are
the most efficient ones in drug targeting. The optical properties
of gold nanoparticles unique and plays an important role in cancer
photothermal therapy and diagnosis [129]. Gold [130], silver [131]
and magnetic nanoparticles [132] are acts as good nanocarriers
too. The nanocarriers are constructed for the delivery of anticancer
medicines to the targeted site [133–136].
Nanoparticles have high penetration character and show less
disturbance to the normal healthy tissues. So the normal cells will
be protected. The Silver nanoparticles also play an important role
Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
7
in Drug Delivery action. These nanoparticles have various types
like Fe, Ni,Co and their oxides in which some of them all doped
with the rare Earth elements. They can form the cluster also due
to magnetic attractions of the dipole–dipole interactions. The mag-
netic core–shell nanoparticles are also frequently using and the
organic or inorganic coatings are also using. Another class called
QDs nanoparticles are useful for tumor targeting agents. QDs have
electrical properties and used as imaging agents [137]. Mesoporous
silica nanoparticles have high uses in diagnosis and therapy [138].
For cardiovascular diseases also this technology is useful in target-
ing drug delivery [139].
4.2. Nanoparticles as catalysts
The catalytic reaction occurs by the following main ways: by
reducing the activation energy, may bind to reagents to polarize
the bonds, to get effective collisions by bringing the reactive spe-
cies to approach each other closely and for enhancing the yield
of the product. Catalysts are useful in lowering the temperature
of the reaction, by reducing the formation of side reactions also.
The least size of the nanoparticles enhances the surface area per
unit mass. This provides the more surface area to the catalytic
chemical reactions. So the reactivity increases in the case of nano
catalytic reactions than that of normal catalytic reactions which
are composed of bulk materials. Nano catalysts are of metal-
based Nanocatalysts, quantum dots, carbon-based Nanocatalysts,
thin layer nano catalysts, core–shell nano catalysts, ceramic
nanocatalysts [140–149]. The metal-based catalysts like cobalt fer-
rites, nickel ferrites, copper ferrites, zinc ferrites, mixed metals or
core–shell ferrites.
4.2.1. Cobalt ferrite nanoparticles
These can be prepared by using a co-precipitation technique
and also without using any surfactant can also be prepared [150].
For the oxidation of several alkenes, these ferrites are used as a cat-
alyst in presence of tert-butyl peroxide which can be easily recov-
ered by using an external magnet [151]. In the oxidation of styrene,
cobalt ferrite nanoparticles are used as a catalyst in which the
effect of solvent is also observed [123]. Without using any capping
agent the sonochemical and co-precipitation techniques are used
together in an aqueous medium for the preparation of cobalt ferrite
magnetic nanoparticles which are used for aldol reaction in etha-
nol in which the nanoparticles are recovered by using an external
magnet.
4.2.2. Copper ferrite nanoparticles
These ferrites are used for the conversion of CO into CO2. In the
synthesis of 1,4-dihydropyridines, these ferrites are used as a
heterogeneous initiator which can be reusable [152]. The substi-
tuted aromatic aldehydes, ethyl acetoacetates, and ammonium
acetate reactions are done at room temperatures by using this fer-
rite in ethanol which can be recovered also [153]. At room temper-
ature, the same copper ferrite nanomaterial which is synthesized
in the above process are reusable in the synthesis of b,c-unsatu-
rated ketones and allylation to acid chlorides in THF as a heteroge-
neous initiator without any cocatalyst. By one-pot reaction of
different aldehydes with amines and trimethyl silyl cyanides, it is
used as a heterogeneous initiator for the synthesis of a-
aminonitrile at room temperature in water as solvent [154].
4.2.3. Nickel ferrites
By using [Ru(bpy)3]+2 as a photosensitizer and S2O8
2 as a sac-
rificial oxidant nickel ferrites are used as a catalyst in photocat-
alytic water oxidation [155].
8 L.A. Kolahalam et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
4.2.4. Zinc ferrites
These can be prepared by the co-precipitation method. These
are used as a catalyst in the Prins condensation of b-pinene and
para formaldehyde for the preparation of naphthol [156].
4.3. In fuel cell application
By electrochemical reaction fuel cell converts the chemical
energy into electrical energy. In a fuelcell, oxygen and hydrogen
get reacted and generates electricity without carbon oxide emis-
sion. Now a day’s fuel cell is observed in all vehicles and instru-
ments like airplanes, cars, ships, submarines, and weapons. The
different types of fuel cells are Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel
Cell (PEMFC) [157], Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) [158], Alka-
line Fuel Cell (AFC) [159], Phosphoric acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) [160],
molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) [161], and solid oxide fuel cells
(SOFC) [162]. Platinum (Pt) depended catalysts are too expensive
which is a main drawback for the fuel cells application. Still, the
researchers are incomplete in the complete replacement of the
platinum metal. The other catalysts of platinum dependent one
are Pt-Mn, Pt-Fe,Pt-Ir, Pt-Co,Pt-Ru, Pt-Cu and many more. The other
type of catalysts like transition metal oxides, iron-based catalysts
[163] carbon-based catalysts. In carbon-based catalysts graphene
[164], carbon nanotubes (CNT), carbon nanofibers are extensively
using. The research is still continuing in this area.
4.4. In electronic devices
The magnetical, electrical, optical and chemical properties
attracted the researchers in finding various applications of
nanoparticles. These are widely using in electronic devices like
memory devices, sensors, and biosensors, computer units, antenna
cores, high-density storage, in recording media and transformer
cores [165,166]. By showing certain properties then only they will
fulfill. For example, the ferrite nanoparticles with high Hs can be
applicable in magnetic recording. By showing high Hs can be pro-
tected from demagnetization [167]. In transformers, loseHs is
preferable [168]. In recording media, such as audio and video tapes
they must show high MsandHSand low residual magnetization.
Magnetic fluids, data processing circuits, digital computers, digital
recordings the nanoparticles are widely useful [169,170]. The mag-
netic ferrites show high magnetic permeability and electrical resis-
tivity so they can be applicable in magnetic recording media,
biomedical fields [171–173]. Cobalt ferrites show good magnetic
and electrical properties [174–178]. By adding ferrites into the
polymers their electronic and magnetic properties improved.
5. Conclusions
Day to day the synthesis of novel nanomaterials are increasing.
The nanomaterials with mixed compositions are also synthesizing
to apply in different fields. The facile synthesis methods will pro-
duce the nanoparticles of desired size, shape and property one
which can withstand the external conditions but still, they need
some improvement. Nowadays wide research in going into the
fields of biomedicine, electronic storage devices, and sensors but
still there is a scope for the development of research in these areas.
Therefore, the present review article will provide an opportunity to
make a general information about the nanoparticles.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by DST (Department of Science and
Technology) – India in the form of INSPIRE Faculty award (IFA-
14/ENG-70) and Indo – Korea (INT/Korea/P-27) joint project. The
Please cite this article as: L. A. Kolahalam, I. V. Kasi Viswanath, B. S. Diwakar et al., Review on nanomaterials: Synthesis and applications, Materials Today:
Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.371
authors LAK and IVK are thankful to Koneru Lakshmaiah Educa-
tional Foundation (KLEF) for their financial support and encourage-
ment to write this review article.
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