TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF THE AUTHORS CITED IN THE BOOK…………………….…..…… 7

PREFACE………………………………… 8
PART I: THEORY 8
Chapter I LEXICOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS…………………… 8
I.1. The Subject-Matter of Lexicology 8
I.2. Two Approaches to Language Study 9
I.3. Lexicology in its Relation to Other Levels of Linguistic Structure 10
I.4. The Theoretical and Practical Value of Lexicology 11
I.5. The Word as the Basic Object of Lexicology 12
I.6. Methods and Procedures of Lexicological Analysis 12
I.6.1. Methods of Comparative Study of Languages 13
I.6.2. Structural Methods of Analysis 15
I.6.3. Methods of Semantic Analysis 16
I.6.4. Methods of Situational Study 18
1.6.5. Quantitative Methods of Analysis 19
1.6.6. Summary and Conclusions 20
Chapter II THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD… 20
II.1. Morpheme, its Definition and Comparison with Word 20
II.2. Morphemic Analysis of Words 20
II.2.1. Procedure of Morphemic Analysis 21
II.2.2. Types of Word Segmentability 22
II.2.3. Identification of Morphs 23
II.2.4. Classification of Morphemes 24
II.3. Derivational Level of Analysis 28
II.4. Summary and Conclusions 28
Chapter III WORD-FORMATION………………………………………………… 28
III.1. Introductory Remarks 28
III.2. Word-derivation 29
III.2.1. Suffixation 30
III.2.2. Prefixation 32
III.2.3. Hybrids 33
III.3. Conversion 33
III.3.1. Introductory Remarks 34
III.3.2. Typical Semantic Relations between Words Related through Conversion 35
III.3.3. Substantivation 35
III.4. Word-Composition (Compounding) 38
III.5. Other Ways of Replenishing the Vocabulary 38
III.5.1. Reversion 39
III.5.2. Shortening of Spoken Words 40
III.5.3. Graphical Abbreviations. Acronyms 41
III.5.4. Blending (or Telescoping) 42
III.6. Miner Types of Lexical Oppositions 42
III.6.1. Sound interchange 42
III.6.2. Change of Stress 42
III.7. Sound Imitation (or Onomatopoeia) 43
III.8. Summary and Conclusions
Chapter IV ETYMOLOGICAL PECULIARITIES OF THE ENGLISH 45
VOCABULARY 45
IV.1. Introductory Remarks 45
IV.2. Words of Native Origin 46
IV.3. The Foreign Element in the English Vocabulary 47
IV.3.1. Causes and Ways of Borrowing 47
IV.3.2. Criteria of Borrowing 48
3
 IV.3.3. Assimilation of Borrowings 49
IV.4. Classification of Borrowings 49
IV.4.1. The Celtic Element in the English Vocabulary 49
IV.4.2. Romanic Borrowings 49
IV.4.2.1. Latin borrowings………………………………………………………… 50
IV.4.2.2. Greek borrowings 51
IV.4.2.3. The French Element in the English Vocabulary 52
IV.4.2.4. Italian Borrowings 53
IV.4.2.5. Spanish Borrowings 53
IV.4.3. Germanic Borrowings 53
IV.4.3.1. The Scandinavian Element in the English Vocabulary 54
IV.4.3.2. German Borrowings 54
IV.4.3.3. Holland borrowings 54
IV.4.4. Various Other Elements in the English Vocabulary 54
IV.4.4.1. Slavonic Borrowings 54
IV.4.4.2. Other borrowings 54
IV.5. Etymological Doublets 55
IV.6. International Words 55
IV.7 Summary and Conclusions 57
Chapter V THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS… 57
V.1. The Definition of the Term “Semasiology” 57
V.2. Different Approaches to Meaning 58
V.3. Types of Meaning 61
V.4. Meaning and Notion 61
V.5. Motivation of Meaning 62
V.6. Folk/False Etymology 62
V.7. Summary and Conclusions 64
Chapter VI. CHANGE OF MEANING…………………… 64
VI.1. The Causes of Semantic Change 64
VI.2. The Nature of Semantic Change 65
VI.2.1. Similarity of Meaning (or Metaphor) 67
VI.2.2. Contiguity of Meaning (or Metonymy) 68
VI.3. Results of Semantic Change 70
VI.4. Summary and conclusions 71
Chapter VII POLYSEMY………………………………………………………….. 71
VII.1. Definition of Polysemy 71
VII.2. Diachronic Approach VS Synchronic Approach to Polysemy 72
VII.3. Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words 73
VII.4. Summary and Conclusions 74
Chapter VIII. HOMONYMS. PARONYMS..................................................................... 74
VIII.1. Homonymy 74
VIII.1.1. Classification of Homonyms 75
VIII.1.2. Sources of Homonymy 76
VIII.1.3. Polysemy VS Homonymy 76
VIII.2. Paronyms 77
VIII.3 Summary and Conclusions 78
Chapter IX SEMANTIC GROUPS OF WORDS: 78
IX.1. Meaning Relations in Paradigmatics: Introductory Remarks 78
IX.2. Synonyms ............................... 80
IX.2.1. Classification of Synonyms 83
IX.2.2. Sources of Synonyms 84
IX.2.3. Euphemisms 85
IX.3. Antonyms 86
IX.4. Summary and Conclusions 88
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Chapter X. STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY 88
X.1. General Remarks 88
X.2. Standard English vocabulary 88
X.2.1. Stylistically Neutral Words 88
X.2.2. Common literary words 90
X.2.3. Common colloquial vocabulary 90
X.3. Special literary vocabulary 90
X.3.1. Poetic and Highly Literary Words 90
X.3.2. Terms 91
X.3.3. Archaic Words 92
X.3.4. Barbarisms and Foreign Words 93
X.3.5. Literary Coinages (including Nonce-Words) 94
X.4. Special Colloquial Vocabulary 94
X.4.1. Slang 95
X.4.2. Jargonisms 96
X.4.3. Professionalisms 96
X.4.4. Dialectal Words 96
X.4.5. Vulgarisms 96
X.4.6. Colloquial Coinages 97
X.5. Summary and Conclusions 98
Chapter XI. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY… 98
XI.1. Free Word-groups 98
XI.1.1. Structure of Free Word-groups 98
XI.2. Free word-groups VS set-expressions 98
XI.2.1. Criteria of Set-Expressions 99
XI.2.2. Classification of Set-Expressions 104
XI.2.3. Ways of Forming Phraseological Units 105
XI.3. Proverbs, Sayings, Familiar Quotations and Clichés 106
XI.4. Summary and Conclusions 107
Chapter XII. VARIANTS AND DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE..... 107
XII.1. Standard English. Local Dialects in the British Isles and in the USA 109
XII.2. The American Variant of English 113
XII.3. Canadian English 115
XII.4. Australian English 117
XII.5. Indian English 118
XII.6. Summary and Conclusions 119
Chapter XIII. FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH LEXICOGRAPHY…… 119
XIII.1. The Linguistic Basis of Lexicography 120
XIII.2. Main Types of English Dictionaries 120
XIII.2.1. Encyclopedic Dictionaries VS Linguistic Dictionaries 123
XIII.2.2. Specialized dictionaries 129
XIII.3. Basic Problems of Dictionary Compiling 120
XIII.3.1. The Structure of a Dictionary 134
XIII.3.2. The Procedure of Compiling a Dictionary 139
XIII.4. Learner’s Dictionaries 139
XIII.4.1. Classification of Learner’s Dictionaries 141
XIII.4.2. Some Problems of the Compilation of Learner’s Dictionaries 143
XIII.5. Summary and Conclusions 145
PART II: EXERCISES AND TESTS……………………..…….. 145
I. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS………… 147
II. WORD-FORMATION………………………………………………… 147
II.1. Prefixation 149
II.2. Suffixation 155
II.3. Revision Exercises on Affixation 157
5
II.4. Composition 160
II.5. Conversion 162
II.6. Shortening 163
II.7. Blends 164
II.8. Back-formation 164
II.9. Change of Stress 165
III. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH WORDS…….. 169
IV. SEMASIOLOGY…………………………………………………….……... 169
IV.1. Semantic Change 179
IV.2. Semantic Transposition 175
IV.3. Polysemy 180
IV.4. Homonyms and Paronyms 182
V. SEMANTIC GROUPS OF WORDS………………………………………… 182
V.1. Synonyms 188
V.2. Antonyms 190
VI. STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS………………… 192
VII. PHRASEOLOGY…………………………………………………... 199
VIII. DIALECTS AND VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE………………
IX. LEXICOGRAPHY
TESTS
GLOSSARY
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….…...
Appendix 1: Affixation………………………………………………………
Appendix 2: Common English Abbreviations………………………………………
Appendix 3: Original Sources of some Selected English Words……………
Appendix 4: Fragments from Dictionaties and Refernce-books
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..…..

6
 LIST OF THE AUTHORS CITED IN THE BOOK

Aldr. J. Aldridge J. K. J. Jerome K. Jerome

Byr. G. Byron Kp. R. Kipling
C. L. Carroll Ln. J. London
C. D. C. Doyle Lw. D. Lawrence
Ch. G. Chesterton M. D. du Maurier
Ch. B. Ch. Bronte Md. I. Murdock
Chr. A. Christie Mg. W. Maugham
Cr. A. Cronin MS Morning Star
D. Ch. Dickens Pr. J. Priestley
Dr. Тh. Dreiser P. St. P. Stanley
Fl. H. Fielding Sc. W. Scott
Fx. R. Fox Sh. B. Show
G. J. Galsworthy Sl. A. Sillitoe
Gd. H. Gordon Sn. C. Snow
Gl. E. Gaskel Sp. M. Spark
H. H. Hemingway St. H. Beecher Stowe
Hd. Th. Hardy Stv. R. Stevenson
Hl. J. Hilton Тh. W. Thackcray
Hm. S. Heym Tw. M. Twain
Hn. O’Henry Wl. H.Wells

7
 PREFACE

The manual is intended for English language students taking the course of English
Lexicology. It fully meets the requirements of the program in the subject. Its main purpose is to
introduce the students to some major lexicological problems connected with the general theory
of the word. The reader will find here the fundamentals of the word theory and the main
problems associated with English vocabulary, its characteristics and subdivisions. It соnsists of
two parts. The first part includes 14 chapters. Each chapter includes the theoretical material on
the problem under consideration and suggested topics to be discussed.
The second part of the book contains exercises for seminars and independent work. This
part of the book includes also tests aimed at checking up the comprehension of the theoretical
material and the ability to apply it in practice.
At the end of the book one can find the glossary and the following appendices: the table
of English affixes (prefixes and suffixes), common abbreviations, original sources of some
lexical units.
The book may also be of interest to all readers who would like to gain some information
about the vocabulary resources of Modern English, for example, about synonyms and antonyms,
stylistic peculiarities of the English vocabulary, the complex nature of the word’s meaning and
the modern linguistic methods of its investigation, those changes that English vocabulary
underwent in its historical development, about English phraseology and about some other aspects
of English Lexicology.

8
 CHAPTER I
LEXICOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS

I.1. The Subject-Matter of Lexicology

Lexicology is the part of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the
properties of words as the main units of language. The term Lexicology is composed of two
Greek morphemes: lexis meaning “word, phrase” and logos, which denotes “learning, a
department of knowledge”. So the literal meaning of the term Lexicology is “science of the
word”.
Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims and methods of scientific
research, its basic task being a study and systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its
origin, development and current use.
The term vocabulary is used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the
words and the morphemes which make up words, variable word-groups and phraseological units,
i. e. word equivalent that the language posses. The term word denotes the basic unit of a given
language resulting from the association of a given meaning with a given group of sounds
susceptible of a given grammatical employment. The term word equivalent denotes set
expressions similar to words in so far as they are integrated semantically, not created in speech
but introduced into the act of communication ready-made, and also because they are
syntactically treated like single words. So the subject-matter of Lexicology is the word, its
morphemic structure, history and meaning.
Distinction is naturally made between General Lexicology and Special Lexicology.
General Lexicology is part of General Linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary
irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special Lexicology is the
Lexicology of a particular language (e.g. English, etc.) that is the study and description of its
vocabulary and vocabulary units. Special Lexicology is based on the principles of general
Lexicology, and the latter forms a part of general linguistics.
Vocabulary studies include such aspects of research as etymology, semasiology and
onomasiology.
Etymology (from Gr. etymon – ‘true, real’) is the branch of linguistics which deals with
the origin or derivation of a word.
Semasiology (from Gr. semasia – ‘signification’) is the branch of linguistics whose
subject-matter is the study of word meaning and the classification of changes in the signification
of words or forms, viewed as normal and vital factors of linguistic development. Semasiology is
most obviously relevant to polysemy and homonymy.
Onomasiology is the study of the principles and regularities of the signification of things
and notions by lexical and lexico-phraseological means of a given language. It has its special
value in studying dialects, where one and the same object or thing finds its different signification
in different regions of the country. Besides, it bears obvious relevance to synonymity.

I.2. Two Approaches to Language Study

It is known that there are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of
language material, namely the synchronic approach (from Gr. syn. = “together, with” and
chronos = “time”) and the diachronic approach (from Gr. dia = “through”). With regard to
Special Lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it
exists at a given time, e.g., at the present time. It is Special Descriptive Lexicology that deals
with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time. So a Course
in Modern English Lexicology is a course in Special Descriptive Lexicology, its subject of
study being the English vocabulary as it exists at the present time.
The diachronic approach in terms of Special Lexicology deals with the changes and the
development of the vocabulary in the course of time. It is Special Historical Lexicology that
deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language as time goes by. An English
Historical Lexicology would be concerned, therefore, with the origin of English vocabulary

9
units, their change and development, the linguistic and extra-linguistic factors modifying their
structure, meaning and usage within the history of the English language.
The two approaches should not be contrasted, or set against one the other, as they are
interconnected and interdependent because every linguistic structure and system actually exists
in a state of constant development so that the synchronic state of a language system is a result of
a long process of linguistic evolution, of its historical development.
A good example illustrating both the distinction between the two approaches and their
interconnection is furnished by the words to beg and beggar. Synchronically, the word to beg is
related as a simple word and the word beggar as a derived one for the derivative correlation
between the two is the same as in the case of to work : worker, to write : writer. But
diachronically the word beggar appeared in English earlier (it was borrowed from Old French).
Closely connected with Historical Lexicology is Contrastive and Comparative
Lexicology whose aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of two or more
languages, and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units of the languages
under comparison.

I.3. Lexicology in its Relation to Other Levels of Linguistic Structure

As every word presents a unity of semantic, phonetic and grammatical elements, the word
is studied not in Lexicology only, but in other branches of linguistics, too, and Lexicology, in its
turn, is closely connected with general linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics,
stylistics and, especially, with grammar.
The points of contact between vocabulary and grammar are numerous and varied.
Interactions between vocabulary and grammar make themselves evident both in the sphere of
morphology and syntax. Grammar is not indifferent to the concrete lexical meaning of words and
their capacity to combine in actual speech. The lexical meaning of the word, in its turn, is very
often signalled by the grammatical context in which it occurs. Thus, morphological indicators
often help to differentiate the variant meanings of words. Plural forms, e.g., can serve to form
special lexical meanings. Familiar examples are: colours, customs, works, etc.
Sometimes, when two kinds of pluralization have produced two plurals of a word,
different uses and meanings have resulted, and as a consequence the older form has not been
ousted by the –s form. This can be seen in such pairs as:
brother: brethren – brothers,
cloth: cloths – clothes.
Some concrete nouns may be used both as mass-nouns and as thing-nouns. In the latter
meaning they may form s-plural: fruit is used in the singular; the plural fruits is used only when
meaning “different kinds of fruit”; the plural form can also be used figuratively as in fruits of
labour. A related case is seen in the use of fish, not only to denote the “flesh” of fish which we
eat, but also “the living animal as an object for fishing”.
Instances are not few when the syntactic position of a word does not only change its
function but its lexical meaning as well. An adjective and a noun element of the same group can
more or less naturally change places. English abounds in such cases as:
library school – school library.
The organic interrelation between lexicon and phonetics is also an interesting object of
linguistic research. The connection of Lexicology with Phonetics becomes clear if we think of
the fact that the word, which is the basic unit in lexicological study, cannot exist without its
sound form, which is the object of study in phonology. Words consist of phonemes which have
no meaning of their own, but forming morphemes they serve to distinguish between meanings.
The meaning of words is conditioned by several phonological features, such as:
1) qualitative and quantitative character of phonemes, e.g.: dog – dock,
rob – robe, pot – port;
2) fixed sequence of phonemes, e.g.: dog – god, pot – top, name – mane –
meane, nest – sent – tens;
3) the position of stress, e.g.: in'sult (verb) – 'insult (noun), im'port (verb)
– 'import (noun), 'present (noun) – pre'sent (verb).
10
 Stress also distinguishes compounds from homonymous word-groups. Word-formation,
e.g., gives numerous examples of separable compounds generated by shifting the stress. The
pattern of stress normally indicates the nature of “modifier” relationship in noun-adjunct groups,
e.g.: 'blackbird – 'black 'bird, 'break 'through – 'breakthrough.
Each language also possesses phonological features marking word-limits.
Historical phonetics and historical phonology can be of great use in the diachronistic
study of synonyms, homonyms, and polysemy.
The interdependence of the meanings of words and their prosodic organization in the act
of communication must never be ignored. In actual speech certain words can acquire a different
connotative meaning because they are pronounced differently on the suprasegmental level.
The use of words in the opposite meaning in conjunction with a specific intonational
contour is commonly referred to as “antiphrasis” or “enantiosemy” (поляризація значень).
Examples of adherent connotation of words signalled by the prosodic features of the
utterance are numerous, especially with evaluative words, such as good, fine, nice, pretty,
perfect, kind, etc. e.g.:
You have done me a good service!
A nice kettle of fish!
There is also a close relationship between Lexicology and Stylistics. It reveals itself in
the selection among the linguistic units.
In the vocabulary of any language there are expressive means established in the course of
its development. The selection of such lexical units adapted to style and purpose in each case is a
factor of great significance in the act of communication. Synonymic lexical units may differ in
subtle nuances of meaning, conveying emotions and kindling emotions in others.
The aesthetic and emotional impact produced by a work of literature is largely
conditioned by the alternative choices of words (formal, familiar, emotive, technical,
professional, etc.).
I.4. The Theoretical and Practical Value of Lexicology
The importance of English Lexicology is based on the fact that at present it is the world’s
most widely used language. Surveys carried out by UNESCO and other world organizations
reinforce the general statistical impression. English is used as an official or semi-official
language in over 60 countries. It is either dominant or well established in all six continents. It is
the main language of books, newspapers, airports and air-traffic control, international business
and academic conferences, science, technology, medicine, diplomacy, sports, pop music, and
advertising.
The theoretical value of Lexicology becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study
of one of the three main aspects of language, i. e. its vocabulary, grammar and sound system.
The theory of meaning was originally developed within the limits of philosophical science. The
relationship between the name and the thing named has in the course of history constituted one
of the key questions in gnostic theories.
Lexicology came into being to meet the needs of many different branches of applied
linguistics, namely of lexicography, literary criticism, standardization of terminology and
especially of foreign language teaching. Its importance in training a would-be teacher of
languages can’t be overestimated as it helps to stimulate a systematic approach to the facts of
vocabulary. It is particularly useful in building up the learner’s vocabulary by an effective
selection, grouping and analysis of new words. A good knowledge of the system of word-
formation helps the student to guess and retain in his memory the meaning of new words on the
basis of their motivation and by comparing and contrasting them with the previously learned
elements or patterns.
Knowledge and understanding of functional styles and stylistic synonyms is
indispensable when literary texts are used as a basis for acquiring oral skills, for discussing
fiction and translation.
Lexicology also helps students to master the literary standards of word usage. The correct
use of words is an important counterpart of expressive and effective speech.

11
 Besides, Lexicology plays a prominent part in the general linguistic training of a
philologist. It imparts the necessary skills of using different kinds of dictionaries and reference
books and prepares for future independent work on increasing and improving one’s vocabulary.

I.5. The Word as the Basic Object of Lexicology

The fundamental unit of language is a word. The real essence of a word itself is not an
easy question to answer. It has always been one of the most disputable problems in almost every
branch of linguistics – lexicology, stylistics and grammar. The semantic structure of words
involves such questions of primary importance as different types of lexical meanings, their
relevant distinctive features, the relationship between the word of language and the outside
world, etc.
The problem associated with the definition of the term word is one of the most complex
in the analysis of linguistic structure. Determining the word unit is not an easy thing to do, for,
firstly, in different languages the criteria employed in establishing it are of different types, and
each language constitutes a separate system with its own patterns of formations and its own types
of structural units and, secondly, the simplest word has many different aspects (it has a sound
form, its morphological structure, when used in actual speech, it may occur in different word
forms and signal various meanings).
Being a central element of any language system, the word is a sort of focus for the
problems of phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology and also for some other sciences that
have to deal with language and speech.
Within the scope of linguistics the word has been defined syntactically, semantically,
phonologically and combining various approaches. Thus, it has been syntactically defined as
“the minimum sentence” by H. Sweet and much later as “as the minimum independent unit of
utterance” by L. Bloomfield. [L. Bloomfield, Language.]
E. Sapir takes into consideration the syntactic and semantic aspects when he calls the
word “one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated meaning, into which the sentence
resolves itself” [E. Sapir, Language, An Introduction to the Study of Speech.].
A purely semantic treatment is found in Stephen Ullmann’s explanation of words as
meaningful segments which are ultimately composed of meaningful units [S. Ullmann, The
Principles of Semantics.].
The semantic phonological approach may be illustrated by Gardiner’s definition: “A
word is an articulate-sound symbol in its aspect of denoting something which is spoken about.”
[A.H. Gardiner, The Definition of the Word and the Sentence.]
The eminent French linguist A. Meillet combines the semantic, phonological and
grammatical criteria: “A word is defined by the association of a given meaning with a given
group of sounds susceptible of a given grammatical employment.” [A. Meillet, Linguistique
historique et linquistique générale.]
As we see, the definitions of the word given above are open to thought and questioning.
The reviewed definitions depend upon the line of approach and the aim the scholar has in view.
Therefore, for a comprehensive word theory a description seems more appropriate that a
definition.
In this country, the word is understood as a dialectical unit of form and content. Its
content or meaning is not identical to notion, but it may reflect human notions, and in this sense
may be considered as the form of their existence. Notions fixed in meanings of words are formed
as generalized and approximately correct reflections of reality; therefore in signifying them
words reflect reality in their content.
So the word is a basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a given
meaning with a given group of sounds susceptible of a given grammatical employment.
I.6. Methods and Procedures of Lexicological Analysis
By the term ‘method’ in general is meant a planned way of doing something. In
linguistics this term means a system of ways used in the analysis of linguistic data.
The research methods used in Lexicology have always been closely connected with the
general trends in linguistics.
12
 The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages, each of
them having their own methods.
An early and basic phase of all modern scientific investigation is observation. Statements
of fact must be based not on unsupported authority, logical conclusions or personal preferences
but on observation.
The next stage after observation is classification or orderly arrangement of the data
obtained through observation.
The following stage is usually that of generalization, i. e. the collection of data and their
orderly arrangement must eventually lead to the formulation of generalization or hypothesis,
rule, or law.
Any linguistic generalization is to be followed by the verifying process, i. e. the linguist
is required to seek verification of the generalizations that are the result of his inquiries. Here
various procedures of linguistic analysis are commonly applied.
Vocabulary studies includes a number of methods of linguistic analysis among them the
descriptive method which envisages making an inventory list of language units and explaining
the peculiarities of their structure and functioning in synchrony, the method of linguistic
geography which is used in studying and interpreting spacial location of language units, the
comparative method aimed at finding out similarities and differences in both philogenically
related and non-related languages, the structural method which includes several types of
analyses (distributional analysis, transformational analysis, immediate constituents analysis,
componential analysis), psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic methods, statistical methods of
analysis, and some other methods, e.g. the method of semantic differential, the theory of
opposition, the principle of ‘field structure’, etc.
Naturally, the selection of this or that particular procedure largely depends on the goal set
before the investigator. As acquaintance with at least some of the currently used procedures of
linguistic investigation is of considerable importance for language learners, it is necessary to
dwell upon them specially, if briefly.
I.6.1. Methods of Comparative Study of Languages
The Comparative Method
Comparative linguistics which studies the correspondences between languages that have
a common origin has played an important role in the development of a scientific approach to
historical language study.
The methods appied consisted in observation of speech, mostly written, collection and
classification of data, hypotheses, ans systematic statements. Language study was mainly
concentrated on historical problems. As far as English is concerned, the greatest contributions
were the Oxford English Dictionary and linguistic research of the English language in works by
H.Sweet, O.Jesperson, H.Poutsma, G.O.Curme and E.Kruisinga.
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive analysis is the main method of contrastive linguistics which attempts to find
out similarities and differences in both philogenically related and non-related languages at all
levels of their structure (phonology, grammar and lexis (vocabulary)). It is of particular interest
to teachers of foreign languages as one of the major problems in the learning of a foreign
language is the interference caused by the difference between the mother tongue of the learner
and the target language.
The procedures of contrastive analysis were formulated by Robert Lado in his book
Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers, published in 1957.
R.Lado’s point of view is that learning a 2nd language constitutes a very different task from
learning the 1st language. His recipe of how to achieve progress in mastering a foreign language
is comparison of 2 languages + comparison of 2 cultures to discover and describe the problems
that the speakers of one language will have in learning the other.
Valuable contribution to contrastive analysis was made by V. N.Yartseva, I. Korunets, M.
Kocherhan, Yu. Zhluktenko, L. Verba. These linguists define the aims of contrastive typological
investigation in the following way: 1) to identify and classify the main isomorphic and
allomorphic features characteristic of languages under investigation; 2) to draw from the
13
common and divergent features respectively the isomorphic regularities and the allomorphic
singularities in the languages contrasted; to establish on the basis of the obtained isomorphic
features the typical language structure.
I.6.2. Structural Methods of Analysis
The Method of Oppositional Relations (Oppositional Analysis)
This method was introduced by N. S. Trubetzkoy in phonology but it proved to be fruitful
for other branches of linguistics.
In terms of N. S. Trubetsoy’s theory, opposition is defined as a functionally relevant
relationship of partial difference between two partially similar elements of language. The
common features of the members of the opposition make up its basis, the features that serve to
differentiate them are distinctive features.
Linguistic elements may enter into several types of oppositions with other cognate
elements. Thus, oppositions may be private, gradual, and equipollent. The most widely known is
the binary private opposition in which one member of the contrastive pair is characterized by the
presence of a certain feature which is lacking in the other member, e.g.: skilled : unskilled.
Gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members which are distinguished not by
the presence or absence of a feature, but by the degree of it as, for instance, in the group of words
large, enormous, colossal, gigantic with their variation in size. In morphology, e.g., strong :
stronger : strongest. In an equipollent opposition the members are logically equal. Any string of
stylistic synonyms may serve as an example of an equipollent opposition, e.g., girl : maiden :
lass. Other examples: opposition of the person forms of the verb to be: am : is : are.
It should be taken into account, that under certain conditions the opposition may become
irrelevant, e.g.: good: bad form an opposition, but in the phrase How good of you! this
opposition is neutralized because good means here just the opposite.
Oppositional analysis has proved to be relevant and helpful in linguistics. This principle
of opposition is of paramount importance because no unit has any linguistic significance by
itself, its significance can arise only out of its contrast with other units in the structural patterns
of a particular language system.
Oppositional analysis combines well with almost all other methods of linguistic analysis,
e.g., with distributional, componential and contextual analyses.
Distributional Analysis
The term distribution is used to denote the immediate lexical, grammatical and
phonetical environment of a lexical unit i. e. the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other
lexical units of the same level in the text or in the flow of speech.
Z. S. Harris was the first to use this term in his book Methods of Structural Linguistics.
According to Z. Harris, the distribution of an element is the total of all environments in which it
occurs, i. e. the sum of all the (different) positions (or occurrences) of an element. Later on many
linguists, including Soviet ones, further developed this idea. Great contribution to distributional
analysis was made by L. Bloomfield, Ch. F. Hocket, Ch. Fries, E. Morokhovska.
Distributional analysis is aimed at analyzing linguistic units in terms of their
distribution, i. e. the immediate lexical, grammatical and phonetic environments of a linguistic
unit. The technique of analysis is facilitated by coding, i. e. replacing words by conventional
word-class symbols: N for nouns and words that can occupy in sentence the same position, V for
verbs, A for adjectives and their equivalents, D for adverbs and their equivalent noun-phrases,
Vinf for the infinitive, Ven for participle II, Ving for participle I and gerund, prp for prepositions.
So, the potential valency of words, i. e. the potential capacity of words to occur in
different environments may be conveniently shown by corresponding distributional formulas:
V+N get a letter V + Ving get thinking
V+A get angry V + N + Ven get a thing done
V + Vinf get to think V + prp + Ving get to thinking
As can be seen from above examples the meaning of the verb varies with the context.
The distributional approach to meaning brings to notice the significant fact that the total
meaning of many words is to be determined by the range of occurrences in sentences, by their
individual relations with other words.
14
 Three types of distribution are commonly distinguished in distributional analysis: 1)
complementary distribution (it takes place when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the
same environment), 2) contrastive distribution (which is understood as a difference of two
linguistic units occurring in the same environment and changing one linguistic form into another
linguistic form, e.g., the zero affix as against the -s suffix: pen - pens); 3) non-contrastive
distribution (which is understood as a difference of two linguistic units occurring in the same
environment without changing one linguistic form into another linguistic form, e.g., hoofs –
hooves, etc.).
Distributional analysis is widely applied for different purposes: to find out typical, most
commonly used collocations, investigate the meaning in some types of collocations, differentiate
between synonyms, classify word-groups, identify functions of linguistic units, etc.
Distributional analysis is also helpful for the analysis of the morphemic structure of
words as well as for the analysis of free and stable word-combinations.
By taking into consideration not only classes of words but subclasses as well,
distributional analysis forms the basis for the development of a more elaborate and exact
procedure called valency analysis. In linguistics the term valency is used to denote potential
combining power or typical co-occurrence of a linguistic element.
Several types of valency are distinguished: 1) categorical and individual; 2) grammatical,
or syntactical, and lexical; 3) left-hand and right-hand; 4) obligatory and optional; 5) active
(ability of head-components to attach dependent components) and passive (ability of
syntactically dependent components to be attached to head-components); 6) external (of notional
words) and internal (of stems and affixes).
Valency should be distinguished from the notions of combinability, distribution and
context. Since valency is potential combining ability, it is actualized in speech through the
concrete combinability of linguistic units in quite concrete cases of their occurrence in speech
units. The correlation of valency and combinability as linguistic potentiality and its actualization
reflects the dichotomy of language and speech.
Method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents
Immediate constituents (IC) analysis is the process of segmenting a complex
construction by successive single cuts. The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to segment a set of
lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs thus revealing the hierarchical
structure of this set. Successive segmentation results in Ultimate Constituents (UC), i. e. two-
facet units that cannot be segmented into smaller units having both sound-form and meaning.
The procedure was first suggested by L. Bloomfield [L. Bloomfield, Language] and was
later developed by many linguists [E. O. Nida, Morphology. The Descriptive Analysis of Words].
This method is based on a binary principle, i. e. each stage of the procedure involves two
components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred
to as the Immediate constituents (ICs). Each IC at the next stage of analysis is in its turn broken
into two smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents
incapable of further division, i. e. at Ultimate Constituents (UCs). For example, the word
denationalize is first segmented into the ICs de recurring in depart, deform, etc. and nationalize.
The IC nationalize is next broken into the ICs national and ize (suffix –ize occurs in generalize,
etc.). The IC national is next broken into nation and al (suffix -al can be found in many
adjectives, e.g. general, global, etc.). So, fragments de-nation-al-ize are UCs of the word under
analysis.
There are cases when identical morphemic structure of different words is insufficient
proof of the identical pattern of their derivative structure which can be revealed only by IC
analysis. Thus, comparing, e.g., snow-covered and blue-eyed we observe that both words contain
two root-morphemes and one derivational morpheme. IC analysis, however, shows that snow-
covered may be treated as a compound consisting of two stems snow + covered whereas blue-
eyed is a suffixal derivative as its structure is different, i. e. (blue + eye) + -ed.
So, it may be inferred that ICs represent the word-formation structure while the UCs
show the morphemic structure of polymorphic words.

15
 Transformational Analysis
Transformational grammar appeared in 1950s. It was first proposed by Zellig S. Harris as
a method of analyzing the ‘raw material’ (concrete utterances) and was later elaborated by Noam
Chomsky as a synthetic method of generating (constructing) utterances.
Transformational analysis may be defined as repatterning of various distributional
structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical
distributional patterns [Z. S. Harris, Co-occurrence and Transformation in Linguistic Structure].
The rules of transformational analysis are rather strict and should not be identified with
paraphrasing in the usual sense of the term. There are many restrictions both on the syntactic and
the lexical level.
Transformations are most practical in building semantic relationships between words. In
Lexicology we often apply them on different levels of study. Numerous compound words are
best explained by their decomposition to show how they derive from their constituents, e.g.:
rattlesnake = snake with a rattle,
watchdog = dog which watches something,
He was in two minds = He was in a state of indecision.
Lexical grouping of words into classes with similar distributional value and
transformational potential seems to be helpful in many parts of vocabulary studies.
The main assumption of Transformational grammar is that any languages consists of a
limited number of kernal (basic) sentences and an unlimited number of other sentence structures
derived or generated from them. They are generated by means of transformations which
constitute the transformational mechanism, a very important area in a language system.
The two fundamental problems of Transformational grammar are: 1) the establishment of
the set of kernel sentences and 2) the establishment of the set of transformation rules for deriving
all the other sentences as their transforms.
Kernal sentences are the basic elementary sentences of the language from which all other
sentences are made. They are simple, active, declarative, inextended sentences that may be used
in making more elaborate sentences. Z. S. Harris lists seven principal patterns of kernel
sentences:
1. N V: Birds fly.
2. N V N: Birds eat worms.
3. N V Prep N: The teacher looked at him.
4. N is N: He is an architect.
5. N is A:The girl is pretty.
6. N is Prep N: The paper is of importance.
7. N is D: The man is here.
I.6.3. Methods of Semantic Analysis
Method of Componential Analysis
Componential analysis attempts to reduce meaning to its smallest components, hence
the term componential analysis. It has a long history in linguistics. The first researchers who
suggested and developed this method were American linguists F. G. Lounsbury and W. H.
Goodenough who studied the American Indian languages. Later on many linguists were
concerned with componential analysis: J. Fodor, E. Nida, Y. D. Apresyan, I. V. Arnold, R. S.
Ginzburg, E. M. Mednikova, O. N. Seliverstova, I. A. Sternin.
Componential analysis is used in the investigation of semantic structure of words. It is
assumed that the smallest units of the meaning of the word are sememes (or semes). So, the aim
of this analysis is to reveal these semantic components of the word under consideration. The
semantic structure of a word is represented as a combination of elementary senses. Thus, in the
lexical item woman the following components of meaning may be singled out: ‘human’,
‘female’, ‘adult’.
Semantic features may be classified into semantic markers – semantic features which are
present also in the lexical meaning of other words and distinguishers – semantic features which
are individual, i. e. which do not recur in the lexical meaning of other words. Thus, the
distinction between markers and distinguishers is that markers refer to features which the item
16
has in common with other item, distinguishers refer to what differentiates an item from other
items.
Different authors give different types of semes:
classeme – categorical seme which refers the word to a certain lexico-grammatical class
of words (part of speech), i. e. the general semantic characteristic of the class;
archeseme – the most basic, principal generic seme in units of a certain class reflecting
their common categorical features, e.g., in kinship terms father, mother, son, daughter, etc. the
archeseme is ‘a person who is related by blood or marriage’;
differential semes – specific semes that differentiate the meaning of a word from other
words, e.g., kinship terms father and mother have differential semes ‘male’ and ‘female’
respectively, father and son – ‘parent’ and ‘offspring’;
integrative semes – common semes that do not differentiate the meaning of a word from
other words within some thematic group, e.g., for kinship terms daughter and son the seme
‘direct lineality’ is dirrerential because it is the basis for the opposition son – nephew, daughter –
niece, but for the kingship term children it is integrative since there is no single word for niece
and nephew opposed to children in English.
Componential analysis is also used in the investigation of semantic structure of
synonyms, as there is always a certain component of meaning which makes one member of the
synonymic set different from any other member of the same set.
The Contextual Method
The method of contextual analysis is closely connected with the corresponding linguistic
theory, in this case the theory of context and contextual semantics. Its founder is considered to be
John Rupert Firth (1890–1960), the head of London School of Linguistics. J.R.Firth treated
meaning as function in context.
The contextual method is based on the assumption that difference in meaning of
linguistic units is always indicated by a difference in environment. It concentrates its attention on
determining the minimal stretch of speech and the conditions necessary to reveal in which of its
individual meanings the word in question is used.
Roughly, context may be subdivided into lexical, syntactical and mixed.
Lexical context, for instance, determines the meaning of the word black in the following
examples: black shoes (black denotes colour when used with nouns denoting some material or
thing), black thoughts, black despair (black means ‘sad’, ‘dismal’ when used with nouns,
denoting feelings or thought) and with nouns denoting time, the meaning of the noun black is
‘unhappy’, ‘full of hardships’, e.g.: black days.
If the indicative power belongs to the syntactic pattern and not to the words which make
it up, the context is called ‘syntactic’. Thus, for instance, the word make means ‘to cause’ when
followed by a complex object: We couldn’t make him do that’.
A purely syntactic context is rare. As a rule the indication comes from syntactic, lexical
and sometimes morphological factors combined.
So, contextual analysis is a method of observing words in actual speech. It is based on the
principles of distributional analysis because the distribution of an element, its position in the
utterance, regulates its syntagmatic behaviour.
Contextual analysis has several varieties: 1) contextual analysis of meaning based on the
assumption that the meaning of linguistic units is determined by the context; 2) operational
analysis (developed by J.R.Firth); 3) quantitative contextual analysis based on the frequency of
occurrence of certain linguistic environment (developed by N. N. Amosova).
A detailed description of modern techniques and tools of linguistic analysis can be found
in the literature available. Some of such sources are mentioned in the list of references (see, for
instance, the papers written by N. N. Amosova, E. Y. Morokhovska, I. V. Arnold).
I.6.4. Methods of Situational Study of Language
Performative Analysis and Pragmatic Theory of Speech Acts
The modern term pragmatics is attributable to the philosopher Charles Morris who was
concerned to outline the general shape of a science of signs, or semiotics. Within semiotics,
Morris distinguished three distinct branches of inquiry: syntax, being the study of formal relation
17
of signs to one another, semantics, the study of the relations of signs to the objects to which the
signs are applicable, and pragmatics, the study of the relation of signs to interpreters.
The first representatives of linguistic pragmatics were the authors of the speech act theory
John Austin and John Searle. Later on a lot of scholars were concerned with the problems
connected with pragmatics and functioning of speech, among them H. P. Grice, S. C. Levinson,
G. N. Leech, I. P. Ivanova, G. G. Pocheptsov.
By pragmatics is meant the study of meaning in interaction with special emphasis on the
interrelationship between the speaker, hearer, utterance and context.
Of all the issues in the general theory of language usage, pragmatic theory of speech acts
has probably aroused the widest interest. Among the most significant contributors to this
communication field of study was John Austin (1911–1960) who developed the first systematic
theory of utterance as human actions and originated the term speech act. He pioneered the
method of performative analysis which aims at explaining the meaning of linguistic
expressions in terms of their use in performing various speech acts (asserting, commanding,
promising, questioning, requesting, warning, etc.).
Much of speech act theory has been concerned with classifying speech acts. J. R. Searle,
for instance, considers that there are five types of speech acts:
1) representatives (assertives), in which the speaker believes that the proposition expressed
represents an actual state of affairs and has grounds for so doing: explanation,
classification, characterization, description, assertion, statement;
2) directives, in which the speaker attempts to get the hearer to carry out an action: request,
question, order, advice, instruction;
3) commissives, which commit the speaker to some future course of action: promise, vow,
pledge, quarantee, threat, offer;
4) expressives, in which the speaker expresses some psychological state, feelings or
attitudes: praise, apology, compliment, complaint, thanks, welcoming, congratulating,
greeting, pity, sorrow, anger, sympathy, reproach;
5) declaratives, which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and
which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions: declaring war, christening,
will, etc.
Frame Analysis
Frame analysis belongs to the domain of cognitive (i.e. related to mental processes of
perception and reasoning) linguistics. Cognitive linguistics is an approach to language that is
based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
The main descriptive devices of frame analysis are the notions of frame and perspective.
The notion of frame was introduced into linguistics by Charles Fillmore (Fillmore Ch. C.
Topics in lexical semantics //Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. – London, 1977. – P. 76–138).
Frames are viewed as unified frameworks of knowledge, or coherent schematizations of
experience, cognitive models which represent knowledge and beliefs pertaining to specific and
frequently recurring situations.
Frames can provide valuable tools for the linguistic and conceptual analysis. Frame
analysis has been successfully applied to research into semantic and grammatical (maunly
syntactic) issues as well as some important problems in contrastive linguistics, translation
studies, text comprehension studies.
Conceptual Analysis
Concepts are mental constructs which a person uses in the process of thinking. They
arise from human’s interaction with the world and reflect the gained knowledge and experience.
Language is essential for expressing concepts in the process of communication. Concepts
are verbalized with the help of language means. Different ways of representing and verbalizing
concepts is an important research area of cognitive linguistics.
Every concept is characterized by a certain structure: the concept has the core and
periphery. The core is the dictionary meaning of the unit which verbalizes the concept. The
periphery is subjective experience, pragmatic components, connotations and associations.

18
 V. A. Maslova (Маслова В. А. Когнитивная лингвистика. – Минск, 2004)
distinguishes five layers in the structure of concepts: I – dictionary definition of the concept; II –
etymology of the concept; III – artistic, scientific, philosophical, publicistic definitions; IV –
metaphors, metonymies, proverbs, tongue twisters; V – individual comprehension, i. e.
subjective information about the object or phenomenon (what a person believes, supposes, feels,
imagines).
Conceptual analysis was initiated by philosophers and cognitive scientists and in
contemporary linguistics it is elaborated by A. Wierzbicka, N. D. Arutyunova, Yu. D. Apresyan,
E. S. Kubryakova, Yu. S. Stepanov, W. M. Teliya.
V. A. Maslova singles out the following stages of conceptual analysis:
1. Defining the referential situation the concept belongs to.
2. Studying lexicographic definitions.
3. Studying the etymology of the lexical item.
4. Studying the concept in various contexts (philosophy, science, prose, music, etc.).
5. Studying the associative connections of the lexical item designating the concept.
I.6.5. Quantitative Methods of Analysis
Statistical Analysis
Statistical linguistics is nowadays generally recognized as one of the major branches of
linguistics. The value of statistical methods as a means of verification is beyond dispute.
Statistical techniques have been successfully applied in the analysis of various linguistic
phenomena: different structural types of words, affixes, the vocabularies of great writers and
poets, etc. Statistical procedures make the investigation more rigorous. But one should remember
that giving percentage doesn’t make the study ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’ automatically.
Computation is useful only if it follows certain rules of mathematical statistics.
Statistical methods have been applied to various theoretical problems of meaning. An
interesting attempt was made by G.K. Zipf to study the relation between polysemy and word
frequency by statistical methods. Having discovered that there is a direct relationship between
the number of different meanings of a word and its relative frequency of occurrence, Zipf
proceeded to find a mathematical formula for this correlation. He came to the conclusion that
different meanings of a word will tend to be equal to the square root of its relative frequency.
This was summed up in the following formula: m = F½, where m stands for the number of
meanings, F – for relative frequency. This formula is known as Zipf’s law.
Though numerous corrections to this law have been suggested, still there is no reason to
doubt the principle itself, namely, that the more frequent a word is, the more meanings it is likely
to have.
Efficient statistical methods extensively employed in linguistics nowadays are: chi-square
(χ2), contingency coefficient, correlation analysis, coefficient of concordance.
One of the most promising trends in statistical enquiries is the analysis of collocability of
words. It is observed that words are joined together according to certain rules. The linguistic
structure of any string of words may be described as a network of grammatical and lexical
restrictions.
For those linguists who are going to use statistical methods in the linguistic analysis of
the language the following books may be helpful: Кочерган М. П. Загальне мовознавство. –
Київ: Видавничий центр “Академія”, 1999; В.В.Левицкий. Квантитативные методы в
лингвистике. – Черновцы: Рута, 2004; Перебийніс В.І. Статистичні методи для лінгвістів. –
Вінниця: Нова книга, 2002; Проблеми квантитативної лінгвістики: Збірник наукових
праць. – Чернівці: Рута, 2005.
The Theory of Field
The theory of field is connected with the name of Jost Trier and his school. Trier’s
concept of ‘linguistic field’ is known to be based on Saussure’s theory of language as a
synchronous system of networks held together by differences, oppositions and distinctive values.
Semantic fields are characterized by a common concept. Thus, for instance, the words
blue, brown, yellow, red, etc. may be described as making up the semantic field of colours. There
are also semantic fields of kinship, of space, of pleasant emotions, etc.
19
 The members of the semantic field are not synonymous but all of them have some
common semantic component. The semantic component common to all the members of a given
field is often referred to as the common dominator of meaning.
I.6. Summary and Conclusions
Modern English Lexicology aims at giving a systematic description of the word-stock of
Modern English. It’s closely connected with general linguistics, the history of the language,
phonetics, stylistics and, especially, with grammar.
As any other branch of science it has its own methods of scientific research. They are
divided into several groups, each of them imbracing some methods of analysis, namely: methods
of comparative analysis of languages (comparative analysis, contrastive analysis), structural
methods (oppositional analysis, distributional analysis, method of immediate and ultimate
constituents, transformational analysis), methods of semantic analysis (method of componential
analysis, the contextual analysis), methods of situational study of language (performative
analysis, frame analysis, conceptual analysis), quantitative methods of analysis (statistical
methods and procedures).

Suggested Points for Discussion

1. Comment on the subject-matter of Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.
2. Discuss the statement that Lexicology should be viewed in relation to other levels of
linguistic structure.
3. Be ready to discuss the statement that the word and the notion constitute a dialectal unity.
Does this unity presuppose absolute identity?
4. Give comments on the validity of distributional analysis of words.
5. Give comments on the validity of ICs analysis. How can relationships between ICs be
defined?
6. Be ready to discuss the validity of transformational analysis as a method of experiment.
7. Reveal transformational relations in the following groups: lump sugar, snake poison.
8. Comment on the significance of componential analysis in the referential meanings of
words.
9. Comment on the significance of statistical analysis.
10. Get ready to discuss the concept of ‘linguistic field’.
11. What is meant by a common dominator of meaning?

20
 CHAPTER II
THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

II.1. Morpheme, its Definition and Comparison with Word

There are two levels of approach to the study of word-structure: the level of morphemic
analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.
Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the
morphological and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

Close observation and comparison of words shows that many of them are made up of
smaller units, each possessing sound-form and meaning. These are generally referred to as
morphemes. The term comes from Greek: morphe = ‘form’ + suffix –eme (the Greek suffix
which denotes the smallest unit, cf.: phoneme, sememe, lexeme, etc.) or the minimum distinctive
feature.
So morphemes are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units. They are
defined as minimum language units because they can’t be further divided into meaningful units.
For instance, words like reader, writer fall into the morphemes read-, writ- and -er by virtue of
the recurrence of the morpheme –er in other similar words and of the morphemes read-, writ- in
to read, to write, reading, writing, etc.
A word is an autonomous unit of language, it is able to form a sentence by itself. Unlike a
word, a morpheme is not an autonomous unit as it can occur in speech only as a constituent part
of the word, although a word can consist of a single morpheme.
II.2. Morphemic Analysis of Words
Words are segmented into morphemes with the help of the method of morphemic analysis
the aim of which is to split the word into its constituent morphemes and to determine their
number and types. This analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the
analysis into immediate constituents (IC’s). First suggested by L. Bloomfield it was later
developed by many other linguists (e.g. E.O. Nida). The procedure consists of several stages:
1) segmentation of words,
2) identification of morphs,
3) classification of morphemes.
II.2.1. Procedure of Morphemic Analysis
The procedure generally employed for the purposes of segmenting words into the
constituting morphemes is the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is
based on a binary principle, i. e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word
immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate
Constituents (ICs.). Each IC at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into two smaller
meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of
further division, i. e. morphemes. In terms of the method employed these are referred to as the
Ultimate Constituents (UCs). Let’s take for example the word friendliness. It is first segmented
into the IC friendly recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and the suffix -ness
found in a countless number of nouns, such as happiness, darkness, etc. The IC -ness is at the
same time an UC of the noun, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both
sound-form and meaning. The IC friendly is next broken into the ICs friend- and -ly recurring in
friendship, unfriendly, etc. on the one hand, and wifely, brotherly, etc., on the other. Needles to
say that the ICs friend- and -ly are both UCs of the word under analysis.
The analysis of the morphemic composition of words defines the ultimate meaningful
constituents (UCs), their typical sequence and arrangement, but it does not reveal the way a word
is constructed, nor how a new word of similar structure should be understood. The morphemic
analysis doesn’t aim at finding out the nature and arrangement of ICs which underlie the
structural and the semantic type of the word. Let’s compare two words: unmanly and
discouragement. Morphemically they are referred to the same type as both are segmented into
three UCs representing one root, one prefixational and one suffixational morpheme. However the
arrangement and the nature of ICs and hence the relationship of morphemes in these words is
21
different – in unmanly the prefixational morpheme makes one of the ICs, the other IC is
represented by a sequence of the root and suffixational morpheme and thus the meaning of the
word is derived from the relations between the ICs un- and manly-, whereas discouragement
rests on the relations of the IC discourage- made up by the combination of the prefixational and
the root morphemes and the suffixational morpheme -ment for its second IC (‘smth that
discourages’). Hence we may infer that these three-morpheme words should be referred to
different derivational types, namely: unmanly to a prefixational and discouragement to a
suffixational derivative.
The nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word is known as its derivative
structure. Though the derivative structure of the word is closely connected with its morphemic
structure and often coincides with it, it differs from it in principle. The derivational level of
analysis aims at establishing correlations between different types of words, the structural and
semantic patterns words are built on; it enables one to understand how new words appear in the
language.
According to their derivative structure all words fall into two big classes: simple and
derivatives. Derivatives fall into derived and compounds. Derived words fall into affixal and
converted. Affixational words are further classified into suffixal and prefixal (see the diagram):
Diagram 1

simple derivatives

derived compounds

affixational conversions

suffixal prefixal

II.2.2. Types of Word Segmentability

The first stage is segmentation of words. As far as the complexity of the morphemic
structure of the word is concerned all English words fall into two large classes: 1) segmentable
words, i. e. those allowing of segmentation into morphemes, e.g. agreement, information,
quickly, and 2) non-segmentable words, i. e. those not allowing of such segmentation, e.g. house,
girl, husband, etc.
Segmentation of words is not an easy thing as the degree of segmentability of words is
not the same for different words. Three types of segmentability are distinguished: complete,
conditional and defective (corresponding Ukrainian terms are живе, умовне, дефектне
членування).
Complete segmentability is characteristic of words the morphemic structure of which is
transparent enough as their individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word lending
themselves easily to isolation. Its constituent morphemes recur with the same meaning in a
number of other words, e.g.: agreement, development.
Conditional morphemic segmentability characterizes words whose segmentation into
constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons. In words like retain, detain, or receive,
deceive the sound-clusters [ri], [di], on the one hand, to be singled out quite easily due to their
recurrence in a number of words, on the other hand, they undoubtly have nothing in common
with the phonetically identical morphemes re-, de- as found in words like rewrite, re-organize,
decode, deorganize; neither the sound-clusters [ri], [di] nor the sound-clusters [-tein], [si:v]
possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. The type of meaning that can be ascribed
to them is only a differential and a certain distributional meaning: the cluster [ri-] distinguishes
retain from detain and the cluster [-tein] distinguishes retain from receive whereas their order
22
and arrangement point to the status of the re-, de- as different from that of the –tain and –ceive
within the structure of the words. The morphemes making up words conditional morphemic
segmentability thus differ from morphemes making up words of complete segmentability in that
the former do not rise to the full status of morphemes for semantic reason and that is why a
special term is applied to them in linguistic literature: such morphemes are called pseudo-
morphemes or quasi-morphemes. It should be mentioned that there is no unanimity on the
question and there are two different approaches to the problem. Those linguists who recognize
pseudo-morphemes, i. e. consider it sufficient for a morpheme to have only a differential and
distributional meaning to be isolated from a word regard words like retain, deceive, etc. as
segmentable; those who deem it necessary for a morpheme to have some denotational meaning
qualify them as non-segmentable words.
Defective morphemic segmentability is the property of words whose component
morphemes seldom or never recur in other words. One of the component morphemes is a unique
morpheme in the sense that it doesn’t, as a rule, recur in a different linguistic environment.
A unique morpheme is isolated and understood as meaningful because the constituent
morphemes display a more or less clear denotational meaning. There is no doubt that in the
nouns streamlet, ringlet, leaflet, booklet, etc. the morpheme -let has the denotational meaning of
diminutiveness and is combined with the morphemes stream-, ring-, leaf-, book- each having a
denotational meaning. Things are entirely different with the noun hamlet. The morpheme -let
retains the same meaning of diminutiveness, but the sound-cluster [hæm] that is left after
isolation of the morpheme -let doesn’t recur in any other English word with anything like the
meaning it has in the word hamlet (needles to say that the noun ham denoting ‘a smoked and
salted upper part of a pig’s leg’ is irrelevant to the ham- in hamlet). It is likewise evident that the
denotational and the differential meaning of [hæm] which distinguishes hamlet from streamlet,
ringlet, leaflet, booklet, etc. leads one to the isolation of the morpheme -et having a diminutive
meaning, the more so that the morphemes lock-, hog-, lion-, cellar-, etc. recur in other words (cf.
lock, locky; hog, hoggery; lion, lioness; cellar, cellarage). At the same time the isolation of the
morpheme -et leaves in the word pocket the sound-cluster [pPk] that doesn’t occur in any other
word in Modern English but obviously has a status of a morpheme with a denotational meaning,
as it is the lexical nucleus of the word. The morpheme [pPk] clearly carries a differential and
distributional meaning as it distinguishes pocket from the words mentioned above and thus must
be qualified as a unique morpheme.
The morphemic analysis of words like cranberry, gooseberry, strawberry shows that they
also possess defective morphemic segmentability: the morphemes cran-, goose, straw- are
unique morphemes.
Thus on the level of morphemic analysis the linguist has to operate with two types of
elementary units, namely full morphemes and pseudo-(quasi-)morphemes. It is only full
morphemes that are genuine structural elements of the language system so that the linguist must
primarily focus his attention on words of complete morphemic segmentability. On the other
hand, a considerable percentage of words of conditional and defective segmentability signals a
relatively complex character of the morphological system of the language in question, reveals the
existence of various heterogeneous layers in its vocabulary.
II.2.3. Identification of Morphs
The second stage of the morphemic analysis is identification of morphs. The main criteria
for identification of morphs are semantic and phonetic similarity. It goes without saying that
morphs should have the same denotational meaning (see the above mentioned examples
concerning the words ham and hamlet).
As far as phonemic shapes of morphs are concerned, they may vary. Thus, e.g. the root
morpheme in the words please, pleasing, pleasure, pleasant is represented by three morpheme
variants: [pli:z] in please, pleasing, [plez] in pleasant and [pleʒ] in pleasure. Such positional
morpheme variants are called allomorphs. They occur in specific environment and are
characterized by complementary distribution, which is said to take place when two variants
can’t appear in the same environment. Allomorphs don’t differ in meaning or function, they

23
show only a slight difference in sound form. Other examples of allomorphs are two morpheme
variants, [dju:k] and [dötS], in the word-clusters duke, ducal, duchess and duchy.
Allomorphs can be found not only among root-morphemes, but also among affixes, e.g.
the prefix in- has the following allomorphs: il-, im-, ir- (illiterate, impossible, irregular).
Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i. e. if they occur in
the same environment they signal different meanings. Thus, the suffixes -able and -ed, for
instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because the adjectives in -able mean ‘capable
of beings’ while the adjectives in -ed mean ‘having, chracterized by, resembling’.
II.2.4. Classification of Morphemes
The last stage of the procedure of the morphemic analysis is classification of morphemes.
Morphemes may be classified from two points of view: 1) semantic and 2) structural.
The relationship between the two classifications of morphemes can be graphically
presented in the following diagram:

Diagram 2

structurally free semi-free bound

Morphemes
semantically roots affixes

Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: 1) root-morphemes and 2) non-root or

affixational morphemes. Roots and affixes make two distinct classes of morphemes due to the
different roles they play in word-structure.
The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of a word, it has an individual meaning shared
by no other morpheme of the language. Besides it may also possess all other types of meaning
proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots. The root-
morpheme is isolated as the morpheme common to a set of words making up a word-cluster, e.g.
the morpheme teach- in to teach, teacher, teaching, theor- in theory, theorist, theoretical, etc.
Non-root morphemes include inflectional morphemes or inflections and affixational
morphemes or affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for
the formation of word-forms, whereas affixes are relevant for building various types of stems –
the part of a word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. Lexicology is concerned
only with affixational morphemes.
Affixes are classified into prefixes and suffixes: a prefix precedes the root-morpheme, a
suffix follows it. Affixes besides the meaning proper to root-morphemes possess the part-of-
speech meaning and a generalized lexical meaning.
Structurally morphemes fall into three types: free, bound, semi-free (semi-bound)
morphemes.
A free morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. A great
many root-morphemes are free morphemes, for example, the root-morpheme friend – of the noun
friendship is qualified as a free morpheme because it coincides with one of the forms of the noun
friend.
A bound morpheme occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are, naturally,
bound morphemes, for they always make part of a word, e.g. the suffixes –ness, -ship, -ize, etc.,
prefixes in-, un-, dis-, etc. (e.g. kindness, comradeship, to activize, incomplete, unnecessary,
disappear, etc.).
Many root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes which always occur
in morphemic sequences, i. e. in combination with roots or affixes. All unique roots and pseudo-
roots are bound morphemes. Such are the root-morphemes theor- in theory, theoretical, barbar-
in barbarism, barbarian, -ceive in conceive, perceive, etc.
Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes (the Ukrainian terms are відносно зв’язані
(відносно вільні) морфеми) are morphemes that can function in a morphemic sequence both
as an affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the morpheme well and half on the one hand
24
occur as free morphemes that coincide with the stem and the word-form in utterances like sleep
well, half an hour, etc., on the other hand they occur as bound morphemes in words like well-
known, half-done, etc. Here also belong –land (Ireland, Scotland, fatherland, wonderland),-man
(this element is generalized semantically and approaches in meaning the suffixes of a doer -er,
-ist, e.g. cabman, postman, seaman), -proof (bulletproof, dump-proof, fire-proof, kiss-proof,
shock-proof, water-proof), -berry (billberry, blackberry, strawberry), -worthy (it combines with
nouns to form adjectives describing people or things that observe or merit whatever the nouns
refer to, e.g. trust-worthy, creditworthy, awardworthy, newsworthy; it also can combine with
nouns to form adjectives that describe vehicles which are in a good condition and are safe for
travelling, e.g. airworthy, seaworthy, roadworthy) -wise (it combines with nouns to form words
which describe actions or states that are similar to those of the people or things referred to by the
nouns, e.g. clockwise, hammer-wise, monkey-wise, vote-wise, calorie-wise, time-wise,
dollarwise).
As one can see, this group embraces morphemes that are changing their class
membership. Let’s illustrate it by the morpheme -man found in numerous words like clergyman,
countryman, fireman, fisherman, gentleman, policeman, postman, spaceman in comparison with
the same root used in the words man-made, man-servant, man-eater, etc. It’s known that this
cluster is pronounced differently: in the first case the [æ] of the root-morpheme becomes [ә] and
sometimes disappears altogether. The phonetic reduction of the root vowel is obviously due to
the decreasing semantic value of the morpheme. Some linguists consider that in words cabman,
chairman, etc. this constituent is now felt as denoting an agent rather than a male adult,
becoming synonymous with the agent suffix -er. But we can hardly regard the component -man
[mәn] in postman as having completely lost the status of a root-morpheme, moreover the lexical
opposition of man and woman is still felt in many compounds (it’s impossible to say she is an
Englishman or a gentleman; or when a woman chairs a sitting we say Madam Chairman),
though at present the component -person is found in many euphemistic innovative lexical units
instead of gender marked elements -man and -woman (barperson, businessperson, chairperson,
houseperson, statesperson, spokesperson). So in the similar case we deal with morphemes
occupying intermediate position between root-morphemes and affixes, the so-called semi-
affixes, i. e. they regularly function as derivational affixes but still retain certain features of root-
morphemes.
Among the newest ones the following semi-affixes can be mentioned: -free, -monger,
-oholic/-aholic, -friendly, -burger, cyber-, the most productive ones seem to be -oholic/-aholic
and cyber-, e.g. workaholic, clothesaholic, shopaholic, chocoholic, creamaholic, milkaholic,
cybercash, cybercasino, cybercollege, cybercommerce, cyberconvention, cyberdabate,
cyberinvesting, cyberpirate, cyberplague, etc.
The factors conducing to transition of free forms into semi-affixes are high semantic
productivity, adaptability, combinatorial capacity and brevity.
II.3. Derivational Level of Analysis
The morphemic analysis of words defines only the constituent morphemes, determining
their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the
word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very
complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement
differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of
morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one
to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the
interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word-
formation relations.
The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing the correlation between different
types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the
stem, which is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its
paradigm. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word
grammatically as one or another part of speech. Thus, the stem which appears in the paradigm to

25
ask, asks, asked, asking is ask-; the stem of the word singer, singer’s, singers, singers’ is
singer-.
The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level
aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative
correlation between stems of different types.
There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.
Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy
with which new stems may be modelled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and
phonetically identical with the root morpheme.
The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of
morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level
are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types
of pseudo-morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet
requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So, the stem of such words as
retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non-motivated stems.
Derived stems are built on stems of various structures, they are motivated, i. e. derived
stems are understood on the basis of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated
stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in
one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.
Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, e.g.
match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is
simple, the other derived.
The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems
into simple, derived and compound words.
Derived words are those composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational
morpheme.
Compound words contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational
morphemes being insignificant.
Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and
derivational.
So English words fall into four main structural types:
1) simple words (root words) which have only a root morpheme in the structure: take,
go, eat, agree, differ, job, joy, child, fine, bright, green, etc.;
2) derived words (affixational derivatives) which consist of a root and one or more
affixes: eatable, joyful, brightness, childhood, disagree, disagreement, different, difference,
indifference, etc.;
3) compound words (compounds) in which two or more stems are combined into a
lexical unit: fruit-tree, snow-white, light-blue, push-cart, knee-deep, care-free, fishing-boat,
heart-to-heart, forget-me-not, fifty-fifty, etc.;
4) derivational compounds in which phrase components are joined together by means of
compounding and affixation: long-legged, blue-eyed, oval-shaped, bare-headed, strong-willed.
There exists a more detailed classification of the structural types of words which takes
into account the varieties of root morphemes and the position of affixes as regards the root.
I. Simple words.
1. R: big, top, now.
2. Rfr: lab (laboratory), pop (popular).
II. Derived words.
3. R + Suf: readable, friendship, realize.
4. Rfr + Suf: psycho (psychic).
5. Rb + Suf: theory, barbarism.
6. Pr + R: outdo, rewrite, mistrust.
7. Pr + Rb: deceive, perceive, receive.
8. Pr + R + Suf: discouragement, misinterpretation.
III. Compound words.
26
 9. R + R: timetable, highway, schoolgirl.
10. Rfr + Rfr: smog (smoke + fog).
11. Rb + Rb: telephone, telegraph.
12. R + I + R: handicraft, salesman, speedometer.
13. (R + Suf) + R: writing-table, safety-belt.
14. R + (R + Suf): sky-jumping, bar-holder.
15. R + F + R: stay-at-home, fly-by-night, hide-and-seek.
IV. Derivational compounds.
16. (R + R) + Suf: long-legged, snub-nosed, ill-dressed.
These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding
of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1) the importance of each type in the
existing word-stock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. It was estimated that derived
words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock, but root-words
occupy a predominant place in English. It is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the
backbone of the vocabulary and are of paramount importance in speech. They are characterized
by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of
other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root-words also serve as
parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.
While speaking of word-structure on the morphemic level one can’t but specially mention
the so-called combining forms. There is no unanimity in interpreting this phenomenon, but most
linguists share the opinion that this group includes morphemes of Greek and Latin origin of the
type tele, graph, micro, phone, etc. They are characterized by a definite lexical meaning and
peculiar stylistic reference: astron means ‘star’, autos means ‘self’, bios means ‘life’, ge means
‘earth’, graph means ‘writing’, hydor means ‘water’, logos means ‘speech, science’, micro
means ‘smallness’, phone means ‘sound’, photos means ‘light’, skopein means ‘to view’, tele
means ‘far’. They can occur both as the first constituents and as the second constituents in the
word, e.g. automatic, biology, microscope, telegraph, telephone, telescope, phonograph,
graphology, etc. When they are the first constituents of the word, one may conclude that they are
prefixes, and when they occur as the second constituents, they may create the impression that
they are suffixes. This would lead to an absurd conclusion that words of this group contain no
root-morphemes and are composed of a suffix and a prefix which runs counter to the
fundamental principle of word-structure. That’s why the only right solution of this problem is
that these morphemes are all bound root-morphemes of a special kind and such words belong to
words made up of bound roots. The fact that these morphemes do not possess the part-of-speech
meaning typical of affixational morphemes evidences their status as roots.
Combining forms as a rule occur together with other combining forms and not with
native roots. Almost all of the words containing combining forms are international words, each
entering a considerable word-family, e.g.:
autobiography, autodiagnosis, automobile, autonomy, autopilot, autoloader;
biochemistry, bio-ecology, biophysics;
economics, economist, eco-climate, eco-type, eco-catastrophe;
geodesy, geometry, geography;
hydrodynamic, hydromechanic, hydrotherapeutic, hydrograhy;
phonograph, phonograph, phonology;
telegraph, telephone, teletype;
lexicology, philology, semasiology, phraseology.

II.4. Summary and Conclusions

A great many words consist of smaller meaningful structural units which are called
morphemes. From the semantic point of view all morphemes are subdivided into two large
classes: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes). The root is the lexical
nucleus of a word. It is common to a set of words that make up a lexical word-cluster, e.g. act- in

27
act, actor, action, active, inactive; theor- in theory, theorist, theoretician, theoretical, etc. There
exist many roots which coincide with root-words, e.g. man, son, tree, see, red, etc.
The affixes fall into prefixes which precede the root (decode, disappear, misunderstand,
rewrite, illegal, impossible, inactive, irregular, unlucky, etc.) and suffixes which follow the root
(freedom, writer, friendship, peaceful, endless, windy, calmly, electrify, realize, etc.).
The part of a word which remains unchanged in all the forms of its paradigm is called a
stem, e.g. darken in darkens, darkened, darkening; sister in sisters, sister’s, sisters’.
Stems may be simple (they coincide with roots, e.g. trees, goes, etc.), derived (that
contain one or more affixes, e.g. teacher’s, governments, undecipherable, etc.) and compound
(comprising two simple or derived stems, e.g. ex-film-star, gentlemanly, etc.).
From the structural point of view morphemes fall into three types: free morphemes,
bound morphemes and semi-bound morphemes.
Free morphemes can stand alone as a word, e.g. friendly, friendship.
Bound morphemes occur only as constituent parts of words, e.g. poetic, misprint,
conceive, receive, deceive, consist, resist, subsist, etc.
Semi-bound morphemes can function both as affixes and as free morphemes. Compare,
e.g. after, half, man, well, self and after-thought, half-baked, chairman, well-known, himself.
In Modern English one can often meet morphemes of Greek and Latin origin which have
a definite lexical meaning though are not used as autonomous words, e.g. tele- ‘far’, -scope
‘seeing’, -graph ‘writing’, etc. Such morphemes are usually called combining forms.
Positional variants of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Thus, the prefix in-
(intransitive) can be represented by allomorphs il- (illiterate), im- (immemorial), ir- (irrational).

Suggested points for discussion

1. What is meant by morpheme?
2. Comment on the aim of morphemic analysis.
3. What is the difference between morphemic analysis and derivational analysis?
4. What are the main stages of the procedure of morphemic analysis?
5. Describe the first stage of this procedure. What are the main types of word
segmentability?
6. What is meant by the morph? What is the difference between morpheme and morph?
7. What is meant by allomorph?
8. Comment on the criteria of identification of morphs.
9. What is the difference between complementary distribution and contrastive distribution?
10. What are the criteria of classification of morphemes?
11. Comment on the types of morphemes from the semantic point of view.
12. Comment on the types of morphemes from the structural point of view.
13. What is meant by semi-affix?
14. Comment on the status of combining form?
15. What are the main structural types of English words?

28
 CHAPTER III
WORD-FORMATION

III.1. Introductory Remarks

After A.I. Smirnitsky, word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the
process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural
and semantic formulas and patterns. It is that branch of Lexicology which studies the derivative
structure of existing words and the patterns on which a language builds new words.
In conformity with structural types of words described above there are two types of word-
formation: word-derivation and word-composition (or word-compounding).
Within the types, further distinction may be made between the ways of forming words.
Thus, the basic ways of forming words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion.
There are also some other minor ways of coining new ways: blending, acronymy,
shortening, sound and stress interchange, lexicalization. But the authors of “A Course in
Modern English Lexicology” don’t share this opinion. They consider them to be not the means
of word-formation but specific means of replenishing the vocabulary.
Derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes differ in their productivity by
which is meant the ability to form new words after existing patterns. Three degrees of
productivity are distinguished: 1) highly productive, 2) productive or semi-productive and 3)
non-productive. In the course of time the productivity of this or that way of word-formation
may change. Thus, sound interchange (or gradation) was a productive way of word building in
Old English but it has lost its productivity in Modern English and now no new word can be
coined by means of sound gradation. On the other hand, affixation was productive in Old English
and still remains one of the most productive ways of word building in Modern English.
Productivity of derivational patterns and affixes should not be identified with frequency
of occurrence in speech though there may be some interrelation between them. Frequency of
occurrence is characterized by the fact that a great number of words, containing a given
derivational affix, are often used in speech, in particular in various texts. Productivity is
characterized by the ability of a given suffix to make new words.

III.2. Word-derivation
Affixation is commonly defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes
to stems. Distinction is made between two types of affixes: prefixes – affixes which precede the
root and suffixes – affixes which follow the root.
Prefixes and suffixes differ significantly in their linguistic status: the former generally
have a distinct meaning of their own, the latter rarely have, but as a rule serve to modify the
meaning of the word (brown – brownish, book – booklet) or to convert it into another part of
speech (bright – brightness).
In terms of origin affixes are divided into native and borrowed and in terms of
productivity – into living or productive and dead or unproductive affixes. The dead affixes are
mainly of historical interest, while living affixes are of paramount importance for the structure of
the present-day English.
Though English possesses a great number of affixes, new wordbuilding formative means
continue appearing, among them the so-called affixoids. They come into being due to
affixalization of components of compound words, e.g. -(a)holic, which has the meaning
‘людина, яка має пристрасть до чогось’ (workaholic, shopaholic, politicoholic); the element
-speak and its partial synonym -babble which denote some special language or jargon
(consultant-speak, Natospeak, edubabble, Eurobabble, neurobabble, designer-babble,
technobabble); the synonymous elements -head and -junkie, denoting a person who takes to
something or takes to doing something (cyberhead, beautie-junkie, film-junkie, sport-junkie); the
element -watcher, which has the agent meaning ‘аналітик, експерт у певній галузі’
(Chinawatcher, newswatcher, Wall Street-watcher); -friendly meaning ‘безпечний; такий, що
не завдає шкоди; зручний; готовий допомогти, посприяти; такий, що ставиться із
симпатією’ (business-friendly, client-friendly, customer-friendly, family-friendly, investor-
29
friendly); near-, which denotes ‘the state close to the state denoted by the stem of the word’
(near-absolute, near-collapse, death, near-war, near-impossible). In the 80-s of the XX century
there appeared one more new word-building element – the element must- (must-read book, must-
see film). More detailed information can be received in the monographs written by Yuriy Zatsny
and S. Yenikeeva (see the list of references).

Affixation
III.2.1. Suffixation
Suffixes may be classified according to different principles:
1. The first principle of classification is part of speech formed. Within the scope of the
part-of-speech classification suffixes fall into noun-forming suffixes, e.g. -age, -ance, -ation,
-dom, -ence, -er, -ess, -hood, -ing, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, etc. (courage, arrogance, translation,
kingdom, patience, writer, tigress, childhood, feeling, experiment, kindness, friendship, length),
adjective-forming suffixes, e.g. -able, -al, -ant, -ar, -ate, -en, -ent, -ful, -ic, -ish, -less, -ly, -or,
-ous, -some, -y (eatable, final, constant, familiar, accurate, wooden, convenient, sinful, poetic,
childish, hopeless, friendly, major, courageous, quarrelsome, windy), verb-forming suffixes,
e.g. -ate, -en, -fy, -ize, -ute (appreciate, broaden, justify, harmonize), adverb-forming suffixes
-ly, -ward (quickly, eastward, attribute), numeral-forming suffixes -fold, -teen, -th, -ty (twofold,
sixteen, tenth, twenty).
2. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is added to.
Proceeding from this principle suffixes fall into: 1) deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal
base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. (reader, reading, agreement, suitable); 2) denominal
suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless, childish,
mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.; 3) de-adjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective
base), e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.).
3. A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by a
set of suffixes. It should be mentioned first of all that meanings of affixes are specific and
considerably differ from those of root morphemes: affixes have widely generalised meanings and
refer the concept conveyed by the whole word to a certain category. So, within the bounds of a
certain part of speech suffixes are classified into various groups. Thus, for instance, noun-
suffixes fall into those denoting:
1. The agent of an action. The category of agent is known to be actualized in opposition
between words denoting actions, process or state, and words denoting the agent of a given
action, process or state. In English we can form the name of the agent by means of the suffix –er
practically fom any verb-stem. Depending on the situation the name of the agent can imply: a)
profession or permanent occupation (builder, teacher, writer); b) inherent characteristics of man
(crier, envier, talker, worrier); c) temporary occupation, action or state (a dancer – a person who
is dancing at the moment; a sufferer, a nodder, a smiler, etc.). On the other hand, -er may be
added to a verb to denote the inanimate agent, tool or instrument (boiler, container, cutter,
duster, locker, poker, etc.). In some formations in –er the verbal idea is absent (a teen-ager – a
person whose age ends in -teen).
The word-making category of agent reveals one more opposition: subject + object, in
other words, the doer of the action and the recepient of the action. These are formations in –ee
(addressee, employee, interviewee, lessee, payee, testee, trainee, vendee, etc.). These derivatives
are active in meaning though they are formed from intransitive verb-stems (escapee, waitee,
standee, etc.). Very often they are associated with agent-nouns in –er: interviewer – intervieree.
The name of an agent may be formed from verb-adverb collocations, e.g. a cutter-off, a
giver-up, a runner-up.
2. Appurtenance, e.g. -an, -ian, -ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Ukrainian, Chinese).
3. Collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery(ry), etc. (foliage, officialdom, peasantry, etc.);
4. Abstraction, e.g. –al (disposal, refusal, reversal), -ance (assistance, dependence),
-dom (freedom, officialdom), –hood (brotherhood, falsehood, manhood), -ion/-tion (division,
explanation, locution, motion, solution), -ment (ailment, development, involvement, movement),
-ship (friendship, leadership, statesmanship), -th (birth, death, growth, length), -ure (departure,
30
mixture, rupture), -y (courtesy, jealousy, victory). Here belong also the suffix –ing. In fact, all
verbs, except some auxiliaries, are able to receive –ing. These nouns denote: a) act, fact, practice
of what the verbal idea implies (boating,meeting, reading, sitting, wedding); b) something
materialconnected with the verbal idea, as an agent, instrument, result, place, belonings
(clothing, coating, cutting, knitting, lacing).
5. Diminutiveness, e.g. -ie, -let/-et, -ling, -kin/-in, -ette. The suffix -ling has diminutive
force in some names of young animals (catling, duckling, fledgeling, gosling) and young plants
(oakling, ashling, sapling, seedling). Most personal nouns with the suffix -ling are expressive of
low estimation or contempt, e.g. dukeling, kingling, lordling, princeling, squirreling, underling,
weakling, tidling, etc. Diminutives denoting things are not formed, though nonce-words such as
bookling, eyeling, giftling may occasionally be found. The suffix -let is more frequently added to
names of things than to names of persons. Examples of the former are: booklet, eyelet, flatlet,
leaflet, streamlet. Words in -let denoting persons, e.g. kinglet, princely, usually have derogatory
meaning, though less strongly than derivatives with the suffix -ling. The suffix -kin with
diminutive or endearing force, is today used only as a jocular formative with a depreciative tinge,
e.g. lordkin, boykin, catkin, wolfkin, etc. The suffix -ette came from the French -ette, e.g.
novelette, leaderette ‘short editorial paragraph’, sermonette, balconette; comparatively recent
American coinages are kitchenette ‘miniature kitchen in modern flats’, dinette ‘small dining
room’, roomette (on trains), etc.
4. From the point of view of their origin suffixes are divided into native and borrowed.
Thus noun-forming suffixes suffixes -er, -ness, -ing, -dom, -hood, -ship, -th, adjective-forming
suffixes -ful, -less, -y, -ish, -ly, -en, -some, verb-forming suffix -en and adverb-forming suffix -ly
are native, whereas noun-forming suffixes -ion, -tion, verb-forming suffixes -ate, -ute, adjective-
forming suffixes -able, -ate, -ant, -ent, -or, -al, -ar are of Latin origin, noun-forming suffixes
-ance, -ence, -ment, -age, -ess, adjective-forming suffix -ous are of French origin and suffixes
-ist, -ism, -ite, -ic are of Greek origin.
5. Distinction should also be made between dead and living suffixes. Dead suffixes are
described as those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words; they
have so fused with the base of the word as to lose their independence completely. It is only by
special etymological analysis that they may be singled out, e.g. -d in dead, -le, -l, -el in bundle,
sail, -ock in hillock, -t in flight, gift, height. Dead suffixes are irrelevant to present-day English,
they belong to diachronic study. Living suffixes may be easily singled out from a word, however
not all living suffixes possess the ability to coin new words, so they are different from the point
of view of their productivity. Accordingly they fall into two basic classes – productive and non-
productive.
Many commonly used suffixes are polysemantic. Thus the adjective suffix -y has three
meanings: 1) ‘composed of’, ‘full of’, e.g. stony, bony; 2) ‘characterized by’, e.g. rainy, sunny;
3) ‘having the character of’, ‘resembling’, e.g. bushy, inky. The multivalued suffix –ish used to
form adjectives is polysemantic, too: 1) ‘quality’, e.g. babyish; 2) ‘weekening of quality’
(greenish, lightish); 3) ‘appurtenance to’, ‘pertaining to’, ‘belonging to’ (Turkish, Spanish), 4)
‘suggestive of’ (bookish).
Various changes that the English language has undergone in the course of time have led
to coincidence in form of two or more derivational affixes. As a consequence, many homonymic
affixes can be found among those forming different parts of speech, e.g. the adverb-suffix -ly
added to adjectival bases (quickly, slowly) and the adjective-suffix -ly affixed to noun-bases
(lovely, brotherly).
There are synonymous suffixes to some extent overlapping semantically, for instance,
three suffixes -er, -ist, -eer can occur in nouns denoting the agent, e.g. teacher, driller, botanist,
violiniat, mountaineer, profiteer. Suffixes -er, -an, -ite and -ese represent the concept ‘native,
inhabitant of’. Alternant suffixes have generally different semantic features though in particular
cases they are very nearly interchangeable.
The language does not like to have two words for one and the same notion, and
competition always arises. One of them will either be thrown out from common use or given a
specified meaning that distinguishes it from the original rival. The general tendency of
31
differentiation may be illustrated by the development of various structural elements. Such are,
for example, the suffixes -ical and -ic. There was, at the outset, indiscriminate parallel co-
existence of two synonymous adjectives derived by means of these suffixes. In Modern English,
however, there is a tendency, on the one hand, to drop one of them (usually the form in -ic) from
common usage, on the other hand, to retain it in a special sense, especially, in scientific
terminology. Whereas, for instance, botanical, geographical, theoretical, theological are
commonly used, the counterparts in -ic are preferred only in long established names as Botanic
Gardens, Geographic magazine. The word economical in Modern English means ‘thrifty’, while
economic means ‘belonging to the science of economics’. One more example: a thing is historic
if it is or makes history itself, it is historical if it belongs to what narrates or deals with history.
Books on history are therefore only historical while events are historic. Similar distinctions can
be made for the following pairs: comic – comical, poetic – poetical, physic – physical.
There are also homonymous suffixes:
-ala original, formal; -aln arrival, refusal;
-anta errant, defiant; -antn defendant, claimant;
-ena woolen, leaden; -env lighten, weaken;
-fula faithful, graceful; -fuln handful, mouthful;
-inea feminine, genuine; -inen bromine, discipline;
-lya lovely, brotherly; -lyadv greatly, partly.
Distinction should be made also between terminal and non-terminal suffixes. Terminal
suffixes take only the final position in a word, such as the terminal suffixes -al, -hood, -ness,
-ship, -kin, -let, -ling. Non-terminal suffixes can be followed by other suffixes, as in leader –
leadership, lovely – loveliness.
III.2.2. Prefixation
The classification of prefixes in any language offers more difficulties than classifying
suffixes. The semantic motivation of many prefixes is not quite apparent. A large number of
prefixes are polysemantic. There are also homonymic prefixes.
In terms of their origin prefixes are divided into native and foreign ones. With the
exception of a1- be-, for-, fore- mid- and (partly) mis-, un-, non-, on-, out-, over-, under- all
living English prefixes are of non-Germanic origin.
Most of the native prefixes come from prepositions. Thus, the prefix a- comes from Old
English preposition an = on. It is added to the stem of monosyllabic transitive verbs, and of
dissyllabic intransitive verbs ending in unstressed -er, -le, to form predicative adjectives
denoting some state: aback, aboil, adrift, asleep, astir, awash; aflicker, atremble. On the basis of
a prepositional relation a- may also be prefix to nouns and adjectives, e.g. abed, abroad, acold,
aflat, anew, awrong.
The prefix be- is historically the unstressed form of the preposition by, its original
meaning is therefore ‘by’, ‘around’, ‘about’, ‘near’. In Modern English it occurs in adverbs
(before, beyond) and in verbs (bedeck, belay, bewitch, belittle, befool, becalm, befriend).
Derivatives from nouns include different semantic types:
1) verbs with the sense ‘to furnish, to cover, to provide with, to treat with’, often with an
implication of excess, as in: to besnow, to becloud, to bedew, to besmoke, to befog, etc.
2) verbs with the sense ‘make into, treat as…’, e.g. to befool ‘to treat as a fool’, to
beslave ‘to make into a slave’, etc.
3) verbs with the implying notion of quality, title, often with a tinge of ridicule in verbs
like to belord, to beknight, to beclown, to beknave, etc.
4) verbs implying ‘act like’, e.g. to befriend – ‘to act as a friend, to aid’.
The group of verbs formed from adjectives is small and unproductive, e.g. to belittle – ‘to
depreciate’.
There are also formations with participles, e.g. to be-medalled, to bespectacled.
Among the derivatives from verbs one can find:
1) verbs with a reinforcing sense of ‘about’ or ‘over’ or with a meaning of ‘all around, on
all sides, all over’, as in: to beclasp, to bedim, to besceen, to besprinkle, to bewrap, to begrime.

32
 2) intensive verbs with the sense of ‘thoroughly’, ‘completely’, ‘violently’, ‘repeatedly’,
‘excessively’, often with implied ridicule, as in: to beswear, to bedazzle, to bepity, to bewitch,
etc.
3) transitive verbs from intransitive verbs: to beweap, to bemoon, to belie, to besmear.
The prefix for- was very productive in Old English, but now it occurs only in some verbs
(forget, forgive, forbid, forsake, etc.). Its variant fore- occurs much more frequently rendering the
meanings “in front of”, “front”, “beforehand”, “anticipating” (foregoer, foreshow, forejudge,
foreknow, foresee, foreground, foreskin, forehead, forefather, forethought).
The prefix un- imparts the negative or reverse meaning (unfair, untrue, unfasten, unknit,
unpack).
The prefixes on-, out-, over-, under- preserve the meanings of the corresponding
prepositions (oncoming, ongoings, onlay, onlooker, onset; outstanding, outworn, outbreak,
outburst, outlook, outside, outjump; overcoat, overcome, overeat, overestimate, overflow,
overpass, overtime; underground, underdone, underline, undersign; uphold, upright, upward).
The prefix out-, for instance, makes intransitive verbs transitive: to outlive (‘live beyond’), to
outrun (‘run ahead of’), to outshine (‘surpass in brightness’), to outvote (‘defeat by votes’).
The prefix mis- is of a mixed character (Lat. minus, German mis, French me, mes), it
renders the meaning ‘badly, wrongly’ (misbehave, miscarry, misgive, mishear, mislay,
mischance, mistreat).
Foreign prefixes are: a2- (of Greek origin, it has a negative meaning or denotes ‘without’,
‘devoid of’, ‘not affected or characterized by what is denoted by the root’: amoral, anomalous,
atonal, atemporal, asymmetric), anti-, arch-, bi-, circum-, cis, contra-, counter-, de-, demi-, dis-,
en-, epi-, ex-, extra-, hemi-, hyper-, hypo-, in-, inter-, intro-, mal-, meso-, meta-, mono-, non-,
pan-, pantro-, para-, peri-, poly-, post-, pre-, pro-, proto-, re-, retro-, semi-, sub-, super-, sur-,
syn-, trans-, tri-, unltra-, uni-, vice-. With the exception of the prefixes a-, anti-, arch-, poly-
which are of Greek origin, the rest prefixes are of Romanic origin.
Prefixes differ in their valency. Some of them can combine with the stems of only one
part of speech, others are more productive in their functional use. Thus, the prefixes ex-, arch-,
ana-, dys-, per- are used only with the stems of nouns; the prefixes be-, de-, en-, out- can
combine only with verbs, while prefixes co-, contra-, counter-, dis-, intra-, mis-, post-, pre-,
sub-, trans-, over-, under- are used with the stems of verbs, nouns and adjectives.
There are prefixes which can transpose parts of speech but they are much fewer in
number. The conversive capacity of prefixes may be illustrated by the prefixes de-, be-, en-
(bunk – to debunk, cloud – to becloud, slave – to beslave, large – to enlarge, feeble – enfeeble,
cage – to encage).
Like suffixes, prefixes are characterized by polysemy and synonymy. Polysemy can be
illustrated by the prefix un- which has the meaning of negation (unkind, unhappy) and the
meaning of reversion (unbutton, unstuck).
Synonymic correlation of prefixes can be illustrated by the following correlative semantic
groups of prefixes implying:
1) negation in-, un-, dis-, non-, a2- (incomplete, unhappy, dislike, non-believer, non-
stop, amoral, aceptic);
2) reversion: de-, dis-, un- (deform, denationalize, discontinue, unbutton);
3) counteraction, opposition: counter-, contra-, anti- (counterblow, counterweigh,
contradiction, antipode, antipole);
4) locality: a1, en-, sub-, supra-, sur-, trans-, hypo-, circum-, epi-, under- (ashore, abed,
encage, encase, sublunary, surcoat, transoceanic, hypodermic, circumsolar,
epicenter, epiderm);
5) priority: ex-, fore-, pre- (ex-minister, forethought, prewar);
6) incompleteness: demi-, hemi-, dys- (demiofficial, hemisphere, dysfunction,
dysclimax).
Among negative prefixes un- is the commonest. It is used with native English words
(chiefly adjectives and adverbs) and, to a lesser extend, with words of foreign (Latin or French)
origin: unhappy, unkind, unimportant; with nouns (less numerous): unrest, unemployment.
33
 The distribution of the prefixes in- and un- deserves further comments. While with
adjectives in- is receding before un- the same competition does not exist for nouns, where un- is
much weaker. This is often the case with nouns whose ending more clearly shows the Latin
origin of the word.
Words ending in -ing, -ed, -able, -ful are likely to be made negative by un-.
The prefix in- is not used with words beginning with in for euphonic reasons:
uninhabitable, unintelligible.
When prefixed to verbs, it denotes an ‘action contrary to or annulling that of the simple
verb’: to unbed, to unbutton, to undress, etc.
In a few cases an adjective with the prefix un- expresses a neutral meaning, and the same
adjective with in- — an unfavourable meaning: unartistic — inartistic, unmoral (also non-moral)
— immoral.
On the whole, the difference between in- and un- is that the latter is the regular negative
prefix with adjectives belonging to the common vocabulary and accordingly stresses more
strongly the derivative character of the negatived adjective. The prefix in- is somewhat restricted
in distribution: it forms learned, chiefly scientific, words. This restricted formative character of
the prefix is even more evident with adjectives which are not analysable as composites in
English (ineffable, inept, incult), but are derived on a purely native basis.
III.2.3. Hybrids
The contact of English with various foreign languages has led to the adoption of
numberless derivative morphemes, suffixes and prefixes. By the nature of things, there appeared
numerous hybrid words. The addition of foreign suffixes to native words often involves the
assimilation of a structural pattern not only the borrowing of a lexical element.
Hybrid types of composites are different in character. Distinction will be made between:
1) foreign words combined with a native affix, e.g. clearness, falsehood, useful, useless,
unable, uncertain, unmerciful, etc.
2) foreign affixes added to native words, e.g. breakable, breakage, ensnare, disband,
recall, wonderous.
III.3. Conversion
III.3.1. Introductory Remarks
By conversion is meant the process of coining new words in a different part of speech
and with a different distribution characteristic but without adding derivative element, so that the
basic form of the original and the basic form of the derived word are homonymous. In other
words, it’s the formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm.
Many linguists paid attention to this linguistic phenomenon suggesting various terms
(zero derivation (H. Marchand), root formation, functional shift or functional change) and
various interpretations of such coinages. Thus, according to E. Kruisinga, conversion takes place
whenever a word takes on a function which is not its basic one. His opinion is shared by
M. Biese and some other linguists. R. Zandvoort makes distinction between complete and
partial conversion. In cases of complete conversion the converted word takes the adjuncts and
grammatical endings proper to that part of speech while in cases of partial conversion the
converted word takes only some of the characteristics of the other part of speech so that it really
belongs to two parts of speech at the same time. Thus, the poor, though plural in meaning, does
not take a plural ending, it becomes a noun to some extend only. Otto Jespersen doesn’t
sufficiently distinguish between such cases. Describing the faculty of using one and the same
form with different values he calls words related through conversion ‘grammatical homophones’.
Important observations on the subject were also made by E.S. Kubryakova. In her scholarly
accounts transpositions in word-making are shown with due attention to the morphological
surrounding of the underlying and derivative stems.
The study of conversion in English bears immediate relevance to the problem of
interparadigmatic homonymy resulting from the fact that the root, the stem and the grammatical
form of the word may be identical in sound.
So conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the
category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged.
34
The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the original one though it can more or
less be easily associated with it, e.g.: The leaves were turning yellow (the adjective denotes
colour). The leaves yellowed (the converted unit no longer denotes colour, but the process of
changing colour).
The converted units develop a paradigm of their new category of part of speech. As soon
as the word crosses the category borderline, the new word automatically acquires all the
properties of the new category. If it enters the verb category, it automatically acquires all the
properties of the new category: all the forms of tense and the forms of the participle and the
gerund. Let’s compare the substantive and verbal paradigms of the word nurse:
nursen nursev
Substantive paradigm Verbal paradigm

pl. –s nurses 3rd p. sg. –s nurses

poss.c., sg. –’s nurse’s past indef. –ed nursed
poss.c., pl. –s’ nurses’ pres. part. –ing nursing
gerund –ing nursing
Conversion is widely spread in Modern English. The main reason for the wide spread
development of conversion in present-day English is the absence of morphological elements
serving as classifying signals, as formal signs marking the part of speech to which the word
belongs. The analytical structure of Modern English greatly facilitates processes of making
words of one category of parts of speech from words of another. So does the simplicity of
paradigms of English parts of speech. A great number of one-syllable words is another factor in
favour of conversion, for such words are naturally more mobile and flexible than polysyllables.
Derivational patterns of conversion in Modern English are varied. Important treatments
of their relative productivity have been made by A. A. Ufimtzeva who gives a tabulated survey
of various patterns of derivation showing conversive relations between two, three or more words:
1) Vt — N: rescuev (спасати) — rescuen (спасіння);
2) Vt — Vi — N: mistaket (неправильно розуміти щось) — mistakei (помилятися) —
mistaken (помилка);
3) Vt — Vi — Adj — N: trimv (упорядковувати, приводити в порядок) — trimv
(пристосовуватися) — trimadj (акуратний, у гарному стані) — trimn (порядок);
4) Adj — Adv — N — Vt — Vi: rightadj (прямий) — rightadv (прямо) — rightn (право)
— rightv (випрямляти) — rightv (випрямитися);
5) Adj — N — Adv — Prep — V t — Vi: roundadj (круглий) — roundn (коло) —
roundadv (навколо, колом) — roundprep (навколо) — roundv (огинати, обійти
колом) — roundv (округлятися).

III.3.2. Typical Semantic Relations between Words Related through Conversion

There are two main typical semantic relations between words related through conversion:
1) verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs); 2) nouns converted from verbs (deverbal
substantives). Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following
examples show: to down, to out; the ups and downs; the ins and outs.
Denominal Verbs
Verbs converted from nouns comprise the largest group of words related through
conversion. They imply an action or state that bears relation to the noun involved. The converted
verb may have the following meanings:
1) action characteristic of the object: ape – to ape (to imitate in a foolish way); dog – to
dog (to follow close behind as a dog does); wolf – to wolf (to eat speedily, to devour);
2) instrumental use of the object: whip – to whip (to strike with a whip); elbow – to
elbow (to push or to force one’s way with the elbows);
3) acquisition or addition of the object: fish – to fish (to catch or try to catch fish);
4) deprivation of the object: dust – to dust (to remove dust from smth.); skin – to skin (to
strip off the skin from);
35
 5) locative meaning: bottle – to bottle (to store in bottles); pocket – to pocket (to put into
one’s pocket);
6) resultative relations: rabbit – to rabbit (to give birth to rabbits);
7) temporal meaning: winter – to winter (to spend the winter); honey-moon – to honey-
moon (to spend one’s honey-moon).
As we see, denominal verbs are usually formed from nouns denoting place (to corner, to
house, to nest, to room, to table; they denote the process of occupying the place or of putting
smth./smb. in it); family relations (to mother, to father), material (to stone, to iron), tools or
implements (to axe, to brush, to comb, to fork, to hammer, to knife, to nail, to pin, to screw, to
spoon, i. e. the verb denotes an action performed by the tool), time, weather, conditions (to
summer, to week-end, to mist), names of animals (to fox, to monkey, to wolf, to rat; the verb
denotes an action or aspect of behaviour considered typical of this animal; sometimes the
meaning of hunting activities is conveyed by the verb, e.g.: to fish, to whale), names of the parts
of human body (to arm, to back, to breast, to ear, to elbow, to eye, to fist, to hand, to mouth, to
nose, to shoulder, the verbs denote actions performed by them), names of a profession or
occupation (to cook, to maid, to nurse; verbs denote an activity typical of it), the name of
container (to cage, to can, to bottle, to pocket; the verbs denote the act of putting smth. within
the container), the name of a meal (to lunch, to dinner, to supper; the verbs denote the process
of taking it).
Verbs converted from adjectives denote change of state: empty – to empty (‘to become
empty’), blind – to blind (‘to become blind’), tidy – to tidy (‘to become tidy’). Other examples of
verbs converted from adjectives are as follows: to better, to bitter, to blue, to green, to jolly, to
sour, to yellow, etc.
Deverbal Nouns
Deverbal nouns may denote:
1) the action: to jump – jump (sudden spring from the ground); to move – move (a
change of position);
2) the personal agent of the action: to help – help (a person who helps); to bore – a bore
(a person that bores); to cheat – cheat (a person who cheats);
3) the impersonal agent of the action: to draw – a draw (attraction), to stick – a stick
(smth. that causes delay), to sting – a sting (animal organ);
4) place of the action: to drive – drive (path or road along which one drives); to forge –
forge (a place where metal is heated and shaped into objects);
5) object or result of the action: to peel – peel (the outer skin of fruit or vegetables taken
off); to find – find (smth. found, especially valuable or pleasant); to catch – catch
(that which is caught).
Nouns may be formed by conversion from other parts of speech, e.g. from adverbs: a life
of ups and downs.
Names of action are often used in collocations where they take the position of the object
making up an analytical construction semantically equivalent to the verb, e.g. to give help, to
find help, to find expression, to find reflection, to have comfort, to get publicity, to take
possession.
The value of the power of deverbal nouns in actual speech is greatly increased by their
productivity in binomic patterns implying the aspective character of the action, or voice
distinctions. The main information is carried by a noun, the verb is semantically depleted and
comes to function as a semi-copulative verb. Such phrasal verbs function with rather a high
frequency revealing with sufficient evidence regular oppositional relations between simple verbs
of similar meaning.
The process of converting notional words into lexico-grammatical morphemes is the most
active. Deverbal nouns are common in standardized verb-phrases with to get, to give, to have to
make, to take. Such formations are known to be a marked feature of English during all periods
from early Modern English up to the present time.
The stylistic range of phrasal verbs is very wide. Their dynamic character and the
possibility of attaching various kind of attributes to the nominal elements makes them
36
particularly suitable for use in descriptive pictorial language, as compared to corresponding
simple verbs.
Deverbal nouns are rather frequent in prepositional nominals and separable adverbs, e.g.
beyond help (‘cannot be helped’), beyond repair (‘cannot be repaired’), beyond cure (‘cannot be
cured’) and at a gulp, in the know, in wait, in the long run.
III.3.3. Substantivation
The question now arises whether such cases when words with an adjective stem have the
paradigm of a noun should also be classified as conversion, e.g. a private, the private’s uniform,
a group of privates. Other examples of words that are completely substantivized (i.e. may have
the plural form or be used in the Possessive case) are captive, conservative, criminal, female,
grown-up, intellectual, male, mild, native, neutral, radical, relative, etc.
There is no universally accepted evaluation of this group. Some scholars (e.g. E.
Kruisinga) accept substantivation of adjectives as a variant of conversion.
Others, e.g. I. P. Ivanova, consider that substantivation differs from conversion as in
substantivation a new word arises not spontaneously but gradually so that a word already
existing in the language by and by acquires a new syntactic function and changes its meaning as
a result of a gradual process of isolation.
In I. V. Arnold’s opinion, two types of solution seem to be possible: the case of complete
substantivation belong to conversion, but the cases of partial substantivation (i.e. when a
substantivized adjective or participle denotes a group or a class of people: the blind, the dead,
the English, the poor, the rich, the accused, the condemned, the living, the unemployed, the
unsuccessful, the wounded ) – don’t. Such words do not acquire a new paradigm and are only
used with the definite article and possess a collective meaning. Besides they keep some
properties of adjectives (they can, e.g., be modified by adverbs).
III.4. Word-Composition (Compounding)
Composition (or Compounding) is a type of word-building, in which new words are
produced by combining two or more stems.
There are at least three aspects of composition that present special interest.
The first is the structural aspect. Compounds are not homogeneous in structure.
Traditionally three types are distinguished: neutral, morphological and syntactic.
In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realized without any linking
elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackbird, shop-window, sunflower,
bedroom, etc. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the
constituent stems. The above cited examples represent the subtype which may be described as
simple neutral compounds: they consist of affixless stems.
Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called derived or derivational
compounds: absent-mindedness, blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-
goer, music-lover, honey-mooner, teen-ager, baby-sitter, etc.
The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted compounds. These words
have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure: TV-set (-program, -show, -canal), V-day
(Victory Day), G-man (Government man “FBI agent”), H-bag (handbag), T-shirt, etc.
Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is
represented by words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or
consonant: Anglo-Saxon, handiwork, spokesman, statesman, etc.
In syntactic compounds words are formed from segments of speech, preserving in their
structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions,
adverbs, as in lily-of-the-valley, Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-
home.
Another focus of interest is the semantic aspect of compound words, that is, the question
of correlations of the separate meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the
compound. Or, to put it in easier terms: can the meaning of a compound word be regarded as the
sum of its constituent meanings?
To answer this question, let’s consider the following groups of examples.

37
 1) Classroom, bedroom, working-man, evening-gown, sleeping-car, reading-room,
dancing-hall. This group seems to represent compounds whose meanings can really be described
as the sum of their constituent meanings. Yet, in the last four words we can distinctly detect a
slight shift of meaning. The first component in these words, if taken as a free form, denotes an
action or state of whatever or whoever is characterized by the word. Yet, a sleeping-car is not a
car that sleeps, nor is a dancing-hall actually dancing.
The shift of meaning becomes much more pronounced in the second group of examples.
2) Blackboard, blackbird, football, lady-killer, pick-pocket, good-for-nothing, lazybones,
chatterbox. In these compounds of the components (or both) has changed its meaning: a
blackboard is neither a board nor necessarily black, football is not a ball but a game, a chatterbox
not a box, but a person, and a lady-killer kills no one but is merely a man who fascinates women.
It is clear that in all these compounds the meaning of the whole word cannot be defined as the
sum of the constituents meanings. The process of change of meaning in some such words has
gone so far that the meaning of one or both constituents is no longer in the least associated with
the current meaning of the corresponding free form, and yet the speech community quite calmly
accepts such seemingly illogical word groups as a white blackbird, pink bluebells, or the
statement blackberries are red when they are green.
Yet, despite a certain readjustment in the semantic structure of the word, the meanings of
the constituents of the compounds of this second group are still transparent: through them you
can see the meaning of the whole complex.
3) In the third group of compounds the process of deducing the meaning of the whole
from those of the constituents is impossible. The key to meaning seems to have been lost:
ladybird is not a bird, but an insect; tallboy is not a boy but ‘a piece of furniture’; bluestocking is
‘a woman who is interested more in ideas and studying than in men and parties’; bluebottle may
denote both a flower and an insect but never a bottle; man-of-war means ‘a warship’, merry-to-
go – ‘a carousel’, horse-marine – ‘a person who is unsuitable for his job or position’, butter-
fingers – ‘a clumsy person’, wall-flower – ‘a girl who is not invited to dance at a party’.
The compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their
constituent parts (2nd and 3rd group listed above are called idiomatic compounds, in contrast to
the first group known as non-idiomatic compounds).
The suggested subdivision into three groups is based on the degree of semantic cohesion
of the constituent parts, the third group representing the extreme case of cohesion where the
constituent meanings blend to produce an entirely new meaning.
The group of bahuvrihi compound nouns is not very numerous. This term is borrowed
from the grammarians of ancient India. Its meaning is “much riced”. It is used to designate
possessive exocentric formations in which a person, animal or thing are metonymically named
after some striking feature they possess (as a rule it’s a striking feature in their appearance which
is expressed by the sum of the meanings of the compounds immediate constituents). The formula
of the bahuvrihi compound nouns is adjective stem + noun, e.g.: bigwig – ‘a person of
importance’, fathead ‘a dull, stupid person’, etc.
As to the diversity of semantic relations on which compounding may be based one should
distinguish the following types of semantic relations:
1) the first component element has the meaning of performer of the action (heartbeat,
headache, moonshine, nightfall, sunrise);
2) the first component denotes the object of the action (haymaking, shoemaker, water-
carrier);
3) the first element denotes the material of which a thing is made (goldthread, ironware,
silverware,);
4) the first element implies instrumental relations (eye-wink, hand-operated, hand-saw,
oil-painting, water-cure);
5) the first element denotes the origin or source (birth-mark, oak-nut, wood-acid);
6) the first element implying adverbial relations of place (seaweed, water-fowl);
7) the first element implying adverbial relations of time (day-shift, day-time, night-
flower, summer-time);
38
 8) the first element implying the meaning of comparison (blood-red, fire-eyed, ice-cold,
snow-white, steel-gray).
A further theoretical aspect of composition is the criteria for distinguishing between a
compound and a word-combination.
In many cases the graphic criterion of distinguishing between a word and a word-group
seems to be sufficiently convincing, yet in some cases it cannot wholly be relied on, firstly,
because one and the same word can be spelt solidly, with a hyphen and with a break. Then
semantic criterion seems more reliable (a compound expresses one concept while a word-group
conveys two concepts: a tallboy and a tall boy).
The phonetic criterion is convincingly applicable to many compound nouns. Compound
words have three stress patterns: 1) a high or unity stress on the first component as in
honeymoon, doorway; 2) a double stress, with a primary stress on the first component and a
weaker, secondary stress on the second component: washing-machine, a mad-doctor; 3) both
constituents have level stress: arm-chair, grass-green.
Morphological and syntactical criteria can also be applied to compound words in order
to distinguish them from word-groups: in word-groups each of the constituents is independently
open to grammatical changes, between the constituent parts of the word-group other words can
be inserted while in compounds it’s impossible.
So, this lead us to the conclusion that, in most cases, only several criteria (semantic,
morphological, syntactic, phonetic and graphic) can convincingly classify a lexical unit as either
a compound word or a word group.
From the point of view of degree of semantic independence there are two types of
relationship between the ICs of compound words: coordination and subordination.
Accordingly compounds are subdivided into coordinative and subordinative.
In coordinative compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important as in oak-
tree, girl-friend, Anglo-American, etc. The constituents belong to the same class and most often
to the same semantic group. Coordinative compounds make up a comparatively small group of
words. They fall into three groups:
1. The additive compounds which are built on stems of the independently functioning
words of the same part of speech. They denote a person or an object that is two things at the
same time, e.g. a queen-bee, a secretary-stenographer, Anglo-Saxon, Afro-Asian, etc.
2. The reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base
as in fifty-fifty, goody-goody, hush-hush.
3. Compounds formed by joining the phonetically variated rhythmic twin forms which
either alliterate with the same initial consonant but vary the vowels as in chit-chat, zig-zag, sing-
song, or rhyme by varying the initial consonants as in clap-trap, a walki-talkie, helter-skelter.
Coordinative compounds of the last two subgroups are mostly restricted to a colloquial
layer, are marked by a heavy emotive charge and possess a very small degree of productivity.
In subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically
equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the
second IC. The second IC thus is the semantically and grammatically dominant part of the word,
which preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound as in age-long, stone-
deaf which are obviously adjectives, a wrist-watch, a baby-sitter which are nouns, somebody,
something which are pronouns, etc.
Functionally compounds are viewed as words of different parts of speech. It is the head-
member of the compound, i. e. its second IC that is indicative of the grammatical and lexical
category the compound word belongs to.
Compound words are found in all parts of speech, but the bulk of compounds are nouns
and adjectives. Compound nouns are subdivided into endocentric, when the notion is
determined by one constituent, and the second constituent expresses some additional
information, e.g. letter-paper (поштовий папір), playing-card (гральна карта) and exocentric,
when combination of both elements names the notion, e.g. dog-bee (трутень), leather-head
(дурень).
Compound nouns can be coined after the following patterns:
39
 N + N, e.g. necktie, night-club, maidservant, etc. (this pattern is the most productive),
Adj + N, e.g. deadline, blind-alley, sweet-heart,
V + N, e.g.: push-cart, fly-wheel,
Ving + N, e.g.: blotting-paper, living-room,
N + Ving, e.g.: housekeeping, law-breaking, horseracing.

Compound adjectives are coined after such patterns:

N + A, e.g.: sky-blue, snow-white,
A + A, e.g.: light-blue, red-hot, social-economical,
A + Ned, e.g.: long-legged, blue-eyed,
N + Ved, e.g.: crisis-ridden, kitchen-made,
N/A/Adv/Pron + Ving, e.g.: peace-making, sick-causing, easy-going, ever-lasting, self-
denying.
There are also compound adjectives of a mixed type: V + A (die-hard), Num + Adj
(eleven-strong), N + Conj +N, e.g.: knife-and-fork.
Compound adverbs, pronouns, connectives are represented by an insignificant number of
words, e.g. somewhere, inside, upright, otherwise, moreover, elsewhere, nowhere, anything, by
means of, etc.
Verbs are of special interest. There is a small group of compound verbs made up of the
combination of verbal and adverbial stems that language retains from earlier stages, e.g. to
bypass, to inlay, to offset. Besides, there are verbs formed by means of conversion from the
stems of compound nouns as in to spotlight from a spotlight, to blacklist from a blacklist, etc.,
and verbs formed by back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns, e.g. to babysit from a
baby-sitter, to housekeep from house-keeping.
A very characteristic development of Modern English is the growth of separable verbs of
various types (the term was suggested by W.N. Francis, see his work “The Structure of
American English”). Coinages of this type have gradually developed into very important
elements of living speechadding much idiomatic power to the language. Verbs of the type set up,
come out, make out, etc. function as simple ones except that they are separable. The most
important and typical in the class are verbs with postpositive particles away, back, down, in, off,
on, out, up.
Coinages of this type are not recognized as single units by all grammarians. Some call
them verb-adverb combinations. Other terms are ‘merged verbs’, ‘separable compounds’,
‘compound verbs’, ‘poly-word verbs’.

III.5. Other Ways of Replenishing the Vocabulary

III.5.1. Reversion
Reversion or back-formation is an active derivative process at the present time. By reversion
is meant inferring of a short word from a long one. Familiar examples are: to baby-sit from
baby-sitter, to edit from editor, to beg from beggar, to peddle from peddler, etc.
Reversion may be found in the formation of words belonging to different parts of speech:
1) verbs made from names of agent with the suffixes -er, -or, -our/-eur, -ar, -rd:
broker ® to broke,
wafter ® to waft,
hawker ® to hawk,
usher ® to ush,
sculptor ® to sculpt;
2) verbs made from nouns with the suffix -ing:
kittling ® to kittle;
3) verbs made from compounds that have either -er or -ing as their last element:
air-conditioner ® to air-condition,
beachcombing ® beachcomb,

40
 housecleaning ® houseclean,
housekeeping ® to housekeep,
thoughtreading ® thoughtread;
4) verbs made from nouns with abstract suffixes -ence, -tion, -sion, -is, -y, -ment, -age, -ery:
reminiscence ® to reminisce,
infraction ® to infract,
television ® to televise,
catalysis ® to catalyse,
emplacement ® to emplace;
5) verbs made from adjectives:
luminescent ® to luminisce,
reminiscent ® to reminisce,
frivolous ® to frivol;
6) nouns made from adjectives:
greedy ® greed,
nasty ® nast.
III.5.2. Shortening of Spoken Words
Shortening may be represented as significant subtraction, in which part of the original
word is taken away. The spoken and the written forms of the English language have each their
own patterns of shortening.
Shortening (other terms are clipping or curtailment) is marked in many European
languages and is particularly intense in English. It consists in the reduction of a word to one of
its parts, as a result of which the new form acquires some linguistic value of its own. Newly
shortened words appear continuously, mostly among nouns. Shortened adjectives are very few
and mostly reveal a combined effect of shortening and suffixation, e.g.
dub ¬ double, comfy ¬ comfortable,
frig or fridge ¬ refrigerator, dilly ¬ delightful,
mike ¬ microphone, tellie, telly or TV ¬ television set,
vac ¬ vacuum cleaner, mizzy ¬ miserable, etc.
Various classifications of shortened words have been offered. The generally accepted one
is that based on the position of the clipped part. According to whether it is the final, initial or
middle part of the word that is cut off final clipping (or apocope, from Greek apokopto ‘cut
off’), initial clipping (or aphesis, from Greek aphairesis ‘a taking away’) and medial clipping
(or syncope, from Greek syncope, ‘a cutting up’) are distinguished.
Final clipping (apocope) in which the beginning of the prototype is retained forms the
bulk of the class:
ad, advert ¬ advertisement, gym ¬ gymnasium,
cap ¬ captain, lab ¬ laboratory,
coke ¬ coca-cola, lib  liberty,
dorm ¬ dormitory, mac ¬ mackintosh,
ed ¬ editor, prof  professor
exam  examination, stip ¬ stipend,
fab ¬ fabulous, tick ¬ ticket,
gent  gentleman, vegs ¬ vegetables, etc.

Initial-clipped words (aphesis) retaining the final part of the prototype are less
numerous but much more firmly established as separate lexical units with a meaning very
different from that of the prototype and stylistically neutral doublets:
cello ¬ violoncello, mend ¬ amend,
chute ¬ parachute, mid ¬ amid,
cute ¬ acute, phone ¬ telephone,
41
 cruit ¬ recruit, story ¬ history,
fend ¬ defend, van ¬ caravan.

Final and initial clipping may be combined and result in curtailed words with the middle
part of the prototype retained (syncope):
flu ¬ influenza,
frig, fridge ¬ refrigerator,
tec ¬ detective.
Curtailed words with the middle part of the word left out are few. They may be further
subdivided into two groups: a) words with a final-clipped stem retaining the functional
morpheme: maths ¬ mathematics, specs ¬ spectacles; b) contractions due to a gradual process of
elision under the influence of rhythm and context: fancy ¬ fantasy, ma’am ¬ madam.
There are also, though very few, shortenings of phrases:
hi-fi ¬ high fidelity (високонадійний),
hospron ¬ hospital squadron (госпітальний підрозділ),
mod cons ¬ modern conveniences (сучасні комунальні зручності),
non-com ¬ non-commissioned officer (нештатний офіцер),
sci-fic ¬ scientific fiction (науково-популярна проза) тощо.
Here belong also shortenings of proper names, most of them are final clippings, e.g. Bart
¬ Bartholomew, Ben ¬ Benjamin, Bert ¬ Bertram, Chris ¬ Christopher, Clem ¬ Clement, Don
¬ Donald, El ¬ Elbert, Greg ¬ Gregory, Ken ¬ Kenneth, Pat ¬ Patricia, Patrick, Pete ¬ Peter,
Ron ¬ Ronald, Sam ¬ Samuel, Steve ¬ Stephen, Tim ¬ Timothy, Val ¬ Valentine, though there
are also initial clippings, too, e.g. Beckie ¬ Rebecca, Gene ¬ Eugene, Manuel ¬ Emmanuel,
Bert ¬ Robert, Bessie, Beth ¬ Elizabeth, Lena ¬ Helena, Magdalena.
Semantic correlation of ordinary words and their clipped counterparts merits special
consideration. The coining of clipped word-forms may result either in the ousting of one of the
words from the vocabulary, or in establishing a clear semantic differentiation between the two
units. Accurate studies of such processes have not yet been made, but some tendencies can be
observed. The full words have passed out of use, so their clipped variants become new roots.
According to H. Marchand, examples of this sort are as follows: chap ¬ chapman, brandy ¬
brandywine, mob ¬ mobile. The change is not only quantitative: a clipped word is not merely a
word that has lost its part. Identifying shortened word as using a part for the whole (pars pro
toto), as Hockett assumes, does not seem fully justified, and must be taken with some points of
reservation.
III.5.3. Graphical Abbreviations. Acronyms
Here belong acronyms, i. e. shortenings from the initial letters of a word group: TV [′ti:
′vi:] for television, U.N.O. [′ju:nəV] from The United Nations Organization, M.P. [′em′pi:] from
Member of Parliament, P.G. from Paying guest, etc.
Two types of orthoepic correlation between written and spoken forms are possible: 1) the
abbreviation is read as if it were an ordinary word: U.N.E.S.C.O. [jH'neskqV] for United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, laser ['lRzq] for light amplification by
stimulated emission, radar [′reida:] for radio detection and ranging, RAF [rRf] for Royal Air
Force, OPEC ['qVpek] for Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, AIDS ['eIdz] for
acquired immune deficiency symdrome; 2) the abbreviation has the alphabetic reading: ABC ["ei
bi: si:], B.B.C. ["bJ bJ 'sJ] for the British Broadcasting Corporation, AD ["eI 'dJ] for Anno
Domini, BC. ["bJ 'sJ] for before Christ, GMT ["dZi: em 'ti:] for Greenwich Mean Time, P.M. ["pJ
'em] for Prime Minister, S.O.S. ["es qV 'es] for Save Our Soles, VIP ["vJ aI 'pJ] for very
important person, HIL ["eIC aI 'vJ] for human immunodeficiency virus.
Initial shortenings are found not only among formal words, but also among
colloquialisms and slang. Thus, g. f. is a shortened word made from the compound girl-friend.
Initial abbreviation retains the valency, i. e. the combining possibilities of the prototypes.
Abbreviations can receive the plural and possessive case inflexions or the verb paradigm: P.G.’s,

42
okays, okayed, okaying. Like all nouns they can be used attributively: TV program, BBC
television, etc.
The term abbreviation is also used for a shortened form of a written word or phrase used
in a text in place of the whole, for economy of space and effort, e.g. abbr for abbreviation, ltd 
limited, B.A.  Bachelor of Arts, N.Y.  New York.
If letters are doubled it means that plural is used: pp for pages, cc for chapters, ll for
lines, etc.
Sometimes the part or parts retained show some alteration, thus, oz denotes ounce, Xmas
denotes Christmas.
Abbreviations are often used in Internet communication:
BTW – By the way SCNR – Sorry, could not resist
DIY – Do it yourself TIA – Thanks in advance
FYI – For your information TTFN – Ta ta for now
A specific type of abbreviations is represented by Latin abbreviations which sometimes
are substituted by their English equivalents:
Ad lib (Lat. ad libitum) – at pleasure
a.m. (Lat. ante meridiem) – in the morning
cf. (Lat. conferre) – compare
cp. (Lat. comparare) – compare
e.g. (Lat. exempli gratia) – for example
i.e. (Lat. id est) – that is
p.m. (Lat. post meridiem) – in the afternoon
viz (Lat. videlicet) – namely
III.5.4. Blending (or Telescoping)
Blending is a special type of compounding by means of merging parts of words into one
new word. Such words are called blends, fusions, portmanteau words, telescoped words.
Familiar examples are:
smog (smoke + fog),
brunch (breakfast + lunch),
skort (skirt + short),
smaze (smoke + haze),
laundromat (laundry + autimat),
slanguage (slang + language).
Telescoped words may be coined from words of one and the same grammatical rank or
by contrasting attributive groups. In the opinion of H. Marchand, the result of blending is a
moneme, i. e. an unanalysable simple word, not a motivated syntagma.
Telescopy involves different lexico-grammatical categories (nouns, adjectives, adverbs
and verbs), e.g.:
N + N: macon (mutton + bacon);
Adj + N: slurbs (sleazy + suburbs);
N + Adj: soroptimistic (sorority + optimistic);
Adj + Adj: posilutely (positively + absolutely);
V + V: flurry (fly + hurry).
Nounal coinages of this type are most frequent.
Structurally the following groups of blends are distinguished:
1) the initial elements of one word and the final elements of another:
drunch (drinks + lunch),
greige (grey + beige),
skort (skirt + short);
2) one notional word and the final element of another word:
glassphalt (glass + asphalt),
radiotrician (radio + electrician);
3) the initial elements of one word and a notional word:
bascart (basket + cart),
43
 mobus (motor + bus),
petrodollar (petrol + dollar).
Depending on the prototype phrases two types of blends can be distinguished: additive
and restrictive. The semantic relations within the phrases are different.
In additive blends their elements belong to the same lexico-grammatical class, sometimes
to the same semantic field; their stems may be combined by the conjunction and, e.g. :
mimsy (miserable + flimsy),
Frenglish (French + English).
The restrictive type may be transformed into attributive phrases where the first element
serves as modifier of the second, the second being the semantic and structural nucleus, e.g.:
positron (positive + electron),
Amdoc (American + doctor).
Blends seem to be on the rise especially in terminology and in trade advertisement. The
progress of science played a great role in the development of this kind of word-formation, e.g.:
seacopter (sea + helicopter),
avionics (aviation + electronics),
acetol (acetic + alcohol),
bookvesting (book + advertising).
Among blends there are many placenames. Towns near the borders of two states are
given names which are made of parts of the names of the states and names of nations, e.g.:
Calexico (California + Mexico),
Amerindian (American + Indian),
Amerasian (American + Asian).
Telescopic words are sometimes formed to achieve humorous effect and have a stylistic
status. They can convey various shades of emotive colouring (irony or mockery), often
referring to political slang, e.g.:
dopelomat (dope + diplomat),
pollutician (pollute + politician),
paytriotism (pay + patriotism).

III.6. Miner Types of Lexical Oppositions

III.6.1. Sound interchange
It may be defined as an opposition in which words are differentiated due to an alternation
in the phonemic composition of the root. The change may affect the root vowel, e.g.: foodn –
feedv, fulla – feelv, or root consonant as in speakv – speechn, believev – beliefn or both, as for
instance in lifea – livev. It may also be combined with affixation: strong – strength.
The process is not active in the language at present, and oppositions of this kind survive
in the vocabulary only as remnants of previous stages. Synchronically sound interchange should
not be considered as a method of word-building at all, but rather as a basis for contrasting words
belonging to the same word-family and different parts of speech or different lexico-grammatical
groups.
III.6.2. Change of Stress
Homographic, mostly disyllabic nouns and verbs of Romanic origin have a distinctive
stress pattern: nouns are forestressed and verbs have a stress on the second syllable:
′conductn – con′ductv,
′accentn – ac′centv,
′compressn – com′pressv,
′recordn – re′cordv, etc.
A similar phenomenon is observed in some homographic pairs of adjectives and verbs:
′absenta – ab′sentv,
′frequenta – fre′quentv,
′perfecta – per′fectv,
′abstracta – ab′stractv.

44
 This stress distinction is, however, neither productive nor regular. There are many
denominal verbs that are forestressed and thus homonymous with the corresponding nouns:
′commentn – ′commentv,
′exilen – ′exilev,
′figuren – ′figurev,
′processn – ′processv,
′triumphn – ′triumphv, etc.
III.7. Sound Imitation (or Onomatopoeia)
Sound imitation, or onomatopoeia (from the Greek word ‘onoma’ – ‘name’ and ‘poein’ –
‘to make’), is naming the action or object by more or less exact reproduction or a sound
associated with it. As a way of word-formation it dates back to ancient times.
Semantically, onomatopoeic words fall into three groups.
1. Words denoting sounds produced by human beings in the process of communication or
in expressing their feelings, e.g. babble (белькотіти), giggle (хихикати), grumble (бурчати),
grunt (бурчати, рохкати, хрюкати), hiccup (гикати), murmur (бурмотіти), mutter (бурмотіти
під ніс), shriek (пронизливо кричати), whisper (шепотіти).
2. Words denoting sounds produced by animals, birds and insects, e.g. bleat (мекати,
про вівцю), bow-wow (гавкати), buzz (гудіти, про бджіл), cackle (кудкудакати), cock-a-
doodle (кукурікати), crow (каркати), cuckoo (кувати), growl (гарчати), hiss (шипіти, сичати,
свистіти), honk (ґелготіти), howl (вити, завивати), low (мекати, про худобу), mew (нявчати),
moo (мукати), neigh (іржати), purr (муркотіти), quack (крякати, кахкати; каркати; квакати,
кумкати), roar (ричати), waul (волати, ревти).
3. Words denoting sounds produced by water, natural phenomena (wind, thunder),
metallic and heavy things; they may imitate also forceful motions, e.g. bang (гуркотіти,
гриміти), chink (дзвеніти, бряжчати, дзенькати), clink (дзвеніти, цокати), crash (гуркотіти,
рушитися з тріском, гуркотом), flop (ляскати, шльопати), flutter (пурхати, махати
крилами), rap (стукати, вистукувати), rustle (шелестіти, шарудіти), slosh (хлюпати), tap
(легко стукати, вистукувати), thud (глухий звук, від падіння), thump (глухий звук, від
падіння), tinkle (дзенькати, дзвеніти).

III.8. Summary and Conclusions

Word-formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in the
word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns specific for the given language.
There are various types of word-formation in English. Some of them are highly-
productive (affixation, conversion, compounding, shortening), others are semi-productive (back-
formation, blending, lexicalization of phrases, sound imitation), still others are non-productive
(sound interchange, change of stress).
Affixation is a word-formative process in which words are created by adding word-
building affixes to stems. Affixation includes prefixation and suffixation. Affixes are classified
according to their origin into native and borrowed, according to their productivity into
productive and non-productive.
Compounding/composition is coining new words by combining two or more stems
which occur in the language as free forms. Compounds may be classified proceeding from
different criteria: 1) according to the parts of speech to which they belong; 2) according to the
means of composition used to link their ICs together; 3) according to the structure of their ICs;
4) according to their semantic characteristics.
Conversion is a type of affixless derivation where a newly-formed word acquires a
paradigm and syntactic functions different from those of the original word. In fact, all parts of
speech can be drawn into the word-building process of conversion, but the most widespread
derivational patterns are N ® V, V ® N, A ® V.
Substantivation is the process in which adjectives or participles acquire the paradigm
and syntactic functions of nouns. Substantivation may be complete and partial. Completely
substantivized adjectives have the full paradigm of a noun (i.e. singular and plural case forms,
may be associated with determiners, e.g. an official, the official, these officials, our official s,
45
official’s, officials’, etc.). In the case of partial substantivation adjectives do not acquire the full
paradigm of a noun. They fall into several structural-semantic groups: 1) they are singular in
form but plural in meaning (the blind, the accused); 2) they are used mostly in the plural and
denote a group or a class of people (reds, blues); 3) they are used in the plural and denote
inanimate things (sweets, eatables); 4) they present properties as substantive abstract notions
(the good, the evil); 5) they denote languages (the English, the Ukrainian).
Shortening comprises contraction/clipping and abbreviation. There are four types of
contraction: apocope, i. e. omission of the final part of the word (mag ¬ magazine, Nick ¬
Nickolas), apheresis, i. e. omission of the fore part of the word (plane ¬ aeroplane, Fred ¬
Alfred), syncope, i. e. omission of the middle part of the word (maths¬ mathematics, binocs ¬
binoculars), mixed clipping, where the fore and the final parts of the word are clipped (flue ¬
influenza, tec ¬ detective, Liz ¬ Elisabeth). Contraction may be combined with affixes, e.g.:
comfy (¬ comfortable).
Abbreviations (or initial shortenings) are words produced by shortening the phrasal
terms up to their initial letters. Abbreviations are subdivided into 5 groups: 1) acronyms which
are read in accordance with rules of orthoephy (UNO [′ju:nǝʊ] ¬ United Nations Organization);
2) alphabetic abbreviations in which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full
stress (FBI ["ef bi: ′ai] Federal Bureau of Investigation); 3) compound abbreviations in which
the first IC is a letter/letters and the second a complete word (L-driver ¬ learner-driver); 4)
graphic abbreviations which are used in texts for economy of space; they are pronounced as the
corresponding unabbreviated words (ltd ¬ limited, X-mas ¬ Christmas); 5) Latin abbreviations
which sometimes are not read as Latin words but as separate letters or are substituted by their
English equivalents (i.e. [′ai′i:] or that is; cf. – compare).
Back-formation/reversion is the derivation of new words (mostly verbs) by means of
substracting a suffix or other element resembling it (butle ¬ butle, greed ¬ greedy).
Blending is the formation of new words by means of merging fragments of words into
one new word, or combining the elements of one word with a notional word (cinemagnate ¬
cinema + magnate).
Change of stress, sound interchange and sound imitation/onomatopoeia are minor types
of word-formation.

Suggested points for discussion

1. What are the principal productive ways of word-building?
2. What is the difference between frequency and productivity of affixes?
3. Say, please, what languages served as the main sources of borrowed affixes.
4. Comment on conversion. What features of Modern English have produced the high
productivity of conversion?
5. What are the main typical semantic relations between words related through conversion?
6. What meanings may denominal verbs possess?
7. What may deverbal nouns denote?
8. Comment on the phenomenon of substantivation.
9. What is understood by composition? What do we call words made by this type of word-
building?
10. What groups are compounds subdivided into structurally?
11. What are the main patterns after which compound nouns can be coined?
12. What are the main patterns after which compound adjectives can be coined?
13. What are the interrelationships between the meaning of a compound word and the
meanings of its constituent parts?
14. What are the criteria of distinguishing between a compound and a word-combination?
15. Comment on reversion.
16. Comment on clipping.
17. Comment on graphical abbreviations.
18. Comment on blending.
46
19. What minor processes of word-building do you know? Describe them and illustrate your
answer with examples.

47
 CHAPTER IV
ETYMOLOGICAL PECULIARITIES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

IV.1. Introductory Remarks

The vocabulary of Modern English is a product of many epochs. To comprehend the
nature of the English vocabulary and its historical development it is necessary to examine the
etymology of its different layers, the historical causes of their appearance, their volume and role
and the comparative importance of native and borrowed elements in replenishing the English
vocabulary.
The existence of the English language began when Germanic tribes (the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes) had occupied all the lowlands of Great Britain. They brought their
languages with them which became the basis of the present-day vocabulary. Scholars estimated
that approximately 70% of the English vocabulary are borrowings and about 30% are words
native in origin. So the most characteristic feature of English, especially of its word-stock, is said
to be its mixed character, because its grammar and phonetic system are very stable and not easily
influenced by other languages.

IV.2. Words of Native Origin

In linguistic literature the term native is conventionally used to denote words of Anglo-
Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the continent in the fifth century by Germanic
tribes. Practically, however, this term is often applied to words whose origin cannot be traced to
any other language.
Professor A.I. Smirnitsky relying on the earliest manuscripts of the English language
available suggested another interpretation of the term native — as words which can be presumed
to have existed in the English word-stock of the 7 th century. This interpretation has somewhat
more reliable criteria behind it, but it seems to have the same drawback – both viewpoints
present the native element in English as static.
The authors of the manual “A Course in Modern English Lexicology” R.S. Ginzburg,
S.S. Khidekel, G.Y. Knyazeva and A.A. Sankin proceed from a different understanding of the
term native as comprising not only the ancient Anglo-Saxon core but also words coined later on
their basis by means of various processes operative in English.
The third approach seems to be the most convincing.
It has been customary to subdivide the native element of the English vocabulary into
words of the Indo-European stock and those of common German origin. The words having
cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages belong to the oldest layer.
Well-known examples of such words are terms of kinship:
father: German – Vater, Greek – pater, Latin – pater;
brother: German – Bruder, Russian – брат, Latin – frater;
mother: German – Mutter, Russian – мать, Latin – mater, Greek – meter.
A much bigger part of this native vocabulary is formed by words of the Common
Germanic stock, i. e. of words having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic, etc., but
none in Slavonic or Romanic languages.
The bulk of the Old English word-stock has been preserved, although some words have
passed out of existence. This stock is estimated to make about 30% of the English vocabulary.
But to assign the native element its true place it is not so important to count the number of words
but to study their semantic and stylistic character, their word-building ability, frequency value
and collocability.
In this respect despite the large-scale borrowings, native words are still at the core of the
language. They stand for fundamental things dealing with everyday objects and things. They
belong to very important semantic groups. The native stock includes auxiliary and modal verbs
(shall, will, can, may, must), most verbs of the strong conjugation, denoting common actions (to
do, to make, to go, to come, to see, to hear, to eat, to keep, to know, to meet, etc.), pronouns (I,

48
you, he, my, his, who, etc.), most numerals (one, two, three, etc.), prepositions (in, on, out, under)
and conjunctions (and, but, till, as, etc.).
Notional words of Anglo-Saxon origin include nouns denoting:
parts of the body (hand, head, arm, back, body, breast, bosom, chin, ear, elbow, eye,
finger, fist, foot, heart, heel, knee, neck, nose, shoulder, throat);
kinship terms (father, mother, brother, son, daughter, boy, girl, man, woman, lady, lord,
child, widow);
names of natural phenomena and planets (snow, rain, wind, moon, star);
names of animals, birds, fish, insects (bat, bee, bug, bull, calf, cat, chicken, cock, cow,
crow, deer, dog, donkey, drake, duck, fox, goat, goose, hen, horse, mouse, ox, pig, raven, sheep,
sparrow, swan, swine, wolf);
names of plants and their fruit (barley, berry, birch, daisy, garlic, grass, lime, nut, oak,
oats, rye, walnut, wheat, willow);
names of things of everyday life, instruments, clothes, buildings (barn, bench, boat,
box, broom, bucket, cloth, gate, glove, hammer, hat, jar, knife, ladder, lock, nail, needle, pan,
plough, rail, rake, roof, room, shed, shelter, spade, spoon, stool, thread, yard);
some place names (acre, cliff, land, hill, meadow, marsh).
Here belong also many adjectives denoting common qualities and properties (black,
broad, cool, dark, deep, even, full, hard, hot, keen, light, long, loud, low, new, old, red, slow,
sweet, white, yellow, young).
Most of the native words have undergone great changes in their semantic structure, and as
a result are nowadays polysemantic. Thus, e.g., the noun finger doesn’t only denote a part of a
hand as in Old English, but also the part of a glove covering one of the fingers; finger-like part in
various machines; a hand of a clock; an index; a unit of measurement.
Highly polysemantic are also words head, hand, man, go, etc.
Most native words possess a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency. Many of
them enter a number of phraseological units, e.g., the noun heel: heel over head or head over
heels (upside down), to cool one’s heel (to be kept waiting), to show a clean pair of heels, to take
to one’s heels (to run away), to turn on one’s heels (to turn sharply round), etc.
The great stability and semantic peculiarities of Anglo-Saxon words account for their
great derivational potential. Most words of native origin make up large clusters of derived and
compound words in the present-day language. The formation of new words is greatly facilitated
by the fact that most Anglo-Saxon words are root-words. New words have been coined mainly
by means of affixation, word-composition and conversion. Such affixes of native origin as -ness,
-ish, -ed, un-, mis- have been widely used to build numerous new words throughout the whole
history of English.
The semantic characteristics, stability and wide collocability of native words account for
their frequency in speech. However there are some words among them which are now archaic or
poetic (e.g. quoth, ere) or are used only as historical terms (e.g. yeoman denoting ranks, stocks –
an instrument of torture, etc.).
So, what has been said above shows that the native element has been playing a significant
role in the English language. The words belonging to the native elements are characterized by
plurality of meaning, great word-building power, great combinative power in phraseology.
Stylistically these words are neutral.
IV.3. The Foreign Element in the English Vocabulary
No language is so composite as English; none is so varied as to its vocabulary. In the 15
century long history recorded in its written manuscripts the English language happened to come
in long and close contact with several other languages. As a result of these contacts many foreign
words were borrowed by English.
First of all, special mention of some terms should be made. The term borrowing is used
in linguistics to denote the process of adopting words from other languages and also the result of
this process, the language material itself, i. e. words, word-building affixes (e.g. -able, -ment,
-ity, etc.) and word-groups (e.g. vis- à -vis, tête- à -tête).

49
 Sometimes the term borrowing is used in a wider sense. It is extended onto the so-called
translation-loans (or calques) and semantic borrowing.
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the material available in the
English language after the patterns characteristic of the source language, but under the influence
of some foreign words and expressions. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another
language more or less in the same phonemic shape, but ubdergo the process of translation. These
are compound words, i. e. words of two or more stems, so each stem is translated separately,
e. g.: masterpiece < Meisterstruk (German), mother tongue < lingua maternal (Latin); class
struggle < Klassencampf (German), the fair sex < la beau sexe (French), wonder child <
Wunderkind (German), first dancer < prima-ballerina (Italian), collective farm < колхоз
(Russian), wall newspaper < стенгазета (Russian).
Sometimes the words are borrowed twice, by way of translation-loan and by way of
direct borrowing. These cases are not unique. It happened to the Russian word колхоз which
borrowed by way of translation-loan – collective farm and by way of direct borrowing – kolkhoz,
to the German word Blitzkrieg (and lightning-war) and some other borrowings..
Semantic borrowing (or semantic loan) is the appearance of a new meaning due to the
influence of a related word in another language (e. g. the words propoganda and reaction
acquired their political meanings under the influence of French, the word bureau entered
political vocabulary, as in Political bureau, under the influence of Russian).
Distinction should be made between true borrowings and words formed out of
morphemes borrowed from Latin and Greek, e. g. telephone, phonogram. Such words were
never part of Latin or Greek and they do not reflect any contacts with the peoples speaking those
languages.
IV.3.1. Causes and Ways of Borrowing
The great influx of borrowings from other languages can be accounted for by a number of
historical causes.
Thus, due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used
in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse (or Scandinavian) was the
language of the conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system
– developed feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school
instruction from the middle of the 11th to the end of the 14th century.
The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples,
the level of their culture, etc. It is for this reason that borrowings have often been called the
milestones of history.
The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions,
on the nature and length of contacts, but also on the degree of the genetic and structural
proximity of languages concerned. The closer the languages, the deeper and more versatile is the
influence.
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech (by immediate contacts
between the peoples) and through written speech (by indirect contact through books, etc.).
Oral borrowings took place chiefly in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times
written borrowings gained importance. Words borrowed orally are usually short and they
undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings preserve their spelling
and some peculiarities of their sound-form; their assimilation is a long and laborious process.
IV.3.2. Criteria of Borrowing
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some
of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out
some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.
These criteria can be divided into phonetical, grammatical and lexical.
In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations,
position of stress), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of
the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with waltz (G.), psychology (Gr.), communiqué
(Fr.). The initial position of the sounds [v], [dʒ], [z] or the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the

50
word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), vaccine (L.), jungle (Hindi), zero (Fr.),
zinc (G.), etc.
The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms may also bear witness
to the word being adopted from another language. Thus, the suffixes in the words neurosis (Gr.)
and violoncello (It.) betray the foreign origin. The same is true of the irregular plural forms
bacteria (from bacterium, L.), papyra (from papyrus, Gr.), etc.
Last but not least is the lexical meaning of the word. Thus, the concept denoted by the
words ricksha(w), pagoda (Chin.) make us sure that we deal with borrowings.
Sometimes the form of the word and its meaning in Modern English enable us to tell the
source of borrowing. Thus, if the diagraph ch is sounded as [∫], the word is a late French
borrowing (in machine, echelon); if it stands for [k], it came through Greek (archaic,
chronology, architect); if it is pronounce as [t∫], it is either an early borrowing (chase, OFr.,
cherry, L., chime, L.), or a word of Anglo-Saxon origin (choose, child, chin).
IV.3.3. Assimilation of Borrowings
The term assimilation of a loan word is used to denote a partial or total conformation to
the phonetical, grammatical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its
semantic system. The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the
word has been used in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purpose
and its frequency.
A classification of loan words according to the degree of assimilation can be only very
general as no rigorous procedure for measuring it has so far been developed. The following three
groups are suggested by the scholars:
1) completely assimilated loan-words (denizens),
2) partially assimilated loan word (aliens),
3) unassimilated loan words (or barbarisms).
Completely assimilated borrowings are found in all the layers of older loan-words.
They may be found among the early Latin borrowings (e.g. street, wall, wine, cheese), among
Scandinavian loan words (e.g. husband, fellow, gate, root, wing, call, die, take, ill, low, wrong,
odd), and early French borrowings (e.g. table, chair, face, figure, finish, matter, etc.). They
follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards. Being very frequent and
stylistically neutral, they may occur as dominant in synonymic groups. They take an active part
in word-formation.
The second group containing the partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided
into several groups, namely:
1) Loan words not assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions
peculiar to the country from which they come. They usually denote foreign clothing (sari,
sombrero), foreign titles and professions (shah, rajah, sheik, bei, toreador), foreign vehicles
(rickshaw), food and drinks (sherbet, Arabian).
2) Loan words not assimilated grammatically, e. g. nouns, borrowed from Latin and
Greek which keep their original plural forms (bacillus – bacilli, crisis – crises, formula –
formulae, index – indices, phenomenon – phenomena, criterion – criteria, datum - data). Some
of them are also used in English plural forms, e. g. indices, indexes, but in that case there may be
difference in lexical meaning.
3) Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically. Thus, some French words keep
the accent on the final syllable (machine, cartoon, police). Others contain sounds or
combinations of sounds that are not standard for the English language and do not occur in native
words, e. g. [ʒ], [ʒw] (camouflage, bourgeois, prestige, regime, sabotage), [wa:] (memoir), nasal
vowels (melange). Here belong also some Italian and Spanish borrowings where not the sounds
but the whole pattern of the word’s phonetic make-up is different (e.g. Italian and Spanish
borrowings macaroni, confetti, incognito, sonata, soprano, tomato, tobacco). The pronunciation
of words where the process of assimilation is phonetically incomplete will often vary (e.g.
['bu:lva:d], ['bulva:d], ['bu:ləva:] for the word boulevard).

51
 4) Loan words not completely assimilated graphically. This group is very large. It
embraces French borrowings in which the final consonants p, t, s are not pronounced (buffet
['bufei], coup [ku:], debris ['debri:], ['deibri:]), some may keep a diacritic mark (café, cliché).
The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called barbarisms, i. e. words which are
not assimilated in any way, for which there are corresponding English equivalents, e.g. the
Italian addio (good-bye), Latin ad libitum (at pleasure), post mortem (occurring after death,
autopsy), terra incognita (unknown territory); French tệt-à-tệt, vis-à-vis (face to face), chic
(stylish), bon mot (witticism), belles letters (fiction).
IV.4. Classification of Borrowings
Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria. One of the criteria is
according to the language from which the word was borrowed. In this respect the Celtic language
should be dwelt with first of all as the Celtic language was the language of the native inhabitants
of the British Isles. Of great interest are borrowings from Romanic, Germanic and Slavonic
languages. Attention should be paid also to some miner borrowings.

IV.4.1. The Celtic Element in the English Vocabulary

In the fifth century A.D. the Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the
Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to
the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles.
The Celts gradually yielded most of the territory. They retreated to the North and South-West
(modern Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Through their numerous contacts with the defeated
Celts, the conquerors got to know and assimilated some Celtic words, though it’s strange enough
as the number of Celtic words in the English vocabulary apart from numerous place names
before the 12th century is not very considerable. Skeat, the author of the Etymological Dictionary
of Modern English, registers 165 words borrowed directly or indirectly from the Celts, including
in this number words of uncertain origin supposed to be derived from the Celtic. Examples of
Celtic words appearing in Old English and preserved until the present time are: down (пагорб),
dun (темно-сірий колір), bin (засік), bald (лисий), bog (болото), doe (самка оленя), gull
(чайка), loop (петля), peat (хмиз), penguin (пінгвін), tall (високий), twig (гілка). Here belong
also less frequent words, such as brat (грубий плащ), broсk (бобер), coble (рибальський
човен), crock (глечик, карафа). The words bard, brogue (грубий черевик), claymore, plaid,
pontoon (понтон), shamrock (трилисник) are all of Celtic origin, but none of them existed in
the English of the Anglo-Saxon period.
From other Celtic languages were borrowed such words as crowd, flannel (from Welsh),
clan, loch, slogan, whiskey (from Gallic), shanty, Tory (from Irish).
Some Celtic words penetrated into English through other languages. Thus, the words
beak, budget, bulge, cloak, clock, gravel, harness, javelin, job, lawn, mine, mineral, mutton,
tunnel came through French.
The Celtic language left many proper names, namely: Aileen, Cathleen, Coleen, Doreen,
Mona, Sheila and Alan, Brian, Donald, Roy, etc.
The influence of the Celtic language upon English may also be traced in names of places.
This is natural, since place names are commonly adopted in great numbers from the aboriginal
inhabitants of a country. Celtic names are common in all parts of England though much more
largely in the north and west and especially in Scotland and Ireland. The names of the rivers
Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic words meaning ‘river’ and ‘water’. The name of
the English capital also originates from Llyn + dun in which llyn is another Celtic word for
‘river’ and dun stands for ‘a fortified hill’, the meaning of the whole being ‘fortress on the hill
over the river’.
IV.4.2. Romanic Borrowings
Classical Borrowings
Classical borrowings are subdivided into Latin and Greek borrowings.
IV.4.2.1. Latin Borrowings
Latin borrowings are usually divided into early Latin loans and later loans.

52
 The very first borrowings from Latin appeared still in the first century B.C. At that time
most of the territory known now as Europe was occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the
inhabitants of the continent were Germanic tribes. Their tribal languages contained only Indo-
European and Germanic elements. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the
Romans these two opposing peoples came into peaceful contact. Trade was carried on, and the
Germanic people gained knowledge of new and useful things. It is to the Romans that the
Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of butter, cheese, some new fruits and vegetables of which
they had no idea before, and the Latin names of these things enter their vocabularies: cherry,
pear, plum, pea, beet, pepper, cup, kitchen, mill, port, wine. To this period also belongs the word
mango which survives in the English monger, which has now become a component part of such
compound words as fishmonger, ironmonger, warmonger. Among the words of early loans from
Latin are also such as: arc, arena, ass, belt, castle, cell, cereal, chest, colony, cook, cup, dish,
kitchen, mile, mill, mule, street, villa, wall.
The seventh A.D. was significant for the christianisation of England. Latin was the
official language of Christian church, and consequently the spread of Christianity was
accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings which no longer came from spoken language,
but from church Latin. These new Latin borrowings were very different in meaning from the
earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church and
religious rituals, e.g. advent, altar, bishop, candle, capitol, clerk, cross, devil, feast, major, nun,
pagan, pastor, rite, sacrament, temple, rostrum, etc.
To this period the English language owes the names of some articles of foreign
production the use of which was brought into England by the Romans (basalt, chalk, fiddle,
linen, mantle, marble, pearl, tile), names of some plants (laurel, lily, palm, pine, plant,
cucumber, parsley), names of some animals (camel, cancer, elephant, leopard, lion, lobster,
tiger), some bookish words (accent, history, chapter), some educational terms (school, scholar,
magister, verse, grammar, note), some words denoting things of everyday use (chest, mat).
Gradually quite a number of such ecclesiastical words have gained a more popular use
and more general meaning. Thus, e.g. the word school originally meant “a place for learning
religious books” and later it began to denote “a place for studying in general”.
A great stock of Latin words have entered English through French, namely after the
Norman Conquest in 1066 (the 12-14th centuries) and during the Revival of Learning, i. e. the
Renaissance (the 15-16th centuries). This period is often called the third stratum of Latin
borrowings. The loan words of this period are mainly of scientific character, they were borrowed
through writing. During this period such nouns as antenna, genius, stimulus, omnibus, nucleus,
radius, datum, formula, index, series, species, alibi, item, maximum, minimum, vacuum, veto,
adjectives including those ending in -ior and in -ant, -ent (junior, senior, prior, superior,
appropriate, conspicuous, external, evident, reluctant), verbs in -ate, -ute (abbreviate, constitute,
contribute, execute, irritate, locate).
Some geographical or topographical terms are also of Latin origin of this period: equator,
continental, meridian, latitude, peninsular.
Besides, a great many Latin abbreviations which are commonly used in modern English,
were borrowed during the third period, among them: e.g. (exempli gratia) – for example, i. e. (id
est) – that is to say, a.m. (ante meridiem – before noon, v.v. (vice verca) – the opposite, etc. (et
cetera) – and so on, cf. (confer) – compare, op. cit. (opus citatum) – a work cited.
In the 15th century English scholars introduced many silent letters in Latin words
borrowed through French proceeding from the idea that the spelling of a word should reflect its
origin. The English word debt originates from the Latin word debitum but in French it lost the
letter ‘b’ which was introduced by the English scholars. In the words heir, honour the letter ‘h’
was introduced, in receipt – ‘p’, in island – ‘s’, in scissors – ‘c’. So the presence of silent letters
in the word indicates its Latin origin.
The latest stratum of loans from Latin (the fourth period) began in the 16 th century and
continues up till now. It embraces abstract and scientific words of international character.
Whenever there is a need to coin a new word Latin or Greek elements are combined.

53
 IV.4.2.2. Greek Borrowings
Borrowings from Greek like those from Latin go back to an early period. But the influx of Greek
words did not begin until the time of the Revival of Learning. These are mostly bookish
borrowings. Modern scientific and technical terms of Greek origin are nearly all of international
currency. Greek terms added much to the precision of scientific terminology. We can find them
in many fields. They are used to denote names of sciences (physics, mathematics, philology,
philosophy). We can come across terms of Greek origin in the field of:
medicine (adenoids, pediatrics, psychiatry, psychoanalysis);
literature and art (poem, poetry, drama, tragedy, comedy, epilogue, episode, epos, elegy,
ode, rhythm, etc.);
linguistics (synonym, antonym, homonym, metaphor, hyperbole, idiom);
political life (democracy);
philosophy (basis, category);
mathematics (hypotenuse);
physics (dynamo, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermostat).
A great many Greek words came in chiefly through the medium of Latin, for Latin itself
was largely indebted to Greek. Through Latin such words as abyss, aloe, anthem, asphalt,
asylum, axiom, basis, cactus, camera, cemetery, chaos, character, chart, chorus, comma,
diploma, echo, epoch, ethnic, exotic, gigantic, glossary, hemisphere, idea, laconic, opium,
orphan, pyramid, system, thesis were borrowed.
Some Greek borrowings came to English from Latin through French, e.g.: academy,
agony, anarchy, anatomy, anecdote, angel, atom, bulb, bureau, calm, carol, carrot, centre, chair,
chamber, cherry, comedy, cream, cube, cycle, cylinder, daffodil, demon, diet, energy, grammar,
guitar, harmony, hero, horizon, hymn, idiot, ink, irony, lamp, lantern, logic, melon, method,
music, noise, ocean, oil, organ, pain, planet, rhythm, symbol, talent, theatre, theory, tour, tower,
trousers, type, zone.
Some Greek words came to English through French: acrobat, analyse, botany, climate,
demagogue, dose, hierarchy, kilometer, melodrama, microbe, monologue, oxygen, trilogy.
In Modern English there are numerous English compounds coined from Greek roots, such
as: autos = self, ge = earth, graphein = write, logos = discourse, phone = voice, telos = at a
distance, etc., e.g. autograph, geography, phonograph, telegraph, etc.
Some proper names come from Greek too: male names: Alexander, Andrew, Basil,
Eugene, Gregory, Nicholas, Peter, Philip, Stephen, Timothy; female: Barbara, Christine, Doris,
Lydia, Margaret, Melanie, Sophia.
IV.4.2.3. The French Element in the English Vocabulary
In 1066 the Norman Conquest began. The battle of Hastings resulted in the defeat of the
Anglo-Saxon army. This is one of the most important dates in the history of England. The
conquerors remained masters of the country for a sufficiently long time to leave a deep impress
upon the language. The immediate results of the Norman conquest was that all the important
places in the government, at the court and in the church were filled by French speaking adherents
of the conquerors. It opened the door for the abundant influx of Norman-French words.
French borrowings can be found in many spheres. They can be classified into the
following semantic groups:
1) terms relating to military matters: aggress, admiral, arms, battle, camp, chivalry,
combat, command, conquer, defense, destroy, enemy, navy, penalty, sergeant, soldier,
surrender, traitor, troops, etc.;
2) law terms: accuse, arrest, constable, court, crime, deny, goal, jail, judge, justice,
prison, procure, punish, testify, verdict;
3) cookery terms: biscuits, boil, dinner, fry, jelly, pastry, roast, soup, sausage, supper;
4) political life: policy, government, parliament, minister, state, sovereign;
5) literary terms: novel(ist), publisher, magazine, editor;
6) religious terms: pray, religion, service, tempt, saint;
7) words denoting things which make our life pleasant: comfort, delight, joy, flower;
8) names of titles and professions: baron, duke, duchess, butcher, painter, tailor;
54
 9) names of plants: cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, onion. radish, cucumber;
10) names of relatives: niece, nephew, uncle, aunt;
11) art terms: art, colour, image, design;
12) architecture terms: arch, pillar, porch, palace, tower, castle, column;
French loans in the English vocabulary may be subdivided into two main groups: 1) early
loans (12th – 15th centuries); 2) later loans (beginning from the 16th century).
In Modern English there are also some French affixes, among them prefixes dis-, des-,
en- (disappoint, encircle) and suffixes -ance, -ence, -ment, -ess, -et, -age (entrance, experience,
agreement, princess, cabinet, courage).
Early French loans were thoroughly naturalized in English and made to conform to the
rules of English pronunciation. These are the examples of the naturalization of French words in
English:
1) words stressed in French on the final syllable are now stressed on the first syllable:
capital, final, mercy, etc.;
2) words with the long [i:] sound diphthongized into [ai]: fine, line, price;
3) the long [u:] written ou has become [au]: spouse.
The following phonetic peculiarities are indicative of later adoptions from French:
1) keeping the accent on the last syllable: finance [fai'næns], supreme [sju:'pri:m], etc.;
2) ch is pronounced as [∫]: chandelier, chase, charade, chic, machine;
3) g before e and i is pronounced as [ʒ]: beige, massage, prestige, regime, rouge;
4) ou is pronounced as [u]: coup, soup, rouge;
5) eau is pronounced as [əu]: château ['∫ætəu] – замок, палац;
6) final consonants p, s, t are not pronounced, as in: coup, debris, debut.
Quite a number of late French borrowings are so fluctuating that there is no standard in
their pronunciation, e. g.:
garage – ['gæridʒ, gə'ra:dʒ, gə'ra:ʒ],
vase – [va:z, veis, veiz],
restaurant – ['restərÁnt, 'restərənt].
It means that the assimilation of these borrowings is still in the process.
IV.4.2.4. Italian Borrowings
Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England, especially in the epoch of
Renaissance, brought in many Italian words. The English travelled frequently to Italy, observed
Italian life and culture and brought back not only Italian manners and styles of dress, but Italian
words, too.
The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14 th century, it was the word bank
(from the Italian banko = bench). Italian money-lenders and money-changers sat in the streets on
benches. When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it was called “banco rotta”
from which the English word bankrupt originated.
Later on some geological terms (bronza, granite, lava, volcano), political terms (bulletin,
manifesto) and some other words, for instance, balcony, colonnade, niche, archipelago,
catacomb, corridor, influenza, macaroni were borrowed.
But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music. In the 18 th century Italian music was
introduced into England and with this came many musical terms. Here we can find names of
various musical instruments (basso, violoncello, contrabass, harmonica, harpsichord,
mandolin/mandoline, trombone, tuba, violin), names of different voices (alto, baritone, basso,
basso profundo, contralto, falsetto, mezzo-soprano, soprano, tenor,), names of various musical
pieces (libretto, opera, operetta, oratorio, recitative, rondo, pastorale, sonata, toccata) and some
other terms associated with music (adagio, aria, concert, duet, intermezzo, maestro, piano,
primadonna, quartet, solo, tempo, trio, etc.).
Besides, among Italian borrowings one can find also art terms (bust, fresco, studio), military
words which were borrowed through French (battalion, brigade, cartridge, cavalry, infantry,
pistol), political terms which reflected the political struggle in Italy in the 19 th century
(carbonari, comorra) and some words of everyday use (soda, umbrella).

55
 Among the latest borrowings one should mention: gazette, incognito, autostrada, fiasco,
fascist, dilettante, grotesque, graffito. They came through French.
Most of Italian borrowings have acquired international currency. Many of them are not
assimilated and keep their Italian form and meaning. This is especially true about words referring
to music among which there many barbarisms, e.g. da capo (‘from the beginning’), mezzo forte
(‘moderately loud’), presto (‘at a rapid tempo’), etc.
IV.4.2.5. Spanish Borrowings
Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the
following semantic groups of them:
1) trade terms: cargo, embargo;
2) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, guitar;
3) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobacco, banana, apricot, cocoa.
IV.4.3. Germanic Borrowings
English itself belongs to the Germanic group of languages. There are borrowings from
other Germanic languages in it as well, name from Scandinavian, German and Holland
languages though their number is much less than borrowings from Romanic languages.
IV.4.3.1. The Scandinavian Element in the English Vocabulary
The Danish invasion of England began in 878. In 879 the Wedmore peace treaty was
signed and the Scandinavians occupied the northern coast of England. In 1017 the Danes
conquered the whole of England and reigned over it up to 1042.
The Scandinavian invasion proved to be of linguistic importance as it left its trace on
English vocabulary. The Danish settlers intermingled with the native population. The fact of both
languages being Germanic facilitated mutual understanding and word borrowings, therefore it’s
sometimes difficult to say whether a word is of native or Scandinavian origin. That’s why words
are sometimes considered to be of Scandinavian origin if they were not met in Anglo-Saxon
written documents up to the 11th century.
The effect of the Danish conquest was a contribution of many Scandinavian words in the
English vocabulary. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen.
Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level was the same, they
had much in common in their literature. Therefore there were many words in these languages
which were almost identical, e. g.:
ON OE ME
syster sweoster sister
fiscr fisc fish
As a result of this similarity of lexical units polysemy began to develop.
However there were also many words in the two languages which were different and many of
them were borrowed by English ousting the existing Anglo-Saxon words. These borrowings
belong mainly to the sphere of every day life. It is supposed that the Scandinavian element in
Modern English amounts to 650 toot-words. Among them one can find:
nouns: anger, bag, booth, bulwark, cake, cart, clown, cub, dairy, dirt, egg, fellow, fir, fog,
gate, gun, harbour, husband, kid, lass, law, leg, lump, lunch, rug, scalp, skin, skirt, sky, slang,
slaughter, snob, steak, window, wing;
adjectives: big, cosy, flat, happy, ill, nasty, odd, shy, tight, tipsy, ugly, wrong;
verbs: awe, blend, call, cast, crash, crawl, cut, dash, die, doze, drag, dwell, fling, gaze, get,
give, glitter, guess, happen, hit, hoot, hurry, jump, kick, kidnap, leak, mistrust, scream, shrug,
shuffle, slush, smile, sniff, struggle, stumble, take, wag, want, welcome.
Some pronouns and connective words were borrowed from Scandinavian which happens
very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro (now used only in to and fro), though and pronominal
forms with th: they, them, their.
Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs which did not exist in Old
English but are very productive now (take off, give in, etc.), at the same time some prefixed verbs
came out of use (ofniman, beniman).
Among proper nouns we can find now geographical names in -by: Appleby, Derby,
Ashby. The name of the day Thursday is of Scandinavian origin, too.
56
 As it can be seen most of Scandinavian borrowings belong to the fundamental stock. In
distinguishing them we may apply the criterion of sound: many words with the k sound before e
and i and numerous words with the initial sk- sound combination are to be assigned to
Scandinavian origin: sky, ski, skill, skin, skirt.
IV.4.3.2. German Borrowings
There are about 800 words borrowed from German into English, most of them are terms.
The oldest and constant influence of the German language is in the sphere of mineralogy and
geology, so we can find German loans among geological names and the names of metals and
minerals (iceberg, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, zink, quartz, wolfram). Many German borrowings
denote concepts of philosophy, political economy, medicine and psychoanalysis (determinism,
intuition, transcendental, dialectics, homeopathy, inferiority complex). There are also many
words of everyday use (kindergarten, poodle, plunder, rucksack, sauerkraut, schnaps, schnitzel,
waltz).
The loan words which entered the English vocabulary in the period of World War II
usually denote political and military notions characterizing the bloody aggressive regime of
Hiltler, e.g.: blitz (from Blitzkrieg), blackshirt, fürer, Bundeswehr, Gestapo, Luftwaffe, nazi,
SS-man, Third Reich, Volkssturm, Wehrmacht. After the war such words as Berufsverbot,
Volkswagen appeared.
There are also some loan translations: class struggle, gas chamber, masterpiece, place in
the sun, surplus value, swan song, thing-in-itself, world outlook, world market.
Modern German borrowings are usually non-assimilated words which preserve
morphological, phonetical and graphic peculiarities of the original language, e.g.:
Gelandersprung (‘a jump over an obstacle in skiing’), wunderkind (‘a prodigy child’).
IV.4.3.3. Holland borrowings
Most of Holland borrowings (there are about 200 of them in Modern English) are nautical
terms: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak, etc.
IV.4.4. Various Other Elements in the English Vocabulary
IV.4.4.1. Slavonic Borrowings
Due to constant contacts between England and Russia some Russian words were
borrowed by English. Early Russian borrowings express the mode of life in Russia and are
mainly the names of animals and fish (mammoth, sable, beluga, morse), measures of length and
weight (arshin, sagene, verst, pood), names of money (copeck/kopeck, ruble/rouble), musical
instruments (balalaika), vehicles (droshky, tarantass, troika), natural zones (taiga, tundra,
steppe), social status of people (czar/tsar, tsarina, tsarevich, Boyar, muzhik), administrative
division of the country (uezd/uyezd, volost, Duma, uraze, zemsto), beverages (vodka,
kvass/quass). Later on some sovietisms penetrated into English: Bolshevik, Leninist, kolkhoz,
sovkhoz, sputnik and some translation loans: collective farm, five year plan, Hero city, Hero of
Socialist Labour, Hero of the Soviet Union, labour day, People’s actor, wall newspaper, mother-
heroine, etc.
Among other Slavonic borrowings can be mentioned borrowings from Polish (polack,
polka, mazurka, polka dot, zloty), from Czech (pistol, calash), Ukrainian (hetman).
IV.4.4.2. Various other borrowings
African: bajbab, chimpanzee, gnu, gorilla, guinea.
Arabian: It gave some mathematical, chemical and medical terms and still others, e. g.
Algebra, aliksir, azimuth, cipher, emir, harem, hashish, islam, khalifa, mohair, moslem, sherbet.
Australian: boomerang, kangaroo.
Chinese: kaolin, tea.
Egyptian: pyramid
Indian: bungalow, cot, jungle, khaki, nirvana, orange, rajah, rupee, shampoo, sugar,
Japanese: geisha, harakiri, kimono, riksha, samurai.
Portuguese: There are not many words borrowed immediately from Portuguese. Some
Portuguese words came through French, Spanish and Dutch. The following are among them:
banana, Madeira, port, verandah, cobra.
Turkish: bey, caftan, coffee, horde.
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 IV.5. Etymological Doublets
Etymological doublets (and triplets) are two or three words of the same language which
were derived by different routes from the same basic word. They differ to a certain degree in
form, meaning and current usage.
Etymological doublets may enter the vocabulary in different routes. Some of them may
have originally been dialectal variants of the same word. Thus, we find in doublets traces of Old
English dialects. Examples are whole (in the old sense of ‘healthy’ or ‘free from disease’) and
hale (it has survived in its original meaning and is preserved in the phrase hale and hearly). Both
come from OE hāl. The verbs drag and draw both came from OE dragan.
Others are represented by a native word and a borrowed one. Thus, the words shirt,
shriek, share, shabby come down from Old English, whereas their respective doublets skirt,
screech, scar and scabby are etymologically cognate Scandinavian borrowings. These doublets
are characterized by a regular variation of sh and sc.
Still others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are
historically descended from the same root: senior (Lat.) – sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) – channel (Fr.),
captain (Lat.) – chieftan (Fr.).
Some words were borrowed from the same language twice, but in different periods:
corpse – corps, travel – travail, cavalry – chivalry, goal – jail.
Etymological triplets occur rarer: hospital – hostel – hotel, to capture – to catch – to
chase.
The Latin word discus is the origin of a whole group of doublets:
dais < ME deis < OF deis < Lat discus,
dish < ME dish < OE disc < Lat discus,
disc/disk < Lat discus,
discus (in sport) < Lat discus.
IV.6. International Words
The term international words is used to denote words borrowed from one language into
several others simultaneously or successively.
It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages. Such words are as a rule
of sufficient interest and importance for people speaking other languages. They convey concepts
which are significant in the field of communication.
As to their origin, many of them are of Latin (angina, advocate, civil, auditorium,
decree, rector, revolution, student) and Greek origin (drama, history, melody, pedagogy,poem,
poet, tragedy). One can find here words from other languages as well, e.g. from German
(quarts), French (lamp, parliament, regime), Italian (allegro, aria, arioso, bank, baritone,
concert, duet, libretto, opera,piano, primadonna), Russian (balalaika, bolshevik, cosmonaut,
Kremlin, mammoth, rouble, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka).
English contributed much to the stock of international words. Among them the sport
terms occupy a prominent position: baseball, cricket, football, golf, hockey, out, match, rugby,
tennis, volley-ball, etc. Besides, a large number of English words are to be found in the
vocabulary pertaining to clothes (jersey, nylon, pullover, sweater, tweed), cinema and
entertainment (club, cocktail, film, jazz).
As far as spheres of life and human activities are concerned, we can find international
words in many fields of human activities. Thus, most names of sciences are international, e.g.
biology, chemistry, lexicology, linguistics, mathematics, medicine, meteorology, philology,
philosophy. Many scientific terms are of international character: analysis, deduction, formula,
dialectics, etc. Common international fund of words comprises also numerous terms of art
(artist, comedy, drama, music, theatre, tragedy), communication (consilium, inauguration,
radio, telephone, television), sports (football, out, tennis), medicine (angina, furuncle,
rheumatism, sclerosis, tuberculosis), juridical words (advocate, appeal, justice, civil), political
vocabulary (communism, constitution, democracy, dictatorship, pact, policy, politics, progress,
proletariat, republic, revolution, socialism).
So, expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international
vocabulary. Scientific and technological advances bring a great number of new international
58
words (antenna, antibiotic, atomic, autostrada, bionics, cybernetics, computer, etc.). Thanks to
international trade the names of many exotic foodstuffs, fruits and vegetables imported from
other countries often penetrate simultaneously the vocabularies of many languages and become
international (avocado, banana, chocolate, coca-cola, cocoa, coffee, grapefruit, lemon, mango).
IV.7. Summary and Conclusions
The modern English vocabulary falls into two main sets: native words and borrowings.
Native words are known from the earliest Old English manuscripts. It is customary to
subdivide native words into those of the Indo-European stock and those of the common
Germanic origin.
English vocabulary contains an immense number of words (up to 70 per cent of the
English vocabulary) of foreign origin, borrowings from various foreign languages, mainly Latin,
French and Scandinavian. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language
which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking this language.
According to the degree of assimilation, borrowings are classified into three groups:
1) completely assimilated borrowings (denizens), 2) partially assimilated borrowings (aliens) and
3) unassimilated borrowings (barbarisms) which preserve their original spelling and other
characteristics, have corresponding English equivalents and are not indispensable in English.
Words whose elements are derived from different languages are called etymological
hybrids.
A pair of (or several) words borrowed from the same source at different times and,
therefore, having different forms and meaning are called etymological doubles.
Lexical units of identical origin comprising a stock common to several languages are
called international words.
Translation-loans (calques) are borrowings which do not retain their original form to a
certain extent, but undergo the process of translating one part after another: masterpiece <
Meisterstuck (German).
The term “international” is applied to those words that penetrate the vocabularies of
several languages. But one should remember that the words termed international are not exactly
the same in every language: though they embody the same concept in a similar sound-complex,
they are spelt and pronounced differently in every language; the same is true of the grammar of
the word: after its adoption by a certain vocabulary it often develops a paradigm or takes on
some formative elements of the language in question. Besides, this term is sometimes
indiscriminately applied to cases of similarity in the general outlook of certain words expressing
quite different concepts, like the English decoration and the Ukrainian декорація.
Suggested points for discussion
1. Prove, please, that the vocabulary of Modern English is a product of many epochs.
2. Comment on the main characteristic features of the native words in ME vocabulary.
3. Comment on the term “borrowing”.
4. Give a summary view of the different ways of borrowing.
5. What are the main criteria of borrowings?
6. Comment on the phenomenon of assimilation of borrowings.
7. Test your knowledge of the sources of the English vocabulary. What can you say about
the words of Celtic origin are found in English? Give examples of such words.
8. Comment on the periods of Latin borrowings.
9. Review your knowledge of Greek borrowings in the English vocabulary.
10. Give comments on French borrowings in the English vocabulary.
11. Comment on the principal phonetic peculiarities of later adoptions from French.
12. Comment on the contribution of Scandinavian borrowings in the English vocabulary.
13. Comment on Slavonic borrowings.
14. Comment on minor borrowings in the English vocabulary.
15. What is meant by etymological hybrids?
16. What words are considered to be etymological doublets?
17. What is meant by the term “translation loans”?
18. What words belong to the stock of international words?
59
 CHAPER V
THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH WORD

V.1. The Definition of the Term “Semasiology”

Lexicology deals with words, word-forming morphemes and word-groups (or phrases).
All these linguistic units have meaning of some kind. The branch of Lexicology which is
devoted to the study of meaning is known as Semasiology (from Greek semasia = signification).
The main objects of semasiological study are as follows: semantic development of
words, its causes and classification, types of lexical meaning, polysemy and semantic structure
of words, semantic grouping and connections in the vocabulary system (i.e. synonyms,
antonyms, terminological systems, etc.).
Semasiology is one of the youngest branches of linguistics, although the objects of its
study have attracted the attention of scientists since the time of antiquety. We find the problems
of word and notion relationship discussed in the works of Plato and Aristotle, Indian grammarian
Panini, the great mathematician Leibnitz, the great English philosopher John Locke, but
Semasiology came into its own only in the 1830’s when a German scholar Karl Reisig, lecturing
in classical philology, suggested that the studies of meaning should be regarded as an
independent branch of knowledge. His lectures were published by his pupil F. Heerdegen in
1839 after Reisig’s death but they produced little stir. It was the French scholar Michel Bréal,
who played a decisive part in the creation and development of the new science. His book “Essai
de sémantique” (Paris, 1897) became widely known and was followed by a considerable number
of investigations on meaning in many countries, including England. The English scholars R.C.
Trench, J. Murray, W. Skeat, Palmer, Lyons, like their French colleagues, constantly reaffirmed
the primary importance of the historical principle, and at the same time elaborated the contextual
principle. They were firmly convinced that the complete meaning of a word is always contextual,
and no study of meaning apart from a complete context can be taken seriously.
Among Russian linguists F.I. Buslayev, A.A. Potebnya, M.M. Pokrovsky and later on – S.D.
Katznelson, Y.D. Apresian, V.A. Zvegintsev, A.A. Smirnitsky, H.S. Kubryakova showed great
interest in semasiological problems.
V.2. Different Approaches to Meaning
Meaning is one of the most controversial terms in the theory of language. There is no
universally accepted definition of meaning so far.
In general, in modern linguistics word-meanings are studied from different angles of
view:
1) through establishing the interrelations between words and concepts – the so-called
referential approach;
2) through the observations of the functional use of a word in speech – the functional
approach.
All major works on semantic theory are based on referential concepts of meaning. The
essential feature of this approach is that it distinguishes between the three components closely
connected with meaning: the sound-form of the linguistic sign, the concept underlying this
sound-form, and the actual referent, i. e. that part or that aspect of reality to which the linguistic
sign refers. The best known referential model of meaning is the so-called “basic triangle” worked
out by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards in their book “The Meaning of Meanings”, which with
some variations, underline the semantic systems of all the adherents of this school of thought. In
a simplified form this triangle may be represented as shown below:
Figure 1
concept

sound-form- - - - - - - - - - -referent
As can be seen from the diagram the sound-form of the linguistic sign is connected with
our concept of the referent that is the actual piece of reality. The most widespread terms used by
60
other scientists in modern linguistics to denote the three components described above are:
symbol or sign instead of sound-form, thought, meaning, designatum instead of concept, thing
meant or denotatum instead of referent. The dotted line between the sound-form and the referent
suggests that there is no immediate relation between word and referent: it is established only
through the concept. But the common feature of any referential approach is the implication that
meaning is in some form or other connected with the referent.
On the other hand, there is a hypothesis that concepts can only find their realization
through words. It seems that thought is dormant till the word wakens it up. It is only when we
hear a spoken word or read a printed word that the corresponding concept springs into mind.
The functional approach maintains that the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied
only through its relation to other linguistic units and not through its relation to either concept or
referent. Thus, one and the same polysemantic word in different syntactical relations can develop
different meanings: 1) He treated my words as a joke. 2) The book treats of poetry. 3) They
treated me to sweets. 4) He treats his son cruelly. This line of semantic investigation is the
primary concern of structural linguists.
When comparing the two approaches described above in terms of methods of linguistic
analysis we see that the functional approach should not be considered an alternative, but rather a
valuable complement to the referential theory. In the opinion of some linguists (S.S. Khidekel,
e.g.) linguistic investigation must start by collecting an adequate number of samples of contexts.
On examination the meaning or meanings of linguistic units will emerge from the context
themselves. Once this phase had been completed it seems but logical to pass on to the referential
phase and try to formulate the meaning thus identified. There is absolutely no need to set the two
approaches against each other; each handles its own side of the problem and neither is complete
without the other.
V.3. Types of Meaning
The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the
word, i. e. its meaning, presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word.
Thus, meaning is a certain reflection in our mind of objects, phenomena or relations that makes
part of the linguistic sign – its so-called inner facet, whereas the sound-form functions as its
outer facet.
It is recognized that word-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various
components the combination and the interrelation of which determine to a great extend the inner
facet of the word. These components are usually described as types of meaning. The two main
types of meaning that are readily observed are the grammatical and the lexical meanings.
Grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning may be defined as the component of
meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words. Thus, when we take,
e.g., such a set of word-forms as tables, girls, books, etc. we notice that they though denoting
widely different objects of reality have something in common. This common element is the
grammatical meaning of plurality which can be found in all of them.
Nouns have also the grammatical meaning of case which can be illustrated by a set of
word-forms mother’s, girl’s, night’s, world’s, etc. The set of the verb word-forms asked,
thought, worked, etc. illustrate the grammatical meaning of tense. Verbs have the grammatical
meaning of voice, of aspect. The grammatical meaning of every word has its distribution, i. e.
syntagmatic ties characterizing the ordered linear arrangement of speech elements and its
paradigm, i. e. the set of grammatical meanings peculiar to this word. But the grammatical
meaning is in the domain of Grammar.
Lexical meaning. The definitions of lexical meaning given by various authors, though
different in detail, agree in the basic principle: they all point out that lexical meaning is the
realization of concept or emotion by means of a definite language system, cf.:
1) The component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit, i. e. recurrent in all the
forms of this word and in all possible distributions of these forms. [Ginzburg R.S.;
Rayevskaya N.N.]
2) The semantic invariant of the grammatical variation of a word. [Nikitin M.V.]

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3) The material meaning of a word, i. e. the meaning of the main material part of the word
which reflects the concept the given word expresses and the basic properties of the thing
(phenomenon, quality, state, etc.) the word denotes. [Mednikova E.M.]
The lexical meaning is not homogenous, it includes denotational and connotational
components (see figure 2).
Figure 2
Meaning

Denotational Connotational Implicational

(connotation)

Significative The expressive

Stylistic
function function
connotation

Communicative Emotional
function connotation
renders
Evaluative
connotation

The pragmatic
Expressive/
function
intensifying
connotation

It is known that one of the functions of words is to denote things, concepts and so on. The
meaning of words conveys some reflection of objective reality. So the denotational meaning is
that component of the lexical meaning which serves to identify and name the notion, it makes
communication possible.
The second component of the lexical meaning is the connotational component.
Connotation is the pragmatic communicative value the word receives depending on where, when,
how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it may be used. There are four main types
of connotations: stylistic, emotional, evaluative and expressive/intensifying.
Stylistic connotation is what the word conveys about the speaker’s attitude to the social
circumstances and the appropriate functional style (slay vs kill).
Emotional connotation conveys the speaker’s emotions (mummy vs mother).
Evaluative connotation may show the speaker’s approval or disapproval of the object
spoken of (clique vs group).
The degree of intensity (adore vs love) is conveyed by expressive or intensifying
connotation.
The independence of connotations with denotative meaning is also different for different
types of connotations. Thus, for instance, emotional connotation comes into being on the basis of
denotative meaning but in the course of time may substitute it by other types of connotation with
general emphasis, evaluation and colloquial stylistic overtone. Thus, e. g. terrific which
originally meant ‘frightening’ is now a colloquialism meaning ‘very, very good’ or ‘very great’:
terrific beauty, terrific pleasure.
The orientation towards the subject-matter, characteristic of the denotative meaning, is
substituted here by pragmatic orientation toward speaker and listener; it is not so much what is
spoken about as the attitude to it that matters.
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 Fulfilling the significative and the communicative functions of the word the denotative
meaning is present in every word and may be regaeded as the central factor in the functioning of
language.
The expressive function of the language (the speeker’s feelings) and the pragmatic
function (the effect of words upon listeners) are rendered in connotations. Unlike the denotative
meaning, connotations are optional.
Connotation differs from the implicational meaning of the word. Implicational meaning
is the implied information associated with the word, with what the speakers know about the
referent. A wolf is known to be greedy and cruel (implicational meaning) but the denotative
meaning of this word does not include these features. The denotative or the intentional meaning
of the word wolf is ‘a wild animal resembling a dog that kills sheep and sometimes even attacks
men’. Its figurative meaning is derived from implied information, from what we know about
wolves – ‘a crual greedy person’ and the adjective wolfish means ‘greedy’.
The matter is that the meaning of many words conveys not only some reflection of
objective reality but also the speaker’s state of mind and his attitude to what he is speaking
about. The emotional colouring of separate words may be very indefinite but it may become
explicit in some contexts, in combination with syntactical and intonational means, e.g.:
Vile bug of a coward, … why don’t you defend yourself like a man? (Huxley).
In this fragment the name bug acquires a negative emotional tone.
The content of the emotional component of meaning varies considerably. Emotionally
charge words can cover the whole scale of both positive and negative emotions: admiration,
respect, tenderness and other positive feelings on the one hand, and scorn, irony, loathing, etc.,
on the other. Two or more words having the same denotative meaning may differ in emotional
tone. In such oppositions as brat: baby, kid: child the denotative force of the right- and the left-
hand terms is the same, but the left-hand terms are emotional, whereas those of the right are
neutral. So connotation is the pragmatic communicative value of the word depending on where,
how, by whom, for what purpose and in what situation it or may be used.
The emotive implication of the word is to a great extend subjective as it greatly depends
on the personal experience of the speaker, the mental imagery the word evokes in him. Words
seemingly devoid of any emotional element may possess in the case of individual speakers
strong emotive implications. It may be illustrated by the word hospital. What is thought and felt
when this word is used by an architect, by the invalid staying there or by the man living across
the road.
Words differ not only in their emotive charge but also in their stylistic reference.
Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into literary, neutral and colloquial layers.
Stylistic reference and emotive charge of words are closely connected and to a certain
degree interdependent. As a rule, stylistically coloured words possess a considerable emotive
charge. Comparing stylistically labelled words with their neutral synonyms can prove that. Thus,
colloquial words daddy, mammy are more emotional than the neutral father, mother; the slang
words mum, bob are more expressive than their neutral counterparts silent, shilling; the poetic
words yon, steed carry a heavier emotive charge than their neutral synonyms there and horse.
Words of neutral style, however, may also differ in the degree of emotive charge, e.g. the words
large, big, tremendous, though equally neutral as to their stylistic reference, are not identical as
far as their emotive charge is concerned.
The corelation between the denotational and connotational components can be illustrated
in the following eay (see table 1).
Table 1
The word Dennotational component Connotational component
celebratedadj widely known for special achievements in science, art, etc.
notoriousadj widely known for criminal acts or bad traits of character
glarev to look steadily, lastingly; in anger, rage
glancev to look briefly, passingly
shiverv to tremble lastingly, usually with the cold
shudderv to tremble briefly, with horror, disgust, etc.
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 Part-of-speech meaning. It is usual to classify lexical items into word-classes called
parts of speech. All members of a word-class share a distinguishing semantic component which
though very abstract may be viewed as the lexical component of part-of-speech meaning. Thus,
e.g., the meaning of “thingness” may be found in all the nouns; in verbs the meaning of action,
process or state may be found. The grammatical aspect of the part-of-speech meanings is
conveyed by a set of forms. Thus, is we describe the word as a noun we mean to say that it is
bound to possess a set of forms expressing the grammatical meaning of number, case, etc. A verb
is understood to possess sets of forms expressing tense, mood, etc.
The part-of-speech meaning of the words that possess only one form (e.g. prepositions,
some adverbs, etc.) is observed only in their distribution (cf. to come in, to come here or on the
table, under the table).
So, considered in meaning, one should take into account the fact that words making up
the English vocabulary fall into two groups: notational words and form-fords. Notional words
embody concepts, they name objects, phenomena, states, processes, actions, qualities, etc. Form-
words show relations between concepts. They are generally divided into two main categories:
prepositions and conjunctions. Along with word-order they are the basic means of connecting
words in sentences. The sets of meanings possessed by these words differ. In formative elements
the grammatical meaning dominates over the lexical meaning.
V.4. Meaning and Notion
Meaning and notion are connected but not identical. The term ’notion’ (concept) was
introduced into linguistics from logic and psychology. It denotes the reflection in the human
mind of the real objects and phenomena in their essential features and relations.
The word as a linguistic sign fixes the notion formed of things of reality (referents) in its
meaning.
What is the difference between meaning and notion?
The first essential point of difference is that notions are units of thought and meanings are
units of language. A word expresses the notion but is determined by the peculiarities of the
lexical and grammatical systems of each particular language.
Notions are emotionally neutral. The meanings of many words may convey not only the
reflection of objective reality but show the attitude of the speaker to what he is speaking about.
Notions are international, especially for nations with the same level of cultural
development, whereas meanings may be nationally determined and limited.
So the lexical meaning of the word may be defined as the realization of notion by means
of a definite language system.
V.5. Motivation of Meaning
The term motivation is used to denote the relationship existing between the morphemic or
phonemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the
other. There are three main types of motivation: phonetical motivation, morphological and
semantic motivation. (See on this point: S. Ullmann. The Principles of Semantics, p.86-90.)
Phonetical motivation is observed in words in which the sound-clusters are a direct
imitation of the sounds these words denote (they are called echoic words): boom, buzz, chatter,
clip, crack, cuckoo, giggle, gurgle, hiss, hop, mew, purr, sip, sizzle, splash, swish, whistle, etc.
Coinages of this type are not specific English, they may be found in many if not all languages of
the world, e.g., in Ukrainian: м’яв, гав, ку-ку тощо. But these examples are few, they constitute
a small part of the language.
Besides, experiments carried out by a group of scientists showed that sounds and sound-
clusters themselves might be emotionally expressive which accounts for the phonetical
motivation in certain words. Thus it was proved that back open vowels are suggestive of big size,
heavy weight, dark colour, etc. Initial [f] and [p] are felt as expressing scorn, contempt,
disapproval or disgust which can be illustrated by the words pooh!, fie!, fiddle-sticks, flim-flam,
etc. Sound-cluster fl is associated with quick movement (e.g. flap, flip, flop, flitter, flimmer,
flicker, flutter, flash, flush, flare); sound-cluster gl is associated with light and fire (glare, glitter,
glow, gloat, glimmer) and the sound cluster sl – with mud (sleet, slime, slush).

64
 Morphological motivation. The main criterion in morphological motivation is the
relationship between morphemes constituting the word. Hence all one-morpheme words are non-
motivated. In words composed of more than one morpheme the carrier of the word-meaning is
the combined meaning of the component morphemes and the meaning of the structural pattern of
the word. This can be illustrated by the semantic analysis of different words composed of
phonemically identical morphemes with identical lexical meaning. Thus, the words finger-ring
and ring-finger contain two morphemes, the combined lexical meaning of which is the same; the
difference in the meaning of these words can be accounted for by the difference in the
arrangement of the component morphemes.
Morphological motivation is also apparent in derivation: reader (one who reads),
oversleep (to sleep beyond the time of waking), rebuild (to build again or anew), etc.
If we observe a direct connection between the structural pattern of the word and its
meaning, we say that this word is motivated. Consequently words such as singer, rewrite,
eatable, etc. are described as motivated. But if the connection between the structure of the lexical
unit and its meaning is completely arbitrary and conventional, we speak of non-motivated words,
e.g. matter, repeat, etc.
Morphological motivation is “relative”, i. e. the degree of motivation may be different.
Thus the word endless is completely motivated as both the lexical meaning of the component
morphemes and the meaning of the pattern is perfectly transparent. The word cranberry is only
partially motivated because of the absence of the lexical meaning in the morpheme cran-.
Semantic motivation. Semantic motivation is based on the co-existence of direct and
figurative meaning, i. e. of the old sense and new within the same synchronous system. Thus the
word mouth denotes a part of a human face, and at the same time it can mean metaphorically any
opening or outlet: the mouth of a river, for instance. In its direct meaning the word mouth is not
motivated, but in its figurative meaning it is semantically motivated, though this motivation is
relative.
As to compounds, they can be motivated morphologically if the meaning of the whole is
based on the literal meaning of the components, and semantically if the combination of
components is used figuratively. Thus, eyewash is motivated morphologically when used in its
direct meaning ‘a lotion for the eyes’ and, on the other hand, when used metaphorically and
means ‘something said or done to deceive a person’ the motivation is semantic.
From the historical point of view motivation changes in the course of time. Words that
are not motivated at present may have lost their motivation due to changes in the vocabulary,
their motivation is said to be faded. Thus the word earn doesn’t suggest any connection with
agriculture at present, but historical analysis shows that it is derived from OE (ge-)earnian “to
harvest”. In Modern English this connection no longer exists, the motivation is lost and the word
earn is now a non-motivated word.
V.6. Folk/False Etymology

Sometimes in an attempt to find motivation for a borrowed word the speakers change its
form so as to give it a connection with some well-known words. These cases of mistaken
motivation received the name of folk etymology, or false etymology.
Thus, the international radio-telephone signal ‘may-day’ corresponding to the telegraphic
‘SOS’, has nothing to do with the First of May, but is a phonetic rendering of the French phrase
‘m’aidéz’ (help me). It was adopted to remind a more familiar English word.
The component ‘mare’ in ‘nightmare’ does not mean ‘a female horse’ but is the
transformation of the Old English word ‘maere’ which meant ‘an evil spirit’ formally thought to
oppress people during sleep. These ‘maeres of the night’ were thought to be the cause of bad
dreams.

V.7. Summary and Conclusions

Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of linguistic units.
Lexical meaning reflects the concept expressed by the given word. One should
distinguish three main types of the lexical meaning of words: nominative meaning which is the
65
direct meaning of the word, immediately referring to objects in extralinguistic reality;
syntactically conditioned meaning which manifests itself in different colligations: consist of
smth. :: consist in smth. :: consist with smth.; phraseologically bound meaning which is
idiomatic and manifests itself only in certain phraseological units, e.g.: catch a cold, buy smth.
for a song.
The nominative meaning includes denotational and connotational components.
Denotation is the expression of the direct meaning proper of the word without any emotive
evaluation or stylistic colouring, while connotation is the supplementary expressive meaning
presented either by emotive charge or by stylistic reference.
The interrelation between the structural pattern of the word and its lexical meaning is
called motivation. There are three types of motivation: phonetical, morphological and semantic
motivation.
False/folk etymology embraces cases of mistaken motivation.

Suggested points for discussion

1. Сomment on the term ‘Semasiology’.
2. What are the main approaches to the problem of meaning?
3. What do we mean by the lexical meaning of a word?
4. Prove, please, that the lexical meaning of the word is the realization of the notion by
means of a definite language system.
5. What is meant by the denotative meaning of the word?
6. What is meant by the connotative meaning of the word?
7. Give examples to show that apart from the lexical meaning the word meaning is always
combined with its grammatical meaning.
8. Comment on different types of motivation of words.
9. Give comments on the variability of motivation of words.
10. What problems does the study of the semantic structure of words involve?
11. Comment on the phenomenon of ‘false etymology’.

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 CHAPTER VI
CHANGE OF MEANING

VI.1. The Causes of Semantic Change

The word-meaning is liable to change in the course of the historical development of
language. Changes of lexical meaning may be illustrated by a diachronic semantic analysis of
many commonly used English words. Thus, e.g., the word glad originally meant “bright”,
“shining”. Abundant language data can be found in books dealing with semantics, in which the
description and classification of various changes are suggested. In this lecture we shall confine
the discussion to a brief outline of the problem as it is viewed in modern linguistic science. The
attention should be paid to the following aspects of this problem: 1) the causes of semantic
change, 2) the nature of semantic change and 3) the results of semantic change.
As far as causes of semantic change are concerned they may be subdivided into two
groups: 1) extra-linguistic and 2) linguistic.
By extra-linguistic causes are meant various changes in the life of a speech community,
changes in economic and social structure, in ideas and scientific concepts, way of life and other
spheres of human activities as reflected in word meanings. The vocabulary is the most flexible
part of the language and it is precisely its semantic aspect that responds most rapidly to every
change in the human activity in whatever sphere it may happen to take place. The word being a
linguistic realization of notion, it changes with the process of human consciousness. This process
is reflected in the development of lexical meaning. As the human mind achieves more exact
understanding of the world of reality and the objective relationships that characterize it, the
notions become more and more exact reflections of real things. The history of the social,
economic and political life of the people, the progress of culture and science bring about changes
in notions and things influencing the semantic aspect of language. For instance, Modern English
word earth meant in OE ‘the ground under people’s feet’, ‘the soil’ and ‘the world of man’ as
opposed to heaven that was supposed to be inhabited by God, his saints and the souls of the
dead. With the progress of science earth came to mean the third planet from the sun and the
knowledge was constantly enriched.
There are many other examples which illustrate how the changes of notions and things
named go hand in hand, how the constant development of industry, agriculture, trade and
transport bring into being new objects and new notions and the words to name them are either
borrowed or created from material already existing in the language and it often happens that new
meanings are thus acquired by old words.
As far as linguistic causes are concerned, these are changes which take place within the
very language system, namely changes due to the constant interdependence of vocabulary units
in language and speech, such as differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in
connection with ellipses and fixed contexts, changes resulting from ambiguity in certain
contexts, and some other cases. Thus, the commonest form, which this influence takes, is the so-
called ellipsis. In a phrase made up of two words one of these is omitted and its meaning is
transferred to its partner. The verb to starve, in Old English (OE. steorfan) had the meaning ‘to
die’ and was habitually used in collocations with the word hunger (ME. sterven of hunger).
Already in the 16th century the verb itself acquired the meaning ‘to die of hunger’. Similar
semantic changes may be observed in Modern English when the meaning of one word is
transferred to another because they habitually occur together in speech.
Discrimination of synonyms can be illustrated by the semantic development of a number
of words. Thus, the word land in Old English (OE. land) meant both ‘solid part of earth’s
surface’ and ‘the territory of a nation’. When in the Middle English period the word country
(OFr. contree) was borrowed as its synonym, the meaning of the word land was somewhat
altered and ‘the territory of a nation’ came to be denoted mainly by the borrowed word country.

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 VI.2. The Nature of Semantic Change
A necessary condition of any semantic change, no matter what its cause, is some
connection, some association between the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds of
association involved, namely: 1) similarity of meanings and 2) contiguity of meanings.
VI.2.1. Similarity of Meaning (or Metaphor)
Similarity of meaning or metaphor may be described as a semantic process of
associating two referents, one of which in some way resembles the other. In other words, it is the
transfer of meaning based on similarity.
Metaphors may be based on very different types of similarity, namely:
 similarity of shape and form: head of a cabbage, the teeth of a saw, mouth of a
river, bottle-neck (вузьке місце), bull’s eye (кишеньковий ліхтар), maypole
(здоровило, каланча);
 similarity of size: elephantine, mammoth, a grain of truth;
 similarity of function: hand of a clock, finger-post, key to the mystery, wing of
the plane, arms of a balance (коромисло ваги);
 similarity of position: foot of a page (mountain), head of a procession, back of a
chair, entrails (надра землі);
 similarity of colour: black (book, deed, envy, ingratitude, injustice, list, magic,
market,); white lie (crow, frost, light, man, night,); the names of some flowers
and shrubs are commonly used to denote their colour (rose, violet, orange, lilac);
 similarity of temperature (to denote certain qualities of human voice, etc.): cold
voice, cold reception/shoulder, cold comfort (мала втіха), worm words, in warm
blood (згарячу, зопалу), heat discussion, red-hot / boiling, hot (розлючений,
оскаженілий), hot scent (гарячий слід).
Numerous cases of metaphoric transfer are based upon the analogy between duration of
time (long speech, a short time).
The transfer of space relations upon psychological and mental notions may be
exemplified by words and expressions concerned with understanding: to catch/to grasp an idea,
to take a hint, to throw light upon.
Another subgroup of metaphors comprises transitions of proper names into common
use. This process is called antonomasia, e.g.:
an Adonis (a very handsome young man),
a Cicero (a gifted orator),
a Don Juan (a man who is good at persuading women to have sex with him),
a Don Quixote (an idealist ready to fight for his ideas),
an Einstein (a man of genius),
a Philistine (a person who doesn’t like or understand art, literature, music, etc.),
a Vandal (a person who intentionally destroys or damages public property) etc.
Peculiar is the metaphoric use of the so-called “move and change” class of verbs, such as:
to come, to go, to fly, to fall, to run, to jump, to arrive, to make, etc.: to come/to jump to a
conclusion, to arrive at a conclusion, to come to an agreement, to go hot and cold, to fly into a
rage, to fly high, to leap into fame, to fall in love, to fall a victim, to run into debt, to run too far,
to run wild (рости недоумком), to sink or swim, to sink in one’s estimation, to sink one’s own
interests, to make the money fly.
A metaphor is said to be personal, when it speaks of inanimate objects or abstract notions
as if they were living persons, e. g. the childhood of the earth, the anger of the tempest.
Personal epithets are often applied to inanimate things, such as: a treacherous calm, a
sullen skypitiless cold, cruel heat, the thirsty ground, a virgin soil, etc.
Zoosemy. Names of animals are often used metaphorically to denote human qualities.
This is zoosemy. Zoosemy needs no explanation when people are nicknamed cock, lion, parrot,
monkey, hen, sheep, snake, duck, viper, wolf, pig, etc. A few typical illustrations are given in the
table below.

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 Table 2
English Ukrainian
ass – a stupid, foolish, or stubborn person віслюк – нерозумна, вперта людина та, що
сліпо підкоряється
bear – a gruff, burly, clumsy, bad-mannered, ведмідь – незграбний, неповороткий
or rude person чоловік
bull – a large, solidly built person бугай (лайка) – здоровий непрацьовитий
чоловік
calf – a young person теля – недосвідчена людина
cat – a woman given to spiteful or malicious кішечка, киця – може вживатися як
gossip пестливе, хоч і дещо зневажливе звертання
до жінки
cock – a leader; chief person півень – хоробрий, бадьорий, що іноді має
зверхній вигляд
cow – a large, obese, and slovenly woman корова – незграбна, товста, нерозумна
жінка
crocodile – a person who makes a hypocritical крокодил – страховисько
show of sorrow
cuckoo – a crazy, silly, or foolish person; зозуля – жінка, що відмовляється від
simpleton дитини
dog – an ugly, boring, or crude person пес – погана, негідна людина, посіпака,
вислуга
donkey – a foolish person осел – дурень, нерозумна людина
dove – an innocent, gentle, or tender person голуб, голубка – пестливе звертання до
чоловіка/жінки
ducky – (used as a term of endearment or качка, каченя (відповідника немає)
familiarity) dear; sweetheart; darling; pet
fox – a cunning or crafty person лис – хитрун, лукавець
goat – a licentious or lecherous man; lecher цап – a borrowing from Russian козел and
means the same
goose – a silly or foolish person; simpleton гусак, гуска – (метафора тільки образна)
hawk – a person who pursues an aggressive яструб – войовничий військовий
policy in business, government, etc.
hen – a woman, esp. a busybody or gossip (сліпа курка), але є квочка – жінка, що
опікується тільки дітьми
jackal – a person who performs dishonest or шакал – негідник
base deeds as the follower or accomplice of
another
lark – a merry, carefree adventure; frolic жайворонок – людина, що рано встає,
плідно працює зранку
magpie – an incessantly talkative person; сорока – балакуха
noisy
monkey – a mischievous child мавпеня – жарт. пустун, шибеник,
кривляка
mouse – a quet, timid person миша, мишка – непримітна тиха
(переважно жінка)
owl – a person of owllike solemnity or сова – людина, що пізно лягає спати,
appearance працюючи вночі
parrot – a person who, without thought or папуга – той, хто не має власної думки і
understanding, merely repeats the words or повторює чужі слова
imitates the actions of another
peacock – a vain, self-conscious пава – жінка з гордовитою поставою і
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 плавною ходою
pig – a person of piglike character, behaviour, свиня – брудна чи нечесна, підла людина
or habits, a gluttonous, very fat, greedy,
selfish, or filthy person
puppy – a presuming, conceited, or empty- щеня, цуцик – зарозумілий молодий
headed young man чоловік
rabbit – a person who is poor at sports, esp. кролик – немає відповідника, але заєць –
golf, tennis, or cricket боягуз
ram – no metaphorical meaning баран – нерозумна слабодуха людина
rat – a scoundrel; a person who abandons or пацюк – товста людина, гладун
betrays his or her party or associates, esp. in a
time of trouble; an informer
shark – a person who preys greedily on others, акула – хижак
as by cheating or usury
sheep – a meek, unimaginative, or easily led вівця – покірна, ляклива людина
person
snake – a treacherous person змія – зла, підступна людина
swine – a coarse, gross, or brutishly sensual півень – хоробрий, бадьрий, що іноді має
person зверхній вигдяд
viper – a false or treacherous person гадюка – зла, підступна людина
whale – a clever person (Am.) знавець, мастак
wolf – a cruelly rapacious person; a person вовк – уособлення злості та жадібності
who makes amorous advances to many women

The application of animal’s names to diseases in English is a frequent occurrence in

Ukrainian: cancer, lupus: грудна жаба, куряча сліпота.
Peculiar is also the metaphoric use of desubstantive/denominative verbs coming from
animal names. Such verbs are usually made by means of conversion: to worm – to worm into
one’s confidence; to dog – to dog a person’s footsteps; to fish – to fish out, to try to make smb.
tell smth., to fish in troubled waters; to fox – to beguile, to trick; to fox – to ape; to mouse – to
persue in a sly manner; to wolf – to eat greedily.
There are a great many idiomatic phrases and proverbial sayings containing names of
animals, birds, insects, used metaphorically: a dog in the monger, snake in the grass, to make a
mountain out of a molehill, frog in the throat, to take a bee line, as the crow flies, to cherish a
viper in one’s bosom.
One should distinguish living and dead metaphors. As to dead metaphors, one could
speak of different degrees of “deadness”. Dead metaphors are not felt any longer. The verb to
ponder was borrowed from Latin in the meaning of ‘to weigh’. Later on it began to be used
metaphorically in the meaning ‘to consider something’. At present it is used only in this meaning
as a synonym to verbs to think, to meditate. So it’s an example of a dead metaphor. Other
examples. The verb to brood originally meant ‘to hatch chickens’ (a hen hatching its young must
have looked thoughtful). This verb and the verb to ruminate originally applied to a cow’s cud
chewing, at present are generally used in the meaning ‘to think deeply, to meditate, to ponder’.
Such metaphors are quite faded. A little less faded but still no longer felt to be figurative are such
adjective metaphors as orange, violet, etc.
By trite metaphor is meant the transferred usage which, though the metaphoric nature of
the expression is evident, is so familiar and customary that one doesn’t always notice it, and the
expression is repeated as a ready-made one, not created in actual speech, e. g.: drone - an idler
living by the labour of others, duck – a sweet unoffensive woman, lady-killer – a man priding
himself on his looks.
There is a picturesque saying: ”Language is a book of faded metaphors”. And it’s really
so. The use of a linguistic sign in its secondary function is a matter of great significance in

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linguistic activity as metaphor is an important means of gaining conciseness because it may
suggest much in a few words.
Closely related to metaphor is simile. Metaphor is an implied comparison made by
directly calling one thing another. Simile is a direct comparison, linking words (like and as) are
used to compare two objects, e. g.:
She is a rose. (metaphor) She is like a rose. (simile)
VI.2.2. Contiguity of Meaning (or Metonymy)
Contiguity of meaning or metonymy (from Greek ‘meta’ – ‘change’ and ‘onoma’ –
‘name’ ) may be described as the semantic process of associating two referents one of which
makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. This transfer of meaning is based on the
association of contiguity. It is a shift of names between things that are known to be in some way
or other connected in reality.
The simplest case of metonymy is synecdoche by which is meant using the part for the
whole (Lat. pars pro toto), for instance: ABC for alphabet, man for humanity, colours for army
or vice versa, for instance: fox in the meaning of fur of fox.
The transfer may be conditioned by various connections: spatial, temporal, causal,
symbolic, instrumental, functional and others.
Spatial relations are present when the name of the place is used for the people occupying
it, e. g. the words town, village may denote the inhabitants of a town or a village (the town was
sleeping, the village was afoot), the word house – the members of the House of Commons or
Lords, the word chair – the chairman of the meeting or stting (to address the chair). The same is
found in: the auditorium stood up, the parterre applauded. There are many instances in political
vocabulary when the place of the establishment is used not only for the establishment itself or its
staff but also for its policy: the White House, the Kremlin, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Fleet
Street.
A causal relationship is obvious in the following development: when states and
properties serve as names of objects and people possessing them: youth, age, authorities, forces.
The adjective dull developed its meaning ‘not clear or bright’ on the basis of former meaning
‘deficient in eyesight’, and its meaning ‘not loud or distinct’ on the basis of the older meaning
‘deficient in hearing’. The association here was obviously that of cause and effect: to a person
with weak eyesight all colours appear pale, and all shades blurred; to a person with deficient
hearing all sounds are indistinct.
When a symbol is used for the thing symbolized it is symbolic relationship, e.g.: the
crown for monarchy, hand for handwriting, from the cradle to the grave. Besides, the material
may be used for the thing made of this material (glass, iron, copper, nickel), receptacle for
content (the kettle is boiling), a part is applied to the whole: royal horse for cavalry, foot for
infantry, etc.
A place of its own within metonymical change is occupied by the so-called functional
change. This type has its peculiarities: in this case the shift is between names of things
substituting one another in human practice. Here the shift of meaning is due to the shift of
function: the steersman was called pilot; with the coming of aviation one who operates the flying
controls of an aircraft was also called pilot. Besides, functional change takes place when an
organ is named instead of the function it fulfils: ear for hearing, heart for courage and other
emotions, head for brains (to lose one’s head); a ready tongue – знахідливість, дотепність; to
wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve – не вміти приховувати своїх почуттів.
Instrumental relationship is observed when the instrument is used for the agent: the pen
for the writer, the sword for soldier (e.g. the best pens of the day).
Common names may be derived from proper names also metonymically, as in macadam
(a road surface made of broken stone and tar or asphalt, after Scottish engineer McAdam) and
diesel, so named after their inventors. Garments came to be known by the names of those who
brought them into fashion: mackintosh (after its inventor Charles Macintosh), raglan (after Lord
Raglan), nicotine (after Jean Nicit, who introduced tobacco in France), Wellingtons (after Duke
of Wellington).

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 Many physical and technical units are named after scientists: volt (after the Italian
physicist Alessandro Volta), ohm (after Georg S. Ohm), ampere (after the French physicist
Andre Marie Ampere), watt (after the Scottish inventor James Watt), etc.
Examples of geographic names turning into common nouns to name the goods exported
or originating there are exceedingly numerous: astrakhan, boston, cardigan, china, tweed, etc.
Thus, for instance, bikini comes from the geographical name in the Marshall Islands, Madeira –
wine made on the island of Madeira, Malaga – white wine made in Malaga, a city and province
in Spain, champagne – a white sparkling wine, made in the province of Champagne, France,
Bordeaux – wine from Bordeaux region, France, sardines – after the name of the island, china in
the sense of ‘dishes made of porcelain’ originated from the name of the country which was
believed to be the birthplace of porcelain, tweed – a coarse wool cloth got its name from the
river Tweed and cheviot (another kind of wool cloth) – from the Cheviot hills in England.
VI.3. Results of Semantic Change
Results of semantic change can be generally observed in the changes of denotational
meaning of the word (restriction/narrowing and extension of meaning) or in the alteration of its
connotational meaning (amelioration/degradation and deterioration/elevation of meaning).
Table 3

Change of meaning

Broadening Elevation
(generalisation) Transference (amelioration)
based on:

Narrowing
(specialisation) Degradation
Resemblance Contiguity (degeneration)

Linguistic Linguistic
metaphor metonymy

Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction of the types or range of
referents denoted by the word. In this case we have narrowing/specialosation of meaning. This
can be illustrated by the semantic development of the word hound which used to denote ‘a dog of
any breed’ but now denotes only ‘a dog used in the chase’. This is also the case with the
following words:
deer: any wild animal ® only a certain kind of animals;
fowl which in OE denoted any ‘any bird’ but now it denotes ‘a domestic hen or cock’;
garage: any safety place ® a safety place for a car;
girl: a young person of any sex ® a female young person.
hospital: a place or a shelter for entertainment of travellers ® a place where sick people
are treated;
meat: food ® edible flesh;
starvev: to die ® to die of hunger;
voyage: any kind of travel ® travel by water;
wife: woman in general ® a married woman.
Changes in the denotational meaning may also result in the application of the word to a
wider variety of referents. This is commonly described as extension/broadening/generalisation
of meaning and may be illustrated by the word pipe which originally meant ‘a musical

72
instrument like a tube’ but now it means ‘any hollow cylindrical body’. It is the generalization of
meaning which can also be observed in the following cases:
arrivev: to reach the shore ® to reach any destination;
box: a small container with a lid for jewellery or money ® this restriction disappeared;
camp originally was used only as a military term, now it means ‘temporary quarters (of
travellers, etc.)’. Other examples:
flyv: to move through the air with wings ® now it denotes any kind of movement;
picture: a painting ® any image;
ready: prepared for ride ® the meaning is generalized;
season: spring ® any time of the year;
In the examples described above it is mainly the denotational component of the lexical
meaning that is affected while the connotational component remains unaltered. There are other
cases, however, when the changes in the connotational meaning come to the fore. These changes,
as a rule accompanied by a change in the denotational component, may be subdivided into two
main groups:
1) pejorative development or the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive
charge (degradation of meaning),
2) ameliorative development or the improvement of the connotational component of
meaning (elevation of meaning).
The semantic change in the word boor may serve to illustrate the process of degradation
of meaning. This word was originally used to denote ‘a villager, a peasant’ and then acquired a
derogatory, contemptuous connotational meaning and came to denote ‘a clumsy or ill-bred
fellow, a rude person, a scoundrel’. It is the degradation of meaning which can also be observed
in the following cases:
blackguard: the guard of iron pots and other kitchen utensils blach with soot ®
dishonourable man, scoundrel;
boor: a peasant ® a coarse, rude person;
churl: a peasant ® a rude boor;
clown: a comic performer in circus ® a boor;
gossip: god parent ® ill-natured talk;
idiot: a private ® an insane person;
knave: boy ® servant ® swindler, scoundrel (a term of abuse and scorn);
silly: happy ® insane, foolish;
villain: a vile brutish peasant ® a vicked, evil person, scoundrel;
vulgar: ordinary ® rude;
The ameliorative development of the connotational meaning may be observed in the
change of the semantic structure of the word minister, which denoted ‘a servant, an attendant’
and now – ‘a civil servant of higher rank, a person administering a department of state’. It is the
elevation of meaning which can also be observed in the following cases:
adorev: to greet ® to love very much;
fame: rumours ® glory;
handsome: handy ® beautiful;
knight: manservant ® noble, courageous man;
marshal: a horse servant ® a military rank;
nice: foolish ® fine, good;
smart: causing pain ® attractive;
urbane: relating to city ® polished and elegant in manner or style.
VI.4. Summary and conclusions
The meaning of the word is changed in the course of the historical development of
language. The factors causing semantic changes are roughly subdivided into extra-linguistic and
linguistic causes.

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 Change of meaning is effected through association between the existing meaning and the
new. This association is generally based on the similarity of meaning (metaphor) or on the
contiguity of meaning (metonymy).
Semantic changes in denotation may lead to: 1) the extension (generalization) of
meaning; 2) the narrowing (specialization) of meaning; 3) the pejorative development of
meaning (degradation); 4) the ameliorative development of meaning (elevation).

Suggested points for discussion

1. Comment on semantic transpositions as a universal development of language.
2. Discuss the main types of similarity.
3. What is metonymy? What are the main connections that can cause metonymic transfer of
meaning?
4. What are the main tendencies in change of meaning?
5. Comment on the extension of meaning.
6. Comment on the narrowing of meaning.
7. Comment on the elevation of meaning.
8. Comment on the degradation of meaning.

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 CHAPTER VII
POLYSEMY
VII.1. Definition of Polysemy
So far such questions as the concept of meaning, different types of word meaning, the
changes they undergo in the course of the historical development of the English language have
been discussed. When analysing the meaning of words one can observe that words as a rule are
not units of a single meaning. Monosemantic words, i. e. words having only one meaning are
comparatively few in number, these are mainly scientific terms, such as molecule, bronchitis,
synonym and the like, some pronouns, e.g. this, my, both, and numerals. The bulk of English
words are polysemantic, i. e. they possess more than one meaning. The actual number of
meanings of the commonly used words ranges from five to about a hundred. In fact, the
commoner the word the more meanings it has.
Polysemy is a semantic universal inherent in the fundamental structure of language. The
word ‘polysemy’ means ‘plurality of meanings’, it exists only in language, not in speech. It
is very important to distinguish between the lexical meaning of a word in speech and its semantic
structure in language. The meaning in speech is contextual. The sum total of many contexts in
which the word may occur permits to observe and record cases that differ in meaning. They are
registered and classified by lexicographers in dictionaries.
The system of meanings of any polysemantic word develops gradually, mostly over the
centuries, as more and more new meanings are either added to old ones, or oust some of them.
So the complicated process of polysemy development involve both the appearance of new
meanings and the loss of old ones. Yet, the general tendency with English vocabulary at the
modern stage of its history is to increase the total number of its meanings and in this way to
provide for a quantitative and qualitative growth of the language’s expressive resources.
All languages have polysemy on several levels. The frequency of polysemy in different
languages depends on various factors. Languages where derivation and composition are
sparingly used tend to fill the gaps in vocabulary by adding new meanings to existing terms. As
far as English is concerned, wide-spread polysemy is conditioned by the peculiarities of its
structure (due to the monosyllabic character of English and the predominance of root words).
The greater the frequency of the word, the greater the number of meanings that constitute its
semantic structure. Frequency – combinability – polysemy are closely connected. A special
formula known as Zipf’s law has been worked out to express the correlation between frequency,
word length and polysemy: the shorter the word, the higher is frequency of use; the higher the
frequency, the wider is combinability, i. e. the more word combinations it enteres; the wider its
combinability, the more meanings are realized in these contexts.
The word in one of its meanings is termed a lexico-semantic variant of this word. All
the lexico-semantic variants of a word taken together form its semantic structure or semantic
paradigm.
No general or complete scheme of types of lexical meanings as elements of a word’s
semantic structure has so far been accepted by linguists, The following terms may be found with
different authors: direct ↔ figurative, main ↔ derived, primary ↔ secondary, concret ↔
abstract, central ↔ peripheral, general ↔ special, narrow ↔ extanded. Meaning is direct when it
nominates the referent without the help of a context, in isolation; meaning is figurative when the
referent is named and at the same time characterized through its similarity with other objects (the
head of a man ↔ the head of a cabbage). Differentiation between the terms primary ↔
secondary, main ↔ derived meanings is connected with two approaches to polysemy: diachronic
and synchronic.
VII.2. Diachronic Approach VS Synchronic Approach to Polysemy
Polysemy can be viewed upon diachronically and synchronically. If polysemy is viewed
diachronically, it is understood as the growth and development of or, in general, as a change in
the semantic structure of the word.
Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain its previous meaning or
meanings and at the same time acquire one or several new ones. Then the problem of
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interrelation and interdependence of individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be
roughly formulated as follows:
- Did the word always possess all its meanings or did some of them appear earlier than
the others?
- Are the new meanings dependent on the meanings already existing?
- What is the nature of this dependence?
- Can we observe any changes in the arrangement of the meanings? And so on.
Synchronically polysemy is understood as the coexistence of various meanings of the
same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language. In this case
the problem of the interrelation and interdependence of individual meanings making up the
semantic structure of the word must be investigated along different lines, namely:
- Are all the meanings equally representative of the semantic structure of this word?
- Is the order in which the meanings are enumerated (or recorded) in dictionaries purely
arbitrary or does it reflect the comparative value of individual meanings?
Sometimes it’s difficult to grade the meanings in order of their comparative value. In
such cases the criterion of frequency of their occurrence in speech may be objective.
To illustrate the above described approaches let’s take a polysemantic word table. It has
nine meanings:
1) a piece of furniture;
2) the persons seated at a table;
3) sing. the food put on a table, meals;
4) a thing flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.;
5) pl. slabs of stone;
6) words cut into them or written on them (the ten tables);
7) an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.;
8) part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on;
9) a level area, a plateau.
In the course of a diachronic semantic analysis we find out that of all the meanings the
primary meaning is ‘a flat slab of stone or wood’ which is proper to the word in the Old English
(OE tabule from L. tabula). All other meanings are secondary as they derived from the primary
meaning of the word and appeared later than the primary meaning.
When viewed upon synchronically we intuitively feel that the meaning that first occurs to
us whenever we hear or see the word table, is ‘an article of furniture’. It occupies the central
place in the semantic structure of the word table and all other meanings are minor in comparison.
VII.3. Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words
There are two main processes of the semantic development of a polysemantic word:
radiation and concatination.
In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary
meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary
meaning. E.g. in the word face the primary meaning denotes ‘the front part of the human head’.
Connected with the front position such meanings as ‘the front part of a watch’, ‘the front part of
a building’, ‘the front part of a playing card’ were formed.
Other examples of this semantic process are as follows: the word head; its central
meaning ‘the top part of a human body’ stands in the centre from which such meanings radiated:
1) mind, mental ability (e.g. get it out of your head);
2) person in charge (You should discuss the matter with your head of department);
3) front, leading position (at the head of the table);
4) the top of smth. (the top of a flower or a plant).
In cases of concatination or a semantic chain the central meaning stands at the very
beginning of a chain and all the secondary meanings develop from the previous meaning. In such
cases it is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one. It can be illustrated by the word
style:
1) a pointed stick;
2) a pointed stick for writing on wax in Rome;
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 3) a manner of writing;
4) a manner of doing smth. in general.
Sometimes these two ways of semantic development merge. It is called the split of
polysemy. In such cases polysemy ends and homonymy starts. Let’s illustrate it by the word
bar. Its primary meaning was ‘a long narrow piece of metal’ which developed my means of
radiation a number of other meanings, namely: ‘a bolt’, ‘a crowbar’, ‘gratings’, a musical term
‘bar line’, i. e. vertical lines dividing printed music into metrical units (the first bars of the
symphony), then – ‘a narrow band/strip of colour or light’, then – ‘barrier/obstacle’ (poor health
may be a bar to success), then – ‘a counter separating the judge and the lawyers and the prisoner
from spectators’ and one more meaning – ‘the counter where spirits are sold’. Later on the last
two meanings developed meanings of their own: the last but one developed the meaning
‘barrister’ (She is training for the bar) and the last one developed the meaning ‘a place where
food and drinks are served’ (a sandwich bar, a coffee bar, a wine bar). Here polysemy splits and
homonymy starts.

VII.4. Summary and Conclusions

There are two main structures of words: monosemy and polysemy.
Monosemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. Monosemantic words
are comparatively few in number. They are mainly scientific terms, e.g.: molecule, radar, etc.
Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings. One of them
is the main/central meaning, whereas the rest are associated/marginal meanings. Associated
meanings of the word become evident in certain lexical and grammatical contexts. Polysemantic
words constitute the bulk of the English vocabulary.
Polysemy may be viewed diachronically and synchronically.
Polysemy viewed diachronically is a historical change in the semantic structure of the
word resulting in disappearance of some meanings and in new meanings being added to the ones
already existing and also in the rearrangement of these meanings in its semantic structure.
Polysemy viewed synchronically is understood as coexistence of the various meanings of
the same word at a certain historical period and the arrangement of these meanings in the
semantic structure of the word. As the semantic structure is never static the relationship between
the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of the individual meanings of the same word may be
different in different periods of the historical development of language.
There are two main processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation (when
the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays)
and concatination (when the central meaning stands at the very beginning of a chain and all the
secondary meanings develop from the previous meaning).

Suggested points for discussion

1. Comment on the phenomenon of polysemy.
2. Comment on polysemy viewed diachronically.
3. Comment on polysemy viewed synchronically.
4. Describe the semantic process of radiation.
5. Describe the semantic process of concatination.
6. Comment on the mixed type of semantic development of a word.

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 CHAPTER VIII
HOMONYMS. PARONYMS
VIII.1. Homonymy

Words identical in sound-form or spelling, or both in sound-form and spelling but

different in meaning are called homonyms. The term is derived from Greek (homos means
‘similar’ and onoma – ‘name’) and thus expresses the sameness of name combined with the
difference in meaning.
Homonymy exists in many languages, but in English it is particularly frequent, especially
among monosyllabic words. From the point of view of their morphological structure, they are
mostly one-morpheme words.
VIII.1.1. Classification of Homonyms
Homonyms can be classified due to different principles. Thus, Walter Skeat classified
homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms. He pointed out three groups of
homonyms, namely:
1) absolute (or full) homonyms or words identical both in pronunciation and in spelling
but different in meaning:
bearn (ведмідь) – bearv (носити);
paleadj (блідий) – palen (кіл, паля);
schooln (школа) – schooln (косяк риби);
2) homographs (or heteronyms) i. e. words which are identical in spelling but different
in sound and meaning:
bown ([bau] поклін) – bown ([boV] лук );
rown ([rau] шум, гвалт) – rown ([roV] ряд, низка);
leadn ([led] cвинець) – leadv ([li:d] вести, показувати шлях; керувати);
3) homophones i. e. words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning:
sonn – sunn; byprep – buyv; nightn – knightn;
pearn – pairn; airn – heirn; piecen – peacen;
nightn – knightn; himprn – hymnn; steeln – stealv.
Homonyms may belong both to the same and different categories of parts of speech.
Obviously, a classification of homonyms should reflect this distinctive feature. Also, the
paradigm of each word should be considered, because it has been observed that the paradigms of
some homonyms coincide completely, and of others only partially.
Thus, Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms. He
pointed out three groups of homonyms, namely:
1) absolute (or full) homonyms or words identical both in pronunciation and in
spelling but different in meaning: bear (ведмідь) – bear (носити), pale
(блідий) – pale (кіл, паля), school (школа) - school (косяк риби);
2) homographs (or heteronyms) i. e. words which are identical in spelling but
different in sound and meaning: bow (поклін) - bow (лук), row (шум, гвалт) –
row (ряд, низка);
3) homophonos, or words identical in sound but different in spelling and
meaning: son- sun, pear-pair , night-knight.
Another classification was suggested by A.I. Smirnitsky. He added to W. Skeat’s
classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning. He subdivided the group of perfect
homonyms in Skeat’s classification into two types of homonyms:
1) perfect (or full) which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and their form,
such as, e.g. seal1 (a sea animal – тюлень) and seal2 (a design printed on paper by
means of a stamp – штемпель). Their paradigms are the same: seal, seal’s, seals,
seals’ and
2) partial homonyms, i. e. words in which some word-forms are homonymous, but the
whole paradigm is not identical: seal1 (a sea animal – тюлень) and seal3 (to close
tightly). Compare the paradigms: in the first case we have seal, seal’s, seals, seals’ and
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 in the second case – seal, seals, sealed, sealing. Partial homonyms usually belong to
different parts of speech, but partial homonymy is also possible within one part of
speech, e.g. found1 as the Infinitive and found2 as the Past Indefinite of the verb to
find. These forms also differ lexically and grammatically.
By the type of meaning homonyms are classified into:
1) lexical homonyms (they belong to the same part of speech, the difference is confined to
the lexical meaning only), e. g. seal (тюлень) and seal (печатка, клеймо), bear (носити)
:: bear (терпіти), plane (літак) :: plain (рівнина);
2) grammatical homonyms (homonymic word-forms differing in grammatical meaning
only; they usually belong to different parts of speech, e. g. row (гребти) :: row (ряд),
though they may be also different forms of one and the same word, e. g. the forms of the
Past Indefinite and Participle II of regular verbs or homonymous forms of the Possessive
Case Singular and the Common Case Plural, e. g. brother’s ['brADqz] and brothers
['brADqz];
3) lexico-grammatical homonyms or homoforms (both lexical and grammatical meanings
differ, they are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents, see, e.g. the
examples seal1 and seal3, found1 and found2);
A more detailed classification was given by I.V. Arnold. She suggested four criteria of
classification of homonyms: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and paradigms.
According to these criteria I.V. Arnold pointed out the following groups of homonyms:
1. Homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms but
different in their lexical meanings, e. g.: board1 as ‘a council’ and board2 as ‘a piece of
wood’.
2. Homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, but different in their
lexical meanings and paradigms, e. g.: to lie1 as ‘to tell someone what is untrue’ and to
lie2 as ‘to be in a horizontal or resting position’. Here only two word-forms are
homonymous ([lai] and [laiz]), all other forms of these verbs are different (compare the
forms of the Past Simple and Participle II).
3. Homonyms coinciding only in their basic forms, but different in their lexical meanings,
grammatical meanings and paradigms, e. g.: light as a noun and light as an adjective. In
the first case the paradigm includes the form of the plural (lights), in the second – the
forms of the degrees of comparison (light – lighter – lightest).
4. Homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic
forms, but coinciding only in one of the forms of their paradigms, e. g.: a bit as a noun
and bit as the Past Simple of the verb to bite.
Professor Arnold distinguishes also patterned homonyms, which, differing from other
homonyms, have a common component in their lexical meanings. These are homonyms formed
either by means of conversion, or by levelling of grammar inflexion. They are different in their
grammar meanings, in their paradigms, but identical in their basic forms, e. g.: warm – to warm,
force – to force; to cut – a cut, to stop – a stop, etc. Here belong also unchangeable patterned
homonyms, e.g.: before as an adverb, a conjunction and a preposition.
VIII.1.2. Sources of Homonymy
What diachronic processes account for the appearance of homonyms? What are the
sources of homonymy?
There are two main sources of homonymy:
1) diverging meaning development of a polysemantic word,
2) converging sound development of two or more different words.
The first process was already shown (see the word bar). The same happened in the case
of Modern English flower and flour which originally were one word.
Convergent sound development is the most potent factor in the creation of homonyms.
The great majority of homonyms arise as a result of converging sound development which leads
to the coincidence of two or more words which were phonetically distinct at an earlier date.
Thus, the words night and knight were not homonyms in Old English but owing to phonetic
changes which words underwent in the course of their historical development became
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homonyms. Some other examples: OE ic and eae have become identical in pronunciation (MnE
I [ai] and eye [ai]); the verb to write had the form wrĪtan and the adjective right had the forms
reht, riht. The noun sea descended from the Old English form sæ, and the verb to see from Old
English sæon.
Words borrowed from other languages may through phonetic convergence become
homonyms. A borrowed word may, in the final stage of its phonetic adaptation, duplicate in form
either a native word or another borrowing. Thus, e.g.: ON ras and Fr race are homonyms in
Modern English (race1 as running and race2 as a distinct ethnical stock).
Shortening is a further type of word-building which increases the number of homonyms.
For instance, fann in the sense of ‘an enthusiastic admirer of some kind of sport or of an actor,
singer, etc.’ is a shortening produced from fanatic. Its homonym is a Latin borrowing fann
which denotes an implement for waving lightly to produce a cool current of air. The noun repn
denoting a kind of fabric has three homonyms made by shortening: repn  repertory, repn 
representative, repn  reputation.

VIII.1.3. Polysemy VS Homonymy

One of the most debatable problems in semasiology is the demarcation line between
homonymy and polysemy. Scholars use different criteria to distinguish between polysemy and
homonymy.
1. Semantic criterion. It is usually held that if a connection between various meanings is
apprehended by the speaker, they are to be considered as making up the semantic structure of a
polysemantic word, otherwise it is a case of homonymy.
Thus, the semantic criterion implies that the difference between polysemy and
homonymy is actually reduced to the difference between related and unrelated meaning. This
traditional semantic criterion doesn’t seem to be reliable. Firstly, because it is subjective, various
meanings of the same word and the meanings of two homonymous words may be equally
apprehended by different speakers as related or unrelated.
Secondly, the meanings of homonyms arising from conversion are related (jump n. –
jump v.). So, this criterion cannot be applied to a large group of homonymous word-forms in
Modern English.
So, the semantic criterion is rather vague and in many cases it cannot be used to
discriminate between several meanings of one word and the meanings of two different words.
2. The criterion of distribution. This criterion is helpful in cases of lexico-grammatical
homonyms. For example, in the homonymic pair paper n. – paper v. the distribution of these
words is different. The noun may be preceded by an article and followed by a verb. The verb to
paper can never be found in identical distribution. This formal criterion can be used only with
lexico-grammatical homonyms, but it often fails in case of lexical homonymy.
3. The criterion of spelling. Homonyms differing in graphic forms such as knight –
night, flower – flour, etc. are easily perceived to be two different lexical units.
It is the duty of lexicographers to define the boundaries of each word, i. e. to differentiate
homonyms and to unite lexico-grammatical variants deciding in each case whether the different
meanings belong to the same polysemantic word or whether there are grounds to treat them as
two separate words identical in form.

VIII.2. PARONYMS
The term comes from Greek, it means para – ‘beside’, onyma ‘name’. So, paronyms are
words that are kindred both in sound form and meaning and therefore liable to be mixed but in
fact different in meaning and usage and therefore only mistakenly interchanged. This is the case
with the verbs to affect and to effect. The borderline between these two is quite sharp and distinct
and yet they are often confused because of their phonetic and semantic proximity. Affect means
‘to influence’, and effect is ‘to bring about’, ‘to result in’.
Paronyms are somewhat related to homonyms. They are words alike in form, but
different in meaning, e.g.:

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 1) words having one and the same root but different derivational prefixes, e.g. precede
‘передувати’ and proceed ‘продовжувати’; prescription ‘припис, рецепт’ and
proscription ‘оголошення поза законом’; preposition ‘прийменник’ and
proposition ‘пропозиція’; anterior ‘передній, попередній’ and interior ‘інтер’єр,
внутрішня сторона’;
2) words having one and the same root but different derivational suffixes, e.g.: popular
‘народний, популярний’ and populous ‘густонаселений, багатолюдний’;
3) words derived from different roots, the likeness may be accidental, e.g. complement
‘додаток’ and compliment ‘комплімент’.
VIII.3. Summary and Conclusions
Homonyms are words identical in form but quite different in their meaning and
distribution.
The traditional formal classification of homonyms is as follows: 1) absolute homonyms
which are identical both in sound and spelling, e.g. ball (м’яч) :: ball (бал), 2) partial
homonyms which are subdivided into homographs which are identical in spelling but different
in sound, e.g. polish (глянцувати) :: Polish (польський) and homophones which are identical
in sound but different in spelling, e.g. key (ключ) :: quay (набережна).
Homonyms may also be classified by the types of their meaning. In this respect they are
subdivided into: lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.g. club (кийок) ::
club (клуб), light (світлий) :: light (легкий); grammatical homonyms which belong to
different parts of speech, e.g. horse (кінь) :: hoarse (хрипкий), weather (погода) :: whether
(чи); homoforms which are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents, e.g. scent
(запах) :: sent (Past Indefinite and Past Participle of the verb to send).
From the view point of their origin homonyms are divided into etymological and
historical. Etymological homonyms are words of different origin, e.g. mole (родимка, came
from OE mal) :: mole (кріт, came from OE mol). Historical homonyms are those which result
from split of polysemy, e.g. nail (ніготь) :: nail (цвях) < OE næg(e)l.
If synonyms and antonyms can be regarded as the treasury of the language’s expressive
resources, homonyms are of no interest in this respect, and one cannot expect them to be of
particular value for communication as in the process of communication they are more of an
encumbrance, leading sometimes to confusion and misunderstanding and often are sources of
humour.
Suggested points for discussion
1. What words do we call homonyms?
2. Can homonyms be regarded as expressive means of the language?
3. Speak on the problem of classification of homonyms.
4. What are the sources of English homonyms?
5. Illustrate the statement that polysemy is relevant to homonymy.
6. What is meant by paronyms?
7. Give comments on paronymy as a linguistic development universal in character, not
specifically English.
8. Comment on classification of paronyms.

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 CHAPTER IX
SEMANTIC GROUPS OF WORDS: SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

IX.1. Meaning Relations in Paradigmatics: Introductory Remarks

Modern English has a very extensive vocabulary. A question naturally arises whether this
enormous word-stock is composed of separate independent lexical units, or it should perhaps be
regarded as a certain structured system made up of numerous interdependent and interrelated
sub-systems or groups of words. This problem may be viewed in terms of possible ways of
classifying vocabulary items.
Attempts to study the inner structure of the vocabulary revealed that in spite of its
heterogeneity the English word-stock may be analysed into numerous sub-systems the members
of which have some features in common, thus distinguishing them from the members of other
sub-systems.
Words can be classified in various ways. They may be classified according to the concept
underlying their meaning. This classification is closely connected with the theory of conceptual
or semantic field. By the term ‘semantic field’ linguists distinguish closely-knit units of
vocabulary characterized by a common concept. Words making up semantic field may belong to
different parts of speech. The members of the semantic field are not synonyms but all of them
are joined together by some common semantic component. For example, the words mother,
father, sister, cousin, etc. may be described as making up the semantic field of kinship terms; the
words white, blue, red, green, black, etc. – as the semantic field of colours.
One way of semantic classifying is based on the semantic similarity (or polarity) of words
or their component morphemes.
IX.2. Synonyms
Lexical units may be classified by the criterion of semantic similarity and semantic
contrasts. The terms generally used to denote these two types of semantic relatedness are
synonymy and antonymy.
Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form but identical or
similar in meaning. This definition has been severely criticized on many points. Firstly, this
definition can’t be applied to polysemantic words. It is inconceivable that polysemantic words
could be synonymous in all their meanings. The verb to look, e.g. is usually treated as a synonym
of to see, to watch, to observe, etc., but in another of its meanings it is not synonymous with this
group of words but rather with the verbs to seem, to appear. Secondly, it seems impossible to
speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning as a whole as it is only the denotational
component that may be described as identical or similar. Thus, to die and to pass away are
considered to be synonymous, but the stylistic reference of these words is entirely different and it
is only the similarity of the denotational meaning that makes them synonymous. Thirdly, it does
not seem possible to speak of identity of meaning as a criterion of synonymity since identity of
meaning is very rare even among monosemantic words. In fact cases of complete synonymy are
very few and are, as a rule, confined to technical nomenclatures where we can find
monosemantic terms completely identical in meaning as, for example, spirant and fricative in
phonetics. Other examples of complete synonyms: homeland – motherland, to moan – to groan.
So, it seems necessary to modify the traditional definition. The most adequate seems to
be the definition given by I. V. Arnold: Synonyms are two or more words of the same language,
belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical
denotational meanings, interchangeable, at least in some contexts, without any considerable
alteration in denotational meaning, but differing morphemic composition, phonemic shape,
shades of meaning, connotations, affective value, style, valency and idiomatic use.
So, the basis of synonymic oppositions of words is naturally their denotational
component. A common denotational component can make words closely akin and brings them
into a correlative synonymic group. All the other semantic components can vary revealing the
distinctive features of synonymic oppositions.
Thus, let’s take a group of synonymous nouns: hope, expectation, anticipation. They are
considered to be synonyms because they all three mean ‘having something in mind which is
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likely to happen’. They, however, have pronounced difference in meaning. Expectation may be
either of good or of evil. Anticipation is, as a rule, a pleasurable expectation of something good.
Hope is not only a belief but also a desire that some event would happen. The stylistic difference
is also quite marked. The Romance words expectation and anticipation are formal literary words
used only by educated speakers, whereas the native monosyllabic hope is stylistically neutral.
They also differ in idiomatic usage. Only hope is possible in such set expressions as: to hope
against hope, to lose hope, to pin one’s hopes on smth. Neither expectation nor anticipation
could be substituted into the following quotation from T. S. Eliot: You do not know what hope is
until you have lost it.
Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element, the synonymic dominant, i. e.
the most general term containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the
group. In the above quoted group of synonyms the synonymic dominant is the word hope. In the
synonymic series to get, to obtain, to acquire, to gain, to win, to earn the verb to get is a
synonymic dominant as it can stand for all the verbs of this group.
So, the dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in
the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner,
intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent, i. e. it is a typical basic-vocabulary
word. Its meaning, which is broad and generalised, more or less covers the meanings of the rest
of the synonyms, so that it may be substituted for many of them. It seems that here, at last, the
idea of interchangeability of synonyms comes into its own. And yet, each such substitution
would mean an irreparable loss of the additional information supplied by connotative
components of each synonym. The following characteristic features of the dominant synonym
can be underlined:
1) high frequency of usage;
2) broad combinability, i. e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of
words;broad general meaning;
3) lack of connotations.
One must bear in mind that the majority of frequent words are polysemantic and the
frequent words usually have many synonyms. The result is that a polysemantic word may belong
in its various meanings to several different synonymic groups. Thus, Z.Kharitonchic gives the
example of nine synonymic groups the word part enters as the result of a very wide polysemy:
1) piece, parcel, section; segment, fragment, etc. ;
2) member, organ, constituent, element, component, etc. ;
3) share, portion, lot;
4) concern, interest, participation;
5) allotment, lot, dividend, apportionment;
6) business, charge, duty, office, function, work;
7) side, party, interest, concern, faction;
8) character, role, cue, lines;
9) portion, passage, clause, paragraph.
The synonymic dominant should not be confused with a generic term. A generic term is
relative. It serves as the name for the notion of the genus as a distinguished from the names of
the species. For instance, animal is a generic term as compared to the specific names wolf, dog,
mouth, etc. Dog, in its turn, may serve as a generic term for different breeds such as bull-dog,
collie, poodle, etc.
Synonymy has been attracting the attention of scholars for years. Various aspects of this
problem have been investigated by them. Thus, an interesting attempt at tabulating the most
typical differences between synonyms was made by W.E. Collinson who made distinction
between the following nine possibilities:
1) one term is more general than another: to refuse – to reject;
2) one term is more intense than another: to repudiate – to refuse;
3) one term is more emotive than another: to reject – to decline;
4) one term may imply moral approbation or censure but another is neutral: thrifty –
economical;
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 5) one term is more professional than another: decease – death;
6) one term is more literary than another: passing – death;
7) one term is more colloquial than another: turn down – refuse;
8) one term is more local or dialectal than another: flesher (Scots) – butcher;
9) one of the synonyms belongs to child talk: daddy – father.
What are the criteria of synonymy? Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the
conceptual criterion and defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech
conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic
characteristics.
In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is frequently used. Synonyms
are defined as words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing
in connotations, or in connotative components.
In modern researches on synonyms the criterion of interchangeability is sometimes
applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in
some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning. But this criterion has
been much criticised, because there are very few synonyms that are interchangeable.
IX.2.1. Classification of Synonyms
According to K. T. Barantsev, all the synonyms are classified into four groups:
1) complete or absolute, 2) ideographic, 3) stylistic, 4) phraseological.
As it has already been mentioned, absolute synonyms are rather rare. These are
synonyms which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest alteration in
denotative or emotional meaning and connotations. Examples of this type can be found in special
literature among terms peculiar to this or that branch of knowledge, e.g. in linguistics, noun and
substantive, functional affix, flection and inflection, composition and compounding; in medicine:
cephalalgia – headache, epidermis – scarf-skin, haemorrhage – bleeding, trachea – wind-pipe,
scarlet fever - scarlatina; among names of tools, instruments, machines, technological processes:
basement – foundation, engine – motor – prime mover, fan – ventilator, knife – cutter, oil –
petrol, plane – aircraft. Some absolute synonyms appeared due to geographical divergence:
lorry – truck, tin – can, railway – railroad, pavement – sidewalk, etc.
If the difference in the meaning of synonyms concerns the notion or the emotion
expressed, the synonyms are classed as ideographic synonyms. In other words, ideographic
synonyms denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. They are
nearly identical in one or more denotational meanings and interchangeable at least in some
contexts, e.g.:
beautiful – fine – handsome – pretty,
different – various,
idle – lazy – indolent,
large – great – huge – tremendous – colossal,
silent – tacit,
strange – odd – queer.
Ideographic synonyms are not homogeneous. They can be subdivided into several groups,
according to their denotational and connotational meanings:
1) Synonyms which are very close in their meaning:
horrible – terrible,
answer – reply,
thankful – grateful,
immediately – instantly – at once.
2) Synonyms which differ in their meaning considerably: translator – interpreter (the
former changes writing into a different language, the latter changes spoken words from one
language into another: Speaking through an interpreter). One more example: journey, travel,
voyage, trip (journey is associated with travelling by land, travel is associated with travelling as
profession or travelling with scientific purposes or discovering, voyage is connected with
travelling by sea or by air, trip implies travelling for a short period of time).

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 3) Synonyms which differ in the volume of the notion they denote: frontier – border
(frontier is the border of a country, e.g. the frontier between France and Belgium while border is
the official line that separates two countries, states or areas, so it wider in meaning, e.g. The river
lies on the border between the US and Mexico). Here also belong: illness – disease (illness is
wider is wider for it implies a weakened state of one’s health in general whereas disease means a
special kind of disorder), smell – scent (smell is wider as it implies any kind of odour whereas
scent is associated only with pleasant smells), author – writer (author creates any piece of art
while writer – only literary production), work – job (work is general term for any activity, while
job means a particular case of applying one’s labour, usually associated with a certain salary).
4) Synonyms which differ in the connotation of manner of the action, e. g.:
to look – to gaze – to glare – to stare – to peep – to glance – to peer,
to walk – to lounge – to loiter – to march – to meander – to pace – to patrol – to prance –
to plod – to ramble – to roam – to saunter – to sidle – to stagger – to stalk – to stride – to
stroll – to strut – to toddle – to tramp – to tread,
to tremble – to shudder – to shiver – to quake,
to shine – to sparkle – to gleam – to glitter – to glint – to glimmer – to glisten – to
shimmer – to twinkle – to flash,
to bring – to fetch.
5) Synonyms which differ in the degree or intensity of the action, e. g.
to alarm – to frighten – to terrify – to intimidate – to scare (to alarm implies the causing
of a milder degree of fear than to frighten; to terrify is to frighten to an extreme degree; to
intimidate usually implies pressure, threat and to scare implies the causing of sudden and often
unreasoning fear or panic);
to ask – to beg – to beseech – to implore (the verb to ask expresses the idea of making a
request for smth., to beg means “to ask for smth. in an anxious or urgent way”, to
beseech means “to ask eagerly” and to implore means “to ask for smth. in an emotional
way with earnestness”),
to work – to toil – to slave,
to like – to love – to admire – to adore – to worship,
to shout – to yell – to below – to roar,
to satisfy – to please – to content – to gratify – to delight – to exalt,
to dislike – to hate – to dates.
6) Synonyms which differ in the degree of some quality, e.g. synonyms expressing
excellent quality:
admirable – beautiful – brilliant – capital – delightful – excellent – exquisite – fair –
first-rate – glorious – grand – magnificent – marvellous – perfect – remarkable –
splendid – superb – surpassing – wonderful – wonderous,
big – huge – enormous,
tired – exhausted.
7) Synonyms, the distinctive feature of which is based on the time, duration and
quickness of the action, e.g.:
look – glance – glimpse. All of them denote a conscious and direct endeavour to see, but
a glance is a look which is quick and sudden and a glimpse is quicker still, implying only
momentary sight.
to speak – to say,
to fear – to fright,
to beat – to strike.
Stylistic synonyms are synonymically correlated words which differ not so much in
meaning as in emotive value and stylistic sphere of application. Thus, pictorial language often
uses poetic words as stylistic alternatives of neutral ones, e.g.: nouns: maid for girl, ire for
anger, woe for sorrow, bliss for happiness, eve for evening, morn for morning, thrall for
distress, steed for horse; adjectives: lone for lonely, forlorn for distressed, jocund for merry,
mute for silent; verbs: quit for leave, quoth for said, vanquish for conquer, hie or speed for
hasten, smite for hit or strike; adverbs: haply for perhaps, full for very, etc.
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 The differentiation of emotional colouring makes itself evident in the following archaic
words which are stylistic synonyms, too:
oft – often,
belike – probably, possibly,
enow – enough,
aloft – high,
save – except, besides,
woe – affliction, grief,
mere – pond, lake.
The general effect of poetic and learned synonyms when used in prose or in everyday
speech is that of creating an elevated tone.
Among stylistic synonyms authors point out special groups of words which are called
euphemisms in which by a shift of meaning a word of more or less pleasant or at least
inoffensive connotation substitutes one that is harsh, obscene, indelicate or otherwise unpleasant
(about eupheisms see below).
Oppositional relations of correlated stylistic words can also be observed in synonymic
trichotomy. Cf.:
neutral elevated colloquial
child infant kid
face countenance phiz
father parent dad (daddy)
girl maiden lass (lassie)
good-bye farewell so-long, ta-ta
Stylistic synonyms can show the attitude of the speaker towards the event or process
described:
face – mug, muzzle,
head – nut,
to eat – to lay in – to wolf.
One cannot use words mug, nut, lay in or wolf in a polite conversation or on an official
occasion.
In a great number of cases the semantic difference between synonyms is supported by the
difference in valency. In such cases we deal with phraseological synonyms. The difference in
distribution may be morphological, syntactical and lexical. Morphological valency can be
illustrated by such kind of synonyms are many – much, few – little, syntactical – by bare and
naked (bare in reference to persons is used only predicatively while naked occurs both
predicatively and attributively. The verbs to begin – to commence differ stylistically (to begin is
neutral and to commence is stylistically marked, it’s used in formal style), but their distributional
difference is not less important. Begin is generalized in its lexical meaning and becomes a semi-
auxiliary when used with an infinitive. It follows naturally that begin and not commence is the
right word before an infinitive even in formal style.
Lexical difference in distribution can be illustrated by the verbs to win – to gain. Both can
be used in combination with the noun victory: to win a victory, to gain a victory. But with the
word war only win is possible: to win a war. Other examples: ill – sick, high – tall, sunny –
solar, etc.
The idea of number can be expressed by the synonyms flock – pack – herd – school –
swarm – band – gang – troop – horde – crowd:
a flock of birds, a swarm of bees,
a pack of wolves, a band of robbers,
a herd of cattle, a troop of children,
a school of whales, a horde of ruffians,
a gang of thieves, a crowd of people.
Due to polysemy synonyms often belong to several groups. Thus, the adjective ill in the
meaning ‘not feeling well’ has the synonym sick and in the meaning ‘bad, harmful’ its synonyms
are adjectives mean, foul.
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 G. B. Antrushina, O. V. Afanasyeva and N. N. Morozova, the authors of the manual
“English Lexicology”, point out that a more effective approach to the classification of synonyms
may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations. They
consider that it is more convenient to classify connotations by which synonyms differ rather than
synonyms themselves. Thus, they propose to distinguish the connotations of degree or intensity:
to surprise – to astonish – to amaze – to astound,
to shout – to yell – to bellow – to roar,
to like – to admire – to love – to adore – to worship;
nature of the emotion:
to tremble – to shiver – to shudder – to shake; the evaluative connotation which conveys
the speaker’s attitude towards the referent, labelling it as good or bad:
well-known – famous – notorious – celebrated;
the causative connotation:
to sparkle – to glitter;
the connotation of manner:
to stroll – to stride – to trot – to pace – to swagger – to stagger – to stumble;
stylistic connotations:
snack – bite – snap, etc.
IX.2.2. Sources of Synonyms
Scholars distinguish the following sources of synonymy:
1. Synonyms which originated from the native language:
fast – speedy – swift,
handsome – pretty – lovely,
bold – manful – steadfast.
2. Synonyms created through the adoption of words from dialects:
mother – minny (Scot.),
dark – murk (O.N.),
charm – glamour (Scot.).
3. Synonyms which owe their origin to foreign borrowings:
to begin – to commence (Fr),
to end - to finish (Fr),
help – aid (L.),
heaven – sky (Sc.),
freedom – liberty (L.).
Native words are stylistically neutral, words borrowed from French are literary and
words of Greco-Latin origin are learned. This results in a stylistically conditioned triple:
Native French Greco-Latin
to ask to question to interrogate,
to end to finish to complete
to gather to assemble to collect,
to rise to mount to ascend
belly stomach abdomen
teaching guidance instruction.
4. Synonyms connected with non-literary figurative use of words in pictorial language:
dreamer – star-gazer,
profession, occupation – walk of life.
5. Synonyms – euphemisms and vulgarisms employed for certain stylistic purpose:
to lie – to distort facts,
to steal – to shoop,
to spend – to blow in.
6. Some synonymic oppositions appeared due to shift of meaning, new combinations of
verbs with postpositives and compound nouns formed from them:
to choose – to pick up,
to abandon – to give up,
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 to continue – to go on,
to enter – to come in,
to postpone – to put off,
arrangement – layout,
reproduction – playback.
7. Quite frequently synonyms, mostly stylistical, are due to shortening:
memorandum – memo,
vegetables – vegs,
doctor – doc,
laboratory – lab,
popular – pop,
examination – exam.
IX.2.3. Euphemisms and Dispheisms
A source of synonymy interesting from sociolinguistic point of view is euphemism. The
term ‘euphemism’ is made up of Greek elements: ‘eu’ – well, ‘phemi’ – I speak. So, a
euphemism is the substitution of unpleasant or offensive expression by milder ones. Thus, for
example, instead of dead it is common to say the deceased, the departed; instead of to kill – to
finish, to make away with, to put away, to settle, to remove.
There are some notions of drunkenness, stupidity, certain physiological processes, death
and so on. For example:
to die may be substituted by to pass away, to depart, to be no more, to be gone, to
breathe one’s last, to join the silent majority, to meet one’s end, to go the way of all flesh, to go
to one’s last home, to be gathered to one’s father, to close one’s eyes;
stupid – simple-minded, slow-witted, unintelligent, block-headed, unwise;
drunk – intoxicated, canned, merry, full, under the influence, oiled;
dirty – unclean;
mad - insane.
Euphemisms are dictated by etiquette, tact, social usage, diplomatic consideration and
political propaganda. For example, the denotional meaning of ‘drunk’ and ‘merry’ may be the
same, but the euphemistic expression ‘merry’ on the whole is milder, less offensive. The
substitution is accounted for the speaker’s tendency to be considerate and not to offend other
people. The effect is achieved because the synonymic expression is not so harsh, sometimes
jocular and usually motivated to some secondary feature of the notion. Other examples of social
substitutions are:
pregnant – in a family way, with a child, expecting a happy event, having a bun in the
oven, rehearsing lullabies;
naked – in one’s birthday suit;
poor – not well-off, short of cash, out of pocket.
One of the reasons for using euphemisms is moral and social taboo. There is a tendency
to use a learned word which sounds less familiar, hence less offensive, e. g.:
to spit – to expectorate,
to sweat – to perspire.
There is a squeamish reluctance to use euphemistic words for certain physiological acts,
physical defects, some parts of body and for various forms of disease. For example:
belly – abdomen,
bottom – backside,
deaf – hard of hearing,
cancer – growth,
veneral disease – social disease.
Along with the term ‘euphemism’ goes a term PC – Political Correctness. Thus, we have
racism (Afro-Americans instead of black people), sexism (firefighter instead of fireman), ageism
(not old-age pensioners but senior citizens), ableism (not handicapped but in some way
challenged). The primary – ‘isms’ are ‘racism’ and ‘sexism’ because they reflect present
conflicts in society, struggle for recognition and rights by people hitherto neglected or oppressed.
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Consciousness of sexism leads to the censorship of the word ‘man’ even in compounds and
familiar idioms (chairman, odd man out).
On the other hand, among stylistic synonyms one can find also words of dispheism and
argot type when a neutral word is substituted by a vulgar one:
to die – to go off, to drop off, to go off the hooks, to hop the twig, to kick the bucket.
IX.3. ANTONYMS
Antonyms may be defined as two or rarely more words of the same language belonging
to the same part of speech identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and
used together so that their denotative meanings render contrary or contradictory notions. Cf. in
“Romeo and Juliet” (Act I, Scene V):
My only love sprung from my only hate!
Too early seen unknown, and known too late!
As we see, the pathetic expressiveness of these lines is achieved by contrast, based on
such pairs as love – hate, early – late, unknown – known. The opposition is obvious: each
component of these pairs means the opposite of the other. Such pairs may be termed antonymic
pairs.
V. N. Komissarov, the author of the Dictionary of English antonyms, classified them into
two groups: absolute/root antonyms (late – early, day – night) and derivational antonyms (to
please – to displease, successful – successless). Absolute antonyms have different roots and
derivational antonyms have the same root but different affixes. In most cases negative prefixes
un-, non-, in-, dis-, pre-, post- and suffixes -ful, -less are used (the number of antonyms with the
suffixes -ful, -less is not very large). The difference between derivational and root antonyms is
not only in their structure, but in semantics as well: derivational antonyms express contradictory
notions, one of them excludes the other (active - inactive); absolute antonyms express contrary
notions (ugly - beautiful). Absolute antonyms, in V. N. Komissarov’s opinion, are words
regularly contrasted as homogeneous sentence members connected by copulative, disjunctive or
adversative conjunctions, or identically used in parallel constructions, in certain typical contexts:
He usually obeys all the rules, good and bad.
He was alive, not dead.
You will see if you were right or wrong.
The whole was big, oneself was little.
Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style, emotional colouring or
distribution. They are interchangeable at least in some contexts.
In derivational antonyms the affixes serve to deny the quality stated in the stem.
Not only words, but set expressions as well, can be grouped into antonymic pairs, e.g.:
by accident – on purpose.
Linguistically, distinction must be made between paradigmatic antonyms, i. e. two words
revealing regular semantic polarity in their invariant meaning: thick layer – thin layer, thin forest
– thick forest, thick slice – thin slice, etc. and words which may be contrasted on the syntagmatic
axis, only in certain contexts. Thus, for instance, the adjectives fat and thin are brought together
as antonyms in collocations like a fat man – a thin man.
If the word is polysemantic it has different antipodes for its various meanings, e.g. the
adjective soft has three antonyms: hard, loud and severe. Such antonyms are called complex.
Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic variants: a
dull knife – a sharp knife, a dull boy – a bright boy, a dull novel – a thrilling novel. So, the
adjective dull has the antonyms sharp for its meaning ‘blunt’, interesting, amusing, entertaining,
thrilling for its meaning of ‘deficient in interest’, clever, bright, capable for its meaning of
‘deficient in intellect, stupid’, active for the meaning of ‘deficient in activity’.
Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most
antonyms are adjectives and that is quite natural because qualitative characteristics are easily
compared and contrasted: high – low, wide – narrow, strong – weak, old – young, friendly –
hostile.
Verbs take second place, so far as antonymy is concerned: to lose – to find, to live – to
die, to open – to close, to laugh – to weep, to accept – to reject.
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 Nouns are not rich in antonyms: friend – enemy, joy – grief, good – evil, heaven – earth,
love – hatred, hope – despair, etc.
Antonymic adverbs can be divided into adverbs proper (here – there, now – then, ever –
never, up – down) and adverbs derived from adjectives (warmly – coldly, merrily – sadly, loudly
– softly, etc.).
Antonyms are fairly common in proverbs and sayings:
Books are a guide of youth and an entertainment for age.
Hasty love is soon hot and soon cold.
Two blacks do not make a white.
The use of antonyms is fairly common in the so-called antithesis in scientific English
and pictorial language, in literary prose and poetry, in madrigals, i. e. songs for several singers
without musical instruments, popular in the 16th century, e.g.:

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times,

it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness,
it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity,
it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness,
it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair,
we had everything before us, we had nothing before us…
(Dickens)

Youth is full of pleasure, age is full of care,

Youth is like summer morn, age like winter weather.
Youth like summer brave, age like winter bare,
Youth is full of sport, age’s breath is short,
Youth is nimble, age is lame,
Youth is hot and bold, age is weak and cold,
Youth is wild, and age is tame,
Age, I do abhor thee, youth, I do abhor thee.
Oh! My Love, my Love is young.
(Shakespeare)

IX.4. Summary and Conclusions

Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, differing in sound form, and
possessing one or more identical or nearly identical (similar) denotational meanings.
Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an
object of controversy. The most controversial among these seems to be the problem of criteria of
synonymy. This problem is solved either with the conceptual criterion (synonyms are defined as
words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in
shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics) or with the semantic criterion (synonyms are
defined as words with the same denotative component but differing in connotative components).
Besides the criterion of interchangeability is sometimes applied according to which synonyms
are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any
considerable alternation in denotational meaning. All these approaches have both advantages and
disadvantages and have been criticized as none of them can be applicable to all synonyms.
Synonyms are usually classified into absolute, ideographic, stylistic and
phraseological.
Each group of synonyms comprises a synonymic dominant – the unit possessing the
most general meaning.
Words that have directly opposite meanings are called antonyms. Antonyms fall into two
main groups: 1) root antonyms (those which are of different roots, e.g. long – short, slowly –
quickly, up – down, to start – to finish) and 2) affixal antonyms (in which special affixes or their
absence express semantic opposition, e.g. hopeful – hopeless, faulty – faultless, happy –

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unhappy, appear – disappear, tangible – intangible, literate – illiterate, regular – irregular,
possible – impossible, to understand – to misunderstand, undercooked – overcooked, etc.).
Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic variants: a
dull knife – a sharp knife, a dull boy – a bright boy, a dull novel – a thrilling novel.

Suggested points for discussion

1. Give the definition of synonyms.
2. Get ready to discuss the criteria of synonymity.
3. What is meant by a synonymic dominant?
4. Comment on classification of synonyms.
5. Illustrate ideographic synonyms.
6. Give examples of stylistic synonyms.
7. Comment on phraseological synonyms.
8. Give comments on the sources of synonyms in the English vocabulary.
9. Comment on eupheisms and dispheisms.
10. What is meant by antonyms?
11. To which parts of speech do most antonyms belong? How do you account for this?
12. Illustrate, please, that a polysemantic words can have several antonyms.
13. Discuss stylistic aspects of antonyms. Give examples of their effective use in pictorial
language.
14. Give examples of antonyms in phraseology and proverbial sayings.

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 CHAPTER X
STYLISTIC PECULIARITIES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

X.1. General Remarks

The word-stock of a language may be represented as a definite system the elements of
which are interconnected, interrelated and independent.
Stylistically the word-stock is divided into three layers: the literary, the neutral and the
colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of
which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property,
which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. Thus the
aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes this layer more
or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this
that makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. It means
that it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of
human activity. It is this that makes this layer the most stable of all.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1) common literary; 2)
terms or learned words; 3) poetic words; 4) archaic words; 5) barbarisms and foreign words;
literary coinages including nonce-words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups of words: 1) common colloquial
words; 2) slang; 3) jargonisms; 4) professional words; 5) dialectal words, 6) vulgar words; 7)
colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term
standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary
vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary)
vocabulary. The accompanying diagram illustrates this classification graphically (see p. 142).
X.2. Standard English vocabulary
This layer of the English vocabulary consists of neutral words, special literary
vocabulary and special colloquial vocabulary.
X.2.1. Stylistically Neutral Words
Stylistically neutral words form the bulk of the English vocabulary. They are used in both
literary and colloquial language. They are the main source of synonymy. Etymologically the
words of these layers are mostly native, and if of foreign origin, borrowed long ago and
completely assimilated (e.g. Latin borrowings wall, street, French borrowings river, mutton,
Scandinavian loan-words husband, call, etc.). Since they are devoid of emotional colouring their
frequency value is very high and therefore they are often polysemantic. Words of this layer are
often synonymic dominants, e.g., in the following synonymic group girl – young female –
maiden – damsel – lass – skirt the word girl is the most general, while young female is official
and bookish, maiden is poetical, damsel is archaic, lass colloquial and skirt belongs to slang
words. So, we can say that this layer includes the most vital part of the vocabulary.
X.2.2. Common literary words
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can
always tell a literary word from a colloquial word though no objective criteria for this
differentiation have been worked out yet. Literary units always stand in opposition to colloquial
units. Let’s compare the synonyms in the following triangle:
Literary Neutral Colloquial
infant child kid
parent father daddy
associate fellow chap
retire go away get out
proceed continue go on
youth boy teenager
maiden young girl flapper
commence begin, start go ahead, make a move
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Diagram 1. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary

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 These synonyms are not only stylistic but ideographic as well, i. e. there is a definite,
though slight, difference between them. But this is almost always the case with the synonyms,
but the main distinction between synonyms is stylistic. But stylistic difference may be of various
kinds: it may lie in the emotional tension, or in the sphere of application, or in the degree of the
quality denoted. Colloquial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones. The
neutral stratum of words has no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinction in the
sphere of usage.
Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of
literary words approaches the neutral layer and it has a tendency to pass into that layer. The same
may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can easily pass into the neutral layer
too. The lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral, on the one hand, and
common and literary, on the other, are blurred. It is here that the process of interpenetration of
the stylistic strata becomes more apparent.
X.2.3. Common colloquial vocabulary
Common colloquial vocabulary borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special
colloquial vocabulary. Just as common literary words lack homogeneity so do common
colloquial words and set expressions. Some of the lexical items belonging to this stratum are
close to the non-standard colloquial groups such as jargonisms, professionalisms, etc. Others
approach the neutral bulk of the English vocabulary. Thus, the words teenager (a young man or
young girl) and hippie/hippy (a young person who leads an unordered and unconventional life)
are colloquial words passing into the neutral vocabulary. They are gradually losing their non-
standard character and becoming widely recognized. However, they haven’t lost their colloquial
association and therefore still remain in the colloquial stratum of the English vocabulary. The
same can be said about the words guy (young man), pro (a professional), etc.
X.3. Special literary vocabulary

X.3.1. Poetic and Highly Literary Words

There is no poetic style in the English language. The language a poet uses is closely
bound with his outlook and experience, with his subject-matter and the message he wants to
express. But there remains in English vocabulary a set of words which contrast with all other
words because, having been traditionally used only in poetry, they have poetic connotations.
Their usage was typical in the 18 th century, but later on poetic diction fell into disuse. These
words are not only more lofty but also as a rule more abstract in their denotative meaning than
their neutral synonyms: nouns: array – clothes; billow – wave; brine – salt water; brow –
forehead; gore – blood; main – sea; steed – horse; woe – sorrow; verbs: behold – see; deem –
think; hearken – hear; slay – kill; trow – believe; quoth – past tense of speak; adjectives: fair –
beautiful; hapless – unhappy; lone – lonely; murky – grim; adverbs: anon – presently; nigh –
almost; oft – often; pronouns: thee, ye; aught – anything; naught – nothing; conjunctions: albeit
– although; ere – before.
Poetic words are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. This
may be said to be the main function of poetic words. In an ordinary environment poetical words
may also have a satirical function.
Poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited
number of readers. Poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.
X.3.2. Terms
Terms are special words which express certain concepts of science, engineering, politics,
diplomacy, philosophy, linguistics, etc. Among them we find names of different phenomena,
processes, qualities peculiar to a certain branch of science, art, etc. A term is directly connected
with the concept it denotes. A term, unlike other words, directs the mind to the essential quality
of the thing, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientist in the light of his own
conceptualization. Every branch of science has its own terminology, i. e. its own technical
vocabulary.

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 Terms have some peculiarities which distinguish them from ordinary words, namely: 1)
terms have no emotional, expressive colouring; they have exact definitions and are stylistically
neutral; 2) they are never used in figurative, transferred meaning; 3) in one and the same branch
of science a term is usually monosemantic; polysemy in technical vocabulary is hardly desirable;
4) terms are strictly systemized; each term has its place in the terminological system; 5) terms
are usually of international character.
Authors suggest that one should distinguish between: 1) terms which exist as terms only
and function within the limits of one terminology, e.g.: diphthong, monophthong, etc.; 2) terms
which may be used in several terminological systems with different specialized meanings, e.g.
operation, assimilation; 3) terms which may function as terms and ordinary words, e.g. head, to
dress (in medical terminology it means “to bandage a wound”, in agriculture it means “to
prepare the earth for sowing” and in naval terminology it means “to decorate with flags”).
Terms usually don’t circulate in general use. However, some terms may acquire a wider
use with the development of general knowledge, with the penetration of science and engineering
into the most vital spheres of human intercourse. Thus, e.g. the word electricity used to be a term
of physics but now has become a word of general use. Such words as ‘radio’, ‘television’ and the
like have long been in common use and their terminological character is no longer evident. This
process may be called “de-terminization”
Terms are predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch
of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. But their
use is not confined to this style. They may as well appear in other styles – in newspaper style, in
publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language. But their function in this case
changes. They do not always fulfil their basic function, that of bearing exact reference to a given
concept. Thus, when used in the belles-lettres style a term may acquire a stylistic function.
The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical
peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character
whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. In this connection it is
interesting to analyse the stylistic effect of the medical terminology used by A.J. Cronin in his
novel “The Citadel”. The frequent use of medical terms in the novel is explained by its subject-
matter – the life of a physician – and also by the fact that the writer himself is a physician and
finds it natural to use medical terminology.
What are the sources of terminology? Terms are generally created on the already existing
words by specializing, e.g. specialization of the words denoting parts of human body: arm, ear,
knee, head, etc.
Sometimes old words and meanings which are lost or nearly lost in everyday speech
survive in technical vocabulary, e.g. the term gangway in ship terminology comes from OE
gangweg = road.
Sometimes new coinages are invented or borrowed from the language of the people who
are the first to introduce certain tools, objects, processes, etc., e.g.: many sport terms are of
English origin, Italian became the source of artistic terms (duet, trio, operetta), French – the
source of political terms (parliament, minister, etc.).
Considered in structure, terms may be words (atom, molecule) and word-combinations
(atomic bomb, space flight, atomic reactor, emergency brakes, pressure relief valve, rear door
panel). Word-terms may be simple (face, head), derived (excavator) and compound (crow-bar,
hand-brakes, job-holder, judge-advocate). There are also many abbreviations among terms, e.g.
D.C. (death certificate), C.C. (contrabanda control), H.R. (House of Representatives), T.M.
(trademark).
X.3.3. Archaic Words
The word-stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. Words change their
meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. Some words stay in the language a
very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and
richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time and disappear leaving no trace of their
existence.

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 In registering these processes the role of dictionaries can hardly be over-estimated.
Dictionaries serve to retain the word in a language either as a relic of ancient times, where it
lived and circulated, or as a still living unit of the system, though it may have lost some of its
meanings.
In this respect one should distinguish, first of all, archaisms, or obsolete words and
historical words.
Archaisms are obsolete words for existing objects. Archaisms always have a synonym in
Modern English, differing in its stylistic sphere. Archaisms are divided into lexical and
grammatical.
Lexical archaisms are archaic nouns woe (sorrow), main (sea), steed (horse), verbs slay
(kill), adjectives fair (beautiful), lone (alone), pronouns aught (anything), naught (nothing),
adverbs eke (also), ere (before).
Grammatical archaisms are obsolete grammatical forms. Here belong first of all
morphological forms, belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language, e.g. the
pronoun thou (you) and its forms thee, thy, thine; verbal endings -est for the second person
singular (thou makest, hast, dost), the -(e)th inflection for the third person singular (he maketh),
the verb-forms art (are), wert (was), shalt, wilt (shall, will).
Historical words. These are names of some objects, special relations, institutions,
customs, which are no longer in use. Names of ancient weapons, carriages, boats, musical
instruments, agricultural implements, etc. can serve as good examples: battering ram (an ancient
machine for breaking walls), yeoman, yeomanry, serf, etc. Objects, phenomena or processes
denoted by these words disappeared from the life of people completely but the words remained
as historical documents, historical terms. No modern synonym can be found for historical words.
I.R. Galperin considers that in the aging process of words three stages should be
distinguished and consequently three groups of words: obsolescent, obsolete and archaic proper.
Obsolescent words are words which become rarely used, they are in the stage of
gradually passing out of general use.
Obsolete words are archaic words which have already gone completely out of use but are
still recognized by the English-speaking community, e.g.: nay (= no), methinks (= it seems to
me).
The third group, archaic words proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in
modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the
language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become
unrecognisable, e.g. troth (= faith).
The borderlines between the groups are not distinct. In fact they interpenetrate. It is
especially difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words but the difference is
important when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance.
X.3.4. Barbarisms and Foreign Words
In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called
barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into
English. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien.
Etymologically they are Latin, Greek or French. Most of them have corresponding English
synonyms but are preferred for certain stylistic purposes. Here are some examples: chic (=
stylish), bon mot (= a witty saying), de facto (in fact), en regle (according to rules), belles lettres
(fiction), brochure (booklet), au revoir! (good bye!, so long!), etc.
It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and
foreign words proper: barbarisms, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary,
have already become the facts of the English language while foreign words don’t belong to the
English vocabulary, they are not registered in dictionaries. In printed works foreign words are
generally italicized to indicate their foreign nature or their stylistic value. Barbarisms, on the
contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special stylistic load.
Barbarisms are a historical category. Many foreign words and phrases which were once
just foreign words used in literary language to express a concept non-existent in English reality,
have little by little entered the class of words named barbarisms and many of these barbarisms
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have gradually lost their foreign peculiarities, become more or less naturalized and have merged
with the native English stock of words. Thus, such words as scientific, conscious, function,
figurative, obscure etc. were once barbarisms, but now are lawful members of the common
literary word stock of English.
Both barbarisms and foreign words are widely used in various styles of language with
various aims, but one of the main functions is to supply local colour, to depict local conditions of
life, concrete facts and events, customs and habits, a background to the narrative.
X.3.5. Literary Coinages (including Nonce-Words)
In other words, neologisms are meant here, but I. R. Galperin considers this term to be
too ambiguous. By neologism is meant a new word or a new meaning for an established word,
the novelty of which is still felt.
At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is the so called
“neology blowup”. R. Berfield says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in English.
The coining of new words generally arises with the need to designate new concepts
resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning
called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. New words,
as a rule, appear in speech of an individual person who wants to express his idea in some original
way. New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers, newspaper reporters, by those
who are connected with mass media.
Neologisms can develop in three ways: 1) a lexical unit existing in the language can
change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In such cases we have semantic
neologisms, e.g. the word umbrella developed the meanings ‘авіаційне прикриття, політичне
прикриття’; 2) a new lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or
phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it; in such cases we have
transnomination, e.g. the word slum was first substituted by the word ghetto then by the word-
group inner town; 3) a new lexical unit can be introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon;
in this case we have ‘a proper neologism’, many of them are cases of new terminology.
New words are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in
the given language, namely by means of derivation, composition, word-combination, root-
creation. Besides, neologisms may come from foreign languages as direct adoption of foreign
words or as translation of the lexical unit, i. e. a calque is meant.
In epochs of social upheaval neologisms come into the language in large numbers, Thus,
for instance, with the process of science, technology, political and cultural life, the 19 th century
has brought large numbers of new words, special political and technical terms in various
branches of science, e.g. proletariat, automat, calorifer, telegraph, telephone, aviation,
phonograph, microbe, neurology, etc. The 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century are
characterized by a very intensive development of various sciences, technique, culture and
political life. They also have brought a multitude of new formations, e.g.: Marxism, trade-
unionism, militarism, colonialism, revanchist, antenna, broadcast, electron, loud-speaker, sound
picture, television, aircraft, dirigible, hydroplane, cosmos, lunokhod, allergic, computer,
isotope, nuclear fission, supermarket, etc.
Recently, with the development of computerization, many neologisms have appeared.
They can be classified into several groups: 1) words to denote different types of computers: PC,
super-computer, multi-user, neurocomputer (analogue of a human brain); 2) words to denote
parts of computers: hardware, software, monitor, screen, data, vapourware (experimental
samples of computers for exhibition, not for production); 3) words to denote computer
languages: BASIC, Algol FORTRAN; 4) words to denote notions connected with work of
computers: computerman, to computerize, to troubleshoot, to blitz out (to ruin data in a
computer’s memory).
Most of the latest lexico-phraseological innovations are associated with the global net
Internet. Many neologisms appeared to denote concepts and notions in this sphere, for instance,
to denote a company which performs its commercial activity through the Internet a noun dot-
com appeared. The neologisms cybercommerce, cybershopping, e-shopping, electronic
shopping, electronic commerce, Internet shopping, cybercash, cybermoney, cybercurrency, e-
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cash, virtual money, beenz, flooz, e-gold, i-dollars are associated with virtual commerce and
virtual money.
Modern information technology made its contribution to many other spheres of modern
life and caused the appearance of new words and word-combinations, e.g. electronic foot-prints
(електронні відбитки) (користуючись мережею Інтернет, на кожній веб-сторінці ми
залишаємо ‘сліди’, за якими можна легко простежити наші дії), data spills (інформація
приватного характеру, відома третій стороні), cyberthief (кіберзлодій), cybercrook
(кібершахрай), cybersaboteur (кібердиверсант), cyberpirate (кіберпірат), cyberhacking
(хакерство). For instance: Many people suffer from cyberchondria.
The appearance of many neologisms is caused by the intensive development of economy
and business. Scholars state that globalization leads to zero-friction economy (економіка з
нульовим тертям). The component -nomics meaning ‘економічний аспект діяльності’ proved
to be highly productive in this respect: culturnomics cybernomics, mediconomics, etc.
To denote new notions in the sphere of biological sciences such neologisms as anti-sense
technology, biopharming (біофармація), biofactory (підприємство, що займається
біофармацією), biopiracy, plantibody (антитіло), crazy tobacco, genetic pollution, genomics,
transgenic, GM (genetically modified) farming (генетично модифіковане сільське
господарство), molecular farming (вирощування генетично модифікованих рослин), gene
therapy (генна терапія), pharma food, food security, Frankenstein food (штучна їжа), genetic
donor (генетичний донор) appeared.
In the course of time the new word is accepted into the word-stock of the language and
being often used ceases to be considered new, or else it may not be accepted for some reason or
other and vanish from the language. The fate of neologisms is hardly predictable, some of them
are short-lived, others, on the contrary, become durable.
Another type of neologism is the nonce-word, i. e. a word coined to suit one particular
occasion. Nonce-words remain on the out-skirts of the literary language. They are created to
designate some subjective idea or phenomenon and generally become moribund. They rarely
pass into the language as legitimate units of the vocabulary, but they remain in the language as
constant manifestations of its innate power of word-building. A good illustration of such a
phenomenon may be the following example:
Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am
wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined within an inch of
my life (J. Steinbeck).

X.4. Special Colloquial Vocabulary

X.4.1. Slang
There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term slang. Slang
seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.
The subject of slang has caused much controversy for many years. Much has been said
and written about it. Very different opinions have been expressed concerning its nature, its
boundaries, and the attitude that should be adopted towards it. This is probably due to the
uncertainty of the concept itself. No one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of
the term. Nor has it been specified by any linguist who deals with the problem of the English
vocabulary.
The first thing that strikes the scholar is the fact that no other European language has
singled out a special layer of vocabulary and named it slang, though all of them distinguish such
groups of words as jargon, cant, and the like. Why was it necessary to invent a special term for
something that has not been clearly defined as jargon or cant have? Is this phenomenon
specifically English? Has slang any special features which no other group within the non-literary
vocabulary can lay claim to? The distinctions between slang and other groups of unconventional
English, though perhaps subtle and sometimes difficult to grasp, should nevertheless be
subjected to a more detailed linguistic specification.
Webster’s “Third New International Dictionary” gives the following meanings of the
term: Slang (origin unknown): 1. language peculiar to a particular group: as a) the special and
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often secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves, beggars) and usu. felt to be vulgar or inferior:
argot; b) the jargon used by or associated with a particular trade, profession, or field of activity;
2. non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterized primarily by
connotations if extreme informality and usu. a currency not limited to a particular region and
composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms,
extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties usu. experiencing quick
popularity and relatively rapid decline into disuse.
The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows: a) the special vocabulary
used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type;
b) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period; c) language of a highly colloquial type
considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or
of current words employed in some special sense.
As is seen from these quotations, the first thing that causes confusion is that slang is
represented both as a special vocabulary and as a special language. If it has the rank of language,
then it should be characterized not only by its peculiar use of words but also by phonetic,
morphological and syntactical peculiarities.
I.V. Arnold stresses that slang words are identified and distinguished by contrasting them
to standard literary vocabulary. They are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create
fresh names for some things that are frequent topics of discourse. For the most part they sound
somewhat vulgar, cynical and harsh, aiming to show the object of speech in the light of an off-
hand contemptuous ridicule. Vivid examples can be furnished by various slang words for money:
beans, brass, dibs, dough, chink, oof, wads. The slang synonyms for the word head are attic,
brain-pan, hat peg, nut, upper-story. Compare also various synonyms for the adjective drunk:
boozy, cock-eyed, high and many more. There are many slang words for such words as alcohol,
stealing, jail, death, madness, etc.
Slang words are classified according to the sphere of usage into general slang and
special slang. General slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional
group, whereas special slang is peculiar for some group, e.g. university slang, public school
slang, Air Force slang, football slang, sea slang, and so on.
It has been repeatedly stated by many authors that after a slang word has been used in
speech for a certain period of time, people get accustomed to it and it ceases to produce that
shocking effect for the sake of which it has been originally coined and slang words may be
accepted into literary language. The examples are bet, bore, chap, donkey, fun, humbug, mob,
odd, pinch, shabby, snob, trip. These words were originally slang words but now have become
part of literary vocabulary.
Slang has always attracted the attention of lexicographers. The best-known English slang
dictionary is compiled by E. Partridge.
X.4.2. Jargonisms
In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are
called jargonisms. These are words whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another
social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them.
Most of the jargonisms are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which
has invented them. They may be defined a code within a code, i. e. special meanings of words
that are imposed on the recognized code – the dictionary meaning of the words.
Thus the word grease means “money”; loaf means “head”; a tiger hunter means “a
gambler”; a lexer is “a student preparing for a law course”.
Jargonisms are not regional, they are social in character. The following jargons are
known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant;
the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.
Jargonisms, like slangs and other groups of the non-literary layer, do not always remain
on the outskirts of the literary language. Many of them have overcome the resistance of the
language lawgivers and entered the standard vocabulary, e.g. the words kid, fun, queer, bluff, fib,
humbug, formally slang words or jargonisms, are now considered common colloquial.

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 X.4.3. Professionalisms
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people
connected by common interests both at work and at home. They commonly designate some
working process or implement of labour.
Professionalisms are correlated to terms, but terms nominate new concepts that appear in
the process of technical progress and the development of science, and professionalisms name
anew already existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special
code. Terms belong to the literary language while professionalisms are special words in the non-
literary layer of the English vocabulary. Terms are easily decoded and enter the neutral stratum
of the vocabulary, while professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite
community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common social interests. The
semantic structure of the term is usually transparent and is therefore easily understood. The
semantic structure of the professionalism is often dimmed by the image on which the meaning of
the professionalism is based, especially when the features of the object in question reflect the
process of the work, metaphorically or metonymically.
Here are some professionalisms used in different trades: tin-fish (=submarine); block-
buster (= a bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings); piper (= a specialist
who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-pipe); outer (= a knockout blow).
X.4.4. Dialectal Words
These are words which in the process of integration of the English national language
remain beyond its literary boundaries, their use is generally confined to a definite locality.
Sometimes there is a difficulty in distinguishing dialectal words from colloquial words.
Some dialectal words have become so familiar in good colloquial or standard colloquial English
that they are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English. To these
words belong lass, meaning ‘a girl or a beloved girl’ and the corresponding lad, ‘a boy or a
young man’, daft from the Scottish and the northern dialect, meaning ‘of unsound mind, silly’;
fash also Scottish, with the meaning of ‘trouble, cares’. Still they have not lost their dialectal
associations and therefore are used in literary English with the stylistic function of
characterization.
Of quite a different nature are dialectal words of the type hinny from honey; tittie
apparently from sister, being a childish corruption of the word sister etc. These examples come
from the Scottish and the northern dialects. Among other dialects used for stylistic purposes in
literature is the southern dialect, in particular that of Somersetshire. This dialect has a phonetic
peculiarity: initial [s], [f] are voiced and are written as [z], [v], e.g.: volk (folk), vound (found),
zee (see), zyely (surely).
Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other
styles. And even here their use is confined to the function of characterizing personalities through
their speech.
X.4.5. Vulgarisms
Vulgarisms are expletive and swear words which are of an abusive character, like damn,
bloody, to hell, goddam and obscene words, i. e. the so-called four-letter words the use of which
is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent. Such words soil the literary language.
Though they are rather often used in modern fiction, they will never acquire the status of
Standard English vocabulary and will always remain on the outskirts. The function of these
expletives is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions, mainly
annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of
language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.
X.4.6. Colloquial Coinages
Colloquial coinages unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous and
elusive. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and
therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it whatsoever.
Unlike literary nonce-words, nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by
means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are almost
imperceptible to the linguistic observer until the word finds its way into print.
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 X.5. Summary and Conclusions
The stylistic strata of English vocabulary is reflected in the following table:
Stylistically-neutral Stylistically-marked words
words Informal Formal
Basic vocabulary I. Colloquial words I. Learned words
a) literary a) literary
b) familiar b) words of scientific prose
c) low c) officialese
II. Slang words d) modes of poetic diction
III. Dialect words II. Archaic and obsolete words
III. Professional terminology

Stylistically neutral words comprise the living core of the vocabulary. This layer
consists mostly of words of native origin though there are also many fully assimilated
borrowings here. Such words are devoid of any emotive colouring and are used in their
denotative meaning, e.g. man, sky, table, street, go, move, speak, easy, long, often, never, etc. In
groups of synonyms neutral words fulfil the function of the synonymic dominant.
Literary-bookish words belong to the formal style. Here belong the so-called learned
words, professional terminology, poetic words, barbarisms, archaic and obsolete words,
neologisms. Literary-bookish words are used in fiction, scientific texts, radio and television
announcements, official talks and documents, business correspondence, etc. As a rule, these
words are mostly of foreign origin and have polymorphemic structure, e.g. assist, comprise,
exclude, solitude, fascination, parental, heterogeneous, hereby, thereby, etc. Terms are words or
nominal groups which convey specialized concepts used in science, technology, art, etc. (e.g.
phoneme, radar, periodic table). Barbarisms are borrowings without any change (ad libitum,
bon mot, table d’hôte). Poetic words with elevated colouring are traditionally used in poetry,
most of them being archaic and having stylistically neutral synonyms, e.g. gore (blood), woe
(sorrow), array (clothes), behold (see), ere (before). Archaisms are obsolete names for existing
things, phenomena, etc. while historical words denote no-longer existing objects (yeoman, visor,
etc.). Neologisms are words denoting new concepts: teledish (a dish-shaped aerial for receiving
satellite television transmissions), roam-a-phone (a portable telephone), etc.
Colloquial words as well as slang and dialect words belong to informal words and word-
groups. Colloquialisms are used by everybody, their sphere of communication is comparatively
wide. These are informal words that are used in everyday conversational speech both by
cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. Slang words are current words whose
meanings have been metaphorically shifted. The circle of users of slang is more narrow than that
of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young and uneducated. Dialects are regional forms of
English. Dialect words prevail in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation
and phrase. Though England is a small country, it has many dialects which have their own
distinctive features, e.g. the Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Norfolk dialects.
Suggested points for discussion
1. What are the major layers of the word-stock in terms of stylistics? Comment on the main
aspects of these layers.
2. What groups of words does the literary vocabulary consist of? Comment on their
peculiarities.
3. What groups of words does the colloquial vocabulary fall into? Comment on their
peculiarities.
4. What determines the choice of stylistically marked words in each particular situation?
5. What is the difference between colloquialisms and slag? What are their common
features?
6. What are the main features of dialectal words?
7. Are learned words used only in books? Which type of learned words is especially
suitable for verbal communication? Which is least suitable and even undesirable?
8. What are the principal characteristics of archaic words?
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 CHAPTER XI
ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY

XI.1. Free Word-groups

Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. The degree of
structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. The component members in some
word-groups, e.g. a week ago, to take lessons, man of wisdom, seem to possess semantic and
structural independence. Word-groups of this type are defined as free word-groups and are
habitually studied in syntax.
Some word-groups, e.g. at least, by means of, take place, to slew in one’s own juice, etc.
seem to be functionally and semantically inseparable. Such word-groups are usually described as
set-phrases or phraseological units which are non-motivated and cannot be freely made up in
speech but are reproduced as ready-made units and are regarded as the subject-matter of the
branch of lexicology that studies phraseology.
XI.1.1. Structure of Free Word-groups
Structurally word-groups may be approached in various ways. All word-groups may be
analysed by the criterion of distribution into two big classes: endocentric (if the word-group has
the same linguistic distribution as one of its members, i. e. having one central member
functionally equivalent to the whole word-group, e.g. red flower are distributionally identical
with their central components flower: I saw a red flower – I saw a flower) and exocentric (if the
distribution of the word-group is different from either of its members, i. e. as having no such
central member, e.g. side by side, grow smaller) .
Word-groups are also classified according to their syntactic pattern into predicative and
non-predicative groups. Non-predicative word-groups may be sub-divided according to the
type of syntactic relation between the components into subordinative and coordinative. In
subordinative word-groups some words are subordinated to others, while in coordinative ones
the members are functionally and semantically equal.
Subordinative word-groups may be classified according to their head-words into nominal
(red flower), adjectival (kind to people), verbal (to speak well), pronominal (all of them) and
statival (fast asleep) (see the fugure below).

XI.2. Free word-groups VS set-expressions

The border-line between free word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined.
The so-called free word-groups are only relatively free as collocability of their member-words is
fundamentally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency.

XI.2.1. Criteria of Set-Expressions

Scholars suggest the following criteria for distinguishing between free word-groups and
set-phrases:
1. Criterion of stability of the lexical components and lack of motivation. It is assumed that
unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication,
member-words of phraseological units are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations. Thus,
for example, the constituent red in the free word-group red flower may, if necessary, be substituted for by
any other adjective denoting colour, without essentially changing the denotational meaning of the word-
group under discussion (a flower of a certain colour). But in the phraseological unit red tape (it means
‘bureaucratic methods’) no such substitution is possible, as a change of the adjective would involve a
complete change in the meaning of the whole group. It follows that the phraseological unit red tape is
semantically non-motivated, i. e. its meaning can’t be deduced from the meaning of its components and that
it exists as a ready-made linguistic unit which does not allow of any variability of its lexical components.
The origin of this phrase: in English offices documents are sewn together with red tape. Hence: red-tapish =
бюрократичний, red tapist = бюрократ.

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 Classification of free word-groups

endocentric
According to the
criterion of distribution
exocentric

predicative
According to the
syntactic pattern
non-predicative

coordinative subordinative

nominal

adjectival

verbal

According to the part of

speech the head word adverbial
belongs to

numerical

pronominal

statival

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 2. Criterion of function. Phraseological units function as word-equivalents, the denotational
meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unit and the grammatical meaning
i. e. the part-of-speech meaning is felt as belonging to the word-group as a whole irrespective of the part-of-
speech meaning of the component words. In a free word-group each component has its own denotational
meaning and its own grammatical meaning. Let’s compare the free word-group a long day and a
phraseological unit in the long run. In the first case the adjective long and the noun day preserve the part-of-
speech meaning proper to these words taken in isolation, while in the phraseological unit the part-of-speech
unit belongs to the group as a single whole (it is grammatically equivalent to adverbs finally, ultimately).
3. Criterion of context. The essence of this criterion lies in the fact that free word-groups make up
variable contexts whereas the essential feature of phraseological units is a fixed context. Thus, in free word-
groups small town, small room the adjective small has the meaning ‘not large’ but in the set-phrases small
hours the meaning of the word small has nothing to do with the size. It means ‘early hours from 1 to 4
a.m.’. Or one more example. The phrase heavy father means ‘a serious solemn part in a theatrical play’ or a
heavy man which means ‘an actor who plays tragic roles’. The adjective heavy has these meanings only in
these specific fixed contexts.
4. Criterion of idiomaticity. Phraseological units are ready-made phrases registered in
dictionaries while free word-groups are made up spontaneously.

XI.2.2. Classification of Set-Expressions

A phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of important features,
which can be approached from different points of view. Hence, there exist a considerable
number of different classifications devised by different scholars and based on different
principles.
The traditional and oldest principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their
original content and might be alluded to as “thematic”. On this principle phraseological units are
classified according to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural
phenomena, etc. Thus, L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of phraseological units used
by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions
of their occupations, phrases associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture
and cooking, sports and arts, etc. [202].
L. P. Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are
especially numerous in English vocabulary. Some of them have no longer any association with
the sea or sailors. Here are some examples:
to be all at sea = to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance about smth.,
e.g. I am all at sea in this problem;
to sink or swim = to fall or succeed, e.g.: It is a case of sink or swim;
in deep water = in trouble or danger;
in low water, on the rocks = in strained financial circumstances;
to be in the same boat with somebody = to share the same difficulties;
to sail under false colours = to pretend to be what one is not;
to show one’s colours = to betray one’s real character or intentions;
to weather/to ride out the storm = to overcome difficulties;
to bow to the storm = to give in, to acknowledge one’s defeat;
half seas over (sl.) = drunk.
The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit but it doesn’t
take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units. In this
respect a considerable contribution was made by Russian scholars, especially by Academician V.
V. Vinogradov [36]. His classification system of phraseological units is considered by some
linguists of today to be outdated. Thus N. N. Amosova considers that this classification lacks a
general theoretical basis, and being developed for the Russian phraseology, does not fit the
specifically English features [6]. And yet its value is beyond doubt because it was the first
classification system which was based on the semantic principle, which is of immense
importance in phraseological units.
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 V. V. Vinogradov’s classification system is founded on the degree of semantic cohesion
between the components of a phraseological unit. Units with a partially transferred meaning
show the weakest cohesion between their components. V. V. Vinogradov classifies
phraseological units into three classes: phraseological combinations (collocations)
(фразеологічні сполучення), phraseological unities (фразеологічні єдності) and fusions
(зрощення) [36].
Phraseological combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They
are clearly motivated, the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meaning of its
constituents, moreover, the word-group contains one component used in its direct meaning, e.g.:
to be at one’s wit’s end, to be good at something, to have a bite, to come off a poor second, to
come to a sticky end (coll.), to meet the requirements, to take something for granted, to stick to
one’s word, gospel truth, bosom friends, etc.
Phraseological unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the
meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts. They are
motivated units, the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the
constituent parts; the metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and transparent:
to stick to one’s guns  to be true to one’s views or convictions;
to sit on the fence  to refrain from committing oneself to either side (in discussion,
politics);
to catch/to clutch at a straw  when in extreme danger, avail oneself of even the slightest
chance of rescue;
to lose one’s head  to be at a loss what to do;
to lose one’s heart to smb.  to fall in love with smb.;
to lock the stable door after the horse is stolen  to take precautions too late;
to ride the high horse  to behave in a superior, haughty way;
the last drop/straw  the final culminating circumstance that makes a situation
unendurable;
a big bug/pot (sl.)  a person of importance;
a fish out of water  a person situated uncomfortably outside his usual or proper
environment.
Phraseological fusions are word-groups with a completely changed meaning, but in
contrast to the unities, they are demotivated, i. e. their meaning cannot be deduced from the
meanings of the constituent parts; the metaphor, on which the shift of meaning was based, has
lost its clarity and is obscure, e.g.:
neck and crop = entirely, altogether, thoroughly;
at sixes and sevens = in confusion or in disagreement;
to set one’s cap on smb. = to try to attract a man;
to leave smb. in the lurch = to abandon a friend when he is in trouble;
to show the white feather = to betray one’s cowardice;
to dance attendance on smb. = to try to lease smb., to show exaggerated attention to smb.
The structural principle of classifying phraseological units is based on their ability to
perform the same syntactical functions as words (some scholars call it formal and functional).
In the traditional structural approach, the following principal groups of phraseological units are
distinguishable.
1) Verbal phrases: to win the upper hand, to talk through one’s hat, to make a song and
dance about smth.;
2) Substantive phrases: dog’s life, cat-and-dog life, calf love, white lie, birds of a
feather, red tape, brown study;
3) Adjectival phrases: high and mighty, spick and span, brand new, safe and sound. In
this group the so-called comparative word-groups are particularly expressive: (as) cool as a
cucumber, (as) nervous as a cat, (as) weak as a kitten, (as) good as gold, (as) pretty as a picture,
(as) slippery as an eel, (as) thick as thieves, (as) drunk as an owl (sl.), (as) mad as a hatter / a
hare in March, red as a cherry;
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 4) Adverbial phrases: high and low, by hook or by crook, for love or money, in cold
blood, in the dead of night, between the devil and the deep sea, to the bitter end, by a long chalk;
5) Interjectional: my God!, by Jove!, by George!, goodness gracious!, good Heavens!,
sakes alive! (Amer.);
6) prepositional phrases: in the course of, in front of;
7) conjunctional phrases: as long as, as soon as.
Professor Smirnitsky offered a classification system which is interesting as an attempt to
combine the structural and the semantic principles. In this classification phraseological units
are grouped according to the number and semantic significance of their constituent parts [120].
Accordingly two large groups are established:
1) one-summit units, which have one meaningful constituent, e.g. to give up, to make
out, to be tired, to be surprised, at hand, etc.;
2) two-summit and multi-summit units which have two or more meaningful
constituents, e.g. black art, first night, common sense, to fish in troubled waters, etc.
Within each of these large groups the phraseological units are classified according to the
category of part of speech of the summit constituent. So, one-summit units are subdivided into:
a) verbal-adverbial units equivalent to verbs in which the semantic and the grammatical
centres coincide in the first constituent: to give up;
b) units equivalent to verbs which have their semantic centre in the second constituent
and their grammatical centre in the first: to be tired;
c) prepositional-substantive units equivalent either to advebs or to copulas and having
their semantic centre in the substantive constituent and no grammatical sentre: by heart, by
means of.
Two-summit and multi-summit phraseological units are classified into:
a) attributive-substantive two-summit units equivalent to nouns: black art;
b) verbal-substantive two-summit units equivalent to verbs: to take the floor;
c) adverbial multi-summit units: every other day:
d) phraseological repetitions equivalent to adverbs: nor or never
Professor A. V. Kunin offered a detailed functional and semantic classification of
phraseological units. The main classes are based on the function the unit fulfills in speech [83;
84]. They may be nominating (a bull in a china shop), interjectional (a fine / pretty / nice cattle
of fish), communicative (familiarity breeds contempt) or nominative-communicative (pull
somebody’s leg). Further subdivision into subclasses depends on whether the units are
changeable or unchangeable, whether the meaning of one of the elements remains free (unilateral
phraseological units) and, more generally, on the interdependence between the meaning of the
elements taken separately and the meaning of the set expression. In other words, his
classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and it also considers the
quotient of stability of phraseological units. He distinguishes unchangeable expressions (he calls
them closed) from changeable (open) expressions, where synonymic variation is possible, such
as not to lift/raise/stir/turn a finger, below/beneath/under the mark, or expressions containing
variable pronominal elements, such as give somebody a run for his money, pull somebody’s leg,
take one’s time, or expressions combining these two types of variability, e.g. give somebody a bit
/ a piece of one’s mind.
After A. V. Kunin (see his monographs “English Phraseology” and “Phraseology of
Modern English”), phraseological units are subdivided into the following four classes according
to their function in communication determined by their structural-semantic characteristics.
1. Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the ones
with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good.
The first group also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, such as the crow
flies, as also predicative phrases of the type see how the land lies, ships that pass in the night.
2. Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the type to
break the ice – the ice is broken, i. e. verbal word-groups which are transformed into a sentence
when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

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 3. Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative include
interjectional word-groups.
4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings.
These four classes are divided into subgroups according to the type of structure of the
phraseological unit. The subgroups include further rubrics representing types of structural-
semantic meanings according to the kind of relations between the constituents and the either full
or partial transference of meaning.
N. N.Amosova’s approach to the classification of phraseological units is contextual. She
defines phraseological units as units of fixed context which are divided by her into phrasemes
and idioms.
Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the
other serves as the determining context: small talk, small hours, small change, small potatoes,
etc. In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element may have its
original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time, a pretty cattle of fish.
One more criterion for classification of phraseological units is etymological. In this
respect phraseological units may be classified into native and borrowed from other languages, on
the one hand, and into classes of phraseological units which came from different sources –
literary works, Bible, folklore, etc., on the other hand.
Thus many phraseological units were borrowed from Latin, Greek, French, Spanish and
other languages of the world. Some of them exist as calques, others have been partially changes,
e.g. French borrowings baptism of fire (бойове хрещення), make believe (робити вигляд),
apropos of nothing (ні з того, ні з сього), to give beans (дати доброго бобу, відлупцювати,
відплатити тим же), Greek quotations dead men don’t bite (мертві не кусаються), killed by
kindness (Дем’янова юшка: у древній Греції відомий законодавець Дракон був задушений
у театрі в 590 р. до н.е. купою плащів і шапок, які накидали на нього глядачі), Latin
borrowings hunger is the best sauce (голод – найкращий повар), man is to man a wolf (людина
людині вовк), second to none (неперевершений), with a grain of salt (скептично,
недовірливо), after meat mustard (дорога ложка до обіду), snake in the grass (таємний
ворог).
The majority of phraseological units are of the native origin. Their etymology is various.
Some of them are associated with historical events, others – with customs and traditions of the
English people, popular beliefs and superstitions, legends; many phrases came from the Bible,
still other – from literary works.
Thus, e.g. the phrase as well be hanged/hung for a sheep as for a lamb comes from an old
English law when a man could be sentenced to death for stealing a sheep.
There are many phrases containing the adjective Dutch. All of them mean something
unpleasant, something negative, e.g. a Dutch bargain (угода, вигідна тільки для однієї
сторони), a Dutch comfort (слабка розрада, могло б бути гірше), a Dutch concert (хто в ліс, а
хто по дрова), Dutch courage (хоробрість напідпитку), a Dutch feast (гулянка, на якій
господар напивається раніше за гостей), I’m a Dutchman if…. (будь я проклятий, якщо...). It
has a historical background. It dates back to the 15 th century when England and Holland
competed at the sea.
The phrase a peeping Tom (a person who gets pleasure esp. of a sexual nature from
secretly watching others) is after the legendary Peeping Tom of Coventry who was the only
person to see the naked Lady Godiva, the wife of a duke of Mercia, who imposed a heavy tax on
the inhabitants of Coventry. When his wife interceded for the people her husband said that he
would cancel that tax if Lady Godiva rode naked in the city at midday. And Lady Godiva agreed.
All the inhabitants of the city closed the shutters of their windows in order not to confuse a
young lady. But a young tailor Tom by name couldn’t help peeping. He opened his window and
began to look through a chink and was struck by blindness on the spot.
The phrase a baker’s dozen comes from a custom when tradesmen received from bakers
thirteen loaves of bread instead of twelve ones (the thirteenth loaf served as a source of income).
The phrase a devil’s dozen is associated with a middle-aged belief about the number of witches
on the Sabbath.
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 There are many phraseological phrases associated with beliefs or superstitions. Thus the
phrase a black sheep (виродок) is based on the belief that a black sheep bears a devil’s stamp
while the phrase a crooked sixpence (талісман, річ, що приносить власнику щастя) comes
from a superstition spread in England that a crooked sixpence brings his owner luck and
happiness. Many phraseological units which are based on the belief that disposition of stars
influences upon the destiny of people, among them: be born under a happy / an unhappy star
(народитися під щасливою/нещасливою зіркою), believe in one’s star (вірити у свою долю),
be through with one’s star (зазнати невдачі, втратити популярність), bless / thank one’s stars
(дякувати своїй щасливій долі), curse one’s stars (проклинати свою долю), the stars were
against him (сама доля була проти цього).
As to literary sources, the most important of them is the Bible, of course. Among wide-
spread biblical expressions are daily bread (хліб щоденний), at the eleventh hour (в останню
хвилину), the breath of the nostrils (життєва необхідність), thirty pieces of silver (тридцять
срібників, ціна зради), can the leopard change his spots? (горбатого могила виправить), cast
pearls before swine (кидати перла перед свиньми), new wine in old bottles (новий зміст у
старій формі), the olive branch (оливкова гілка, символ миру і спокою), the root of the evil
(корінь зла), a thorn in the flesh of somebody (джерело постійного роздратування, більмо на
оці), ask for bread and be given a stone (просити хліба, а одержати камінь), the dog returns to
his vomit (злочинця тягне на місце злочину), set somebody’s teeth on edge (набити оскому),
pride goes before a fall (гординя до добра не доводить).
Some phrases come from the biblical plot but they have no prototypes in the Bible, e.g. a
doubting Thomas (Хома невірний, скептик), forbidden fruit (заборонений плід), a fly in the
ointment (ложка дьогтю в бочці меду), the massacre/slaughter of the innocents (винищення
немовлят; пол. відкладання розгляду законопроекту), a prodigal son (блудний син).
Some phrases were taken from prayers: for better, for worse (що б не трапилося), from
the bottom of the heart (від усього серця, від усієї душі), lay violent hands on oneself
(накласти руки на себе), like a giant refreshed (з новими силами).
Shakespeare’s works range second after the Bible in the number of set-phrases which
enriched modern English. Among them one can find, e.g. a fool’s paradise (cвіт фантазій,
примарне щастя) from “Romeo and Juliet”, give the devil his due (віддати належне
супернику, признати перевагу суперника) from “King Henry V”, the green-eyed monster
(ревнощі) from “Othello”, midsummer madness (справжнє божевілля) from “Twelfth Night”,
the seamy side (непоказна сторона, виворіт чогось) from “Othello”, to one’s heart’s content
(вдосталь, вволю, from “Merchant of Venice”, cakes and ale (безтурботність, насолода
життям, from “Twelfth Night”, have an itching palm (бути хабарником, бути зажерливим,
from “Julius Caesar”.
Many phraseological phrases came from ancient mythology, e.g. Achilles’ heel / the heel
of Achilles (Ахілесова п’ята), the apple of discord (яблуко розбрату), Augean stable(s)
(Авгієві конюшні, запущене місце), the bed of Procrustes / Procrustean bed (Прокрустове
ложе), the golden age (золотий вік: коли люди жили подібно богам, без війн, сварок, тяжкої
праці), the horn of plenty (ріг добробуту), a labour of Hercules / a Herculean labour
(Геркулесів труд), a labour of Sisyphus / a Sisyphean labour (Сизифів труд).

XI.2.3. Ways of Forming Phraseological Units

Phraseological units can be also classified according to the ways they are formed. Thus,
A. V.Kunin distinguishes primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.
Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the
basis of a free word-group:
1) by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups: thus, for
instance, launching pad in its terminological meaning is стартовий майданчик, and in its
transferred meaning – відправний пункт; to link up – стикуватися (про космічні кораблі), in
its transferred meaning it means знайомитися;

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 2) by transforming the meaning of free word-groups: granny farm – пансіонат для
пристарілихб Troyan horse – комп’ютерна програма, призначена для навмисного
пошкодження комп’ютера;
3) by means of alliteration: a sad sack – нещасний випадок, culture vulture – людина,
яка цікавиться мистецтвом;
4) by means of distorting a word-group: odds and ends  odd ends;
5) by means of using archaisms: in brown study = in gloomy meditation (both
components preserve their archaic meanings);
6) by using some unreal images: to have butterflies in the stomach = to feel very nervous
about, to have green fingers = to be very good an gardening.
Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit is
formed on the basis of another phraseological unit. They are:
1) conversion: to vote with one’s feet  vote with one’s feet;
1) changing the grammar form: make hay while the sun shines  to make hay while the
sun shines;
3) analogy: curiosity killed the cat  care killed the cat;
4) contrast: fat cat  thin cat;
5) shortening of proverbs or sayings: birds of feather  birds of feather flock together;
6) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans: to
take the bull by the horns (Latin).

XI.3. Proverbs, Sayings, Familiar Quotations and Clichés

The place of proverbs, sayings and familiar quotations with respect to set expressions is a
controversial issue. A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular
wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise way. Proverbs have much in common with set
expressions because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and
mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. That’s why some scholars
following V. V. Vinogradov think that proverbs must be studied together with phraseological
unities. Thus, Professor Kunin includes proverbs in his classification of phraseological units and
labels them communicative phraseological units. Others like N. N. Amosova think that it is
erroneous to include them into the system of language because they are independent units of
communication, proverbs are different from phraseological units. The first distinctive feature is
structural dissimilarity: phraseological units are a kind of ready-made blocks which fit into the
structure of a sentence performing a certain syntactical function, more or less as words; proverbs
structurally are sentences, and so cannot be used in the way in which phraseological units are
used. Proverbs and phraseological units differ also semantically: proverbs could be compared
with minute fables for they sum up the collective experience of the community, they moralize,
give advice, give warning, admonish, criticize, while no phraseological unit ever does any of
these things; they do not stand for whole statements as proverbs do but for a single concept.
Their function in speech is purely nominative while the function of proverbs is communicative.
So the question of whether or not proverbs should be regarded as a subtype of
phraseological units and studied together with phraseology of a language is really a controversial
one, moreover there does not seem to exist a rigid or permanent border-line between proverbs
and phraseological units as the latter rather often originate from the former, e.g.: the last straw
originated − from the proverb the last straw breaks the camel’s back, the phraseological unit
birds of feather − from the proverb birds of feather flock together, the phraseological unit to
catch a straw / straws − from the proverb a drowning man catches at straws.
As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come
from literature but by and by they become part of the language.
The Shakespearian quotations have become and remain extremely numerous, they have
contributed enormously to the store of the language:
To be or not to be.
Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.

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Something is rotten in the state of Denmark.
Brevity is the soul of wit.
The rest is silence.
Some quotations are so often used that they come to be considered clichés, i. e. such
phrases that are constantly and mechanically repeated: astronomical figures, to break the ice, the
irony of fate, ample opportunities, the arms of Morpheus, etc.
As we see, the problem is treated differently by different scholars, and each approach has
its advantages and drawbacks.
XI.4. Summary and Conclusions
Phraseology deals with all types of set expressions. How to distinguish free word-groups
from phraseological units is probably the most discussed and the most controversial problem in
the field of phraseology. There are the following criteria of distinguishing between free word-
groups and set expressions: criterion of stability, criterion of function, criterion of context
criterion of lack of motivation.
Phraseological units, like words, belong to stylistically neutral, literary-bookish and
colloquial layers. Thus, phraseological units to make friends, to render a service, to go to bed,
all of a sudden are stylistically neutral. Among literary-bookish phraseological units one can find
barbarisms (ab ovo, ad verbum, á la lettre), archaic and poetic units (a heart of oak, the apple of
discord, to fall from grace), neologisms (Abominable Snowman, a back seat driver, straight
from central casting). A great number of phraseological units are literary colloquials (bag and
baggage, alive and kicking, as the crow flies, at sixes and sevens). Non-literary colloquial
phraseological units are subdivided into slang units (to get/to go bananas, to bat/to shoot the
breeze), jargonisms (to put to bed, to lay an egg, to sell one’s back, to go into the drunk),
professionalisms (to hit the ground, to ride the beam, to ride a desk, to hit the headlines) and
vulgarisms (to hand smb. crap, to have a boob, to fress freebee).

Suggested points for discussion

1. What are the major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and free
word-groups?
2. What criteria can be used for the classification of phraseological units?
3. What are the merits and disadvantages of the thematic principle of classification of
phraseological units?
4. Explain the semantic principle of classification of phraseological units.
5. What is the basis of the structural principle of classification of phraseological units?
6. What is Professor A. I. Smirnitsky’s classification system of phraseological units based
on? Are there any controversial points in this classification?
7. Comment on Professor A. V. Kunin’s system for the classification of phraseological
units. What is it based on?
8. Can proverbs be regarded as a subdivision of phraseological units?

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 CHAPTER XII
DIALECTS AND VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

XII.1. Standard English. Local Dialects in the British Isles and in the USA
For historical and economic reasons the English language has spread over vast territories.
It is the national language of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the
USA, Australia and New Zealand. It is used as one of the official languages in Canada, in the
Irish Republic, in India, Pakistan, and numerous countries in Africa. Linguists distinguish
territorial variants of national language and local dialects.
Every language allows different kinds of variants: geographical or territorial, stylistic, the
difference between the written and spoken form of standard national language and others.
Variants of language are regional varieties of a standard literary language characterized by some
peculiarities in the sound system, vocabulary, grammar, and by their own literary norms. Local
forms of the language are known as local dialects. They are peculiar to comparatively small
localities and are used as a means of oral communication in them. Dialects set off from other
varieties by some distinctive features of pronunciation and vocabulary. Thus a dialect includes
an accent, i. e. a way of pronouncing the language. In the British Isles there exist 5 main groups
of local dialects: Northern, Western, Midland, Eastern and Southern.
Dialects are usually opposed to the literary variety of the language which is called
Standard English. The term ‘standard’ is to be interpreted to mean ‘implicity considered to
represent correct and socially acceptable usage for educated purposes’. Standard English is
the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, radio
and television and spoken by educated people. It may be defined as that form of English, which
is current and literary, substantionally uniformed and recognized as acceptable whenever English
is spoken or understood.
Throughout the history of English there has been a contest between the forces of
standardization and the forces of localization, at both the written and the spoken levels. The
appearance of the first substantial English dictionaries in the 18 th century was a move towards
written standardization. It was Victorian England that realized the idea of “the Queen’s English,
a spoken standard to which the “lesser breeds” could aspire.”
There is an old Hindi proverb that “language changes every eighteen or twenty miles.”
Despite the influence of television and radio, one can still find a surprising number of regional
varieties of spoken English within the United States, Canada and Australia, and especially within
the British Isles. Here, depending on which county you are driving through, a donkey can still be
called a moke, or a cuddy, or a nirrup, or a pronkus. In the English Lake District deg, frap, heft,
joggle, nope, scaitch and whang all mean “to beat.” While it is true that local idioms are not as
strong as they were, we probably underrate their resilience and attribute more power to the
levelling forces of television and radio than they deserve. A conversation between a Dorset
shepherd and an Aberdonian farmworker can still be a dialogue of the deaf.
The most common form of English used by the British ruling class is that originating
from south-east England (the area around the capital, London, and the ancient English university
towns of Oxford and Cambridge). This form of the language is known as the “Received
Standard”, and its accent is called Received Pronunciation (RP), which is improperly regarded
by many people outside the UK as “the British accent.” Earlier it was held as better than other
accents and referred to as the King’s (or Queen’s) English, or even “BBC English.” Originally
this was the form of English used by radio and television. However, there is now much more
tolerance of variation than there was in the past; for several decades other accents have been
accepted and are frequently heard, although stereotypes about the BBC persist. English spoken
with a mild Scottish accent has a reputation for being especially easy to understand. Moreover,
only approximately two percent of Britons speak RP, and it has evolved quite markedly over the
last 40 years. Even in the south east there are significantly different accents; the local inner east
London accent called Cockney is strikingly different from RP and can be difficult for outsiders
to understand. The expression “cockney,” which was originally reserved for the members of
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certain communities, was a name applied by country people to those who dwelt in cities. The
Oxford English Dictionary explains the term as originating from cock and egg, meaning first a
misshapen egg (1362), then a person ignorant of country ways (1521). Now Cockney is seldom
heard except a certain very limited area of the East End of London. The most marked feature in
vowel sounds was the substitution of the diphthong [ai] instead of the standard [ei] in rain, days.
The [au] was changed into [a:]: instead of houses they wrote and pronounced [ha:ses]; [ai]
[daint] instead of [@U] – don’t.
Cockney is lively and witty and its vocabulary imaginative and colourful. Its specific
feature not occurring anywhere else is the so-called rhyming slang, in which some words are
substituted by other words rhyming with them. Boots, for instance, are called daisy roots, hat is
tit for tat, head is called loaf of bread. There are some specifically Cockney words and set
expressions such as up the pole - “drunk,” you’ll get yourself disliked (a remonstrance to a
person behaving very badly). All its lexical, phonetical and grammatical peculiarities can be
found in the speech of Eliza Doolittle and her father in Bernard Shaw “Pygmalion”, in Charles
Dickens “Pickwick Papers.”
There is a new form of accent called Estuary English that has been gaining prominence in
recent decades: it has some features of Received Pronunciation and some of Cockney. In London
itself, the broad local accent is still changing, partly influenced by Caribbean speech. Londoners
speak with a mixture of these accents, depending on class, age, upbringing, and so on. Since the
mass immigration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and its close accent borders, it has become a
source of various accent development. There, nowadays, one finds an accent known locally as
the Kettering accent, which is a mixture of many different local accents, including East
Midlands, East Anglian, Scottish, and Cockney.
Although some of the stronger regional accents may sometimes be difficult for some
English-speakers from outside Britain to understand, almost all “British English” accents are
mutually amongst the British themselves, with only occasional difficulty between very diverse
accents. However, modern communications and mass media have reduced these differences
significantly. In addition, most British people can to some degree temporarily “swing” their
accent (and particularly vocabulary) towards a more neutral form of standard English at will, to
reduce difficulty where very different accents are involved, or when speaking to foreigners. For
historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the form of language
spoken in London and the East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and
ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and
education within Britain. To a great extent, modern British spelling was standardised in Samuel
Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), although previous writers had also
played a significant role in this and much has changed since 1755. Scotland, which only
underwent parliamentary union in 1707, still has a few independent aspects of standardisation,
especially within its autonomous legal system.
The sphere of application of dialects is confined to the oral speech of the rural population
in a locality and lexical peculiarities are most noticeable in specifically dialectal words
pertaining to a) local customs, social life and natural conditions (kirk – church, loch – Scottish
lake); b) names of agricultural processes, tools, domestic animals (galloway – horse of small
strong breed, kyloe – one of small breed of long-horned Scotch cattle). There are also a
considerable number of emotionally coloured dialectical words, e.g.: bonny – beautiful, healthy-
looking; daffy – crazy, silly; cuddy – fool; loom – clumsy, stupid. In addition, words may have
different meanings in the national language and local dialects: e.g. in the Scottish dialect the
word to call is used in the meaning “to drive”, short – “rude”, silly – “weak,” etc.
The English language in the USA is characterized by relative uniformity throughout the
country. While written American English is standardized across the country, there are several
recognizable variations in the spoken language, both in pronunciation and in vernacular
vocabulary. Local dialects in the USA are relatively small. The following 3 major belts of
dialects have been identified in the USA: Northern, Midland (South Midland and North
Midland) and Southern.

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 After the Civil War, the settlement of the western territories by migrants from the Eastern
U.S. led to dialect mixing and levelling, so that regional dialects are most strongly differentiated
along the Eastern seaboard. The Connecticut River and Long Island Sound is usually regarded as
the southern/western extent of New England speech, which has its roots in the speech of the
Puritans from East Anglia who settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Potomac River
generally divides a group of Northern coastal dialects from the beginning of the Coastal
Southern dialect area; in between these two rivers several local variations exist, chief among
them the one that prevails in and around New York City and northern New Jersey, which
developed on a Dutch substratum after the British conquered New Amsterdam. The main
features of Coastal Southern speech can be traced to the speech of the English from the West
Country who settled in Virginia after leaving England at the time of the English Civil War, and
to the African influences from the African Americans who were enslaved in the South. Although
no longer region-specific, African American Vernacular English, which remains prevalent
amongst African Americans, has a close relationship to Southern varieties of American English
and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans. A distinctive speech pattern
was also generated by the separation of Canada from the United States, centred on the Great
Lakes region. This is the “Inland North” dialect — the “standard Midwestern” speech that was
the basis for General American in the mid-20th Century (although it has been recently modified
by the northern cities vowel shift). Those not from this area frequently confuse it with the North
Midland dialect treated below, referring to both collectively as “Midwestern.” In the interior, the
situation is very different. West of the Appalachian Mountains begins the broad zone of what is
generally called "Midland" speech. This is divided into two discrete subdivisions, the North
Midland that begins north of the Ohio River valley area, and the South Midland speech;
sometimes the former is designated simply “Midland” and the latter is reckoned as “Highland
Southern.” The North Midland speech continues to expand westward until it becomes the closely
related Western dialect which contains Pacific Northwest English as well as the well-known
California English, although in the immediate San Francisco area some older speakers do not
possess the cot-caught merger and thus retain the distinction between words such as cot and
caught which reflects a historical Mid-Atlantic heritage. Mormon and Mexican settlers in the
West influenced the development of Utah English. The South Midland or Highland Southern
dialect follows the Ohio River in a generally southwesterly direction, moves across Arkansas and
Oklahoma west of the Mississippi, and peters out in West Texas. It is a version of the Midland
speech that has assimilated some coastal Southern forms (outsiders often mistakenly believe
South Midland speech and coastal South speech to be the same). The island state of Hawaii has a
distinctive Hawaiian Pidgin. Finally, dialect development in the United States has been notably
influenced by the distinctive speech of such important cultural centres as Boston, Chicago,
Philadelphia, Charleston, New Orleans, and Detroit, which imposed their marks on the
surrounding areas.
The differences in pronunciation between American dialects are most apparent, but they
seldom interfere with understanding. Distinctions in grammar are scarce.
The differences in vocabulary are rather numerous, but they are easy to pick up, e.g.
Inland Northern Dutch cheese, New York pot cheese for Standard American cottage cheese.
There are also some full lexical units specific to the each group of American dialects: Midland
dialect (blinds – фіранки; buck - баран; fishworm – дощовий черв’як; a little piece – невелика
відстань; skillet – сковорідка), Northern (baby boggy – дитячий візок; belling – гамір;
boughten – щось куплене, не домашнє), Southern (bottoms – земля вздовж річки; fork –
струмок; coffee sack – полотняна торба; hobbies – кукурудзяні пластівці; rick – копиця
сіна).
XII.2. The American Variant of English
The use of English in the United States was inherited from the British colonization. The first
wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America in the 17 th century. During that time,
there were also speakers in North America of French, German, Spanish, Dutch as well as
numerous native American languages.

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The first large American dictionary “An American Dictionary of the English Language” (written
by Noah Webster in 1828) intended to show that the United States, which was a relatively new
country at the time, spoke a different variation from Britain.
The distinctions between British English (BrE) and American English (AmE) are not
limited to vocabulary; they can also be observed in phonetics, spelling and grammar.
The phonetical peculiarities of English in America are chiefly such as:
1) the pronunciation of the front [{] instead of the back [α:] in words like answer, ask,
class, dance, path, rather, sample etc.;
2) the pronunciation of the back [ö] with a slight labialisation instead of [Á] in words like
doctor, hot, modern, not, stop;
3) the pronunciation of [r] before consonants and at the end of words in words like car,
far, sort;
4) the pronunciation of [u:] instead of [ju:] in words like due, new, suit, tune;
5) some words have different pronunciation in British and American variants:
Word BrE AmE
advertisement [@] [ai]
candidate [i] [ei]
either [ai] [i:]
neither [ai] [i:]
process [@u] [α:]
tomato [α:] [ei]

Spelling differences. Among the various words which tend to be spelled differently in
the United States, there are many which can be placed within a few general groups on the basis
of certain letter combinations. American spelling is usually simpler. It tries to correspond more
closely to pronunciation.
Model Examples
BrE AmE BrE AmE
-our -or honour, colour honor, color
-re -er centre, litre center, liter
-ice -ise practice, defence practise, defense
-ll- -l- travelling, cancelling traveling, canceling
-s- -z- analyse, organisation analyze, organization
-ogue -og catalogue, dialogue catalog, dialog
-mme -m kilogramme, programme kilogram, program
-que -(c)k cheque, masque check, mask
en- in- enquire, ensure inquire, insure/ensure
-ement -ment judgement judgment
-ae- -e- anaesthesia, encyclopeadia anesthesia, encyclopedia
-exion -ection connexion, reflexion connection, reflection

The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as the colonists began borrowing
names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the native American languages (moose,
opossum, raccoon, squash). Among them can be found Indian names of specifically Indian
things (canoe, moccasin, toboggan, wigwam); some Spanish words (adobe, barbecue, cinch,
ranch); words brought into the language through the Negroes (banjo, juba). Among the earliest
and most notable regular “English” additions to the American vocabulary, dating from the early
days of colonization through the early 19th century, are terms describing the features of the
North American landscape; for instance, run, branch, fork, neck (of the woods), barrens, notch,
knob, riffle, watergap, trial. Already existing words such as creek, slough, sleet, and (in later
use) watershed, received new meanings that were unknown in England. Other noteworthy
American toponyms are found among loanwords; for example, prairie, butte (French); canyon
mesa, arroyo (Spanish); vlei, kill (Dutch, Hudson Valley). The word corn, used in England to
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refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the plant Zea mays, the most important crop in the
U.S., originally named Indian corn by the earliest settlers; wheat, rye, barley, oats, etc. came to
be collectively referred to as grain (or breadstuffs). Other notable farm related vocabulary
additions were the new meanings assumed by barn (not only a building for hay and grain
storage, but also for housing livestock) and team (not just the horses, but also the vehicle along
with them), as well as, in various periods, the terms elevator, range, truck. Ranch, later applied
to a house style, derives from Mexican Spanish; most Spanish contributions came indeed after
the War of 1812, with the opening of the West. Among these are, other than toponyms, chaps
(from chaparreras), lasso, plaza, bronco, buckaroo, examples of “English” additions from the
cowboy era are bad man, maverick, chuck “food,” and Boot Hill; from the California Gold Rush
came such idioms as hit pay dirt or strike it rich. The word blizzard probably originated in the
West.
A couple of notable late 18th century additions are the verb belittle and the noun bid, both
first used in writing by Thomas Jefferson. With the new continent developed new forms of
dwelling, and hence a large inventory of words designating real estate concepts (land office, lot,
outlands, waterfront, the verbs locate and relocate, betterment, addition, subdivision), types of
property (log cabin, adobe in the 18th century; frame, house, apartment, tenement house, shack,
shanty in the 19th century; project, condominimum, townhouse, mobile home, multi-family in the
20th century), and parts thereof (driveway, breezeway, backyard, dooryard; clapboard,
baseboard, trim, stoop (from Dutch), family room, den; and, in recent years, HVAC, central air,
walkout basement).
Ever since the American Revolution, a great number of terms connected with the U.S.
political institutions have entered the language; examples are run, gubernatorial, primary
election, carpetbagger (after the Civil War), repeater, lame duck, and pork barrel. Some of these
are internationally used (e.g. caucus, gerrymander, filibuster, exit poll).
The rise of capitalism, the development of industry, and material innovations throughout
the 19th and 20th centuries were the source of a massive stock of distinctive new words, phrases,
and idioms. Typical examples are the vocabulary of railroading and transportation terminology,
ranging from names of roads (from dirt roads and back roads to freeways and parkways) to road
infrastructure (parking lot, overpass, rest area), and from automobile terminology to public
transit (e.g. in the sentence “riding the subway downtown”); such American introductions as
commuter (from commutation ticket), concourse, to board (a vehicle), to park, double-park, and
parallel park (a car), double decker, or the noun terminal have long been used in all variants of
English. Trades of various kinds have endowed (American) English with household words
describing jobs and occupations (bartender, longshoreman, patrolman, bellhop, white collar,
blue collar, employee, boss (from Dutch), intern, busboy, senior citizen), businesses and
workplaces (department store, supermarket, gift shop, drugstore, motel, gas station, hock (also
from Dutch)), as well as general concepts and innovations (cash register, dishwasher,
reservation (as at hotels), pay envelope, movie, mileage, blood bank, shortage). Already existing
English words — such as store, shop, dry goods, haberdashery, lumber — underwent shifts in
meaning; some — such as mason, student, clerk, the verbs can (as in “canned goods”), ship, fix,
carry, enroll (as in school), run (as in “run a business”), release, and haul — were given new
significations, while others (such as tradesman) have retained meanings that disappeared in
England. From the world of business and finance came breakeven, bottom line, merger,
delisting, downsize; from sports terminology came, jargon aside, Monday-morning quarterback,
cheap shot, game plan (football); in the ballpark, out of left field, off base, hit and run, and many
other idioms from baseball; gamblers coined bluff, blue chip, ante, bottom dollar, raw deal, pass
the buck, ace in the hole, freeze-out, showdown; miners coined bedrock, bonanza, peter out, and
the verb prospect from the noun; and railroadmen are to be credited with make thegrade,
sidetrack, head-on, and the verb railroad. A number of Americanisms describing material
innovations remained largely confined to North America: elevator, ground, gasoline; many
automotive terms fall in this category, although many do not (hatchback, SUV, station wagon,
truck, to exhaust). In addition to the above-mentioned loans from French, Spanish, Mexican
Spanish, Dutch, and Native American languages, other accretions from foreign languages came
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with 19th and early 20th century immigration; notably, from Yiddish (chutzpah, schmooze, and
such idioms as need something like a hole in the head) and German — hamburger and culinary
terms like frankfurter/franks, liverwurst, sauerkrau; musical terminology (whole note, half note,
etc.); and apparently cookbook, fresh “impudent,” and what gives?. Such constructions as Are
you coming with? and I like to dance (for “I like dancing”) may also be the result of German or
Yiddish influence. Finally, a large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are
American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7),
while others have not (have a nice day, sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell,
groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey, boost, bulldoze,
and jazz, originated as American slang. Among the many English idioms of U.S. origin are get
the hang of, take for a ride, bark up the wrong tree, keep tabs, run scared, take a backseat, have
an edge over, stake a claim, take a shine to, in on the ground floor, bite off more than one can
chew, off/on the wagon, for the birds, stay put, inside track, stiff upper lip, bad hair day, give the
hairy eyeball, under the weather, jump bail, come clean, come again?, and will the real x please
stand up?
Linguists usually note the fact that different variants of English use different words for
the same objects. Thus, in describing the lexical differences between the British and American
variants, they provide long lists of word pairs like:
BrE AmE BrE AmE
accumulator battery nought zero
aubergine eggplant pavement sideback
anorak parka plaster Band Aid
autumn fall post mail
bill check queue line
boot trunk rank taxi stand
crisp potato chip ring (up) call (on the phone)
diary appointment book rubber eraser (for a pencil)
dustbin garbage can rucksack backpack
flat apartment specs (spectacles) glasses
garden yard spot pimple
high street main street subway pedestrian crossing
jacket potato backed potato surgery doctor’s/dentist’s
office
jumper sweater taxi cab
lemon squash lemonade trolley shopping cart
lift elevator trousers pants
lorry truck tuition instruction
mark grade vegetable marrow squash
minder babysitter vest undershirt
nappy diaper waistcoat vest

With respect to morphology, American English has always shown a marked tendency to
use substantives as verbs and form compound words. Examples of verbed nouns are interview,
advocate, vacuum, lobby, expense, room, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, buffalo,
weasel, express (mail), belly-ache, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, merchandise, service (as a
car), corner, torch, exit (as in “exit a place”), factor (in mathematics), gun “shoot,” author
(which disappeared in English around 1630 and was revived in the U.S. three centuries later)
and, out of American material, proposition, graft (bribery), bad-mouth, vacation, major,
backpack, backtrack, intern, ticket (traffic violations), hassle, blacktop, peer-review, dope, and
OD. Compounds coined in the U.S. are for instance foothill, flatlands, badlands, landslide (in all
senses), overview (the noun), backdrop, teenager, brainstorm, smalltime, deadbeat, frontman,
lowbrow and highbrow, hell-bent, foolproof, nitpick, about-face (later verbed), upfront (in all
senses), fixer-upper, no-show; many of these are phrases used as adverbs or (often) hyphenated
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attributive adjectives: non-profit, for-profit, free-for-all, ready-to-wear, catchall, low-down,
down-and-out, down and dirty, in-your-face, nip and tuck; many compound nouns and adjectives
are open: happy hour, fall guy, capital guy, wheat pit, head start, plea bargain; some of these are
colourful (loan shark, buzz sawghetto blaster, dust bunny), others are euphemistic (differently
abled, human resources, physically challenged, affirmative action). Many compound nouns have
the form verb plus preposition: add-on, stopover, lineup, tryout, hideout, comeback, cookout,
kickback, makeover, takeover, rollback “decrease,” rip-off, come-on, shoo-in, fix-up, tie-in, tie-
up “stoppage,” stand-in. These essentially are nouned phrasal verbs; some prepositional and
phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin (spell out, figure out, hold up, brace up, size up,
rope in, back up/off/down/out, step down, miss out on, kick around, cash in, rain out, check in
and check out (in all senses), fill in “inform,” kick in “contribute,” square off, sock in, sock away,
factor in/out, come down with, give up on, lay off (from employment), run into and across
“meet,” stop by, pass up, put up (money), set up “frame,” trade in, pick up on, pick up after, lose
out. Some verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize,
accessorize, itemize, editorialize, customize, notarize, winterize, and so are some back-formation
(locate, fine-tune, evolute, curate, donate, emote, upholster, and enthuse). Among syntactical
constructions that arose in the U.S. are as of, outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of,
convince someone to..., not to be about to, and lack for.
Americanisms formed by alteration of existing words include notably pesky, phony,
rambunctious, pry (as in “pry open,” from prize), putter (verb), buddy, skeeter, sashay, and kitty-
corner. Adjectives that arose in the U.S. are for example lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy,
grounded (of a child), punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in “through train,”
or meaning “finished”), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky. American blends
include motel, guesstimate, infomercial, and televangelist.
The grammatical system of British and American variants is mostly the same, with very
few exceptions:
1) the auxiliary verb will is used in the 1 st person singular and plural of the Future
Indefinite Tense in American English while British normative is shall;
2) in interrogative sentences with the verb to have the auxiliary verbs do and does are
used in the American variant while in British English it may be omitted;
3) there is a tendency in American variant to substitute the Present Indefinite Tense for
the Present Perfect Tense;
4) the American variant is characterized by the use of indefinite pronouns as adverbs
(BrE: He didn’t eat at all, AmE: He didn’t eat any);
5) some irregular verbs have the old forms of the Past Participle in AmE (e.g. learn, burn,
sneak, dive, get);
6) the American variant is characterized by the use of different prepositions and adverbs
in certain contexts (e.g. AmE in school, BrE at school).
There are also some full lexical units specific to the British or American variant in all
their meanings. For example, the words fortnight, pillar-box are full Briticism, campus, mailboy,
drive-in are full Americanisms. So, lexical peculiarities of American English have social and
geographical basis.
In spite of certain peculiarities of word usage, colloquial idioms and slang, both Britishers
and Americans use fundamentally the same language.
XII.3. Canadian English
It should be noted that American English isn’t the only existing variant. There are several
other variants where difference from the British standard is normalized, they are: Australian
English, Canadian English and Indian English. Each of them has developed a literature of its
own, and is characterized by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.
The term “Canadian English” is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable
Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857. Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian,
reflected the Anglocentric attitude prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he
referred to the language as “a corrupt dialect,” in comparison to what he considered the proper
English spoken by immigrants from Britain. Canadian English is the product of four waves of
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immigration and settlement over a period of almost two centuries. The first large wave of
permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the
influx of British Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Middle Atlantic
States. The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the
War of 1812 by the governors of Canada, who were worried about anti-English sentiment among
its citizens. Waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910 and 1960 had a lesser
influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change
from around the world during the current period of globalisation. The languages of Canadian
Aboriginal peoples started to influence European languages used in Canada even before
widespread settlement took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary to the
English of Upper Canada.
Spelling. Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American
rules. Most notably, French-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such
as color or center, usually retain British spellings (colour and centre), although American
spellings are not uncommon. Also, while the U.S. uses the Anglo-French spelling defense
(noun), Canada uses the British spelling defence. (Note that defensive is universal.) In other
cases, Canadians and Americans stand at odds with British spelling such as in the case of nouns
like tire and curb, which in British English are spelled tyre and kerb; words such as realize and
recognize are usually spelled with -ize rather than -ise. Canadian spelling rules can be partly
explained by Canada’s trade history. For instance, the British spelling of the word cheque
probably relates to Canada’s once-important ties to British financial institutions. Canada’s
automobile industry, on the other hand, has been dominated by American firms from its
inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of tire and American
terminology for the parts of automobiles.
Phonology and Pronunciation. The following features distinguish Canadian English
from a phonologically conservative Northern U.S. accent: Canadian raising: diphthongs are
“raised” before voiceless consonants. For example, IPA [aI] and [aU] become [əI] and [əU],
respectively, before [p], [t], [k], [s], [f]. Cot-caught merger: Speakers do not distinguish between
the open-mid back rounded vowel [O] and open back unrounded vowel [α:]. Canadian Shift: it is
a chain shift triggered by the cot-caught merger. The vowels in the words cot and caught merge
to [kOt]. The [æ] of bat is retracted to [a], the [E] of bet shifts to [æ], the [I] in bit then shifts to
the [E] in bet. Traditionally diphthongal vowels such as [əU] (as in boat) and [eI] (as in bait)
have qualities much closer to monophthongs in some speakers especially in the Inland region.
[Á] and [aU] are pronounced back. [u] is fronted after coronals. [æ] is tense before velar stops.
Words such as borrow, sorry or tomorrow are realized as [-Or-], rather than [-ar-]. In oral speech
the Canadian variant of the English language has a tendency to change “th” into “t” and “d”.
Words like semi, anti, and multi tend to be pronounced as [semi], [ænti], and [mölti] rather than
[semaI], [æntaI], and [möltaI]. Often, a Canadian will use the former in general use, but the latter
in order to add emphasis. The [α:] of foreign loanwords (such as pasta) is pronounced as [æ].
Vocabulary. Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English variants, it tends to
share most with American English; many terms in standard Canadian English are, however,
shared with Britain, but not with the majority of American speakers. In some cases the British
and the American term coexist, to various extents; a classic example is holiday, often used
interchangeably with vacation. In addition, the vocabulary of Canadian English also features
words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere. As a member of the Commonwealth of Nations,
Canada shares many items of institutional terminology with the countries of the former British
Empire – e.g., constable, for a police officer of the lowest rank, and chartered accountant. The
term college, which refers to post-secondary education in general in the U.S., refers in Canada to
either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as
federated schools within some Canadian universities. Most often, a college is a community
college, not a university. In Canada, college student might denote someone obtaining a diploma
in business management while university student is the term for someone earning a bachelor’s
degree. For that reason, going to college does not have the same meaning as going to university,
unless the speaker clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant. Canadian
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universities publish calendars or schedules, not catalogs as in the U.S. Students write exams,
they do not take or sit them. Those who supervise students during an exam are generally called
invigilators as in Britain, or sometimes proctors as in the U.S.; usage may depend on the region
or even the individual institution. Successive years of school are often, if not usually, referred to
as grade one, grade two, and so on. (Compare American first grade, second grade, sporadically
found in Canada, and British Year 1, Year 2.) In the U.S., the four years of high school are
termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in
Canada, these are simply grade 9 through 12. As for higher education, only the term freshman
(usually reduced to frosh) has some currency in Canada. The specific high-school grades and
university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, the grade 12s failed to
graduate; John is in his second year at McMaster. Canadian students use the term marks (more
common in England) or grades to refer to their results; usage is very mixed.
Canadian English has words or expressions not found, or not widely used, in other variants of
English. For example, bachelor: bachelor apartment (“They have a bachelor for rent”);
chesterfield: originally British and internationally used (as in classic furnishing terminology) to
refer to a sofa whose arms are the same height as the back, it is a common term for any couch or
sofa in Canada (and, to some extent, Northern California). The more international terms sofa and
couch are also used; among younger generations in the western and central regions, chesterfield
is largely in decline. Double-double: a cup of coffee with two creams and two sugars. And by the
same token, triple-triple. Eh: a spoken interjection to ascertain the comprehension, continued
interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed (“That was a good game last night,
eh?”). May also be used instead of “huh?” or “what?” meaning “please repeat or say again.”
Frequently mis-represented by Americans as A, or hey. Humidex: measurement used by
meteorologists to reflect the combined effect of heat and humidity. Toonie: Canadian two dollar
coin.
Grammar. The name of the letter Z, z is normally the Anglo-European (and French) zed;
the American zee is not unknown in Canada, but it is often stigmatized. When writing,
Canadians will start a sentence with As well, in the sense of “in addition”; this construction is a
Canadianism. Canadian and British English share idioms like in hospital and to university, while
in American English the definite article is mandatory; to/in the hospital is also common in
Canadian speech.
XII.4. Australian English
Australian English began to diverge from British English soon after the foundation of the
colony of New South Wales (NSW) in 1788. The settlement was intended mainly as a penal
colony. The British convicts sent to Australia were mostly from large English cities. Among the
original immigrants there were also many free settlers, military personnel and administrators and
their families. In 1827, Peter Cunningham, in his book Two Years in New South Wales, reported
that native-born white Australians spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, albeit with a
strong Cockney influence. (The transportation of convicts to Australian colonies ended in 1868,
but immigration of free settlers from Britain continued unabated.) The first Australian gold
rushes in the 1850s resulted in a much larger wave of immigration that also had a significant
influence on Australian English. At the same time, large numbers of people who spoke English
as a second language were also arriving. The “Americanisation” of Australian English —
signified by the borrowing of words, spellings, terms, and usages from North American English
— began during the goldrushes, and was accelerated by a massive influx of the USA military
personnel during World War II. Since the 1950s, there has been an increasing availability and
importation of mass media content written in US English, such as books and magazines,
television programs, computer software and the world wide web; this has also had an effect. As a
result Australians use many British and American words interchangeably. Due to their shared
history and geographical proximity, Australian English is most similar to New Zealand English.
As with most variants of English, it is distinguished primarily by its vowel phonology.
Australian English vowels are divided into two categories: long, which includes long
monophthongs and diphthongs, and short, all of which are monophthongs. The short vowels
mostly correspond to the lax vowels, the long vowels correspond to its tense vowels as well as its
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centralising diphthongs. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a phonemic length distinction: a
number of vowels differ only by the length. Australian English consonants are similar to those of
other non-rhotic varieties of English. In comparison to other varieties, it has a flapped variant of
[t] and [d] in similar environments as in American English. Many speakers have also coalesced
[tj] and [dj] into [tS] and [dʒ], with pronunciations such as [tSu:n] being standard.
Vocabulary. The vocabulary of all the variants is characterized by a high percentage of
borrowings from the language of the people who inhabited the land before the English colonisers
came. Many of them denote some specific realia of the new country: local animals, plants or
weather conditions, new trades and conditions of labour. Among lexical units of the Australian
variant there are such as:
1) names of towns, countries: Kangarooland, Cabbage Garden (штат Вікторія), Banana
City (Брісбен);
2) geographical and nature names: Albany doctor – південно-східний бриз, Darling shower
– пилова буря, creek - ручай, bush - хащі;
3) plants: gum-tree - евкаліпт, wattle – місцева акація, scub - ліс;
4) animals: dingo, emu, echidna, koala;
5) ethnic names and professionalisms: digger – золотошукач, sheila, lubra – молода
жінка, ringer – особа, яка стриже овець.
There are many metaphors and metonyms in Australian variant: dingo - боягуз, koala -
дипломат, kiwi – мешканець Нової Зеландії.
Many phraseological units are spread in Australian variant of English. They may be
divided into: 1) names of wild animals: to be on the tiger – бути засватаним під час пиятики,
to have kangaroos in one’s top paddock – з’їхати з глузду, lousy as a bandicoot - огидний; 2)
names of domestic animals: to undress a sheep – обдурити когось, Pig Islands – Нова
Зеландія, to run the rabbit – запастись напоями; 3) names of birds: Sidney duck – переселенці,
які потрапили до Австралії під час золотої лихоманки, the duck’s dinner – одна вода,
cocky’s coal – качан кукурудзи, що використовується як паливо; 4) names of reptiles and
insects: to flat out like a lizard on a log – швидко працювати, a frog skin – однодоларова
банкнота, to drink with the flies – випивати на самоті; 5) plants and trees: to be a gum-tree –
бути корінним мешканцем, a bush lawyer – гостроязика людина.
Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider to be unique to
their country. One of the best-known of these is outback which means a remote, sparsely-
populated area. The similar bush can mean either native forests or country areas in general.
However, both terms are historically widely used in many English-speaking countries. Many
such words, phrases or usages originated with the British convicts transported to Australia. Many
words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England,
with variations in meaning. For example: a creek in Australia, as in North America, is any stream
or small river, whereas in England it is a small watercourse flowing into the sea; paddock is the
Australian word for a field, while in England it is a small enclosure for livestock and; wooded
areas in Australia are known as bush or scrub, as in North America, while in England, they are
commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd’s Bush and Wormwood Scrubs).
Australian English and several British English dialects (for example, Cockney, Scouse or
Geordie) also both use the word mate to mean a close friend of the same gender and increasingly
with a platonic friend of the opposite sex (rather than the conventional meaning of “a spouse”),
although this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English. The origins of
other terms are not as clear, or are disputed. Dinkum (or “fair dinkum”) means “true”, or when
used in speech: “is that true?”, “this is the truth!”, and other meanings, depending on context and
inflection. The derivation dinky-di means a “true” or devoted Australian. The words dinkum or
dinky-di and phrases like true blue are widely purported to be typical Australian sayings,
however these sayings are more commonly used in jest or parody rather than as an authentic way
of speaking. Similarly, g’day, a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with
“good day” in other varieties of English (it can be used at night time) and is never used as an
expression for “farewell”, as “good day” is in other countries. Some elements of Aboriginal

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languages have been incorporated into Australian English, mainly as names for places, flora and
fauna (for example dingo, kangaroo). Beyond that, few terms have been adopted into the wider
language, except for some localised terms, or slang. Some examples are cooee and Hard yakka.
The former is a high-pitched call which travels long distances and is used to attract attention.
Cooee has also become a notional distance: if he’s within cooee, we’ll spot him. Hard yakka
means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Yagara/Jagara language once spoken in
the Brisbane region. Also from the Brisbane region comes the word bung meaning broken. A
failed piece of equipment might be described as having bunged up or referred to as “on the
bung” or “gone bung”. Bung is also used to describe an individual who is pretending to be hurt;
such individual is said to be “bunging it on”. If someone was hurt he could say “I’ve got a bung
knee.”
There is a widely held belief in Australia that “American spellings” are a modern
intrusion, but the debate over spelling is much older and has little to do with the influence of
North American English. The town of Victor Harbor has the Victor Harbour Railway Station
and the municipality’s official website speculates that excising the u from the town’s name was
originally a “spelling error.” This continues to cause confusion in how the town is named in
official and unofficial documents. Although the spelling jail prevails, gaol is still used in official
contexts.
Many Australians believe themselves to be direct in manner and/or admire frank and
open communication. Such sentiments can lead to misunderstandings and offence being caused
to people from other cultures. For instance, spoken Australian English is generally more tolerant
of offensive and/or abusive language than other variants. Many politicians are exponents of this
style in Parliament.
Australian English makes frequent use of diminutives. They can be formed in a number
of ways and can be used to indicate familiarity. Some examples include arvo (afternoon), servo
(service station), bottle-o (bottle-shop), barbie (barbecue), cozzie (swimming costume), footy
(Rugby League or Australian rules football) and mozzie (mosquito). Similar diminutives are
commonly used for personal nicknames (Johnno, Fitzy). Occasionally a -za diminutive is used,
usually for personal names where the first of multiple syllables ends in an "r", so Barry becomes
Bazza and Sharon, Shazza. Many phrases once common to Australian English have become the
subject of common stereotypes, over-use and Hollywood’s caricaturised over-exaggerations,
even though they have largely disappeared from everyday use. Words being used less often
include cobber, strewth, you beaut and crikey, and archetypal phrases like flat out like a lizard
drinking are rarely heard without a sense of irony. The phrase put a shrimp on the barbie is a
misquotation of a phrase that became famous after being used by Paul Hogan in tourism
advertisements that aired in America. Most Australians use the term prawn rather than shrimp,
and do not commonly barbecue them. Many people trying to impersonate or mock an Australian
will use this line, though Australians themselves would never have used this line. Australia's
unofficial national anthem Waltzing Matilda written by bush poet Banjo Paterson, contains many
obsolete Australian words and phrases that appeal to a rural ideal and are understood by
Australians even though they are not in common usage outside this song. One example is the
title, which means travelling (particularly with a type of bed roll called a swag).
XII.5. Indian English
The first level of the global sway of English is to be found in those countries, formerly
British colonies, in which English as a second language has become accepted as a fact of cultural
life that cannot be wished away. In India the Constitution of 1947 recognized English as an
“associate” official language. In the heady early days of independence, the first prime minister,
Nehru, declared that “within one generation” English would no longer be used in India. By the
1980s, most Indians would admit that, like it or not, English was as much a national language of
India as Hindi.
English in India is vital for science and industry. It is probably the most important link
language in science. But English is not simply a vital means of intercommunication for the
scientific community, it also, almost unconsciously, provides the everyday basic vocabulary.
Professor Yash Pal says: “There are all kinds of standard terms in computer programmes and
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then of course the management jargon like ‘the critical path’. One doesn’t even notice that they
are English words.”
The power of English in Indian life also extends to fundamentals like choosing a wife. In
the Institute of Home Economics, in Delhi, one of the girls remarked that 95 per cent of Indian
men “do definitely consider English as a prerequisite for brides... We are still very much
influenced by what the British left us... English represents class.”
The students even distinguish between British and American English. In class, for formal
writing, and to impress their parents, they will use British English. Colloquially, they use
American English.
XII.6. Summary and Conclusions

Linguists distinguish local dialects and variants of English. The varieties of English
spoken in the USA, Canada, Australia, India should be considered as variants of the same
language because they serve all spheres of verbal communication. Each of them is characterized
by distinct peculiarities in pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, and grammatical system.
Suggested points for discussion

1. What do you mean by Standard English?

2. Explain the difference between a local dialect and regional variety.
3. Be ready to describe the main dialects in the United Kingdom and the USA.
4. Give comments on the peculiarities of Cockney.
5. Discuss the differences in pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and grammar in the British and
American variants of the English language.
6. Comment on the peculiarities in British and Canadian English.
7. Give some examples of peculiarities of the English language in Australia.

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 CHAPTER XIII
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH LEXICOGRAPHY
XIII.1. The Linguistic Basis of Lexicography
Lexicography is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. It is an important
branch of applied linguistics, the main purpose of which is the production of dictionaries.
What is meant by the term “dictionary”? There are various definitions of this
phenomenon, but in the opinion of the famous lexicographer L. Zgusta, one of the best
definitions was given by C. C. Berg: “A dictionary is a systematically arranged list of socialized
linguistic forms compiled from the speech habits of a given speech-community and commented
on by the author in such a way that the qualified reader understands the meaning of each separate
form, and is informed of the relevant facts concerning the function of that form in its
community”.
Lexicography is a process related to both – the vocabulary, or lexis, or lexicon, and a set
of theoretical principles (Lexicology) with which to tackle them. The theory of Lexicography is
connected with all the levels of linguistic structure: semantics, lexicology, grammar and
stylistics. The dictionary is indeed the meeting of all the systems, linguistic and non-linguistic
which are relevant to speech activity. The result of this complex process is the dictionary which
is defined as a reference book that gives a list of words (usually in alphabetical order)
together with a guide to their meanings, pronunciation, spelling, or equivalents in other
languages.
Dictionary-making is an essentially practical activity which is as old as man’s concern
with written communication. But in order to compile a dictionary, one must have a notion of the
“word” and an understanding of how it is used in interpersonal discourse.
The discipline that has contributed more than any other to our understanding of how
words are used in communication is linguistics. There exists a close interrelationship between
linguistic theory and lexicographical practice. This interrelation is confirmed by the following 5
postulates, i. e. smth. accepted without any proofs:
1) Lexicography is concerned with the description and explanation of the vocabulary of a
language;
2) the basic unit in dictionary-making is the “lexeme, the close combination of form and
meaning”;
3) dictionaries may describe the whole vocabulary of the language or concentrate on
one or more of its aspects;
4) dictionary-making has to develop a metalanguage for handling and presenting the
information, i. e. it has to develop words that are used for talking about or describing language
(metalinguistics is the study of the interrelation between language and other cultural behavioral
[bi´heivәjәrәl] phenomena; language as behaviour);
5) ultimately all dictionaries are motivated by and judged against the lexical needs of
the language user whom they serve.
As we see, the first postulate relates to the subject-matter of Lexicography – its subject-
matter is description and explanation of words of the language.
The second postulate confirms that the basic unit of dictionary-making is the lexeme, a
meaningful speech form that is one of the vocabulary items of a language.
The third one deals with the size of dictionaries and the aspect of the language it
describes.
Size is not mere bulk and so the number of the entries of a dictionary, numerically precise
as it may be, is only a rough indication of its informative power. Very much depends upon how
the entry itself is worked out. Thus, in size dictionaries may be from pocket to library editions,
for laymen (person who doesn’t possess an expert knowledge of a subject) and specialists, many
of them not even containing the word “dictionary” in their title. They may be concerned with
historical changes or contemporary usage, with the standard language or one or more of its
variants, with two or several different languages.

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 The fourth postulate underlines that dictionary-making may be usefully guided by a
metalanguage, i. e. a set of symbols used in talking about language or describing natural
languages, a universal semiotic code used for handling and presenting linguistic information. For
this purpose in a metalanguage both various codes of logics and mathematics and codes of
mental objects and situations, e.g. frames, cognitive and semantic diagrams, etc., are used.
And the last, the fifth postulate is concerned with the dictionary user. It should answer
the question “What is a dictionary for?” In this respect many questions arise, namely:
- Who owns this or that dictionary?
- Are dictionaries used as guides to usage or to settle questions?
- What role do dictionaries play in the home, in schools, in the office?
- How often are dictionaries borrowed from libraries?
To answer these questions the following 4 factors should be taken into account:

Information Operations
meanings/synonyms finding meanings
pronunciation/syntax finding words
spelling/etymology translating, etc.
names/facts, etc.
users purposes
child extending knowledge of the mother
pupil/trainee tongue
teacher/critic learning foreign language
scientist/secretary, etc. playing word games
composing a report
reading/decoding foreign lang. texts

Summing up, it’s necessary to mention, that principles of dictionary-making are always
based on linguistic fundamentals.
XIII.2. Main Types of English Dictionaries
XIII.2.1. Encyclopedic Dictionaries VS Linguistic Dictionaries
There are many different types of English dictionaries. First of all they may be roughly
divided into two groups – encyclopedic and linguistic.
The two groups of reference books differ essentially in the choice of items included and in
the sort of information given about them. Linguistic dictionaries are word-books, their subject-
matter is lexical units and their linguistic properties such as pronunciation, meaning, peculiarities
of use, etc. The encyclopedic dictionaries, the biggest of them are sometimes called simply
encyclopedias, are thing-books, that give information about the extra-linguistic world, they deal
with concepts (objects and phenomena), their relations to other objects and phenomena, etc. In
the manner of compilation it is a cooperative dictionary, the joint product of a large number of
scholars.
As generally known examples of an encyclopedia can be indicated the Encyclopedia
Britannica. A New Survey of Universal Knowledge in 24 volumes, and the Encyclopedia
Americana. The International Reference Work in 30 volumes.
Encyclopedia Britannica is a dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Literature with pictorial
illustrations, with brief etymological notes but in outline the sources and history and in many
cases the development in meaning. Its first edition in three volumes was published in 1768. Its
second edition appeared in ten volumes in 1777-1784, the 14 th edition – in 24 volumes in 1929.
Since 1974 this encyclopedia has been republished annually in 30 volumes, about 1000 pages
each. All in all it contains about approximately 350 entries. Besides, the Britannica Book of the
Year (“Ежегодник Британской энциклопедии”) in which the information of the previous year
in the field of science and engineering is published.
The first edition of Encyclopedia Americana included 13 volumes (1829-1833). In 1903-
1904 it was published in 16 volumes, in 1918-1920 – in 30 volumes. Since that time it has been
published in such a volume. There are about 950 pages in each volume. The dictionary contains
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about 320000 entries. Like Encyclopedia Britannica it is reprinted nearly every year, with some
changes and additions. As a supplement The Americana Annual (“Американский ежегодник”)
is published annually.
Besides the general encyclopedic dictionaries there are reference books that are confined
to definite fields of knowledge. Rather popular and well-known in English-speaking countries
are The World Book Encyclopedia (in 26 volumes), Britannica Junior (in 15 volumes, for
schoolchildren), Chambers Encyclopedia (in 15 volumes, a family type encyclopedia), etc.
Special encyclopedian dictionaries are dedicated to certain fields of knowledge. These are the
following dictionaries: The Oxford Companion to English Literature, Oxford Companion to
Theatre, Encyclopedia of Epigrams, Encyclopedia of Antiquities, Encyclopedia of Epigrams, etc.
There are also numerous dictionaries presenting information about notable persons (scientists,
writers, kings, etc.). They are often called Who’s Who Dictionaries.
In this country The Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia was published in 12 volumes.
The very word ‘encyclopedia’ suggests a huge work of many volumes concerned with all
the fields of human knowledge.
It is important, however, to understand that a specialized dictionary can also be of
encyclopedic character provided that they are primarily interested in the denotata. It is irrelevant
whether they are huge or whether they are concise; it is also irrelevant by what principle their
entries are chosen (terms of a science, important geographical place-names, names of famous
writers, etc.): the decisive thing is the interest they display in the extra-linguistic world and the
sort of information they give. It follows that the encyclopedic dictionaries will never enter items
like father, go, be, black, etc., but only those of designative character, such as names of
substances, diseases, plants and animals, terms of science, some important events in history, and
also geographical entries.
Although some of the items included in encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries coincide,
e.g. the names of some diseases, the information presented in them is quite different. The former
give much more extensive information on these subjects. Thus, e.g. the entry influenza in a
linguistic dictionary presents the word’s spelling and pronunciation, grammar characteristics,
synonyms, etc. In an encyclopedic dictionary the entry influenza discloses the causes, symptoms,
characteristics and varieties of this disease, various treatments of and remedies for it, ways of
infection, etc. One more example. If we read the entry bridge in a linguistic dictionary we get the
definitions of the word’s different senses (like a structure forming or carrying a road over a river,
a ravine, or affording passage between two points at a height above the ground), with quotations
of different examples from texts where the word occurs. In Encyclopedia Britannica the same
word bridge is a long entry which consists of seven chapters: I. History. II. Notable bridges by
type. III. Constructions by type: A. fixed bridges; B. opening bridges. IV. Materials of
construction. V. Bridge design. VI. Manufacture and supports. VII. Erection. The entry is full of
pictures, tables, formulae. In short, he who has read it knows what is worth knowing about
various objects of the material world which can be referred to as bridges.
There is no need to stress that encyclopedic entries are not always as long as the one
quoted above. But it is not their length which is decisive, it is their focus of interest in the
extralinguistic world, in the objects themselves.
Linguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by different criteria.
According to the nature of their word-list they are divided into general dictionaries and
restricted (special) dictionaries. These terms don’t refer to the size of the dictionary or to the
number of items listed. It would be totally wrong to think that general dictionaries try to contain
all the words, whereas restricted ones do not. The density of the entries and their number is a
criterion that will be discussed in the section dealing with the size of the dictionaries. What is
meant here is that general dictionaries contain lexical units in ordinary use with this or that
proportion of items from various spheres of life, that the dictionary is concerned mainly with the
general language, i. e. with the standard national language, such is The Oxford Dictionary in its
13 volumes.

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 Within the category of general dictionaries it’s necessary to discern two different types
again: standard-descriptive dictionaries and overall-descriptive or informative dictionaries.
As the terms imply, both these types belong to the broader category of descriptive dictionaries.
Standard-descriptive dictionaries can be characterized as descriptive dictionaries of the
standard national language as it is used at the point of time when the dictionary is being
compiled, and to a degree also as it is expected to be used for some time after the publication of
the dictionary.
Overall-descriptive dictionaries differ from standard-descriptive ones in that respect
that they describe much more than the standard national language as it is used at the point of
time of the compilation; they are not concerned with future usage; they are used primarily by
users who wish to find information about a word they do not understand when reading or hearing
a text.
Quite frequently, the standard-descriptive dictionary and the overall-descriptive
dictionary are combined in one single publication (the standard-descriptive part of the resulting
dictionary is treated as a box within another box; the dictionary which is published is basically of
the overall-descriptive type, but all obsolete, regional, etc. items are labelled as such by a sign or
a label). A conspicuous species of this combined type of dictionaries is the so-called academic
dictionary – a big dictionary basically of the overall-descriptive type, usually with a strong
historical and philological predilections (схильність) in which the technical terms are not
present; the standard-descriptive nucleus of such an academic dictionary is elaborated with a
varying degree of clarity.
The restricted dictionaries are intended to cover only a certain specific part of the
vocabulary, they make their choice only from a certain part of the word-stock, the restriction
being based on any principle determined by the compiler a priori. The restriction can be based on
any variation of language, on any classification of its texts, or on any principle or combination of
principles determined by the author of the dictionary.
Within this group of dictionaries, it is above all those which deal with the professional
languages, the contrastive lexicon of which is predominantly of a designative character. This is
true in the case of restricted dictionaries of the trades, crafts, sports, etc. But in the case of
restricted dictionaries of the professional languages of the arts and above all of the sciences, the
lexicon dealt with will be not only of a designative, but even of a terminological character.
Terminological dictionaries usually have encyclopedic character or at least they contain many
encyclopedic elements. In such dictionaries only terms are accepted as entries and in the case of
polysemous words, only the technical-terminological senses are indicated, the other, non-
terminological senses being passed over in silence.
An interesting group of dictionaries restricted to the designative words whose denotata
belong to the physical extra-linguistic world are pictorial dictionaries. They are usually
organized on an onomaseological principle. For example, there will be the picture of the human
body, or of a ship, or of different plants, animals, utensils, and the expressions by which the
single things depicted or their parts can be referred to, are indicated by arrows. An alphabetic
index of expressions contained in the dictionary can be used to locate the place where an
expression applies to the picture of its denotatum when the user procedes “from the word to the
thing”. Pictorial dictionaries are useful mainly in the cases of denotata which are not generally
known and perhaps in learning words of a foreign language by groups.
To restricted dictionaries belong also phraseological, dialectal or slang word-books,
dictionaries of new words, of foreign words, of abbreviations, of synonyms, of homonyms, etc.
As to the information they provide all linguistic dictionaries fall into those presenting a
wide range of data, especially with regard to the semantic aspect of the vocabulary items entered
(they are called explanatory) and those dealing with lexical units only in relation to some of
their characteristics, e.g. only in relation to their etymology or frequency or pronunciation. These
are termed specialized dictionaries.
Dictionaries with the same nature of word lists may differ widely in the kind of
information they afford, and the other way round, dictionaries providing data of similar nature
may have a different kind of word-list. For example, dictionaries of unrestricted word-lists may
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be quite different in the type of information they contain (explanatory, pronouncing,
etymological, ideographic, etc.), terminological dictionaries can also be explanatory, parallel,
ideographic, presenting the frequency value of the items entered, etc. On the other hand,
translation dictionaries may be general in their word-list, or terminological, phraseological, etc.
Frequency dictionaries may have general and terminological word-lists.

XIII.2.2. Specialized dictionaries

Among specialized dictionaries phraseological ones occupy a special place. They
accumulate collections of idiomatic phrases, proverbs and other, usually image-bearing word-
groups with profuse illustrations. There are many of them in English, but not all of them are
perfect. The compiler’s approach is in most cases purely empiric, by phraseology many of them
mean all forms of linguistic anomalies which transgress the laws of grammar or logic and which
are approved by usage. Therefore along with set-phrases they sometimes enter free phrases and
even separate words (see, e.g., A Desk-book of Idioms and Idiomatic Phrases by F. N. Vizetelly
and L. G. De Bekker, in which such word as cinematograph is included). The choice of items is
arbitrary, based on intuition, and not on any objective criteria. Different meanings of
polysemantic units are not singled out, homonyms are not discriminated, no variant phrases are
listed. Nevertheless Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English by Covie A. P., Mackin R.
is considered to be the most perfect. Among American Word-books the dictionary compiled by
Boatner M. T. and Gates J. E. A Dictionary of American Idioms (N.Y., 1975) is considered to be
the best. Well-known is also A Book of English Idioms by Collins V. H. (Lnd., Longmans, 1956),
English Idioms by Dixon J. M., Dictionary of Clichés by Partridge E. A., etc.
Among phraseological dictionaries published in Russia and Ukraine dictionaries
compiled by A. V. Kunin, K. T. Barantsev and D. I. Kveselevich are worth mentioning. These
dictionaries have many advantages over the reference books publish abroad.
Thus, the first edition of English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary compiled by A. V.
Kunin (M.: Living Language, 1998) appeared in 1955. Since that time it has been republished 5
times. The last, the fifth edition was published in the Moscow Publishing house “Living
Language” in 1998. This dictionary includes various types of set expressions, which, in author’s
opinion, are divided into three categories: phraseological units, or idioms, semi-idioms and
phraseomatic units. Phraseological units are structurally separable language units with
completely or partially transferred meanings (e.g., one’s ace of trumps, more dead than alive,
blow hot and cold); semi-idioms have both literal and transferred meanings, the first meaning
being usually terminological or professional and the second transferred; phraseomatic units have
literal or phraseologically bound meanings (chain reaction – term in physics and figurative, lay
down one’s arms – military term and figurative expression) and phraseomatic expressions which
are of the following types: 1) phrases in which one of the components is uniquely combined: all
told, boon companion; 2) phrases with a restrictive meaning: another place, in a hurry; 3) non-
figurative clichés: again and again, safe and sound, the beginning of the end; 4) preposition-
noun combinations with literal meanings: at (the) best, at (the) most; 5) terminological
combinations that have become part of literary usage: civil list, general ticket; 6) phrases with
phraseologically bound meanings: pay attention, etc.
English-Ukrainian Phrase-book compiled by K.T. Barantsev appeared in 1969 in the
publishing house “Radyanska shkola”. It covers more than 30000 English set phrases, idioms,
proverbs and sayings, which are arranged in alphabetic order. Each expression is followed by a
corresponding Ukrainian equivalent, many expressions are illustrated. The illustrative examples
are taken from the books by English, American and Canadian writers, different magazines and
newspapers.
Russian-English Phraseological Dictionary compiled by D. I. Kveselevich (Moscow:
Russky Yazyk Publishers, 1998) includes about 7000 phraseological units and about 9000
examples of contextual translation. The basis for the entry list served to be the dictionary of
phraseological units of the Russian Language compiled by A. I. Molotkov.
Dictionaries of collocations. Though collocations are usually included in explanatory
dictionaries, such dictionaries are worth compiling as they help the learners to master English.
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Such dictionaries are not numerous, among them one can mention A Glossary of Phrases with
Prepositions. With Exercises. (by Crowell T. L., Lnd. 1957). In Russia the following word-books
were compiled: Берлизон С. Б. Сочетания типа make up, make for в современном
английском языке; Горелик Ц. С. Адъективные словосочетания в современном английском
языке, (М., 1967); Гинзбург Р. и др., Глагольные словосочетания в современном
английском языке (М., 1975).
Dictionaries of proverbs, sayings and quotations. Among the word-books of this type
the most well-known are those compiled by Stevenson B. Book of Quotations, Classical and
Modern (Lnd., Cassel, about 70,000); The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (Oxford, 1979);
Bartlett J. Familiar Quotations (Lnd., Macmillan); Tripp R. T. The International Thesaurus of
Quotations; Алексеева Л.С. Сборник цитат и изречений на английском языке (М., 1964)
and others.
New Word dictionaries have it as their aim adequate reflection of the continuous growth
of the English language. There are three dictionaries of neologisms for Modern English. Two of
these (A Dictionary of New Words in English by Berg P. and Dictionary of New Words by Reifer
M.) came out in the middle of the 50s are somewhat out-of-date. The third one (A Dictionary of
New English. A Barnhart Dictionary) is more up-to-date. In was published in 1973. It covers
words, phrases, meanings and abbreviations which came into the vocabulary of the English
language during the period 1963-1972. The new items were collected from the reading of over
half a million running words from US, British and Canadian sources – newspapers, magazines
and books. In 1980 appeared one more dictionary compiled by C. L. Barnhart: The Second
Barnhart Dictionary of New English (Lnd., 1980).
Dictionaries of Slang contain elements from areas of substandard speech such as
vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words, course words, colloquialisms, etc. The most well-known
dictionaries of this type are Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English by E. Partridge,
Dictionary of the Underworld: British and American, The American Thesaurus of Slang by L. V.
Berry & M. Den Bork, The Dictionary of American Slang by H. Wentworth and S. B. Flexner. In
1994 one more dictionary of slang appeared: Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial
Expressions by Richard A. Spears which contains more that 10,000 definitions of 9,000 terms
and expressions that are likely to be heard in movies, on TV, in the streets and on college
campuses.
Dictionaries of Dialects. They describe the words of one dialect or of a group of related
dialects. As an example can serve the dictionary by J. Wright (Дж. Райт): The English Dialect
Dictionary. (6 vols. Oxford, 1898-1905). It’s considered to be the biggest dictionary of dialectal
words. It embraces dialectal words of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. In US appeared the
word-book Dictionary of American Regional English (Univ. of Wisconsin, 1978) in which
dialectal peculiarities of American English are reflected.
Besides, there are dictionaries describing regional peculiarities of the English language
used in America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, etc.
Pronouncing dictionaries record contemporary pronunciation. As compared with the
phonetic characteristics of words given by other dictionaries the information provided by
pronouncing dictionaries is much more detailed: they indicate variant pronunciations (which are
numerous in some cases) as well as pronunciation of different grammatical forms. The world
famous English Pronouncing Dictionary by Daniel Jones is considered to provide the most
expert guidance on British English pronunciation. The most popular dictionary for the American
variant is A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English by J. S. Kenyon and T. A. Knott. In
1990 one more dictionary of pronunciation was published: Longman Pronouncing Dictionary.
The author of this dictionary is J. C. Wells. He occupies the Chair of Phonetics in the University
of London (a position previously occupied by A. C. Gimson and before him, Daniel Jones). The
dictionary was specially prepared for students and teachers of English. It’s a new and
authoritative guide to the pronunciation of English. It provides clear models of widely accepted,
contemporary English pronunciation as well as valuable information about alternative
pronunciations. It contains over 75,000 words including technical vocabulary and proper names.

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It suggests full coverage of both British and American English using the alphabet of the
International Phonetic Association.
Spelling Dictionaries. These are dictionaries of correct spelling. Very often they give
syllable division, too. For instance, Firnberg L. B. and D. Cassel’s New Spelling Dictionary
(Lnd., 1976), Lewis N. Dictionary of Correct Spelling (N.Y., 1962).
Ideographic dictionaries contain words grouped by the concepts expressed. The world
famous ideographic dictionary of English is P. M. Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and
Phrases Classified and Arranged so as to Facilitate the Expression of Ideas and Assist in
Literary Composition (Lnd., 1852). Since that time about 80 succeeding revised editions have
published being helpful for writers, journalists, philologists and common people learning
English. Its value consists in giving a complete inventory list of words expressing this or that
idea. The Latin word thesaurus means “treasury”. Roget’s book gave the word a new figurative
meaning, namely, “a store of knowledge”, and hence, “a dictionary containing all the words of a
language”. A consistent classification of notions presents almost insuperable difficulties. Only
relatively few “semantic fields”, such as kinship terms, colour terms, name for parts of human
body and some others fit into a neat scheme. For the most part, however, there is no one-to-one
correlation between notions and words, and the classification of notions is a very poor help for
classification of meanings and their systematic presentation. The system of meanings stands in a
very complex relationship to the system of notions because of the polysemantic character of
most words. The semantic structure of words and the semantic system of vocabulary depend on
many linguistic, historical and cultural factors.
Besides Roget’s Thesausus there are some other ideographic dictionaries: Laird Ch.
Webster’s New World Thesaurus (N.Y., 1971); Laffal J. A Concept Dictionary of English (N.Y.,
1973); March F.A. March’s Thesaurus Dictionary (Philadelphia, 1930) and others.
Dictionaries of Synonyms are subdivided into two main kinds: dictionaries which
simply numerate the list of synonyms and explanatory dictionaries of synonyms which describe
semantic and stylistic differences among the synonyms of the synonymic row. They may be
monolingual and bilingual. The best monolingual dictionary of synonyms is considered to be
Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms (Mass., Merriam, 1968) in which similarity and
differences of synonyms are described due to their implications, applications and connotations.
Webster’s New World Thesaurus compiled by Laird Ch. (N.Y, New American Library,
1971) is considered to be the best one among the dictionaries of synonyms of inventory type.
Rather popular in Gr. Britain and USA are the dictionaries of synonyms compiled by Soule R.,
Allen F.S., Crabb G., etc.
Among bilingual dictionaries of synonyms Краткий словарь синонимов английского
языка compiled by Потапова И., The English-Russian Dictionary of Synonyms compiled by Yu.
D. Apresyan and The Dictionary of English Synonyms compiled by K. T. Barantsev are worth
mentioning. The former edition includes more that 350 synonymic rows with the interpretation
of the common meaning of these synonyms, the detailed explanation of semantic and stylistic
peculiarities of their usage, the description of their combinability. The latter includes 2500
synonyms grouped into paragraphs which are arranged alphabetically. Explanations are made in
Ukrainian and illustrated by examples from the original sources.
Usage dictionaries make it their business to pass judgement on usage problems of all
kinds, on what is right or wrong. They supply much various information on such usage problems
as, e.g., the difference in meaning between words, the proper pronunciation of words, the plural
forms of the nouns, the meaning of some archaic forms and so forth. They can also explain what
is meant by neologisms, archaisms and slang words and how one is to handle them. The most
widely used usage guide books published in English speaking countries are the classic
Dictionary of Modern English Usage by N. W. Fowler, Usage and Abusage, and Guide to Good
English by E. Partridge, A Dictionary of American English Usage by Nicholson, A Dictionary of
Contemporary American Usage by B. Evans and C. Evans, Right Word Wrong Word: Words
and Structures Confused and Misused by Learners of English by L. G. Alexander. In 1998 a
guide book “Трудности английского словоупотребления” was published in Moscow by S. S.
Khidekel, M. R. Kaul and E. L. Ginsburg. It includes 2500 cases which can give rise to making
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mistakes by Russian learners. The authors distinguish six types of difficulties which can cause
mistakes, they are: differences in the usage of morphological forms (e.g. the noun advice can be
used only in singular while its equivalent in Russian can have both forms, the Russian word
полиция and the English word police have only singular forms but differ in their agreement with
the verb), in the composition and structure of word combinations (e.g. the English verb to die
requires an adverbial modifier of time), in word order (adverbs can occupy four different
positions in a Russian sentences, in English the place of an adverb depends on the lexico-
semantic group to which this adverb belongs), in types of sentences (e.g. the word hardly should
be used in affirmative sentences, modal verbs may and must realize their meanings only in some
definite types of sentences), in combinability (especially in the usage of prepositions) and
semantic differences (e.g. the Russian polysemantic word uгра corresponds to different English
words: game, play, performance, acting).
Dictionaries of word-frequency inform the user as to the frequency of occurrence of
lexical units in speech, to be more exact in the corpus of the reading matter or in the stretch of
oral speech on which the word-counts are based. The very first dictionaries of this type appeared
still at the beginning of the 20th century: Eldridge R. C. Six Thousand Common English Words
(Niagara Falls, 1911). Most frequency dictionaries were constructed to make up lists of words
considered suitable as the basis for teaching English as a foreign language, the so-called basic
vocabulary. Such are, e.g., E. Thorndike dictionaries and M. West’s General Service List. Other
frequency dictionaries were designed for spelling reforming, for psycholinguistic studies, for an
all-round synchronic analysis of modern English, etc. Among modern dictionaries of frequency
The American Heritage Word Frequency Book by Carroll J. B., Davies P., Richman B. (N.Y.,
1971) and Computer Recognition Of English Word Senses by Kelly E. F., Stone Ph.J. are worth
mentioning.
In the 50s-70s there appeared a number of frequency dictionaries of English made up by
Soviet linguo-statisticians for the purposes of automatic analysis of scientific and technical texts
and for teaching purposes. Among them one can mention The Frequency Dictionary of Modern
English compiled by Volkova, Ginsburg, Khidekel, Perebiynis who defined the first thousand of
the most frequent English words and described their valency.
To specialized dictionaries also belong reverse dictionaries in which a list of words is
arranged in alphabetical order starting with their final letters. These dictionaries are also called
back-to-front dictionaries. Their original aim was to indicate words which form rhymes. It is for
this reason that one of the most well-known reverse dictionaries of the English language, that
compiled by John Walker, is called Rhyming Dictionary of the English Language. Nowadays the
fields of application of the dictionaries based on the reverse order have become much wider.
These word-books are indispensable for those studying the frequency and productivity of certain
word-forming elements and other problems of word-formation, since they record, in systematic
and successive arrangement, all words with the same suffixes and all compounds with the same
terminal components. Teachers of English and textbook compilers will find them useful for
making vocabulary exercises of various kinds. Those working in the fields of information
processing will be supplied with important initial material for automatic translation and
programmed instruction using computers.
One of the most important divisions of linguistic dictionaries is that between the
diachronic and synchronic dictionaries. Whereas the task of diachronic dictionaries is to deal
with the development of the lexicon, the purpose of synchronic dictionaries is to deal with the
lexical stock of a language at one stage of its development. Diachronic dictionaries are primarily
concerned with the history, with the development of words, both in respect to form and in
respect to meaning. Among the diachronic dictionaries we can find two different types –
historical and etymological dictionaries. Historical dictionaries focus their attention on the
changes occurring both in the form and in the meaning of a word within a period of time for
which there is historical evidence at hand. Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to
the oldest forms available, establish their primary meanings and give the parent form
reconstructed by means of the comparative-historical method. In case of borrowings they point
out the immediate source of borrowing, its origin, and parallel forms in cognate languages. The
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most authoritative of these is nowadays the newly-published Oxford Dictionary of English
Etymology edited by C. T. Onions. Quite popular is the famous Etymological English Dictionary
by W. W. Skeat compiled at the beginning of the century and published many times.
The emphasis should be laid on the following things.
Firstly, the concept synchronic is not synonymous with contemporary. Any epoch in
the development of language can be treated synchronically. Thus, Grassman’s Dictionary of the
Rig Vedic Sanskrit is a synchronic dictionary though the language it deals with is certainly not a
contemporary one but stopped being used several millenaries ago.
Secondly, it is impossible to interpret for practical linguistic and lexicographic purposes,
the term synchronic as if we were concerned with the state of a language at one point of time.
We must imagine it so, but we cannot make it so. It would be impossible to make a full, detailed
investigation of a single idiolect in one day; it would be impossible to undertake a full, detailed
investigation of a local dialect in a village in a week; an investigation of a regional dialect in a
month, etc.: the broader our interest, the more time we need for our task. It’s a technical factor,
but it should be taken into account. Besides, we must also take into consideration that the texts
produced (orally or in writing) during a short period of time usually are not variegated
(урізноманітнені) enough, so that not all words of the language really occur in them. With the
exception of the situation where the lexicographer elicits (відбирає, витягає) data from his
informant, it’s necessary to have different texts usually coming from a longer period of time, to
be sure that the lexicon of the language is representatively manifested in them. As language is
known to change uninterruptedly, though usually in very small steps, this means that the corpus
of texts used in this way as the basis of the lexicographer’s work is not absolutely synchronic in
the strictest sense of the term. So it follows that the term synchronic is highly relative.
Thirdly, there is always area of overlapping between a synchronic and a historical
dictionary. In this respect the problem arises whether archaisms and obsolete words should be
included into a synchronic dictionary. Very strict views are sometimes voiced on this subject.
Thus, Y. Malkiel considers that the ideal synchronic dictionary would be least contaminated by
archaisms. L. Zgusta is of opinion that archaisms can be listed in a synchronic dictionary dealing
with that epoch though he emphasizes that this theoretical point of view must be modified in
every concrete case. In his opinion much depends on whether the dictionary is planned for active
use. Every good dictionary is used a long time after its publication. During this time, the obsolete
words will either retain the same status they had during the period described in the dictionary, or
they will grow more archaic; the revivification of an obsolete word is a too rare phenomenon.
Fourthly, the prehistory of the word requires very frequently a comparative study of
related words from different languages. As a consequence of this, big etymological dictionaries
logically tend to develop into comparative dictionaries which usually arrive at the original form
of a proto-language by comparison of the descendant languages.
The etymological (and comparative) dictionaries are usually more concerned with the
form of the words than with their meaning (though semantic correspondence is a vital necessity
in the comparison of words). In a historical dictionary the semantic developments are at least as
important as those of the form of the word. The historical dictionaries also frequently indicate
what new words were derived from the original one during its history. Seeing how useful both
points of view are, it is no wonder that some dictionaries try to be both etymological and
historical, combining the two aspects.
Another dimension on which different types of dictionaries can be discerned pertains to
the numbers of languages represented. In this respect dictionaries are divided into monolingual,
bilingual and multilingual. In monolingual dictionaries one language is represented. Two
languages are represented in bilingual dictionaries. The usual aim of a bilingual dictionary is to
help in translating from one language into another. Only infrequently are more than two
languages represented in one dictionary. To indicate the lexical equivalents of more than two
languages simultaneously is usually possible only if we absolutely neglect polysemy and take
into account only the dominant senses of the single words. The only domain in which
multilingual dictionaries have a justification is the field of technical terminology as the meaning
of technical terms is usually much more precisely defined than that of a general word, so
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semantic equivalents can be established more accurately. It is also possible to neglect polysemy
and all other senses than the terminological ones.
Care should be taken not to mix up the terms monolingual and explanatory, on the one
hand, and bilingual and translation, on the other. The two items of terms reflect different
dimensions of dictionaries. The terms monolingual and bilingual pertain to the language in
which the information about the words dealt is couched. The terms explanatory and translation
dictionaries characterize the kind of information itself. Thus among dictionaries of the same
type, say dictionaries of synonyms, we may find both monolingual and bilingual word-books.
For example, English-Ukrainian Dictionary of Synonyms, compiled by K. Barantsev, English-
Russian Dictionary of Synonyms, compiled by Apresyan, are bilingual, while Webster’s
Dictionary of Synonyms (Springfield, Mass., 1968) is monolingual.
Out of the great abundance of linguistic dictionaries of the English language a large
group is made up of the so-called explanatory dictionaries. It is common practice to call them
English-English dictionaries, but this term cannot be accepted as it only points out that the
English words treated in this dictionary are explained in the same language, which is typical not
only of this type of dictionaries (cf. synonym-books). Most of these dictionaries deal with the
form, usage and meaning of lexical units in Modern English. They are synchronic in their
presentation of words as distinct from diachronic which are concerned with the development of
words occurring within the written history of the language. Good examples of this kind of
dictionaries are Webster dictionaries.
Translation dictionaries (sometimes also called parallel) are word-books containing
vocabulary items in one language and their equivalents in another language. The most
representative translation dictionaries for English are the New English-Russian Dictionary edited
by prof. I. R. Galperin, the English-Russian Dictionary edited by Muller, the New English-
Russian Dictionary edited by Apresyan, The Russian-English Dictionary under
prof. A. I Smirnitsky and English-Ukrainian Dictionary compiled by Balla and Ukrainian-
English Dictionary compiled by Ye. F. Popov and M. I. Balla.
Among translation dictionaries there are also multi-lingual dictionaries. Some of them are
restricted to a definite sphere of knowledge, e.g. Multilingual Lexicon of Linguistics and
Philology. English, Russian, German, French by R.Nash (Univ. of Miami, Florida, 1968);
Vocabularium Bibliothecarii. English, French, German, Spanish, Russian by A. Thompson.
(Paris, UNESCO, 1962). Others are not dedicated to a certain sphere of life. Thus, in Great
Britain was published a dictionary of 100 mostly frequent words in 26 languages by Bergman
P.M.: The Concise Dictionary of 26 Languages in Simultaneous Translation (N.Y., Signet,
1968). One more dictionary: Duden Pictorial Encyclopedia. 5 vols. N.Y., Ungar., 1959. Though
it’s called Encyclopedia, it’s a dictionary of common lexical units in 5 languages: English,
French, German, Italian, Spanish.
The last dimension is the size of the dictionaries. Size is not mere bulk and so the
number of the entries of a dictionary is only a rough indication of its informative power. Very
much depends upon how the entry itself is worked out.
A big dictionary which tries to be exhaustive is called thesaurus.
The medium dictionary is usually of a rather more standard-descriptive character, because it
saves space at the expense of the obsolete and dialectal lexical units.
A small dictionary usually has no quotations or examples, so its generative power is
rather low.
Scholars are inclined to think that medium dictionaries usually do not have less than
40.000 and small dictionaries not less than 10.000 entries.
Many prominant lexicographers suggest their own considerations on this problem. Thus a
well-known linguist Y. Malkiel considers that dictionaries can be classified in the following
way: 1) by their range, 2) by their perspective and 3) by their presentation. The first category is
subdivided into 1) the density of entries, 2) the number of languages covered, 3) the degrees of
concentration of strictly lexical data, at the expense of realia, proper name, etc. In the second
category (i.e. in the classification by perspective) Malkiel discerns three basic perspectives, viz.
1) the fundamental dimension (diachronism VS synchronism), 2) the basic arrangement of
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entries (conventional, i. e. usually alphabetic, semantic, and arbitrary), and 3) the level of tone
(objective, perceptive or prohibitive, and jocular). In the third category the attention is focused
on the definition, on the verbal documentation, on the graphic illustration and on the presence of
special features (e.g., the localizations, the phonetic transcription, etc.).
T. A. Sebeok in his paper “Materials for a typology of dictionaries” published in “Lingua
11, 1962” finds that the following 17 properties are decisive when we try to decide to which type
a dictionary belongs. A dictionary can be: 1) generated (a native scholar produces a list of words
he feels should constitute a glossary), or 2) abstracted (from texts); 3) there are different limits of
the corpus (of excerpted texts); 4) the internal diversity of the corpus may be envisaged or not; 5)
single forms of multiple forms can be indicated. The dictionary can be 6) based on form, or it
can be 7) based on meaning; it can be 8) organized by form; or 9) organized by meaning. 10)
Cross references can be given according to form; or they can be given 11) according to meaning.
12) Documentation can be a) dialectal, or b) geographical, or c) textual. 13) Exemplification, 14)
glosses, 15) frequency data, 16) etymological commentary, 17) encyclopedic commentary: all
this information in 13-17 can be given with various wealth of detail, or not all.
L. Ščerba started a classification of dictionaries in his paper in Izvestia, but he never
completed his work. His dimensions were: 1) academic dictionary (i.e. a dictionary similar to the
type we call “standard-descriptive”:: reference dictionary); 2) encyclopedic:: general dictionary;
3) thesaurus:: normal dictionary (monolingual or bilingual); 4) normal dictionary (monolingual
or bilingual) :: ideological (i.e. synonymic) dictionary; 5) monolingual :: translational (i.e. what
we call bilingual dictionary); 6) non-historical :: historical dictionary.

Types of Linguistic Dictionaries

Unilingual Bilingual or multilingual

General Explanatory dictionaries irrespective English-Ukrainian, Ukrainian-English, etc.

of their bulk. and multilingual dictionaries.

Etymological, frequency,
phonetical, rhyming and thesaurus
type dictionaries.

Special Glossaries of scientific and other
special terms; concordances.
Dictionaries of abbreviations,
antonyms, borrowings, new words,
proverbs, synonyms, surnames,
toponyms, etc.
Dictionaries of scientific and other special
terms.
Dictionaries of abbreviations, phraseology,
proverbs, synonyms, etc.

Dictionaries of American English, Dictionaries of Old English and Middle

dialect and slang dictionaries. English with explanations in Modern English.

XIII.3. Basic Problems of Dictionary Compiling

XIII.3.1. The Structure of a Dictionary
Despite a great variety of the types of dictionaries most of them have much in common
concerning their structure. Dictionaries usually consist of the following main parts: 1) Foreword,
2) Guide to the use of the dictionary, 3) Key to pronunciation; 4) List of abbreviations and
symbols; 5) The dictionary itself; 6) Supplements (if there are some).
Foreword
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 It’s a pity but people seldom read the foreword to the dictionary though it contains very
important information which would help the learner to use the dictionary more rationally. The
Foreword usually starts with the description of the history of compiling this dictionary and then
it determines its volume and concrete tasks. Just here one can find the information what lexical
units are included into the dictionary, what are chronological limits of the lexicon included, etc.
It is just here that the main principles of compiling this dictionary are presented. At the end of
the Foreword the authors usually express their acknowledgements to those who made a
significant contribution to the compilation of the dictionary.
Guide to the Use of the Dictionary
This part of the dictionary is one of the main ones in any dictionary and it should be read
very attentively. It usually includes such important information as structure of an entry, the place
of derivatives, grammatical peculiarities of the word, etc. Learning this part makes it easier to
work with the dictionary. Thus, for instance, a guide to the entries of The Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary consists of 18 chapters: 1) types of headword, 2) alternative
forms and synonyms of headword, 3) sounds and spelling, 4) stress, 5) pronunciation of
derivatives and compounds, 6) parts of speech, 8) irregular written forms, 9) grammatical
patterns and codes, 10) complementation, 11) style and field, 12) definitions, 13) examples,
14) special types of words and phrases, 15) phrasal verbs, 16) derivatives, 17) compounds, 18)
extra information.
The Guide starts in fact with the definition of the entry: each entry is a block of information
introduced by a headword, which is made prominent by bold print and set out slightly from the
main body of the text.
In the chapter Types of Headword the authors numerate the main types of headword, they
are: simple words (it’s stressed that derivatives and compounds are not placed in entries of their
own); homographs (e.g. bow1 [bəu] n and bow2 [bau] v); affixes (the dictionary lists them,
indicates the classes of words they can be attached to, supplies definitions, and gives examples of
the derivatives formed); combining forms (i.e. elements which create technical or scientific
words; they may occur at the beginning or at the end of a word, but they cannot occur alone;
entries for combining forms contain definitions and illustrate the types of word that can be
formed); abbreviations of simple words (e.g. capt for captain), compounds (e.g. TT for
tuberculin-tested) and phrases (WWF for World Wide Fund for Nature); abbreviations are
given with pronunciations and examples. As well as being headwords in their own right, they
appear in the entries for the full words which they represent, after the part of speech label and
any accompanying grammatical information, e.g.: postscript n ~ (to smth) (abbr PS) or volt n
(abbr v); dummy entries i. e. entries which do not contain definitions or examples but are
intended simply to refer the user to a normal main entry, e.g.: took pt of TAKE1 or mice pl of
MOUSE.
Chapter 2 (Alternative forms and synonyms of the headword) explains in what way the
words having alternative forms are treated in the dictionary. If a word can be spelt in two or
more different ways but there are no differences of pronunciation or grammar the most usual
spelling is given as the headword, and the alternative form (or forms) are given immediately
after the headword e.g. facia (also fascia) [feiSə] n … It’s well-known that differences between
British and American equivalents present special problems for the foreign learner that’s why
these differences are reflected in the dictionary. Thus, if the difference is one of spelling alone,
the US form follows the British one (given as the headword) but precedes the pronunciation, e.g.,
humour (US humor) [hju:mə(r)] … If the difference is one of pronunciation as well as spelling,
each written form is followed by the appropriate phonetic spelling: aluminium [ِælju'miniəm]
(US aluminum [ə'lu:minəm]). If a particular word (e.g. nappy) is limited to British English but
it may have a synonym restricted to American English (in this case diaper), the British word will
be treated in a full entry, with the US word placed near the beginning in brackets: nappy … (US
diaper) piece of towelling cloth… Then a dummy entry for the US word directs the dictionary
user back to this entry: diaper … (US) = NAPPY. If a word is used in both British and US
English, but has a synonym which is only British or only US, the former is treated in full entry,
and the synonym is labelled ‘(Brit also …)’ or ‘(US also …)’, e.g.: parcel [pa:sl] n (US also
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package) … A number of words, especially the names of animals, plants, trees, etc. have quite
widely used synonyms, then one word is treated in a full entry and the equivalents are entered
prominently after the phonetic spelling: bilberry ['bilblri; US -beri] (also blueberry ['bleibri],
whortleberry [wə:tlberi]) n …
Pronunciation. In this part of the Guide the main rules of pronunciation and spelling are
given: inside the back cover of the dictionary there is a list of phonetic symbols. A British
English pronunciation is given for each word and in those cases where there is a marked
difference, the American version is shown. Besides, it is shown how the linking [r], the
inflections in the plural of nouns, in the past tense and past participle of verbs, in the comparative
and superlative of adjectives and adverbs are pronounced.
The forth and the fifth and the sixth parts of the Guide deal with primary and secondary
stress, taking into account the stress shifts under the influence of the context, variant
pronunciations of headwords, difference between strong and weak forms of some functional
words and pronunciation of derivatives and compounds.
Some words have variant pronunciations and the dictionary reflects them. In such cases
the different status of variants is indicated as follows: separation by a coma, where the variants
are almost equal, e.g. again [ə'gen, ə'gein]; with the gloss also, where the second form is
common but not equal to the first, e.g. amenity [ə'mi:nəti, also ə'menəti]; with the gloss or,
rarely, where the second form is old-fashioned or otherwise restricted in usage, e.g. despicable
[di'spikəbl or, rarely, 'dispikəbl]. Then the attention of the learners is drawn to the difference
between the strong and the weak forms of determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns and
some verbs, and to contractions, i. e. shortened forms used either in speech or writing, e.g. aren’t
[a:nt], mayn’t ['meiənt], you’d [ju:d].
The next block of items (the seventh — the ninth) deals with grammatical information:
here the list of abbreviations used to mark the part of speech the headword under analysis or its
derivative belong to, the irregular written forms of the past tense and past participle of the verb,
plural forms of nouns, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are indicated
wherever necessary, e.g.: see [si:] v (pt saw [sO:], pp seen [si:n]); grouse [graUs] n (pl
unchanged), basis [beisis] n (pl bases [beisi:z]); cheep [tSi:p] adj (-er, -est), safe [seif] adj (-r,
-st), hot [hÁt] adj (-tter, -ttest). Besides, the codes for grammatical patterns in which each part
of speech can be used are suggested in the dictionary and that is very helpful for foreign users of
the dictionary. Thus, e.g., 32 patterns with matching codes are used in the dictionary to account
for the various ways in which verbs can be used. Thus, the capital letter T means that the verb is
transitive, I – that it is intransitive, D – that it is double-transitive, i. e. followed by a direct and
indirect object, L – denotes ‘linking verb’, etc.
As far as nouns are concerned, the symbol C denotes that this noun is countable, the
symbol U means that it is uncountable, the symbol Gp denotes that that it’s a group noun, i.e it
refers to group of people who govern, manage in those places, e.g. Whitehall, the Kremlin; they
are used in the singular form only, but they can agree with a singular or a plural verb. The
symbol sing v means that plural nouns are used with singular verbs, e.g. Measles is contagious.
While the symbol pl v denotes that singular nouns are used with plural verbs: Many police were
on duty that night.
As to adjectives, the symbol attrib is used if an adjective can be used only attributively
and the symbol pred shows that the adjective can be used only predicatively. If an adjective can
occur in both positions, no label is used.
Many nouns, adjectives and verbs in English are incomplete and ungrammatical without a
following prepositional phrase or non-finite construction. These fixed elements are called the
‘complementation’ of the noun, adjective, etc. In this dictionary complementation is shown by
means of a pattern in bold print after the grammatical code(s), e.g.: tantamount ['tæntəmaUnt]
adj [pred] ~ to sth …. The absence of brackets shows that complemention is fixed; the use of
brackets indicates that it is optional. A choice between alternatives is shown by means of an
oblique strike, as e.g. here between two non-finite clauses: happy [hæpi] adj ~ (doing sth/to do
sth)…

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 Chapters 11-13 deal with meaning and usage of the word. Thus chapter 11 gives
information as to the labels used in the dictionary to denote the stylistic value of words or
technical fields in which they are used. These labels are printed in italics and placed in round
brackets after the grammatical code and/or complementation. They can indicate the region the
word is used in (Brit US Scot dialect); Some labels reflect a special relationship between
speakers which can vary from very distant to very close. Thus, the label ! denotes words likely to
be thought offensive or shocking or indecent, e.g. nigger, fuck; sl indicates slang words, i. e.
colourful items generally used in a very informal context, e.g. the nick (prison), the fuzz (police);
infml denotes informal words, i. e. thoses indicating a close personal relationship, e.g. dad,
granny, brolly (umbrella); fml denotes formal words and meanings i. e. those chosen when
speaking or writing in a serious or an official context to someone who is not a close friend or
relation, e.g. warrant (deserve), countenance (support or approve); rhet rhetorical items are
associated with speaking or writing on serious or elevated themes, e.g. at public meeting, state
ceremonies; examples include tribulation (event that causes suffering).
Some labels indicate a particular attitude (disapproving, approving, ironic, etc.) towards
the person, thing or action referred to, e.g.: derog, approv, offensive, euph, ironic, fig, joc.
The dictionary contains a large number of words which are confined to technical use. The
labels used here are mostly self-explanatory, e.g.: cursor (computing).
Chapter 12 deals with definitions and chapter 13 – with sentence examples and phrase
examples which are given in the dictionary to help learners to understand the meaning of words.
Special types of words and phrases are described in chapters 14, 15, 16 and 17. Thus, in
Chapter 14 it’s indicated that idioms are listed and defined at the entry for the first “full” word
(noun, verb, adjective or adverb) which they contain. The idiom a big cheese, e.g. is defined at
the entry of the word big (not cheese). In each entry in which they appear, idioms are arranged in
strict alphabetic order, ignoring a/an, the, sb, sth and possessive forms. Phrasal verbs are listed
in bold print in a numbered section headed phr v and positioned immediately after the idioms
section (if there is one). They are listed alphabetically according to the prepositions or particles
they contain. Derivatives and zero-derivatives (formed with a change of grammatical class
only) are usually set out following the numbered sub-sections of the head-word and preceded by
the symbol ►, e.g.
cheap adj
►cheap adv
cheaply adv
cheapness n
But when there is no connection of meaning between a simple word and a more complex one
similar to it in form, the latter is treated as a separate entry:
scarce adj not available in sufficient quantities
scarcely adv barely; not quite
In case, too, where the difference in spelling between a simple word and its derivative is
such that the dictionary user may not connect the two, the derivative is entered as a separate
head-word:
satisfy v example n
satisfaction n exemplary adj
Compounds do not normally appear as separate entries but are included in the entry for
the first element in each case. They are grouped in a section at the end of the entry indicated by
the symbol ►, e.g.:
cut v
► 'cutaway n
'cut-back n
ِcut-'glass n
'cut-off n
Those compounds whose first elements do not occur as separate words (e.g., hurly-burly) or
compounds of foreign origin (e.g. faux pas) are treated in entries of their own.

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 The last block concerns extra information, i. e. the information outside the main entries. It
comprises various appendices and usage notes, etc. As far as the dictionary under analysis is
concerned, it comprises usage notes, articles, ‘mini-notes’, illustrations and appendices.
Usage notes are paragraphs in which special problems concerning grammar or meaning of
English words and phrases are clarified. They are separated from the main dictionary text by a
line of space above and below, and have the heading NOTE ON USAGE. The dictionary user is
referred to these usage notes in the entries for each word dealt with in them. A complete list of
words treated in usage notes is given in the front of the dictionary.
Articles give specially extended treatment to major aspects of British life and institutions,
such as accent and dialect, the environment, and schools. They appear at shaded boxes
alphabetically positioned throughout the dictionary and the user is referred to them from relevant
dictionary entries or from other articles. There are 94 of them in this dictionary. They deal with
architecture of Great Britain, Church of England, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern
Ireland, sports and games, parliament, royal family and many other interesting topics relating to
British life and institutions in that country. A list of all the articles is given at the front of the
dictionary. Thus, e.g. to receive some information about the National Health Service the user
can read articles at Health, Social Security.
‘Mini-notes’ are short extra paragraphs at individual dictionary entries giving information on
the special connotations that particular words and expressions have for native speakers of
English in addition to their specific dictionary meaning. They are headed by a special symbol of
an open book. Thus, for instance, within the entry of the word flower there is a mini-note in
which interesting information about the role of flowers in the life of the English people. This
mini-note runs that the rose is the national flower of England. It has frequently been used in
poetry as a symbol of romantic love. The violet is often seen as symbolizing modesty and a shy,
retiring person can be called ‘a shrinking violet’. The daisy is one of the most common British
wild flowers and carries the association of summer picnics and making daisy chains. Snowdrops,
bluebells, daffodils and primroses are popular spring flowers. The daffodil is the national flower
of Wales. Then it’s stated that certain flowers have certain connotations. Thus, white carnations
are often worn by men at weddings in the buttonholes of their jackets, chrysanthemums and
white lilies are associated with funerals. Rose, Daisy, Iris, Violet and Lily were popular as girl’s
names in Victorian times. There are 79 mini-notes in the dictionary. Much interesting can be
found in mini-notes within the entries of the words animal, bicycle, coffee, diet, parrot, tea, etc.
Illustrations complement the text of the dictionary and take the form of drawings or
diagrams and maps.
Appendices present information at the back of the dictionary in the form of lists, tables, etc.
A complete list of the appendices is given at the front of the dictionary, and the dictionary user is
referred to the relevant appendix from individual entries wherever such a reference is
appropriate. The dictionary under analysis comprises 14 appendices, among them maps, political
leaders, British monarchs and key historical events, military ranks, the books of the Bible, the
works of William Shakespeare, common forenames, family relationships, numerical expressions,
weights and measures, the chemical elements, the SI units, irregular verbs, punctuation.
Key to Pronunciation
Key to phonetic symbols is usually given in front or back endpapers but a full explanation
of the phonetic information is presented in a special section of A Guide to the Entries.
List of Abbreviations and Symbols
This section of the dictionary presents accepted abbreviations and symbols to show in
what way certain words and notions are given, e.g. the symbol = means ‘is the same’, the symbol
~ replaces the headword, etc.
XIII.3.2. The Procedure of Compiling a Dictionary
To get maximum efficiency from dictionaries, to secure all the information afforded by them
it is useful to have an insight into the experience of lexicographers and some of the main
problems underlying their work.
At different stages of his work the lexicographer is confronted with different problems.
Some of them refer to any type of dictionary, others are specific of only or even one type. The
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most important of the former are: 1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion, 2) their
arrangement, 3) the setting of the entries, 4) the selection and arrangement (grouping) of word-
meanings, 5) the definition of meanings, 6) illustrative material, 7) supplementary material.
Let’s describe the procedure of compiling a dictionary and the ways of solving the above-
mentioned problems. The procedure of compiling a dictionary consists of the following main
stages: 1) the collection of material, 2) the selection of entries, 3) the construction of entries and
4) the arrangement of entries.
Stage one: The Collection of Material
So the first stage is the collection of material. The basic form of the collection of material
is the excerption (підбір) of texts. While excerpting these texts, the lexicographer takes out of
texts lexical units which are of interest. The lexical units should be quoted with its lexicographic
context. If there no or few written texts then the lexicographer has to deal with oral texts, that is
narrations.
The lexicographic context should be short but as clear as possible. From this context we
must perceive at least some of semantic features and grammatical properties.
It’s impossible to indicate how long the lexicographic context should be. Very frequently,
one can understand the real signification of a word only if one takes into consideration not only
the immediate context, but also things stated many pages before or afterwards.
In the study of dead languages it happens quite frequently that there is simply no good
illustrative contexts preserved. In such cases the so-called etymological method is used: the
linguist tries to understand the meaning of the respective word from the meaning of the words
with which it is related, or from the general meaning of the stem from which it is derived.
Good lexicographic contests with a high illustrative power are rather rare. Even more rare
is a single context which shows all the semantic features of a word and the whole range of its
application. The usual situation is that many contexts are necessary, each of them will show
some concrete aspect of information.
The lexicographer is not always a native speaker of the language whose dictionary he
intends to compile. Besides, there are cases when the language in question has no considerable
lexicographic and generally literary tradition. In this case, the usual procedure is for the
lexicographer to cooperate with some native speakers of the language in question who are called
informants. It is better to have one informant than to have none. As far as the choice of
informants goes, it can be said that well-educated informants are better than less educated ones.
The functions of informants are numerous. The informant can be asked direct questions
concerning the problem. The cooperation can save an enormous amount of time and work, and
their negative replies of the type “I don’t know that”, “I wouldn’t say so”, “I have never heard it”
are more conclusive than the eventual silence of the excerption. It’s not possible to give a full list
of the possible uses of cooperation with the informants, but the informants can be asked to
indicate how the different objects of the extra-linguistic world are designated; they can be asked
to describe different situations of life so that expressions can be gathered; to form different
sentences to show the use of grammatical words, etc. Informants are also one of the main sources
of really colloquial material for the dictionary. To get this material from them, it’s necessary to
discuss with them the respective lexical fields as wholes (greetings, emotive words, eventually
the terms of abuse and disgust), etc.
An important source of information can be found in other dictionaries of the language in
question. Sometimes one dictionary is the basis for the compilation of another; this is the case
especially when a shorter version of a big dictionary is to be prepared and if a monolingual
dictionary is used as the basis for a bilingual dictionary.
Stage two: The Selection of Entries
The next step is the selection of entries, i. e. the choice of the lexical units which are to be
embraced in the future dictionary.
The factors which influence the lexicographer’s decision can be grouped into the
following two categories: 1) the form of the lexical units and 2) the density of the lexical units
included in the dictionary.

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 The first thing which should be decided is the type of the lexical units to be chosen for
inclusion. Then the number of items to be recorded must be determined. The main problem here
is what to select and what to leave out of the dictionary. Besides, other problems arise, namely:
Which form of the language, spoken or written, or both, is the dictionary to reflect? Should the
dictionary contain obsolete words and archaisms, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms
and so forth?
There is no general reply to any of these questions. The choice of possible answers
depend upon many factors, namely: the type to which the dictionary will belong, the aim the
compilers pursue, the prospective user of the dictionary, the size of the dictionary, the linguistic
conceptions of the dictionary-makers and some other considerations.
As to the type of the dictionary: explanatory and translation dictionaries usually record
words and phraseological units. Synonym-books, pronouncing dictionaries, etymological
dictionaries deal only with words. Frequency dictionaries differ in the type of units included.
Most of them enter graphic units, thus failing to discriminate between homographs (such as
backn, backv, backadv) and listing inflected forms of the same words (such as go, goes, gone,
going) as separate items; others enter words in accordance with the usual lexicographic practice;
still others record morphemes (prefixes and suffixes) as separate entries or collocations.
The number of entries is usually reduced at the expense of some definite strata of the
vocabulary, such as dialectisms, jargonisms, technical terms, foreign words and less frequently
used words (archaisms, obsolete words).
The choice of lexical units to be chosen for inclusion depends also on the aim of the
dictionary. Thus, e.g., synchronic general explanatory dictionaries and diachronic explanatory
dictionary differ greatly in their approach to this problem as diachronic dictionaries are
concerned with the historical development of lexical units, so they include a considerable portion
of obsolete and archaic words, and dialectal words. While synchronic explanatory dictionaries
include mainly common words in ordinary present-day use with only some more important
archaic and technical words. It’s quite natural that the bigger the dictionary, the larger is the
measure of peripheral words, the greater the number of words that are so infrequently used.
As we see, the selection of the entries for the dictionary is a highly delicate task. Though
no precise or even rigorous statements are yet possible, the lexicographer should try to state in
the foreword to the dictionary what he has tried to accomplish and by what principles.
Statements of this character will inform the user about what he may seek in the dictionary and
what not (and thus spare him much inconvenience).
Stage Three: the Construction of Entries
Selected single units are treated as single entries. Each entry should be treated as a
compartment of its own, containing all the information about the respective lexical unit
considered necessary for the purpose of the dictionary. Since different types of dictionaries differ
in their aim, in the information they provide, in their size, etc., they differ also in the structure
and content of the entry. In any case, all the entries should be constructed in as uniform a way as
possible. The most complicated type of entry is that found in explanatory dictionaries. So let’s
discuss the construction of entries of monolingual explanatory or bilingual translation
dictionaries.
The entry consists of two parts: in the first part which is frequently called the lemma the
lexical unit itself is indicated; the second part contains all the other information. The most
important part of the lemma is the entry word (or head word), which is the indication of each
respective lexical unit in its canonical form. The other indications of the lemma inform the user
about the class of which the entry word is a member. This can be indicated by generally accepted
abbreviations or signs (e.g. n for noun) or by any other similar means, but these indications
should not cause much trouble for users. Two things are important in this respect: Firstly, it is
necessary to state, fully and explicitly, in the foreword to the dictionary, what classes and
categories are indicated, and by what means. Secondly, the bigger the dictionary, the more
imperative the necessity to indicate all eventual aberrations of the respective lexical unit from the
usual paradigm, i. e. to indicate all its “irregular forms”. The purpose of the lemma is to identify

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the lexical unit, to locate it in the system, and to describe its form; therefore, the irregular forms
should be indicated, even if they have no observable effect on the meaning.
Other similar information given in the lemma, concerns primarily the form of the lexical
unit. The most frequent indications of this type are about pronunciation. Indeed, pronunciation,
i. e. the spoken form to which the written one is correlated, should always be given when the
orthography does not give an unambiguous information about it.
Concise information concerning the etymology of the entry-word can belong to the
lemma – unless it is given separately, as an appendix to the whole entry. This etymological
information is a matter of course in the historical dictionary, but many dictionaries of the overall-
descriptive, informative type also give it.
What follows the lemma is the main part of the entry. The basic purpose of the main
part in the discussed types of dictionaries is to indicate the meaning of the lexical unit in all its
aspects. Recording the word-meanings and arranging them in the most rational way, in the order
that is supposed to be of most help to those who will use the dictionary, is one of the most
difficult problems. If we compare the number and choice of meanings in the entries in different
dictionaries even those of the same type, we’ll see that their number varies considerably. The
number of meanings and their choice in the dictionary depend, mainly, on two factors: 1) on
what aim the compilers set themselves and 2) what decisions they make concerning the extent to
which obsolete, archaic, dialectal or highly specialized meanings should be recorded, how the
problem of polysemy and homonymy is sold, how cases of conversion are treated, etc.
Thus, e.g., let’s compare the two entries of the word arrive as presented in two
dictionaries: Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary (Oxford University Press,
1992) and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Pearson Education Limited, 2003).
Both of them are explanatory dictionaries.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 1992):
1. reach (a place), esp. at the end of a journey: arrive home; What time did you arrive?
They will arrive in New York at noon. 2. (of an event in time) come: The great day has arrived.
3. become well known or successful: You know you have arrived when you’re asked to appear
on TV. 4. reach smth.: arrive at an agreement, a decision, a conclusion.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Pearson Education Limited, 2003):
1. get somewhere: Give me a call to let me know you’ve arrived safely. 2. be delivered, be
brought: The card arrived on my birthday. 3. happen, come: When her birthday arrived, she was
really nervous. 4. begin to exist, start being used: Since computers arrived, my job has become
much easier. 5. be born: Sharon’s baby arrived just after midnight. 6. reach a decision, solution
after a lot of effort: After much consideration, we have arrived at a decision. 7. become
successful or famous: When he saw his name painted on the door he knew he had arrived!
As we see, the two entries differ both in the number of meanings (4 :: 7) and the very
meanings (Longman dictionary lists meaning which are not listed in Oxford dictionary).
Of great importance is also the arrangement of meanings in the entry. Students sometimes
think that if the meaning is placed first in the entry, it must be the most important, the most
frequent in present-day use. This is not always the case. It depends on the plan followed by the
compilers.
There are at least three different ways in which the word meanings are arranged: 1) in the
sequence of their historical development (called historical order), 2) in conformity with
frequency of use that is with the most common meaning first (empirical or actual order) and 3) in
their logical connection (logical order). In different dictionaries the problem of arrangement is
solved in different ways. In diachronic dictionaries the historical order is usually observed while
synchronic dictionaries adhere to the empirical and logical order.
As to the instruments for description of lexical meanings, the basic of them in a
monolingual dictionary, for instance, are: 1) the lexicographic definition; 2) the location in the
system of synonyms; 3) the exemplification; 4) the glosses.
The lexicographic definition overlaps to some extent with the logical definition, but there
are some striking differences. Probably the most important of them consists in the fact that the
lexicographic definition enumerates only the most important semantic features of the lexical unit,
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suffice to differentiate it from other units while the logical definition must identify the defined
object in such a way that it is put in a definite contrast against everything else that is
characterized as a member of the closest class.
The definition usually has the form of an endocentric phrase. The definition takes into
consideration the grammatical status of the defined lexical unit: a substantive will be defined by
a substantival construction (e.g. pension as “regular payment”), a transitive verb – by another
transitive verb or a syntactically equivalent construction (e.g. to pension – “to grant or to pay a
pension to”), etc.
The second means of the lexicographer for explaining the lexical meaning in the entries
of a monolingual dictionary is the synonyms (and near-synonyms). Synonymous definitions
consist of words or word-groups with nearly equivalent meaning, as distinct from descriptive
definitions which are explanations with the help of words not synonymous with the word to be
defined.
The purpose of the examples is to show how the entry-word functions in combination
with other lexical units. The absolute majority of dictionaries indicate examples. The bigger the
dictionary the more examples it generally contains. Only very small dictionaries can afford not to
indicate them; but absolute absence of examples is usually accompanied by a severe lowering of
the standard of the dictionary (unless its purpose is a strictly restricted one, such as, e.g., that of a
glossary of technical terminology or of a purely orthographical or similar dictionaries).
Practically only the technical terms can be presented without examples, but even in this case it is
preferable to indicate some examples if the term has multiple meaning (i.e. if it has
terminological value in different branches of science).
Almost everything can be illustrated by the examples: e.g., the different contextual
nuances, the range of authors in whose works the entry-word occurs, the first occurrence of the
word, the range of application, the attributive combinations, the typical objects of verbs, the
adverbial combinations, the applicational differences of synonyms or near-synonyms, etc.
The examples included in the entry should not be treated by the lexicographer as some
additional material but as an integral part of the entry.
Examples should be taken from the texts of the language, or they can be constructed by
the lexicographer with the eventual help of informants. The first type of example has the great
advantage.
The form of the quoted examples can differ in different languages, the main variations
can be observed in the length of the quotation and in the precision of the citation. As to the
length of the quotation, the best thing to do is to quote the whole lexicographic context. The
irrelevant parts may be omitted. The degree of reduction can vary, the places of reduction should
be indicated by dots.

Stage Four: the Arrangement of Entries

The order of arrangement of entries to be included is different in different types of
dictionaries and even in the word-book of the same type. In most dictionaries of various types
entries are given in a single alphabetic listing. In many others the units entered are arranged in
nests, based on this or that principle.
In some explanatory and translation dictionaries, e.g., entries are grouped in families of
words of the same root. In this case the basic units are given as main entries that appear in
alphabetical order while the derivatives and the phrases which the word enters are given either as
subentries or in the same entry, as run-ons that are also alphabetized. The difference between
subentries and run-ons is that the former do include definitions and usage labels, whereas run-on
words are not defined as meaning is clear from the main entry (most often because they are built
after productive patterns).
Compare, e.g., how the words basic and basically are entered in the two dictionaries:
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary:
basic ['beIsIk] adj 1. forming a base or a starting point; fundamental: argue from basic
principles • the basic vocabulary of a language, i. e. those words that must be learnt • These
facts are basic to an understanding of the case. 2. simplest or lowest in level; standard: basic
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pay • My knowledge of physics is pretty basic, i. e. is only at the elementary level. 3. (chemistry)
(of a substance) having the properties of or containing a base: a basic solution.
basically [-kli] adv with reference to essential matters; fundamentally: Despite her criticisms,
she is basically very fond of you. • Basically I agree with your proposals.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English:
basic ['beIsIk] adj
1. forming the most important or most necessary part of something: the basic principles of
chemistry I The basic idea is simple. I basic research I basic information.
2. at the simplest or least developed level: the basic skills of programming I The farm lacks even
basic equipment.
3. basic salary / pay / pension etc the amount of money that you are paid before any special
payments are added: On top of the basic salary there are numerous other benefits.
4. [only before noun] basic rights, needs etc are ones that everyone needs or should have: basic
human rights I poor families unable to meet their basic needs.
basically ['beIsIklI] adv
1. [sentence adverb] spoken used to emphasize the most important reason or fact about
something, or a simple explanation of something: Basically, I’m just lazy. I I used to see him
every night, basically.
2. in the main or most important ways, without considering additional details or differences; =
fundamentally: All cheeses are made in basically the same way. I Basically, he hadn’t changed
at all.
Structure of the Dictionary
When the selection of the dictionary entries, the contents and structure of the entries,
their order of arrangement etc. are decided upon, the lexicographer is to settle upon this or that
structure of the dictionary.
In spite of the great variety of linguistic dictionaries their composition has many features
in common. Nearly all of them may be roughly divided into three unequal parts.
Apart from the dictionary proper, that make up the bulk of the word-book, every
reference book contains some separate sections which are to help the user in handling it – an
Introduction and Guide to the use of the dictionary. This prefatory matter usually explains all the
peculiarities of the word-book, it also contains a key to pronunciation, the list of abbreviations
used and the like.
It is very important that the user of a dictionary should read this prefatory matter for this
will enable him to know what is to be found in the word-book and what is not, will help him
locate words quickly and easily, and derive the full amount of information the dictionary affords.
Appended to the dictionary proper there is some supplementary material valuable for
language learners and language teachers. This material may be divided into one of linguistic
nature, pertaining to vocabulary, its development and use, and the other pertaining to matters
distinctly encyclopedic. In explanatory dictionaries the appendices of the first kind usually
include addenda or/and various word-lists: geographic names, foreign words and expressions,
forenames, etc., record new meanings of words already entered and words that have come into
existence since the compilation of the word-book. The educational material may include a list of
colleges and universities, special signs and symbols used in various branches of science, tables
of weights and measures, etc.
In translation dictionaries supplementary material is in some respects different from that
in explanatory dictionaries. They do not only include a list of geographical names, standard
abbreviations pertaining to the public, political, economic and industrial life, but also contains
the rules of English and Russian or Ukrainian pronunciation as well as brief outlines of English,
Russian or Ukrainian grammar.

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 XIII.4. Learner’s Dictionaries
Nowadays practical and theoretical learner’s lexicography is given great attention to,
especially in our country. Lexicographers, linguists and methods specialists discuss such
problems as the classification of learner’s dictionaries, the scope of the word-list for learners at
different stages of advancement, the principles of word selection, etc.
In the broad sense of the word the term Learner’s Dictionaries might be applied to any
word-book designed as an aid to various users, both native and foreign, studying a language from
various angles. Thus, we might refer to this group of word-books such reference books as
Student’s Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon by H. Sweet, the numerous school-level or college
dictionaries for native speakers, the numerous spelling-books, etc. By tradition the term is
confined to dictionaries specially compiled to meet the demands of the learners for whom
English is not their mother language. It is in this sense that we shall use the term further on.
These dictionaries differ essentially from ordinary academic dictionaries, on the one
hand, and from word-books compiled specially for English and American schoolchildren and
college students, on the other hand.
Though foreign language learners and children speaking the same language as their
mother tongue have both imperfect command of English, it is obvious that the needs and
problems of the two groups of dictionary users are altogether different. A foreign adult student of
English even at a moderately advanced stage of learning will have pitfalls and needs of his own:
among the other things he may have difficulties with the use of the most “simple” words (such as
play, wipe), he may not know the names for commonest things in everyday life (such as oatmeal,
towel, rug) and he will experience in this or that degree interference of his mother tongue.
On the one hand, we have users who for the most part have command of the language,
who have fluent speech habits, since this language is their mother tongue; they need guidance as
to which of the usage they come across is correct. On the other hand, we have users that have a
limited vocabulary and no speech habits or very weak ones and who have stable speech habits in
another language which is their native tongue and these native speech habits interfere with the
foreign ones. That is why these users must be given thorough instruction in how the words are to
be used and this instruction must be given against the background of the learners’ native
language.
That is why the word-lists and the sort of directions for use for the benefit of the foreign
adult learners of English must differ very widely (if not fundamentally) from those given to
English or American schoolchildren.
Hence the word-books of this group are characterized by the following features:
1) by their strictly limited word-list, the selection of which is based on carefully thought
over scientific principles;
2) the great attention given to the functioning of lexical units in speech;
3) a strong prescriptive, normative character;
4) by their compilation with the native linguistic background in view.

XIII.4.1. Classification of Learner’s Dictionaries

Learner’s dictionaries may be classified in accordance with different principles, the main
of which are: 1) the scope of the word-list and 2) the nature of the information afforded.
From the point of view of the scope (volume) of the word-list they fall into two groups.
Those of the first group contain all lexical units that the prospective user may need, in the second
group only the most essential and important words are selected. To the first group we can refer
A.S. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (50,000 lexical units) and M. West’s
International Reader’s Dictionary (about 24,000 units); to the second group – A Grammar of
English Words by H. Palmer (1,000 words), and The English-Russian Learner’s Dictionary by
S.K. Folomkina and H.M. Weiser (3,500 units).
As to the information afforded by learner’s dictionaries lexicographers and
methodologists seem to have agreed that there should be a whole series of them. There must be a
group of dictionaries presenting different aspects of the vocabulary: showing mainly the
semantic structure of words (explanatory), presenting the syntagmatic relations between words
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(dictionaries of collocations), providing information about the word’s structure (derivational),
supplying synonymous and antonymous words, etc.
Another group of dictionaries reflects the practice of teaching different aspects of speech.
The word-books having as their goal the ability to read scientific and technical literature in a
foreign language will need a vast word-list ensuring adequate comprehension of written speech.
Teaching oral speech habits requires a dictionary that contains a selected list of active words
explained from the point of view of their use.
Since learners of different linguistic background will have different pitfalls in mastering
the same language, will need different directions for use, different restrictive remarks, each pair
of languages requires its own dictionaries based on a contrastive study of the learner’s native
tongue and the language to be learned.
In this connection it must be said that Hornby’s dictionary with all its merits and
advantages, has an essential demerit – it does not take into account the user’s linguistic
background, so it cannot foresee and prevent the possible language problems of this or that
national group of English learners.
Russian lexicographers came to the opinion that separate reference books are called for
teachers and learners and the first attempts at producing dictionaries for teachers are the
reference books Adjectival Collocations and Verbal Collocations. Those are the main types of
dictionaries considered necessary to ensure the process of foreign language teaching.
As to the present state of learner’s lexicography, it may characterized as just coming into
being, as the already existing dictionaries are few in number and they do not make a system,
rather some separate links of a system.
As to the information they provide they may be divided into two groups: those giving
equal attention to the word’s semantic characteristics and the way it is used in speech (these may
be called learner’s dictionaries proper) and those concentrating on detailed treatment of the
word’s lexical and grammatical valency (dictionaries of collocations).
To learner’s dictionaries proper issued in English-speaking countries we may refer, for
example, The Progressive English Dictionary and An English Reader’s Dictionary by A.S.
Hornby and E.C. Parnwell designed for beginners, as well as Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English by A.S. Hornby and The New Horison Ladder Dictionary of The
English Language by J.R. Shaw with J.Shaw for more advanced students.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by A. Hornby has achieved
international recognition as a most valuable practical reference book to English as a foreign
language. It contains 50,000 units and is compiled on the basis of COD to meet the needs of
advanced foreign learners of English and language teachers. It aims among other things at giving
detailed information about the grammatical and partly lexical valency of words.
New Horison Ladder Dictionary includes 5,000 of the most frequently used words in
written English. It is called Ladder Dictionary because the words are divided in it into five levels
or ladder rungs of approximately 1,000 each, according to the frequency of their use (a figure in
brackets attached to each word shows to which thousand the word belongs).
In Russia The English-Russian Dictionary of Most Commonly Used Words was compiled
by V.D. Arakin, H.M. Weiser and S.K. Folomkina under Prof. I.V. Rachmanov’s direction. This
is a vocabulary minimum of 3,250 words, typical word-groups and phraseological units selected
for active mastery is secondary school.
The Learner’s English-Russian Dictionary by S. Folomkina and H. Weiser doesn’t,
strictly speaking, belong to the group of dictionaries under consideration, as it is designed for use
by English-speaking students of the Russian language, but is helpful as well when learning
English. It contains about 3,500 words.
The word-books given above differ in many respects: they are either monolingual or
polylingual, they provide different information, they differ in the kind of the intended user
(learners of the English language who have reached different stages in the course of their studies,
adults or children of different linguistic background) and in aim (an aid to oral speech – the
development of reading and writing skills) and in other features. However, these dictionaries
have some traits in common that distinguish them from the word-books considered in the
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preceding sections. They all aim at teaching how to speak, write, etc., while the tendency in
modern English lexicography is not to prescribe as to usage, but to record what is actually used
by speakers.
Dictionaries of collocation contain words which freely combine with the given head-
word. The few reference-books of this kind known to us belong to the pen of foreign compilers.
For example, A. Reum’s Dictionary of English Style is designed for the Germans, Adjectival
Collocations in Modern English by T.S. Gorelik and Verbal Collocations in Modern English by
R. Ginzburg, S. Khidekel, E. Mednikova and A. Sankin are designed for Russian school teachers
and students of English.
Each of the two dictionaries of collocations prepared by Russian linguists presents the
collocability of 375 words that are used in school text-books. The presentation of the word’s
grammatical and lexical valency is based on identical principles.

XIII.4.2. Some Problems of the Compilation of Learner’s Dictionaries

Selection of Entry Words

Compilers of learner’s dictionaries have to tackle the same cardinal problems as those of
ordinary explanatory and translation dictionaries, but they often solve them in their own way,
besides they have some specific policies to settle on to meet the needs of language learners to
whom the book will be addressed.
The common purpose of learner’s dictionaries is to give information on what is currently
accepted usage, besides most compilers seek to choose the lexical units that foreign learners of
English are likely to need. Therefore not only obsolete, archaic and dialectal words are included,
but also technical and scientific terms, substandard words and phrases, etc. Colloquial and slang
words as well as foreign words of common occurrence in English are included only if they are of
the sort likely to be met by students either in reading or in conversation. Moreover some of the
common words may be omitted if they are not often encountered in books, newspapers, etc. or
heard over the radio and in conversation.
Space is further saved by omitting certain derivatives and compounds the meaning of
which can be easily inferred.
Alternative spelling and pronunciations are avoided, only the more accepted forms are
listed.
Various criteria have been employed in choosing words for learner’s dictionaries. In the
first place the selection of words is based on the frequency principle.
Frequency value, an important characteristic of lexical units, is closely connected with
their other properties. That is why the word-counts enable the compiler to choose the most
important, the most frequently used words.
However many methodologists and compilers of learner’s dictionaries have a tendency to
exaggerate the significance of the frequency criterion. The research done in different countries
has shown that the frequency tables, helpful as they are in the compilation of a vocabulary
minimum, do not in themselves present the vocabulary minimum. While it is indisputable that
every high-frequency word is useful, it is not every useful word that is frequent (e.g. carrots,
fork, stamp, etc.). Consequently frequency cannot be the only point to be considered in selecting
items for learner’s dictionaries as well as for other teaching materials. It must be complemented
by some other principles, such as the words’ collocability, stylistic reference, derivational ability,
semantic structure, etc. Thus, in the dictionary under Prof. I.V. Rakhmanov’s direction the
choice of words is based upon three main principles: 1) combinability, 2) lack of stylistic
limitations, 3) semantic value, and four additional principles: 1) word-building ability, 2)
polysemy, 3) syntactical valency, 4) frequency.

Presentation of Meanings
The order of arrangement of meanings followed in learner’s dictionaries is usually
empiric, i. e. beginning with the main meaning to minor ones. Besides the following principles of
arrangement are considered proper for language learners: literal uses before figurative, general
145
uses before special, common uses before rare and easily understandable uses before difficult.
Each of these principles is subject to the limitation “other things being equal” and all are subject
to the principle that that arrangement is best for any word which helps the learners most.
For instance, in Hornby’s entry for commit the first meaning is ‘perform (a crime, foolish
act, etc.)’ and its primary meaning ‘entrust’ is given as its second meaning.
But this is not always the case. For instance, the first meaning of the word revolution
given by Hornby is ‘act of revolving or journeying round’ and not ‘complete change, great
reversal of conditions, esp. in methods of government’, which is more common in nowadays.
Thus the compilers preserve the historical order of meanings in this case.
In monolingual learner’s dictionaries the same types of definitions are used, as in
ordinary monolingual explanatory word-books, but their proportion is different, Encyclopedic
definitions are usually used more rarely, the role of descriptive definitions is much greater.
Compare, for instance, the definition for the word coal taken from the Ladder Dictionary
with that from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English:
coal n. a black hard substance that burns and gives off heat.
coal [kəul] or [koul] n
1. a hard black mineral which is dug out of the ground and burnt to produce heat: Put
some coal on the fire. | the coal mining industry | a lump of coal.
2. [usually plural] a piece of coal, especially one that is burning: Red hot coals glowed
in the grate.
3. [usually plural] AmE a piece of wood or coal that is burning: Grill over hot coals for
four to five minutes.
4. carry/take coals to Newcastle BrE to take something to a place where there is already
plenty of it available
5. haul/rake/drag sb over coals to speak angrily to someone because they have done
something wrong.
It would be wrong to think however that the definitions in learner’s dictionaries are
always less complete than in the dictionaries designed for native users. More often than not these
definitions are not so condensed in form and they are more complete in content, because the
compilers have to make up for the user’s possible inadequacy in command of the language and
lack of knowledge of some realia.
In learner’s dictionaries cross-references are for the most part reduced to a minimum.
Compilers of learner’s dictionaries attach great importance to the language in which the
definition is couched, the goal being to word them in the simplest terms that are consistent with
accuracy. Some compilers see to it that the definitions are couched in language which is
commoner and more familiar to the language learner than the words defined.
Some lexicographers select a special defining vocabulary held to be the commonest
words in English or those first learnt by foreigners. For example, in the International Reader’s
Dictionary the word-list of 24,000 items is defined within a vocabulary of 1,490 words selected
by M. West.
In some learner’s dictionaries pictorial material is widely used as a means of
semantization of the words listed. Pictures cannot only define the meanings of nouns, but
sometimes also of adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Thus, e.g., in Horby’s dictionary the definitions
of the adjective concentrated, the verb clasp and the adverb abreast are illustrated with the
pictures of concentrated circles, clasped hands, and boys walking three abreast.
Setting of the Entry
The structure and the content of the entry in learner’s dictionaries also have some
peculiar features. Chief among these is marked attention to the ways words are used in speech,
e.g. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary points out which nouns, and in which of their
meanings, can be used with the indefinite articles (the symbols [C] and [U] stand for “countable”
and “uncountable”). It also indicates the patterns in which verbs can be used. They are presented
with the help of the abbreviation VP and the number of the pattern preceding the definition of
each meaning. All the patterns are listed in A Summary of the Verb Patterns. The dictionary also
gives information of a more detailed character about the lexical valency of words. Sets of words
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with which the head-word may combine as well as illustrative examples taken from everyday
language are given, e.g.
ar-rive [ə΄raiv] vi [VP2A, C, 3A] 1. reach a place, esp the end of a journey: ~ home. ~ at a port,
~ in harbour. 2. come: At last the day ~d. Her baby ~d (= was born) yesterday. 3. [VP3A] ~ at,
reach (a decision, a price, the age of 40, manhood, etc.). 4. [VP2A] establish one’s position or
reputation: The flood of fan mail proved he’d ~d.
Each dictionary has its own specific features. For instance, in the Learner’s English-
Russian Dictionary there is no indication of the patterns the English word is used in. Designed
for English learners of Russian the dictionary provides Russian equivalents for all meanings with
the stress indicated in each word and translation of all examples, indicates the types of
conjugation of Russian verbs.
The supplementary matter in learner’s dictionaries, besides that usually found in general
dictionaries, may include other reference material necessary for language learners. For instance,
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary includes not only lists of irregular verbs, common
abbreviations, geographical names, etc., but also common forenames listed with their pet names,
numerical expressions giving help in the reading, speaking and writing of numbers and
expressions which contain them, the words of William Shakespeare and even ranks in the Armed
Forces of GB and US.
So, as we see, designed for foreign learners of English, learner’s dictionaries are
characterized by their strictly limited word-list, the great attention given to the functioning of
lexical units in speech and their strong perspective orientation.

XIII.5. Summary and Conclusions

Lexicography is an important branch of applied linguistics. Its main purpose is the
production of dictionaries.
A dictionary is a reference book that gives a list of words together with a guide to their
meanings, pronunciation, spelling oe equivalents in other languages.
There are many different types of dictionaries. First of all they may be roughly divided
into linguistic dictionaries (their subject-matter is lexical units) and encyclopedic dictionaries
(they give information about the extra-linguistic world).
Linguistic dictionaries are divided into different categories by different criteria.
According to the nature of the word-list they are divided into general dictionaries (they
contain lexical units from various spheres of life) and restricted dictionaries (they are intended
to cover only a certain specific part of the vocabulary).
As to the information the linguistic dictionaries provide they fall into explanatory
(presenting a wide range of data) and specialized (dealing with lexical units only in relation to
some of their characteristics, e.g. etymology, etc.). Among specialized dictionaries one can find
Phraseological Dictionaries, Dictionaries of Proverbs, Sayings and Quatations, New Word
Dictionaries, Dictionaries of Slang, Dictionaries of Dialects, Pronouncing Dictionaries,
Spelling Dictionaries, Ideographic Dictionaries, Dictionaries of Synonyms, Dictionaries of
Word-frequency, Etymological Dictionaries.
Dictionaries are also divided into monolingual, bilingual and multilingual depending on
the number of languages represented.
Concerning thei9r structure dictionaries usually consist of the following parts: foreword,
guide to the use of the dictionary, key to pronunciation, list of abbreviations and symbols, the
dictionary itself, supplements (if there are some).
Learner’s Dictionaries are characterized by the following features: 1) by their strictly
limited word-list the selection of which is based on scientific principles; 2) by the great attention
given to the functioning of lexical units in speech; 3) by a strong prescriptive, normative
character; 4) by the native linguistic background.

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 Suggested points for discussion
1. What is Lexicography?
2. What is meant by ‘dictionary’?
3. Is dictionary-making a theoretical or practical activity?
4. What sciences is Lexicography connected with?
5. What is the subject-matter of Lexicography?
6. What is the object of Lexicography? (either the whole vocabulary or one or more of its
aspects)
7. What is the basic-unit in dictionary making?
8. What helps to handle and present the information in dictionaries? (metalanguage)
9. What is meant by metalanguage?
10. What is dictionary compiling motivated by? (the lexical needs of the language users)
11. What are the factors which should be taken into account while compiling a dictionary?
12. What is the first division of dictionaries? What do they differ in? (items included and the
sort of information)
13. What is the subject-matter of encyclopedia?
14. What is the subject-matter of a linguistic dictionary?
15. What well-known encyclopedias do you know?
16. What kind of dictionaries are Who is who dictionaries?
17. According to what criteria are linguistic dictionaries further divided? (nature of the word
list, the relationship to the history of the language, stability of word combination, stylistic
aspect, regional aspect, resemblance or polarity of meaning, resemblance or polarity of
outer form of words, the number of languages represented)
18. Comment on the principles of compiling etymological dictionaries.
19. Comment on the distinction between general and specialized dictionaries.
20. What do we call a thesaurus?
21. What types of dictionaries pertain to the numbers of languages represented?
22. What is the difference between historical and etymological dictionaries?

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 PART II

EXERCISES

I. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of motivation of words. Arrange the following

words into motivated and unmotivated ones. Define the type of motivation.
Act, actor, beauty, beautiful, black, berry, blackberry, blackbird, buzz, clip, crack, crash,
cuckoo, develop, development, eyewash, giggle, go, hiss, hop, killjoy, painkiller, red, rewrite,
stop, snow-drop, water, water-colour, year, yearly.

Exercise 2. Comment on the general and the particular in the meaning of words. Arrange
the following words into two groups comprising the general and the particular.
Animal, beet, building, bull, bush, cabbage, carrot, cat, cottage, dog, fiction, flower,
football, grass, horse, hut, mansion, novel, onion, plant, sport, story, swimming, tennis, tree,
vegetable, villa.

Exercise 3. Comment on the two main types of word-meaning. State what meaning the
following word-forms and groups of words have.
1. Friends, mothers, sisters, teachers.
1. Go, went, gone, going.
2. Write, wrote, written, writing.
3. Asked, stopped, walked, went, wrote, thought.
4. Speaks, reads, writes, goes, asks, thinks.
5. Friend’s, mother’s, sister’s, teacher’s.

Exercise 4. Comment on the part-of-speech meaning. Arrange the following words into
groups according to the part of speech they belong to.
A table, to see, to like, a spoonful, beautiful, to read, careful, carefully, to write, writer,
nice, glad, to come, new, newly, to teach, a teacher, she, on, in, and, but, boy, boyhood, boyish,
he, with, brother, brotherly.

Exercise 5. Comment on the essence of the morphemic analysis of the word. Analyse the
following words into their Ultimate Constituents (UCs).
Friendship, freedom, lucky, luckily, agreement, frightful, merciless, suddenly, lifeless,
uncomfortable, steadiness, bathroom, northern, actress, blue-eyed, visitor, ex-seaman, half-
finished, supernaturally, uncomprehendingly, unemployment, reinforcement, uplifted,
hopelessly, unworthiness, impassable, extravagant, unconsciousness.

Exercise 6. Comment on the degrees of segmentability of stems. Analyse the words into
their UCs and arrange them into three groups according to the degree of segmentability of their
stems: a) complete, b) conditional, c) defective.
Amoral, cloudless, contain, cranberry, culture, deceive, deformation, disappear,
disappointment, distrust, ex-champion, exclaim, export, foresee, foretell, import, information,
introduce, lioness, lionet, locket, misguided, misunderstand, obtain, perceive, picture, pocket,
porter, proclaim, produce, raspberry, receive, reduce, retain, ringlet, speaker, strawberry,
streamlet, townlet, transformation, transmit, transplant, undressed, unemployment, uniformity,
universal.

Exercise 7. Comment on structural types of words. Arrange the following words into:
a) simple, b) derived, c) compounds, d) derivational compounds.
Railway, child, childish, bald-headed, toy, mute, deaf, deaf-mute, act, actor, long-legged,
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dark, darkness, friend, friendship, everything, boyishness, open-hearted, daytime, narrow-
minded, whatever, big, biggish, space, spaceman, old, old-timer, teenager, ill, ill-mannered,
double, fame, famous, norm, normal, sunrise, timesaving, sharp, sharpen, hand, handful, handy,
moon, honey-mooner, week-end, bare, leg, bare-legged, three-coloured, film, film-star, mistress,
breakdown, overgrow, light-blue.

Exercise 8. Arrange the following words into three groups, those having: a) free stems;
b) bound stems; c) semi-bound stems.
Public, voyage, boyish, disrange, manly, freedom, vital, waiter, experience, businesslike,
annual, speechless, careful, policeman, well-known, half-done, personal, difference, patience,
untrue, longish, length, likely, terrorist, unselfish, tremendous, famous, weekly.

Exercise 9. Comment on simple stems and derived stems. Arrange the following words
into two groups: a) those having simple stems, b) those having derived stems.
Hearty, heartily, organise, organised, consciously, boyish, boyishness, enslave,
enslavery, effortless, boxer, princess, qu ickly, familiarity, brutality, singer, steadiness,
courageous, worker, boiled, appearance.

Exercise 10. Give the definition of a root-morpheme. Define roots in the following sets
of words.
Bake, baker, bakery; civil, civilian, civilise, civilised, civilisation; collect, collection,
collector, collective, collectivisation; differ, difference, different, differential, differentiate
gentle, gentleman, gentility, gentleness, genteel, gently; please, pleasant, pleasure; describe,
prescribe, inscribe; success, sucessful, unsuccessful, successfully, succession, successor,
successive; porter, transport, import, export.

Exercise 11. Give allomorphs of the negative prefix in-. Form adjectives using, these
allomorphs.
Regular, polite, rational, mortal, movable, legal, proper, mobility, literate, logical,
mature, measurable, patience, perfect, personal, relevant, responsible.

Exercise 12. Make distinction between derivational and functional affixes.

1. Translated, finished, reduced, collected, pushed.
1. Talented, gifted, bearded, black-hearted.
2. Tables, sisters, books, girls, pencils.
3. Colours, developments, draughts, powers.

Exercise 13. Comment on the derivational suffix -s in the following nouns.

authority 1) авторитет, 2) влада authorities адміністрація
cloth 1) тканина, 2) ганчірка clothes одяг
colour колір colours прапор
custom звичай customs митниця
development розвиток developments події
direction напрямок directions інструкція
duty обов'язок duties 1) службові обов’язки, 2) мито
draught тяга, протяг draughts шашки
glass 1) скло, 2) склянка glasses окуляри
honour честь honours шана
humanity людство humanities гуманітарні науки
picture картина pictures кіно
power сила, міць powers повноваження
talk бесіда talks переговори
work робота works 1) завод, 2) збірка праць

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 Exercise 14. Translate the following sentences. Choose those cases in which the suffix -s
is derivational.
1. Where are my glasses? I can’t see anything without them. 2. There was an explosion in
the glass works some days ago. 3. Time works wonders. 4. Why do you scatter yourself in so
many directions? 5. Follow the directions and everything will be all right. 6. “What does she
study?” – “The humanities.” 7. His grandfather was buried with military honours. 8. All the
travellers must go through the customs. 9. Each country has its own customs, and if you live in
this country you must know them. 10. I am very sensitive to draughts. 11. He usually beats me at
draughts. 12. Let’s discuss the latest developments. 13. We have no powers to solve such
problems. 14. Don’t exceed your powers.

Exercise 15. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words (authorities, clothes, duties,
talks, pictures).
1. I have no ... to permit such things. 2. The boy has outgrown his ... and has nothing to
wear now. 3. They were suggested that they should apply to the local ... . 4. To while the time
away they went to the ... . 5. You'll have to pay ... on these goods. 6. A joint communique was
signed after the summit ... .

Exercise 16. Make distinction between morphemic and derivational analyses. Define the
morphemic and derivational structures of the following words.
Blackish, classical, disloyal, hammerlike, homeless, impossible, interoceanic, mislead,
non-autobiographic, pseudo-democratic, sleepy, sunny, unemployment, disobey, untrue,
unfinished, violinist, womanlike, colourful, industrial, silken, classification, re-examine,
impossible.

Exercise 17. Choose words in which morphemic and derivational structures coincide.
Snowy, unfair, impulsive, painless, amoral, inky, polar, dipolar, epidermic, ashen,
oceanic, normal, active, windy, delicate, improper, moony, silken, antiwar, western, departure,
brotherly, morphological, eatable, unequal, reconstraction, justification, unimportant, arrival.

II. WORD-FORMATION

II.1. PREFIXATION
Exercise 1. Classify the following prefixes into:
A: a) native, b) foreign;
B: a) productive, b) semi-productive, c) non-productive. (See Appendix 1).
A-1 (of, on), a-2 (not), ab- (from, away), ad- (addition), after-, ampni-, ante-, anti-, arch-,
be-, bis-/bi-, by-, circum-, com-/co-, contra-/contro-, counter-, de- (down, separation, reversion),
di-/dis-1 (twice), dis-2 (separation, negation), ex- (former, out of), en-, extra-, fore-, forth-, in-1
(in, into), in-2 (negation), inter-, intro-, mis-, non-, ob-, off-, on-, out-, over-, per-, poly-, post-,
pre-, pro-, re-, retro-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, un-, under-, up-, vice-, with-.

Exercise 2. Look through the list of prefixes once again. Pick out those which have the
generic denotational meaning of: a) negation; b) reversion; c) time and order; d) location and
disposition.

Exercise 3. Comment on the origin and meaning of the prefixes in the following words.
1. Afloat, afoot, afresh, alight, along, anew, awaken.
1. Amoral, anomalous, aseptic.
2. Befriend, behead, belittle, besiege, bewitch.
3. Uncomfortable, unequal, unhappy, unreal, unsafe.
4. Unarm, unbelt, unbind, uncap, undress, unmask, untie.
5. Disagree, disapprove, discomfort, disobey.
6. Disappear, disarrange, disband, disconnect, disjoin.
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 Exercise 4. Form adjectives by adding the negative prefix in- or its allomorphs il-, im-,
ir-.
Accurate, active, attentive, capable, comparable, convenient, correct, frequent, human,
legal, literate, logical, moral, movable, possible, probable, proper, regular, respective, rational.

Exercise 5. Add the prefix un- to the following words and comment on its meaning.
A. Able, apt, aware, certain, common, equal, fair, natural, official, pleasant, professional,
reasonable, safe, satisfactory, true, usual.
B. To bolt, to cork, to fix, to hook, to lock, to pack, to seal, to screw, to tie, to wrap.

Exercise 6. Comment on the meaning of the prefix non-. Translate the following words
into Ukrainian.
Non-ability, non-acquaintance, non-admission, non-aggressive, non-alcoholic, non-
arable, non-believer, non-durable, non-effective, non-essential, non-European, non-existence,
non-ferrous, non-freezing, non-fulfilment, non-human, non-logical, non-official, non-permanent,
non-persistent, nonsense, non-smoker, non-standard, non-stop, non-transportable, non-voter.

Exercise 7. Comment on the meaning of the prefix mis-. Paraphrase the following word-
combinations avoiding verbs in mis-.
To misunderstand something; to be misinformed; to mis-cany a letter; misleading
information; a misspelt word; to correct a misprint; a mispronounced sound; a mistranslated
sentence; to accuse somebody of misbehaving.

Exercise 8. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian paying attention to the ways
negation is rendered into Ukrainian.
1. He was a non-drinker. (Cr.) 2. I think your arguments are non-essential. (Hm.) 3.
When was this non-aggression pact signed? (MS) 4. It is an important centre of non-ferrous,
metallurgy. 5. There is a rich non-lending library at the British Museum. 6. She looked at him
uncomprehendingly. (Mg.) 7. So-ames sat unmoving. (G.) 8. Soames frowned to preserve the
unemotionalism proper to a Forsyte. (G.) 9. Hitherto I have recorded in detail the events of my
insignificant existence. (Ch.B.. 10. For over a week he had been unconscious. (Mg.)

Exercise 9. Comment on the prefix en-/em-. Define the meaning of the following verbs.
To embus, to enforce, to enframe, to encamp, to entitle, to entrain, to entrap, to entrust.

Exercise 10. Paraphrase the following word-combinations using the verbs with the prefix
en-/em-.
To throw into a rage; to reduce to slavery; to place on a throne; to put into a cage; to hold
fast with a chain; to inclose in a circle; to give power; to expose to danger; to make rich (bitter,
larger, able, sure).

Exercise 11. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out prefixed words
and comment on the meaning of these prefixes.
1. He was disinclined to trouble himself with a young man. (Mg.) 2. There would be a
time for rearrangements and readjustments. (Ch.) 3. Your co-believers are remarkably
unscrupulous and insensitive about those of us who have come to the opposite conclusion. (D.)
4. As she talked to Mamma, relating the events of her journey, she displayed strong, discoloured
teeth which, however, were somewhat unmanageable and made little clicking noises. (Cr.) 5. I
am afraid, I misjudged you in the past, I beg your pardon. (Mg.. 6. In all big cities there are self-
contained groups that exist without intercommunication. (Mg.) 7. Uncle Elliot said it was most
improper and Mamma said she thought it unnecessary. (Mg.) 8. He was a non-representative
artist and he painted portraits of her in squares and oblongs. (Mg.) 9. Until the events of the last
few days he had been almost super-naturally steady all this year. (G.) 10. He was an ex-fisher.
(Mg.) 11. Young Jolyon sat down far off, and began nervously to reconsider his position. (G.)
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12. Soames desired to alter his condition from that of the unmanied man to that of the manied
man remanied. (G.) 13. There’s an unfortunate devil, who has got a friend on the poor side, that's
glad to do anything of that sort. (D.)

Exercise 12. Give English equivalents. Compare the Ukrainian and the English prefixes.
1. Докласовий, довоєнний, дошкільний.
2. Міжконтинентальний, міжміський, міжнародний, міжпланетний.
3. Перебудувати, перевидати, перевиховати, переобладнати, перевантажити,
перевиконати, перегріти, переплатити, пересолити, пересадити.
4. Співавтор, співдружність, співзвучний, співіснування.
5. Антипатія, антинародний, антинауковий, антисанітарний.
6. Небажаний, неввічливий, невдалий, невдячний, невидимий, невихований,
невіддільний, невідомий, невмирущий, неврівноважений, невтручання, недійсний, недо-
віра, недосвідчений, недостойний, незапам’ятний, незвичайний, незначний, незручний,
необмежений, неписьменний, непорозуміння, несправедливість.
7. Вибирати, вибігати, вивантажувати, вивозити, вивішувати, виймати, вилазити,
виливати, вимирати, виплачувати, витікати.

II.2. SUFFIXATION
Noun-forming suffixes

Exercise 1. Arrange the following noun-forming suffixes into groups according to their
origin and productivity into: A: a) native, b) foreign; B: a) productive, b) semi-productive,
c) non-productive. (See Appendix 2).
-ade, -age, -an/-ian, -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency, -ant/-ent, -ar, -ard/-art, -asm, -ast, -ate/-at,
-су, -dom, -ee, -eer, -er, -ess, -ful, -hood, -ier/-yer, -ing, -ie/-y, -ic, -ice, -ics, -ine, -ion, -ism, -ist,
-ite, -let, -ling, -ment, -mony, -ness, -oid, -or, -ory, -our/-eur, -ry/-ery, -ship, -ster, -th, -tion,
-tude, -ty, -ure, -y.

Exercise 2. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -er in the following nouns: a) nouns
denoting persons following some trade or occupation; b) nouns denoting persons doing some
action; c) nouns denoting persons living in some locality; d) nouns denoting things which do
what the stem denotes. Translate them into Ukrainian.
Baker, bather, believer, composer, driver, foreigner, hatter, interpreter, milker, miner,
oiler, painter, potter, roofer, sewer, turner, waiter, welder, writer.

Exercise 3. Translate the following -er nouns into Ukrainian paying attention to the
special way of forming these agent-nouns in Ukrainian.
Astrologer, astronomer, banker, cartographer, dancer, driver, geographer, knower, leader,
miner, observer, owner, philosopher, photographer, programmer, progucer, reader, robber,
singer, thinker, topographer, worker.

Exercise 4. Classify the following -er nouns into: a) agent-nouns; b) nouns denoting
things which do what the stem denotes; c) nouns denoting persons who live in a certain country
or locality.
Announcer, Britisher, cutter, defender, driver, fighter, footballer, foreigner, free-thinker,
gardener, listener, Londoner, Netherlander, New-Yorker, offender, owner, reader, reaper,
speaker, villager.

Exercise 5. Translate the following nouns in -or paying attention to 1) the typical
Ukrainian endings; 2) their meaning (a) nouns denoting professions, occupations; b) nound
denoting persons performing some actions; c) nouns denoting things connected with the actions
expressed by the stem).
Actor, aggressor, agitator, ambassador, compressor, constructor, corrector, cultivator,
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decorator, dictator, doctor, elevator, inspector, instructor, narrator, operator, proprietor, radiator,
reflector, refrigerator, vendor, ventilator.

Exercise 6. Comment on the meaning of the noun-forming suffix -ist. Arrange them into
twi groups: 1) nouns denoting persons who practice some method or art; 2) nouns denoting
persons who adhere to some doctrine, system or cause.
Artist, capitalist, communist, dentist, dramatist, economist, egoist, fascist, fiturist,
modernist, nationalist, philologist, reformist, scientist, socialist, tourist.

Exercise 7. Comment on the meaning of the noun-forming suffix -ist. Give Ukrainian
equivalents of the following nouns in -ist. Pay attention to the fact that there is no suffix in their
Ukrainian equivalents.
Agronomist, anatomist, archaelogist, artist, biologist, diplomatist, dramatist, feudalist,
ideologist, metallurgist, philologist, physicist, physiologist, sociologist, therapeutist.

Exercise 8. Explain in English the meaning of the following nouns in -ist.

Mode1: novelist - a person who writes novels.
Dramatist, essayist, humourist, journalist, lyrist, memoirist, parodist, prosodist, satirist.

Exercise 9. Comment on the meaning of the noun-forming suffix -ess. Give Ukrainian
equivalents of the following nouns in -ess. Pay attention to the corresponding suffixes in
Ukrainian.
1. Baroness, poetess, actress, stewardess.
2. Empress, heiress, lioness, tigress, traitress.
3. Advanturess, hostess, Jewess, laundress, shepherdess, waitress.
4. Countess, goddess.

Exercise 10. Comment on the meaning of the semi-suffix -man. Arrange the nouns into
the following groups: 1) nouns denoting persons living in or being native of; 2) nouns denoting
people concerned with.
Businessman, chairman, countryman, doorman, Dutchman, Englishman, fisherman,
Frenchman, gentleman, Irishman, nobleman, policeman, postman, salesman, Scotchman,
seaman, sportsman, statesman.

Exercise 11. Comment on the meaning of the semi-suffix -man. Give Ukrainian
equivalents of the following nouns in -man.
1. Airman, cavalryman, guardsman, seaman, tankman.
1. Dutchman, Englishman, Frenchman, Irishman, Scotchman.
2. Businessman, congressman, policeman, yachtsman.

Exercise 12. Form nouns in -hood. Comment on their meaning.

Baby, bachelor, boy, child, father, girl, likely, man, mother, parent, sister, widow,
woman.
Exercise 13. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ship. From the following words
form nouns in -ship. Translate them into Ukrainian.
Author, censor, chairman, champion, citizen, companion, comrade, craftsman, director,
fellow, guardian, horseman, leader, member, partner, penman, salesman, town.

Exercise 14. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ment. Form nouns in -ment from
the following words. Translate these nouns into Ukrainian.
Agree, appoint, arrange, astonish, embarrass, employ, encourage, enjoy, enlarge, fulfil,
govern, imprison, move, nourish, pave, publish, punish, treat.

Exercise 15. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -age. Arrange the following nouns
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into groups denoting: a) place; b) collectivity; c) process; d) state; e) measure units.
Acreage, breakage, brewage, clientage, coinage, drainage, footage, fruitage, herbage,
hermitage, leafage, leakage, orphanage, percentage, pilotage, postage, package, shortage,
stoppage, storage, tonnage, usage, voltage, wastage.

Exercise 16. Comment on the suffix -(i)ty. From the following adjectives form nouns in
-(i)ty. Translate them into Ukrainian.
1. Advisable, available, capable, changeable, compatible, desirable, divisible,
eatable, flexible, possible, sociable, responsible.
1. Anonymous, curious, precocious.
2. Civil, hostile, sterile, timid.
3. Brutal, personal, regular, sentimental, vulgar.
4. Major, minor, superior.
5. Complex, grave, solemn.

Exercise 17. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -(e)ry. Arrange the following nouns
in -(e)ry into groups of nouns denoting: a) the place where certain actions take place; b) the place
where certain animals are kept; c) the place where certain plants are grown.
Bakery, brewery, carpentry, dentistry, furriery, grapery, joinary, laundry, nursery,
orangery, pigeonry, pottery, smit-hery, tannery, tilery, turnery.

Exercise 18. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ness. From the following adjectives
form nouns denoting colours, human qualities and sensations.
Black, deaf, dumb, fair, good, greedy, happy, hasty, hopeless, lame, red, rude, stubborn,
tender, white, willing, yellow.

Exercise 19. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -al. Form nouns in -al from the
following verbs and translate them.
Appraise, approve, arrive, betray, dismiss, portray, propose, recite, remove, renew,
revive, survive, withdraw.

Exercise 20. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -th. State the adjectives and verbs
from which the following nouns are formed.
Breadth, depth, health, length, stealth, strength, warmth, width.

Exercise 21. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency. Form
nouns in -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency from the corresponding adjectives in -ant/-ent.
Brilliant, emergent, excellent, ignorant, impatient, insolvent, obedient, pregnant,
significant, sufficient, urgent, vacant, valent.

Exercise 22. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ism. Form nouns in -ism from the
following words.
Atheist, absolutist, capitalist, chartist, chauvinist, egoist, idealist, pessimist, reformist.

Exercise 23. Comment on the meaning of the diminutive suffixes -ette/-et, -let, -kin,
-ling, -y/-ey. Form diminutive nouns from the following nouns.
-ette/-et: novel, cigar, kitchen, room;
-let: book, circle, cloud, drop, king, lake, root, stream, flat, leaf, eye;
-kin: cat, lamb, wolf, boy;
-ling: duck, duke, cat, gift, first, week, under, lord, prince, king; ash, oak; year, seed,
squire;
- y/-ey : aunt, bud, dog, girl, mum.

Exercise 24. Translate the following words into English. Compare the Ukrainian and
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English suffixes.
1. Дитинство, братство, студентство.
1. Допитливість, рівність.
3. Бажання, вчення, приготування, спілкування.
3. Бельгієць, італієць, іспанець, лондонець.
4. Вчитель, вихователь.
5. Викладач, наглядач, читач, спостерігач.
6. Вовченя, кошеня, лисеня, теля, ягня.
7. Бабуся, дідусь, мамуня, татусь.
8. Кішечка, пташечка, собачка.
10. Гніздечко, зернятко, сонечко.

Exercise 25. Give the corresponding words denoting living beings of the female sex.
1. Hero, tsar; don, signor; widower.
1. Actor, ancestor, count, doctor, duke, emperor, god, governor, host, Jew, lion,
mister, Negro, poet, tiger.
2. Bachelor, boy, bridegroom, brother, father, gentleman, husband, king, lad, lord,
man, monk, nephew, son, uncle.
3. Boar, bull, cock, drake, gander, horse, ox, ram.

Exercise 26. Translate the following words into English.

Богиня, героїня; стюардеса, принцеса, поетеса; тітонька, дівчинка, хлопчик,
кімнатка, хмарка, струмочок, книжечка.

Exercise 27. Translate the following sentences. Pick out nouns with suffixes. Comment
on the meaning of suffixes.
1. I have to say that you have a traitress in your camp. (B.Sh.) 2. Mummy, is daddy in
your room? (G.) 3. There is no happiness like that of being loved by your fellow-creatures, and
feeling that your presence is an addition to their comfort. (Ch.B.) 4. By displaying towards Irene
a dignified coldness, some impression might be made upon her; but she was seldom now to be
seen, and there seemed a slight difficulty in seeking her out on purpose to show her coldness.
(G.) 5. His cunning, his personal skills, his behaviour, his mixture of good-nature and
unbendingness were all of a piece. (Sn.) 6. I recalled his high spirits, his vitality, his confidence
in the future, and his disinterestedness. (Mg.) 7. A dramatization of the work was made, which
ran for a season in New York. (Mg.) 8. He is the idealist, he is the dreamer. (Mg.) 9. From the
top lefthand drawer of her chest she brought out a handful of sweets. (Cr.) 10. The roar of the
pneumatic cutter in that narrow space was deafening. (Mg.) 11. He took a cigarette and sucked in
a lungful of smoke. (Mg.) 12. I have every confidence in my informant. (Cr.) 13. A polite refusal
is better that a rude giant. (G.) 14. Unionist ultras here have been distributing thousands of
leaflets this week-end calling on extremists to arm themselves to destroy the forces. (MS.) 15. I
said good-bye to the devotees. (Mg.) 16. He got up and went into the kitchenette. (Ch.) 17. She is
in a sense my protectress. (Ch.) 18. A pet plan, carried at last in the teeth of great difficulties.
(G.) 19. You have succeeded in damping my enthusiasm. (G.) 20. To Forsyte imagination that
house was now a sort of Chinese pill-box, a series of layers, in the last of which was Timothy.
(G.)

Adjective-forming suffixes
Exercise 1. Arrange the following adjective-forming suffixes according to their origin
and productivity into: A: a) native, b) foreign; B: a) productive, b) semi-productive, c) non-
productive.
-able/-ible/-uble, -acious, -al, -an/-ean/-ain/-ane, -ant/-ent, -ar, -ary/-ory, -ate/-ete/-ite/-ute/t,
-ed, -en, -ern, -ese, -esque, -fold, -fill, -ic (-ic + -al), -ine, -ish, -ive, -less, -like, -ly, -ese, -ous,
-some, -ward, -y.

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 Exercise 2. Comment on the meaning of the suffix –able and its allomorphs. Form
adjectives from the following verbs by adding the suffix -able. Give Ukrainian equivalents.
Accept, adopt, bear, change, count, distinguish, drink, eat, envy, forgive, percept, reason,
remark, resist, utter, vary.

Exercise 3. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -al. Translate the following
adjectives. Arrange them into those ending in -al and those ending in -ical.
Accidental, annual, brutal, conditional, constitutional, cultural, emotional, federal,
general, identical, global, intellectual, international, normal, natural, partial, principal, radical,
typical, universal, usual, virtual, vital, vocal.

Exercise 4. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ed. Paraphrase these word-
combinations containing adjectives in -ed.
Bespectacled eyes; dogged face; hooked nose; talented actor; bearded gentleman; skilled
reader; aged voice; moneyed person; domed roof; experienced doctor.

Exercise 5. Comment on the suffix -ful. Paraphrase the following word-combinations

into adjectives in -ful.
Full of fear (care, grace, pity, reproach, respect, revenge, scorn, shame, truth, wonder).
To be of great help (harm, thought).

Exercise 6. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -less. Form adjectives in -less from
the following words.
Aim, blood, bottom, cause, character, class, end, fault, fear, heart, home, hope, name,
sense, speech, tail, tooth, use, voice, wind, worth.

Exercise 7. Form adjectives in -ant/-ent from the nouns in -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency.

Brilliance, consistency, constancy, dependence, difference, distance, excellence,
ignorance, impatience, pregnancy, resistance, significance, sufficiency, urgency.

Exercise 8. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ish. Arrange the following adjectives
into three groups according to the meaning of the suffix -ish:
a) belonging to some nationality or locality;
a) like, having the quality of;
b) approaching the quality of.
Babyish, biggish, brownish, brutish, childish, dampish, devilish, dogish, dollish, fattish,
Finnish, foolish, girlish, greenish, greyish, Irish, Jewish, kittenish, monkeyish, outlandish,
piggish, Polish, poorish, reddish, Spanish, Turkish, tigerish, whitish, wolfish, womanish.

Exercise 9. Form adjectives by adding the suffix -an/-ean/-ian.

Africa, America, Australia, Austria, Canada, Crimea, Europe, Germany, Hungary, Italy,
Korea, Latvia, Mongolia, Rome, Russia, Ukraine.

Exercise 10. Arrange the following adjectives in -y into two groups according to their
meaning:
a) looking like, characterised by;
a) lacking some quality.
Baldy, bloody, bony, brushy, chatty, cloudy, doughy, dreamy, dusty, fatty, funny, fussy,
grassy, greedy, greeny, gummy, handy, inky, juicy, lucky, moody, muddy, noisy, pinky,
powdery, rainy, rosy, silky, steamy, stony, stuffy, sunny, waxy, windy.

Exercise 11. Give English equivalents to the following:

1. Покритий лісом (листям, озерами, травою, соснами, pифами, сажею, росою,
пилом, сріблом, грязюкою, піском).
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 2. Паперовий, чорнильний, хутряний; водянистий, шовковистий, зернистий,
хвилястий, кістлявий.
3. Чорнуватий, синюватий, жовтуватий, зеленуватий, бліднуватий, повнуватий.
3. Липкий, слизький, сонний.

Exercise 12. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -en/-n. Form adjectives in -en/-n
from the following nouns.
Asp, beech, birch, earth, flax, gold, leather, oak, silk, silver, wheat, wood, wool.

Exercise 13. Form adjectives by adding the suffix -ly to the following nouns. Arrange
these adjectives into two groups according to their meaning: a) having the quality of,
characteristic of; b) occurring.
Brother, coward, day, father, hour, human, man, month, mother, night, quarter, sister,
soldier, time, week, wife, woman, year.

Exercise 14. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -some. Arrange the following
adjectives into three groups according to the pattern of formation: a) n + -some; b) adj + -some;
c) v + -some.
Annoysome, bothersome, burdensome, darksome, fearsome, fullsome, gaysome,
gladsome, handsome, healthsome, jumpsome, lifesome, lightsome, longsome, lovesome, metal-
some, shuddersome, tiresome, toilsome, toothsome, troublesome, quarrelsome, venturesome,
wearisome, wholesome.

Exercise 15. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -like.

Bearlike, beelike, birdlike, businesslike, childlike, doglike, domelike, gardenlike, godlike,
ladylike, maidenlike, snakelike, thronelike, winelike, womanlike.

Exercise 16. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ary/-ory. Form adjectives in -ary/-
ory from the following nouns.
Compulsion, custom, declaration, diet, element, example, imagine, legend, moment,
parliament, reaction, revolution.

Exercise 17. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ive. Give Ukrainian equivalents of
the following adjectives in -ive.
Active, corrective, decisive, decorative, demonstrative, detective, determinative,
digestive, diminutive, directive, distributive, executive, exhaustive, expensive, expressive,
extensive, initiative, provocative, reflective, relative, respective, retrospective, subjective,
transitive.

Exercise 18. Comment on the meaning of the suffix –ous. Translate the following
adjectives in -ous into Ukrainian.
Curious, disastrous, gelatinous, infectious, joyous, nervous, obvious, outrageous,
pretentious, prosperous, rebellious, religious, righteous, serious, spacious, spirituous,
tremendous, various.

Exercise 19. Translate the following sentences. Pick out adjectives with suffixes.
Comment on their meaning.
1. Superb, handsome, high-minded, priggish, high-principled, extravagant — that was
how others saw him, but not she. (Sn.) 2. He had agreeable manners, but they were not at first
sight the manners one would expect to make for social triumphs. (Sn.) 3. The weeks, the months
passed with unimaginable rapidity. (Mg.) 4. I had got used to his excessive apologies and his
overcordial greetings. (Sn.) 5. The house was in fact well furnished. (Dr.) 6. He treated Isabel
with the same comradely affectionateness. (Mg.) 7. He realised that it was profitless to scold
Skeffinton. (Sh.) 8. His manner was boyish. (Mg.) 9. His face looks fattish. (Pr.) 10. He was as
158
pleasant and attentive as usual. (Sn.)

Verb-forming suffixes
Exercise 1. Arrange the following verb-forming suffixes according to their origin and
productivity.
-ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize/-ise, -ish, -ute.

Exercise 2. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ate. Give Ukrainian equivalents of
the following verbs in -ate.
Activate, advocate, agitate, complicate, concentrate, explicate, fascinate, formulate,
generate, granulate, hyphenate, initiate, laminate, navigate, originate, participate, populate,
propagate, protectorate, regulate, separate, speculate, stagnate, stimulate, subjugate, subordinate,
terminate, underestimate, vaccinate.

Exercise 3. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -en. Form verbs in -en from the
following adjectives.
Black, broad, damp, dark, deep, fat, flat, glad, hard, light, ripe, rough, quiet, sad, sick,
sharp, soft, stiff, straight, weak, white, wide.

Exercise 4. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -(i)fy. Form verbs in -(i)fy after the
following models:
Model 1: n + -(i)fy → V: gas — gasify;
Model 2: adj + -(i)fy → V: simple — simplify.
Acid, beauty, class, dandy, dignity, electric, example, false, bit, glory, grateful, happy,
humid, horrific, intensive, just, mystic, pacific, pretty, pure, quality, satisfaction, terrific, type.

Exercise 5. Comment on the meaning of the suffix –ise, -ize. Give Ukrainian equivalents
of the following verbs in –ise, -ize. Arrange them as to the model after which they were formed.
Activize, americanise, atomise, authorise, capitalise, catholize, centralise, characterise,
collectivize, crystallise, diphthongize, dualize, economise, equalise, industrialise, labialize,
localise, materialize, mineralise, minimalize, mobilize, modernise, monopolise, neutralise,
organise, penalise, polimerise, popularise, professionalize, realize, recognise, regularise,
solemnise, Sovietize, specialise, standardise, subsidise, sympathise, totalize, urbanise, victimise,
visualise, vocalise, vulgarise.

Exercise 6. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ish. Give Ukrainian equivalents of
the following verbs in -ish.
Abolish, establish, finish, nourish.

Exercise 7. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ute. Translate the following verbs in
-ute into Ukrainian.
Attribute, contribute, execute, persecute, polute, prosecute, substitute.

II.3. Revision Exercises on Affixation

Exercise 1. Arrange the following words containing negative prefixes into groups as to
the prefix.
Unhappy, indifference, inevitable, independent, unhuman, impossible, immemorial,
incorrect, unimportant, unusual, untruth, unmarried, unexpected, undress, indefinite, improper,
amoral, immortal, indecent, incredible, amorphous, uncork, unreasonable, illiterate, irresistible,
unpleasant, non-stop, dissimilar, disregard, non-combatant, anomalous, non-party.

Exercise 2. Combine the suffixes -ment, -tion, -ation, -ly, -ity with the proper group of
words.
Irregular, possible, antique, responsible, exclusive, develop, consider, form, exploit,
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industrialise, improve, establish, occupy, invent, involve, argue, translate, kind, dear, great,
employ, agree, safe, active, pave, enslave, annual, casual, curious, general, illegible, insensible,
instant, manage, organise.

Exercise 3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following adjectives. Discuss the

difference in meaning of the words in pairs.
A: Cheerful — cheery; healthful — healthy; fruitful — fruity; tasteful — tasty.
B: Continual — continuous; industrial — industrious; spacial — spacious; official —
officious; ceremonial — ceremonious; virtual — virtuous; sensual — sensuous.

Exercise 4. Discuss the difference in meaning of the prefixes un-, dis-. Give Ukrainian
equivalents of the following pairs of words.
Discover — uncover; disarmed — unarmed; disbelief — unbelief; disburden —
unburden; disqualified — unqualified; disarranged — unarranged; disgraceful — ungraceful.

Exercise 5. Define the part of speech the following words belong to.
Equal, equalise, equality, unequal.
Consider, consideration, considerable, considerably.
Define, definition, definite, indefinite, definitely.
Vary, variety, variation, various, variable, invariable.
Electric(al), electrician, electricity, electrify, electron, electrification, electronics.

Exercise 6. Arrange the following words into groups according to the part of speech they
belong to.
Writer, wonderful, unknown, highly, well-read, eatable, justification, re-write,
morphologically, greyish, blackness, active, unimportant, high-priced, re-examination, effective,
classification, skater, boiler, beautiful, executive, death, widen, troublesome, womanlike,
forceful, cloudless, pre-war.

Exercise 7. Discuss the phenomenon of homonymy of affixes. Arrange the following

words in -al into nouns and adjectives.
Typical, industrial, disposal, electrical, removal, rehearsal, historical, denial, satirical,
mechanical, practical, survival, individual, instrumental, refusal, arrival, technical, portrayal,
dismissal, renewal, casual, approval, capital, chronical.

Exercise 8. Comment on the homonymy of the adjective-forming suffix -en and the
verb-forming suffix -en. Arrange the following words into adjectives and verbs.
Lengthen, linen, silken, shorten, brighten, golden, threaten, frighten, flaxen, quicken,
tighten, wooden, woollen, hearten, darken, birchen, cedren, aspen, quieten, broaden, flatten,
moisten, strengthen, earthen, whiten, widen.

Exercise 9. Comment on the homonymy of the adjective-forming suffix -ish and the
verb-forming suffix -ish. Arrange the following words into adjectives and verbs.
Finnish, British, reddish, bookish, Polish, establish, abolish, fattish, childish, boyish,
accomplish, girlish, womanish, greyish, nourish, greenish, Irish.

Exercise 10. Comment on the homonymy of the adjective-forming suffix -ly and the
adverb-forming suffix -ly. Arrange the following words into adjectives and adverbs.
Kindly, kingly, brotherly, lately, finally, idly, joyously, carefully, motherly, daily,
weekly, fatherly, quickly, boldly, neighbourly, cowardly, thoughtfully.

Exercise 11. Comment on the synonymous suffixes forming agent nouns. Arrange the
following nouns into those ending in -er, -or, -ist, -ian.
Violinist, decorator, worker, writer, translator, copyist, actor, eater, typist, sculptor,
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baker, giggler, inventor, novelist, dramatist, oppressor, sender, parodist, botanist, fighter,
anatomist, biologist, doctor, musician, librarian, parodist, electrician, driver, gardener, physician,
physicist, phonetician, philosopher, speaker.

Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out derivatives.
Comment on their formation. State to what part of speech they belong.
1. And the extraordinary unreasonableness of her disaffection struck him with increased
force. (G.) 2. His nervousness about this disclosure irritated him profoundly. (G.) 3. Like most
novel readers of his generation, literature coloured his view of life. (G.) 4. They liked his
picturesque appearance, his good manners, and his quiet ironic humour. (Mg.) 5. For days before
the dance she and Charles re-examined each other with their realism and psychological quests.
(Sn.) 6. With all the reassurance of that warmth and strength he believed that he could keep them
safe. (D.) 7. Those countless figures, going their ways under the lamps, all received some restless
blessing from the stir of spring. (G.) 8. He was one of those man who, seated cross-legged like
miniature Chinese idols, are ever smiling at themselves a doubting smile. (G.) 9. He couldn't
retain an exclamation of approval. (G.) 10. Behind the beautiful tragedian she could see a thin,
miserable creature. (Mg.) 11. Alarmed at the growth of unemployment, the Midlands trade union
leaders called on the government to take emergency actions to stop it. (MS) 12. But I am bound,
before I go, to exonerate this gentleman who, in introducing me to such society, was quite
ignorant of my unwilliness, I assure you. (D.) 13. He felt a sharp gradation between himself and
his shipmates, and was wise enough to realise the difference lay in potentiality rather than
achievement. (Ln.) 14. He had the usual childish illness. (Mg.) 15. Rebecca's mother had had
some education somewhere and her daughter spoke French with purity and a Parisian accent.
(Th.)

II.4. COMPOSITION
Exercise 1. Discriminate between compounds and free word-groups.
Blue dress, blue-black, blue-bell, blue scarf, blue cap, blue-berry, blue-book, blue skirt,
blue-coat, blue-disease, blue-eyed, blue blouse, blue-fish, blue-fox, blue-green, blue stockings,
blue pencil, blue-print, blue sky.

Exercise 2. Arrange the following into compounds and free word-groups.

Railway, railway station, railway carriage, neck-lace, necktie, velvet jacket, blue jacket,
government office, office-boy, office-girl, mother's mark, punctuation mark, excellent mark,
below the mark, mother tongue, mother bee, mother-in-law, black sheep, sheep-dog, sheep skin,
old oak, oak-tree, dancing-hall, dancing girl, stone wall, stone-blind.

Exercise 3. Classify the following compounds according to the part of speech they
belong to.
Age-old, home-made, anything, skin-deep, killjoy, yes-man, salesman, ill-fitting,
whitewash, three-room, first-rate, metal-cutting, baby-sit, haymaker, water-proof, handshake,
well-bred, tender-hearted, whatever, anybody, one-sidedly, never-to-be-forgotten, himself,
bottleneck, widespread, old-looking, sunbathe, whoever, third-rate, clean-shaven, hairdresser,
hair-do, well-wisher, oak-tree, life-long.

Exercise 4. Arrange the following compounds according to the type of composition and
the linking elements into: a) those formed by juxtaposition; b) those with a vowel or a consonant
as a linking element; c) those with linking elements represented by conjunctions and
prepositions.
Man-of-war, editor-in-chief, undertaker, looking-glass, get-at-able, stay-at-home, red-hot,
butter-fingers, lady-bird, up-to-date, officer-in-charge, workday, Anglo-American, speedometer,
midday, hide-and-seek, frying-pan, sick-leave, handicraft, salesman, electroplate, queen-bee,
fine-looking, washing-machine, high-heeled, touch-me-not, cherry-orchard, servant-of-all-work,
saleslady, Turco-Russian, note-book, give-and-take, well-to-live, mother-in-law, gas-mask,
161
fountain-pen, sunburnt, inlet, black-eyed, bloodtest, night-flight, oil-rich, factory-packed, waste-
paper-basket, once-a-year, do-it-yourself, difficult-to-leam, nearby, deep-cut, far-gone, hard-
working, peace-loving.

Exercise 5. Classify the following compounds into: a) co-ordinative, b) subordinative.

Frontbenchers, mother-of-thousands, sea-coast, dining-room, person-to-person, blue-
eyed, criss-cross, pine-apple, pigtail, carefree, motorcycle, acid-resisting, first-hand, war-
damaged, fifty-fifty, oil-poor, fire-proof, play-ground, sunrise, blue-berry, crystal-clear, man-
eater, good-for-nothing, walking stick, skyscraper, cinema-goer, lamp-shade, hot-dog, odd-
looking, record-breaking, two-room, second-hand, thick-skinned, lazy-bones, frost-resistant, all-
destroying, self-analysis, whole-hearted.

Exercise 6. Arrange the following compounds into: a) compounds proper, b) derivational

compounds.
Old-timer, dog-show, many-sided, narrow-minded, teenager, strike-breaker, ill-
mannered, bookcase, good-humoured, thin-skinned, handkerchief, mill-owner, long-legged,
knee-deep, honey-mooner, kind-hearted, late-comer, cruel-hearted, film-star, earthquake, snow-
white, blood-red.
Exercise 7. Classify the following compounds according to the semantic relations
between their components. State whether the first component denotes: a) cause, b) time, c) place,
d) purpose, e) performer, f) object, g) property, h) instrument.
Nightmare, sea-bear, sick-leave, dog-show, goldfish, blackbird, blood-thirsty, air-mail,
record-breaking, washing-machine, night-train, coffee-set, hard-working, wrist-watch, safety-
belt, odd-looking, swimming-pool, ring-finger, hot-house, bird-cage, snowfall, shoemaker, dog-
house, state-financed, hand-operated.

Exercise 8. Arrange the following compound nouns into groups according to the patterns
after which they were formed.
Well-wisher, three-wheeler, week-ender, hairdresser, waste-paper, comer-seat, watchdog,
earthquake, air-mail, greengrocer, blackboard, gaslight, manservant, he-goat, schoolchildren, go-
between, outlook, passer-by, bookshelf, dressing-table, blackbird, classroom, day-break, forget-
me-not, touch-me-not, moonbeam, downfall, son-in-law, sleeping-car, newspaper, snowball,
lady-bird, nobleman, green-room, thermometer, bread-and-butter, toothache, pickpocket,
peacemaker, wisdom-tooth, flowerbed, toothbrush, traffic-light, thunderstorm, cash-book, milk-
tooth, knownothing, handwriting.

Exercise 9. Arrange the following compound adjectives into groups according to the
patterns after which they were formed.
Blue-eyed, fair-haired, rough-skinned, first-rate, second-class, iron-rich, frost-resistant,
waterproof, war-damaged, far-gone, well-bred, ill-bred, ill-mannered, clean-shaven, deep-cut,
metal-cutting, breath-taking, young-looking, wide-spreading, wide-spread, one-sided, all-
embracing, old-fashioned, cruel-hearted, knee-deep, duty-bound, bare-headed, water-beaten,
nice-looking, no-longer-young, five-year, peace-loving, snow-covered, Anglo-American, light-
grey, dark-blue, tired-looking, ill-fitting, fast-tiring, two-day, world-known, hard-working, hard-
won, world-old, life-giving, life-long, freedom-loving, deaf-mute, go-slow, indoor, true-to-life,
rough-and-ready, devil-may-care, never-ending.

Exercise 10. Arrange the following compound verbs into groups according to the
patterns after which they were formed.
Whitewash, sidestep, blindfold, buttonhole, browbeat, backbite, safeguard, sleep-walk,
sunbathe, sunburn, typewrite, waylay.

Exercise 11. Arrange the following compounds into compound pronouns and compound
adverbs. Define the patterns after which they were formed.
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 Anywhere, nowhere, nobody, anyone, something, myself, everywhere, himself, whatever,
nothing, somebody, everything, everybody, somewhere, many-sidedly, herself.

Exercise 12. Comment on the meaning of the following compounds. Pick out compounds
in which the semantic integrity is idiomatic in character.
1. Buttercup, butterfish, butterfingers, butterfly.
2. Dog-cheap, dog-days, dog-hole, dog-Latin, dog-lead, dog-rose, dog's ear, dog-sleep, dog-
skin.
3. Ladybird, lady-chair, Lady Day, lady-in-waiting, lady-killer, lady's finger.
4. Motherland, mother-of-pearl, mother-of-thousands, mother-ship, mother's mark, mother-
in-law.
5. Wall-flower, wall-eye, wallpaper, wall-painting, wall-pier, Wall Street.
6. Cowboy, doughboy, post-boy, pot-boy, stableboy.
7. Cold-blooded, hot-blooded, bloodthirsty.
8. Bare-headed, bald-headed, pig-headed, thick-headed, wooden-headed.
9. Cross-eyed, dim-eyed, eagle-eyed, hollow-eyed, green-eyed, round-eyed, sharp-eyed,
single-eyed, sleepy-eyed, wild-eyed, blue-eyed.
10. Black-hearted, chicken-hearted, cold-hearted, cruel-hearted, light-hearted, lion-hearted,
noble-hearted, soft-hearted, stony-hearted.
11. Home-bird, homebody, home-born, home-bred, home-comer, home-coming, homecraft,
home-folk, homeland, home-made, home-sick, home-sickness, home-work.
12. Red-bearded, red bird, red-blind, red-blooded, red-book.

Exercise 13. Comment on the meaning of the following compounds. Define the semantic
centre of each of them.
A. 1. Man-child, man-eater, man-hole, manhunt, manmade, man-of-war, man-plant,
manpower, man-sized, man-slaughter, man-to-man.
2. Airman, boatsman, cabman, cameraman, chessman, doorsman, dustman, fireman,
fisherman, footman, keyman, kinsman, madman, milkman, motorman,
newspaperman, ploughman, policeman, postman, pressman, radioman, railroadman,
salesman, seaman, spaceman, sportsman, statesman, workman, woodman,
yachtsman, yeoman.
B. 1. Woman-child, woman-grown, woman-hater, woman-kind, womanpower, woman-
servant.
2. Chairwoman, congresswoman, fisherwoman, horsewoman, kinswoman,
laundrywoman, milkwoman, penwoman, postwoman, saleswoman, spokeswoman,
sportswoman, workwoman.
C. 1. Heartache, heartbeat, heart-breaking, heartbroken, heart-burning, heart-disease,
heart-free, heart-murmur, heart-piercing, heart-quake, heart-service, heart-shaped,
heart-sick, heart-strings, heart-struck, heart-to-heart.
2. Black-hearted, cold-hearted, cruel-hearted, light-hearted, soft-hearted, stony-
hearted, tender-hearted, warmhearted, whole-heartedly.

Exercise 14. Give English equivalents.

1. Військовий (як іменник), доярка, листоноша, моряк, рибалка.
2. Свекор, свекруха, тесть, теща, зять, невістка, зовиця, швагро.
3. Довговолосий, рудоволосий, світловолосий, чорноволосий.
4. Блакитноокий, сіроокий, чорноокий.
5. Довгоногий, вузькоплечий, широкоплечий.
6. Блідолиций, довголиций, круглолиций.
7. Вогнетривкий, водонепроникний, димонепроникний, морозостійкий,
противикрадний, протишумовий.
8. Самоаналіз, самовиховання, самодисципліна, самокритика, самоуправління,
самообслуговування.
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9. Протиалергійний, протиалкогольний, протизаконний, протикорозійний,
протирадіаційний, протираковий, протитуберкульозний, протиядерний.

Exercise 15. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out compounds,
comment on their structure and meaning.
1. The boy was good-looking, with a Forsite chin, and eyes deep grey. (G.) 2. He wore a
blue jacket with mother-of-pearls on it. (Sc.) 3. This treasured possession of his life was of
medium height and colour, with short dark-chestnut hair; her wide-apart brown eyes were set in
whites so clear that they were almost dreamy under very white, black-lashed lids. (G.) 4. His
face wore in their presence a mellow look of almost devil-may-care serenity.(G.) 5. But Irene
sidetracked her by saying casually: “Well, she’d never tell me.” (Mg.) 5 He did not buttonhole
you with interminable stories or pester you with pointless jokes. (Mg.) 7. He gives me the
impression of a sleep-walker. (Mg.) 8. I couldn't even afford to go to a decent hairdresser to have
my hair properly done. (Mg.) 9. She had to stand on tiptoe. (Mg.) 10. She could not make up her
mind whether she was as carefree as she seemed, or whether hurt, angry, or heartsick. (Mg.) 11.
There was a single bed in the room, with a night-table beside it, a heavy wardrobe with a large
mirror and a straight-backed chair. (Mg.) 12. Her well-wishers were more worried about her than
she was herself. (Dr.) 13. I can’t lip-read, you know. (Chr.) 14. At the office of lower Broadway,
he asked to see the manager, who he found to be a large, gross-featured, heavy-bodied man of
fifty, grey-eyed, grey-haired, with short, flat-fingered hands, which drummed idly on his desk as
he talked. (Dr.) 15. His Aunt Matilda was a great chatterbox, but she always enjoyed his visits.
(Chr.) 16. Mrs Bradley, raising her eyebrows without speaking, gave him a look which was too
quick-witted not to understand. (Mg.) 17. Too much is for anyone to adopt a wait-and-see
attitude. (MS.) 18. It was a do-or-die for him. (Mg.) 19. He looked a weather-bitten, hard-
featured man. (D.) 20. I suppose they are good old stick-in-the-muds. (Sn.) 21. The cook looked
at the housemaid. The housemaid looked at the footman. (Th.) 22. I have never been so tongue-
tied in my life, believe me. (Mg.)

ІІ.5. CONVERSION
Exercise 1. Comment on the term «conversion». Find examples of conversion in the
sentences below. State to what part of speech these words belong.
1. Have you ever summered in the country? It's a marvelous thing, isn't it? 2. You are not
down. Nothing will down you. (Sh.) 3. I picture myself taking courage to make a declaration to
Miss Larkins. (D.) 4. She might come and room with her. (Dr.) 5. The room faced the street. (G.)
6. From the first Soames had nosed out Darties's nature. (G.) 7. D'you think you are the man to
head it? (D.) 8. She fingered the dollar. (Dr.) 9. That's Gloucester Road. Plenty of time to get
there if we tube. 10. You had to have a strong head and a fine constitution to drink, drink for
drink. (Mg.) 11. In the long run, anyone is bound to think that the left is right, and the right is
wrong. (Sn.) 12. At last they came into the open. (Mg.) 13. Fact is, I can't quite believe it's all
true till I see it in black and white. (Mg.) 14. Isabel wirelessed him from the ship. (Mg.) 15. I've
told you forty times not to touch that jam or I would whip you. (Tw.)

Exercise 2. Comment on the denominal verbs in the following word-combinations. Give

Ukrainian equivalents of these word-combinations.
To head an office; to toe a mark; to eye somebody; to chair a candidate; to fish for
compliments; to mind a command; to dress a wound; to cork a bottle; to table a resolution; to
book a ticket; to hand a plate; to hook a picture; to map a programme; to word somebody’s
impression; to value one’s life; to face some problem; to air the room; to shoulder somebody.

Exercise 3. Find examples of converted verbs in the following sentences. Translate these
sentences into Ukrainian.
1. Mother stepped ladling the broth. (Cr.) 2. It's hardly becoming in a gentleman
approaching middle age who's chained to an invalid bed. (Mg.) 3. Our appointment was timed
for 10 a.m. (Pr.) 4. His wife was dogged by ill health. (Cr.) 5. How can you stomach all that?
164
(HI.) 6. Shouldering their guns, they disappeared into the woods. (Ln.) 7. The silence lengthened
and she eyed at him. (G.) 8. They valued their lives. (H.) 9. The call echoed down the empty
passage like a mocking laughter. (Tw.) 10. “What is money after all!” said Mr Dombey backing
his chair a little. (D.) 11. So intolerable did this seem to him that he was very near to
telegraphing an excuse and staying up. (G.) 12. She had wired that it would be Friday. (G.) 13.
Pocket your pride. (Mg.) 14. Sighing he dipped his brush and began to whitewash. (Tw.) 15. For
some years now they had not even roomed together. (Dr.)

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Find the examples of
conversion. State semantic relations between words related through conversion.
1. His face was long and hollow, dried up by the sun and yellowed by fever. (G.) 2. She
freed herself and gripped the side of the boat. (Dr.) 3. I tried out “Dinner is served” on them in a
vain attempt to better myself. (D.) 4. In her breast was some thing which wanted to flood her.
(H.) 5. Whenever he met a great man he grovelled before him, and my-lorded him as only a free-
born Britain can do. (Th.) 6. A young lady gloved and hatted, with a dust coat on, is sitting in the
window-seat. (B.Sh.) 7. He wolfed down his food. (Sn.) 8. Still water minors trees. 9. The
buildings greyed with weather. 10. Yates's eyes focused. (H.)

Exercise 5. Comment on the meaning of the following converted verbs. Use them in
sentences of your own.
ape — to ape face — to face
arm — to arm finger — to finger
back — to back fish — to fish
dog — to dog head — to head
duck — to duck line — to line
dress — to dress pocket — to pocket

Exercise 6. Translate the sentences below into Ukrainian. Pick out the verbal nouns,
comment on them.
1. This was his last try. (HI.) 2. Can I ask you for a drink? (G.) 3. After he retired, it
seemed for a time that the old sting had left him. (Sn.) 4. It was a dark night, not cold, with low
cloud cover. (Sn.) 5. But I am not in the least prepared to give a support to degrading super-
stitions. (Sn.) 6. I thought I was just having a run of bad luck or that I didn't play as well as he
did. (Mg.) 7. They went for a bite. (D.) 8. «A lot happened to me then, you know.» «Such as?»
«Oh, just the ordinary casual ran of events.» (Mg.) 9. She was wearing a tweed coat trimmed
with fur, smart travelling clothes, foreign in make and cut. (Chr.) 10. Soames paused a moment.
(G.) 11. I was suddenly awakened by a violent pull. (Sn.) 12. He hated not seeing a return of his
capital. (G.) 13. It would be a ran of a dozen miles or so. (Ln.) 14. That single name gave me a
stack of grief. (Sn.) 15. Every morning she insists on my wash. (Tw.)

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences. Pick out substantivized words. Analyse
semantic relations between words related through conversion.
1. Whys and wherefores are veiy unprofitable subjects of discussion and talking about all
that will do the patient no good. (Chi-.) 2. Well, let us suppose that this is the anniversary of my
wedding day and my thoughts have been much occupied with the ups and downs, the fortunes
and misfortunes of married life. (Mg.) 3. And well, what's the long and short of it? (Chi.) 4. I
won't go into the whys and whats. (Sp.) 5. His complexion is too dark for yellows. (J.KJ.) 6.
Chrystal made an aside to Brown, and asked across the table if I was free next morning. (Sn.) 7.
She cocked her head and twisted and turned and buried one small ear in the fur, while Mr.
Rubenstein stood by eyeing her with not a little admiration and almost rubbing his hands. (Dr.) 8.
All persons in society, all cliques in society — or rather nearly all persons and cliques ape their
betters. (Ln.) 9. It is the why of the crime that interests him. 10. This film has a long ran. 11. She
is such a dear. 12. You must respect your elders. 13. They kept us in the dark.

165
 Exercise 8. Comment on the following deadjectival nouns.
Abstract(s), alcoholic, black, blue, brief, casual, colonial, commercial, compact,
considerable, constant, daily, dead, detective, dependant, discontent, documentary, double, dry,
durable, editorial, elective, empty, exempt, expendables, extra-curriculars, facial, familiar, final,
flat, formal, foul, fundamental, great, high, hostile, human, illiterate, industrial, local, long,
lovely, low, major, musical, national, open, oral, periodical, phon(e)y, physical, political,
portable, postal, private, red.

Exercise 9. Translate the following into English using converted and substantivized
words.
1. Ми підтримали свого кандидата. 2. Щодня протирай меблі від пилюки й поливай
квіти. 3. Вони перезимують у селі. 4. Вона пильно дивилася на свого співрозмовника. 5.
Мені набридли твої «чому» та «коли». 6. На мою думку, він не зможе очолити цю комісію.
7. Прізвише цього політичного діяча часто фігурує в пресі. 8. Які щотижневики є у
продажу сьогодні? 9. Я віддаю перевагу документальним фільмам. 10. Через місяць у нас
випускні іспити. 11. Вона часто напрошується на компліменти. 12. Не панікуй, тобі
допоможуть, і все буде гаразд. 13. Давайте намітимо маршрут нашої подорожі. 14.
Пораненого відправили до шпиталю. 15. Недалеко від лісу дорога розгалужувалася. 16.
Час зробити перерву. 17. Її усмішка просто чарівна. 18. Любов засліплює тебе, ти не
бачиш його вад. 19. Він миттю спорожнив склянку. 20. «Де мати?» — «Вона доїть
корову.» 21. Молоко було дуже гаряче, вона пила його маленькими ковтками.

ІІ.6. SHORTENING
Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of shortening (or clipping). Arrange the
following shortenings into: a) those formed by apocope; b) those formed by aphaeresis; c) those
formed by syncope.
Pub, fridge, fancy, photo, comfy, chap, doc, bike, specs, pop, flu, bus, van, prep, peal,
cause, exam, chute, ma’am, tween, ad, cycle, taxi, fan, cap, imposs, math, gym, lab, story, phone,
mend, fend, vets, auto, plane, mag, drome, ne'er, sis, zoo, gent.

Exercise 2. Discriminate between graphical and lexical shortenings. Arrange the

following shortenings into two groups: a) graphical, b) lexical.
Cab, Ltd, Gen., flu, Mr., Mrs., Col., doc. Prof, Inc, lb, Jap, pants, Co., e. g., i.e., mag.
Press, sec'y, m, ft.

Exercise 3. Comment on the formation of the following names. Arrange them into three
groups: a) those formed by apocope; b) those formed by aphaeresis; c) those formed by syncope.
Alex, Becky, Bella, Bess(ie), Betty, Chris, Dora, Fred, Gil, Kate, Lisa, Mike, Nell(ie),
Nick, Nora, Tom, Tonny.

Exercise 4. Mind the difference between the original word and the clipping.
Acute — cute; alone — lone; amend — mend; assize — size; attend —tend; defence —
fence; defender —-fender.

Exercise 5. Comment on Initial Abbreviations. Write the following abbreviations in full.

(See Appendix 3).
AD, BBC, BC, CIA, EEC, FBI, NATO, NB, OK, PS, RAF, SAT, SOS, TV, UK, UNO,
UNESCO, USA, BA, CID, FO, GCE, MP, PEN, PM, RN, VP.

Exercise 6. Arrange the following acronyms into two groups according to their way of
reading: a) those which have the alphabetic reading; b) those which are read as if they were
ordinary words.
ABC, BBC, CAT, CBC, CID, EEC, FA, FBI, laser NATO, PEN, PM, POW, RAF, TB,
TU, TV, UNESCO, UNO.
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 Exercise 7. Comment on the spelling and pronunciation of the following shortenings.
A-bomb, A-level, H-bomb, O-level, V-day.

Exercise 8. Mind the following shortenings of Latin origin Give their English
equivalents.
AD, a.m., cf, d, e. g., i.e., lb, NB, op.cit., p.a., p.m., v, viz.

Exercise 9. Give the abbreviations used for: a) the names of the days of the week; b) the
names of months; c) the names of the following countries: Canada, England, France, Germany,
India, Ireland, Italy, Spain, United Kingdom, United States of America.

Exercise 10. Arrange the following units into two groups: a) shortenings; b) initial
abbreviations.
ABC, Apr., Av(e), BA, bk, BS, C, Cath, ch, COD, Dec, dol, F, flu, Fri, gym, IMF, JC,
mag, max, Mon, NB, Nov, p, PEN, PM, p.m., pop, S, Sat, specs, T, t, TB, taxi, TV, UNESCO,
van, vol, VP, W, wc, yr.

Exercise 11. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out shortenings and
comment on them.
1. He went out by underground to Portland Road station, whence he took a cab and drove
to the Zoo. (G.) 2. There’s scarcely a pub of any attractions within ten miles of London that she
does not seem to have looked in at. (J.K.J.) 3. Old doc takes the book and looks at it by means of
his specs and a fireman's lantern. (Hn.) 4. «What is trig?» «Trigonometry,» Norman said. «A
higher form of math.» «And what is math?» was the next question, which somehow brought the
laugh on Norman. (Ln.) 5. He hopped to the gym door: but I couldn't move. (Sn.) 6. He looked at
the gray plaster walls of this outer waiting-chamber — at the lettering on the inner door which
read: The Griffiths Collar and Shirt Company, Inc. Samuel Griffiths, Pies. Gilbert Griffiths,
Sec'y. (Dr.). 7. «Oh, Lord! If you’re tired we could cut that.» « She's got all sorts of people
coming.» (G.) 8. I suppose I’ll find the address in the phone book. (Mg.) 9. Wishing you
congrats and all the best from my wife and I. Yours faithfully, Mr and Mrs Harper. (Sp.) 10. I'll
leave you those mags. (H.) 11. I learnt nothing at my prep school anyway. (Mg.)

Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out shortenings and
abbreviations. Comment on them.
1. Have you passed your exams? (Cr.) 2. After a good many years of pop music Stafford
Nye felt an incredulous pleasure. Trained voices. Not raucous shouting. (Chr.) 3. «I’m afraid I've
had a suspicion, from very early days.» «Since when?» «Since you came to see me in the lab last
Christmas.» (Sn.) 4. Fetch me an A.B.C., will you? (Chr.) 5. His father has died young of TB.
(Cr.) 6. «Wasn't there any subject you enjoyed?» «Only math?» (Mg.) 7. You are going to be
M.P., aren’t you?' «I'm going to be a candidate,» said Mor «Whether I'll be an M.P. depends on
the electorate.» (Md.) 8. Well you know they were going to Spain these hols. (H.) 9. I do nearly
all shopping and most of cooking instead of my ma. (Hm.) 10. She looked neat in her white T-
shirt. 11. They took a cab. (Sn.) 12. It was his sister's voice from the stairs. «Oh, Matthew, you
promised.» «I know, sis, but I can't.» (Chr.)

ІІ.7. BLENDS
Exercise 1. Remember the following «telescoped» words. Comment on the lexico-
grammatical categories involved.
Animule (animal + mule), bascart (basket + cart), brunch (breakfast + lunch), cablegram
(cable + telegram), electrocute (electricity + execute), flurry (fly + hurry), galumph (gallop +
triumph), glaze (glare + gaze), laundromat (laundry + automat), macon (mutton + bacon), mobus
(motor + bus), seadrome (sea + aerodrome), slash (slay + dash), smaze (smoke + haze), smog
(smoke + fog), swellegant (swell + elegant).
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 Exercise 2. Arrange the blends given in Exercise 1 into three groups as to the type of
contraction:
1) the initial element + the final element;
2) one notional word + the final element;
3) the initial element + the notional word.

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences. Pick оut telescoped words. Arrange them
into three groups as to the type of contraction.
1. It's neither breakfast nor lunch. It's a kind of brunch, I should say. 2. You might have
sent them a cablegram. 3. He was electrocuted, as far as I remember. 4. He was glazing at her for
some minutes as if he were trying to recall where he had seen her before. 5. Could you tell me
where the nearest laundromat is? 6. Can you explain what a seadrome is? 7. The smaze is too
thick, one can hardly see anything. 8. Smog is said to be a characteristic feature of Great
Britain’s weather. 9. At the door he was met by a swellegant girl. 10. London is a city of smaze.

ІІ.8. BACK-FORMATION
Exercise 1. Comment on the following cases of back-formation.
Baby-sit ← baby-sitter, beg ← beggar, broke ← broker catalyse ← catalysis, edit ←
editor, greed ← greedy, hawk ← hawker, house-clean ← house-cleaner, kittle ← kittling, peddle
← peddler, reminisce ← reminiscence, sculpt ← sculptor, televise ← television, typewrite ←
typewriter, ush ← usher.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences. Pick out words formed by back-formation
and comment on them.
1. They have come to the decision, you must accept their decision and shouldn't pettifog
any more. 2. I think it's high time we spring-cleaned our flat. 3. This route is usually
overcrowded and I often have to strap-hang. 4. Who sight-read your excursion? 5. It's impossible
that he should burgle. 6. I can't make out what is darkling there.
ІІ.8. GRADATION
Exercise 1. Give verbs corresponding to the following nouns. Comment on changes
which take place.
Advice, bath, belief, breath, choice, cloth, device, grass, grief, life, loss, relief, song,
speech, shelf, use.

Exercise 2. Using the suffix -th form nouns corresponding to the following adjectives
and verbs.
Broad, dead, deep, long, strong, wide, warm, breathe, heal.

Exercise 3. Give verbs corresponding to the following nouns and adjectives. Comment
on their formation.
Blood, brood, food, full, gold.

Exercise 4. Mind the formation of causative verbs from:

Fall — fell, lie — lay, rise — raise, sit — set.

ІІ.9. CHANGE OF STRESS

Exercise 1. Give verbs corresponding to the following adjectives. Mind the change of
stress.
Absent, abstract, concrete, frequent, compound, perfect, present.

Exercise 2. Give verbs corresponding to the following nouns. Mind the change of stress.
Accent, annex, asphalt, compress, conduct, conflict, contrast, export, extract, import,
increase, forecast, object, permit, present, progress, record, transport.
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 Exercise 3. Pick out words which have homonymous forms for nouns and verbs.
Advance, attack, attempt, comment, compress, concern, exclaim, exile, figure, focus,
forecast, import, increase, program, progress, record, rival, transport.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Comment on the italicised
part of speech.
1. He looked up; all among the trees he saw moving objects. (Ch.B.) 2. Accent is the
elevation of the voice which distinguishes one part of a word from another. 3. The car
transported the food stuff and medical supplies. 4. All I seriously wanted was to do some
adequate research and leave some sort of record behind me. (Sn.) 5. Try to abstract from it and
take it easy. 6. The two brothers contrasted sharply both in appearance and character. 7. Nobody
can forecast the winners of this contest. 8. What is the weather forecast for tomorrow? 9. She has
perfect teeth. 10. I must perfect my pronunciation. 11. I am not sure that I can define my fears;
but we all have a certain anxiety at present about our friends (Ch.B.) 12. He saw Lizzie
occasionally, and it was patent that she regretted the greatness that had come to him. (Ln.)

ІІІ. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH WORDS

Exercise 1. Mind the following Latin roots. Give words containing these roots.
Audio — слухати; centum — сто; circus — круг; civilis — цивільний, громадський,
державний; lingua — мова, мовлення; porto — носити, доставляти; scribe, scriptum —
писати, написаний; specto — дивитися; video — бачити, зір; visus — видіння; vita —
життя.

Exercise 2. Mind the following Greek roots. Supply words containing these roots.
Illustrate the meaning of these words by the examples of your own.
Autos, automatos — сам; bios — життя; chronos, chronikos — час; demos — народ;
grapho — писати; homos — однаковий; lexis, lexicon —слово, словник; logos —вчення;
onoma — ім'я; phone — звук; phos, photos — світло; scopeo — спостерігати, роздивлятися;
tele — далеко.

Exercise 3. Mind the following classical borrowings. Pay attention to their phonetic and
graphic peculiarities.
Alphabet, analysis, anarchy, anthem, antonym, apostrophe, archaic, archaism, arithmetic,
asylum, catastrophe, chaos, character, Christ, Christmas, chronic, chronicle, emphasis,
euphemism, gymnasium, gymnastics, hyphen, hypocrisy, hypocrite, hypothesis, metaphor,
metonymy, myth, paragraph, parenthesis, phenomenon, philosophy, phrase, physics, physicist,
physician, physiology, polysemy, psychiatry, psychology, pseudonym, stenography, syllable,
symbol, sympathy, synchronise, synonym, syntax, synthesis, system, theory, thermometer,
thesis, triumph.

Exercise 4. Arrange the following Latin borrowings in groups according to the period of
their borrowing.
Altar, angel, animal, ass, beet, bishop, butter, camp, candle, cap, chalk, cross, cup, devil,
dish, fork, genius, inch, index, item, junior, kettle, kitchen, linen, marble, maximum, mile, mill,
minimum, monk, mule, oil, palm, pea, peach, pear, pearl, pepper, pine, plant, plum, port, pound,
priest, psalter, school, senior, series, spade, stratum, street, tiger, veto, wall, wine.

Exercise 5. From the extract below pick out Latin and Greek borrowings.
He had been put through an immense variety of paces, and had answered volumes of
head-breaking questions. Orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody, biography, astronomy,
geography and general cosmography, the science of compound proportion, algebra, land-
surveying and levelling, vocal music, and drawing from models, were all at the ends of his ten
chilled fingers. (D.)
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 Exercise 6. Give modern English equivalents of the following abbreviations of Latin
origin.
A.D. (Anno Domini), a.m. (ante meridiem), d (dinarius), e.g. (exempli gratia), etc. (et
cetera), i. e. (id est), lb (librae), op.cit. (opus citatum), p.a. (per anum), p.m. (post meridiem), s
(solidi), v.v. (vice versa).

Exercise 7. Arrange the following names of geographical places into two groups
according to their origin (Celtic and Latin).
Aberdeen, Avon, Chester, Concaster, Dover, Dunbar, Dundee, Gloucester, Kent,
Lancaster, Lincoln, Manchester, Trent, Thames, Worcester, Winchester, Leicester.

Exercise 8. Arrange the following words into the following groups: a) native words, b)
Celtic borrowings, c) Latin borrowings, d) Greek borrowings.
Absolute, acacia, album, and, animal, apple, ask, ass, atmosphere, autobiography, bake,
barometer, be, bear, begin, berry, bird, biscuit, board, boy, bread, brother, brown, but, by,
calculate, can, cat, character, child, church, cock, cold, come, concrete, conscious, continuous,
cow, create, crisis, cup, curriculum, daughter, day, delicate, devil, dog, door, duck, eat, emotion,
end, equal, expect, father, field, fish, four-, fox, from, genius, girl, give, go, green, hand, hen,
history, home, horse, knight, land, life, lord, manuscript, may, meat, mile, milk, noon, nun, of,
old, organisation, palm, panic, paper, pipe, plum, pound, propaganda, queen, rain, rector, red,
reduce, room, say, shall, sheep, sing, six, spoon, spring, stimulus, system, tell, wall, water, we,
wine, winter, wolf, work, you.

Exercise 9. Arrange the following borrowings of Scandinavian origin in groups

according to the part of speech they belong to.
Anger, birth, both, call, cast, clip, die, doze, fellow, fir, fit, flat, gate, get, glitter, happen,
happy, hasten, heaven, hit, husband, ill, knife, lift, loose, low, meek, odd, raise, root, saga, same,
scatter, sister, skill, skin, sky, sly, smile, struggle, take, they, though, till, ugly, want, weak,
window, wing, wrong.

Exercise 10. Translate the following sentences. Pick out the Scandinavian borrowings.
1. Through the massive skylight illuminating the hall at Robin Hill, the July sunlight at
five o'clock fell just where the broad stairway turned; ... (G.) 2. What a monstrous noise they
were making now in the ring down there. (G.) 3. I mounted into the window-sill, gathering up
my feet. (Ch.B.) 4. I make it a principle to take people like you. (Sn.) 5. It seemed to be a
windless day with the cloud-cap very low. (Sn.) 6. She removed with her husband and was lost
for me. (Mg.) 7. I was sony to hear that he was ill. (Mg.) 8. The sun was high, the sky unclouded.
(G.) 9. Millions of marriages are unhappy. (Ch.B.) 10. The public were profoundly concerned;
they searched high and low. (Tw.)

Exercise 11. Comment on the phonetic and graphic peculiarities of the following French
borrowings.
1. Champagne, chic, chauffeur, machine.
2. Detente, liason, poste restante, restaurant.
3. Beige, bourgeois, bourgeoisie, garage, genre, prestige, regime, sabotage.
4. Closure, exposure, leisure, measure, pleasure, seizure, treasure.
5. Conservatoire, memoirs, repertoire, reservoir.
6. Ballet, bouquet, corps, debris, debut, depot.
7. Attaché, café, cliché, fiancé, fiancée, resumé, foyer, communiqué.
8. Balloon, cartoon, platoon, saloon.
9. Antique, critique, physique, technique.
10. Employee, referee.
11. Engineer, racketeer.
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 12. Cadet, cigarette, coquette, etiquette, gazette, silhouette.
13. Fatigue, intrigue.
14. Naive, marine, elite.
15. Provocateur, saboteur.
16. Millionaire, questionnaire.
17. Tête-à-tête, vis-à-vis, coup d’état, table d’hôte, à la carte.

Exercise 12. Arrange the following French borrowings into three groups according to the
degree of their assimilation: a) fully assimilated, b) partially assimilated, c) unassimilated.
Act, aim, arm, art, autumn, ball, bank, baron, beauty, beef, bon mot, branch, brilliant,
butcher, capital, captain, chauffeur, city, close, colleague, command, commence, coup d'état,
count, courage, crime, cry, decide, degree, delight, emperor, employee, etiquette, exposure, face,
fatigue, financé, foyer, fruit, garage, gazette, gerire, honour, hour, large, legal, leisure, machine,
madam, magazine, marine, measure, minister, monsieur, mutton, naive, nation, nice, office, pass,
pleasure, poet, restore.

Exercise 13. Arrange the following French borrowings into: a) law terms, b) military
terms, c) religious terms, d) cookery terms, e) art terms, f) medical terms.
Accuse, admiral, army, arrest, art, bacon, banner, battle, bible, boil, cadet, clergy, colour,
conquest, court, defence, dinner, fatigue, fortress, fruit, genre, gout, image, jelly, judged juice,
malady, music, mutton, ornament, pain, paradise, pastry, pray, pulse, remedy, saint, sausage,
siege, soldier, song, soup, surgeon, talent, taste, toast, tragedy, veal, vinegar, war.

Exercise 14. Arrange the following French borrowings into groups of words denoting: a)
names of professions, b) state and government notions, c) terms of architecture, d) things of
eveiyday life.
Air, arch, architect, barber, butcher, cabinet, castle, ceiling, clock, column, coat, dress,
face, fashion, flower, frock, gown, minister, office, painter, palace, parliament, place, porch,
public, state, table, tailor, towel, tower, vase.

Exercise 15. Rearrange the following words according to their origin.

1. Cattle, cow, horse, ox, pig, sheep, cat, goat.
2. Meat, beef, calf, mutton, veal.
3. Baker, butcher, fisherman, painter, shoemaker, tailor, weaver.
4. Baron, count, ladv, lord, duke, madam, sir, monsieur.

Exercise 16. Mind the following Italian borrowings. Comment on the sphere of life they
are used in.
Adagio, allegro, alt, aria, baritone, bass, bust, colonnade, conceit, corridor, fiasco, fresco,
granite, influenza, libretto, macaroni, miniature, opera, operetta, piano, primadonna, quartet,
revolt, solo, sonata, soprano, studio, tempo, trio, umbrella.

Exercise 17. Comment on the etymology of the following words. Define the approximate
period of their borrowing.
Balalaika, beluga, borshch, Boyar, carp, Cheka, Cossack, droshky, duma, Hetman, hopak,
knout, koumiss, kulak, Kremlin, kvass, makhorka, muzhik, nihilist, pogrom, pood, rouble, sable,
samovar, sarafan, seech, sewruga, sputnik, steppe, sterlet, soviet, taiga, tsar, tundra, ukase, verst,
vodka, voivode, zemstvo.

Exercise 18. Comment on the etymology of the following groups of words.

a) Canoe, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, comrade, maize, mango, Negro, tomato, vanilla;
b) cobalt, leitmotiv, nickel, rucksack, swan-song, waltz, zinc;
b) ass, clan, Tory, whisky,
c) banana, port, veranda(h), zebra;
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 d) deck, rabbit, skipper, yacht;
e) divan, khaki, kiosk, margarine, rice;
g) mazurka;
h) polka;
i) silk, tea;
j) caftan, coffee.

Exercise 19. Mind the following translation-loans. State the language they came from.
Blitzkrieg, bon mot, collective farm, coup d’état, enfant terrible, kindergarten, leitmotiv,
persona grata, prima donna, swan-song, tête-à-tête.

Exercise 20. Analyse the following groups of words from the point of view of their
origin.
1. Fruit: apple, apricot, banana, cherry, grapes, lemon, orange, pear, plum.
1. Tree: acacia, ash, beech, birch, elm, fir, lime-tree, maple, oak, palm, pine, poplar,
willow.
3. Animal: bear, camel, crocodile, fox, hare, lion, mare, monkey, sable, wolf, zebra.
3. Bird: crow, cuckoo, eagle, lark, owl, pigeon, sparrow.
4. Fowl: chicken, cock, duck, goose, hen, turkey.

Exercise 21. Arrange the following words in groups according to their origin.
Aim, analysis, and, ancient, arm, atmosphere, berry, boonchoor, boy, bread, brown, bull,
but, caftan, call, can, canoe, capital, chauffeur, chocolate, city, clock, coffee, cold, collegue, cut,
deer, degree, die, duke, earth, eat, egg, emperor, enjoy, equal, field, finance, finger, fir, fish, four,
get, give, go, gold, green, hand, he, honour, in, kill, kindergarten, knout, large, law, live,
machine, magazine, maize, many, master, mazurka, milk, moment, nazi, nice, nurse, old, opera,
orthography, ox, paper, pen, people, piano, place, plum, poet, poor, queen, rain, red, right, room,
rouble, ruin, saint, school, season, see, short, sing, sir, six, skin, sky, smile, soprano, steppe, suit,
summer, system, tailor, take, taste, tea, telephone, they, this, tiger, tobacco, tragedy, tree,
umbrella, unique, vase, vodka, wall, waltz, water, wife, window, wine, you, zebra, zinc.

Exercise 22. Translate the following sentences. Pick out borrowings. Comment on their
origin and assimilation.
1. I liked the way the light shone on the roofs and the rivers and the rococo buildings of
the university. (Mg.) 2. They took a cab and sauntered up the crowded boulevard till they came
to a café they liked the look of. (Mg.) 3. He played Chopen. He played two waltzes that were
familiar to me, a polonaise and an étude. He played with a great deal of brio. (Mg.) 4. It was she
who gave Sir Stafford Ny’s address to the chauffeur. (Ch.) 5. He sent a note to his sister via his
man Joseph to ask her to come to the library so that could have a talk. (Mg.) 6. I bundled my
things into a rucksack. (Mg.) 7. We had a drink, walked along to a restaurant where we could
lunch in the open air. (Mg.) 8. They stopped at a small hotel with a pretentious facade. (Mg.) 9.
We arranged to meet at the Dome next day to have an aperitif and eat at some place on the
boulevard. (Mg.) 10. That’s one good thing about Mike the philosopher: he’s consistent and he
does not develop his theories so quickly that you lose track of them. (P.St.) 11. Not on the
telephone. (P.St.) 12. I doubt if any English historian or archaeologist could turn technique into
art in that way. (P.St.)

Exercise 23. Comment on etymological doublets. Explain the origin and formation of the
following doublets.
Abbreviate — abridge; artist — artiste; basis — base; camera — chamber; camp —
campus; canal — channel; captain — chieftain; catch — chase; cavalry — chivalry; cross —
crux; deacon — dean; dragon — dragoon — drage; draw — drag; eatable — edible; gentle —
genteel — gentile; hospital — hostel — hotel; goal —jail; inch — ounce; legal — loyal; liquor
— liqueur; major —mayor; masculine — male; naked — nude; name — noun; nay — no; of —
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off; papyrus — paper; pauper — poor; plan — plane — plain; radius — ray; rout — route; salon
— saloon; senior — sir; shade — shadow; skirt — shirt; street — stratum; suit — suite; wine —
vine; word — verb.

Exercise 24. Comment on international words. Arrange the following international words
into groups taking into account the sphere of life and man's activities they refer to: a) scientific,
b) cultural, c) technical, d) political.
Motor, sputnik, concert, constitution, evolution, phonetics, drama, parliament, decree,
telegraph, meeting, pact, melody, history, lecture, republic, tractor, allegro, revolution, radio,
dialectics, formula, gas, nylon, sport, club, bank, comedy, materialism, opera, jazz, civil, lyric,
stadium, poet, analysis, cybernetics, satellite, rector, idea, film, electron, biology, idealism, robot,
computer, printer.

Exercise 25. Arrange the following international words into groups according to their
origin.
Comedy, opera, sport, character, drama, parliament, regime, biology, music, system,
class, rector, analysis, poet.

Exercise 26. Comment on etymological hybrids.

Artless, blackmail, breakage, clearness, countless, disburden, dukedom, faithful,
falsehood, goddess, joyful, merciful, salt-cellar, unbearable, unbutton, ubcertain, usable.

Exercise 27. Identify international words and state to what sphere of human activity they
belong.
The Greeks cultivated many of the sciences. Their most important contribution were
made in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, botany, chemistry, physics and medicine.
Toscanini was granted the most flattering gift of all: an orchestra created specially for
him. He reached a national radio and television audience and became a visitor to millions of
homes that had never heard classical music in such abundance. He was no longer merely a
conductor, he had become an icon.

Exercise 28. State the origin of the following translation-loans. Translate them into
Ukrainian.
Blue-stocking, the fair sex, Fatherland, fellow-traveller, heel of Achilles, local colouring,
mother tongue, Procrustean bed, self-criticism, Sisyphean labour, a slip of the tongue, surplus
value, swan song, sword of Damocles, wonder child, word combination, world-famous.

IV. SEMASIOLOGY

4.1. SEMANTIC CHANGES

Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of extension of meaning. Trace the process of
extension of meaning in the following words.
Arrive, box, free, paper picture, salary, season, thing, Utopian.

Exercise 2. Analyse the meaning of the italicised words.

1. He thought of the fine times coming, when he would be a man and sit in the public-
house with a quart of beer and a long pipe and play cards for silvery money. (Ch.) 2. As many of
the Jury as can crowd together at the table and sit there. The rest get among the spittoons and
pipes, or lean against the piano. (D.) 3. Taggart sat down too, lit his own pipe, took a sheet of
paper and scrawled the words: «Georgie Grebe Article» across the top. (G.) 4. One evening Mr.
Venus passed a scrap of paper into Mr. Boffin’s hand, and laid his finger on his lips. (D.) 5. Mr.
Boffin lighted his pipe and looked with beaming eyes into the opening world before him. (D.) 6.
Despite the fact that the ship had passed through a virtual hurricane, all the passengers arrived at
port safe and sound. (Dr.) 7. Mr. Pickwick found that his three companions had risen, and were
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waiting for his arrival to commence breakfast. (D.) 8. Bridals? To be sure, they should be
celebrated with all the manner of good cheer, and meeting of friends, and musical instruments,
harp, sackbut, and psaltery, or good fiddle and pipe. (Sc.) 9. Several gentlemen were drinking
and smoking in the different boxes. (D.) 10. The travellers’ room is divided into boxes, for the
solitary confinement of travellers. (D.) 11. The little box in the third tier of the Opera was
crowded with heads constantly changing. (Th.) 12. I gave him a lift to the next telephone box.
(Sn.) 13. A boy with a waterbottle and bandage box stood every half-mile waiting for those that
dropped out or fainted. (Sl.) 14. Such was the morning, when an open carriage, in which were
three Pickwickians on the box beside the driver, pulled up by a gate-at the road-side. (D.) 15. The
Bursary was like a lawyer’s office, the walls piled with metal boxes painted black, letter's
standing out in white. (Sn.)

Exercise 3. Trace the process of narrowing the meaning in the following words.
Bread, cattle, deer, fowl, garage, girl, hospital, meat, starve, team, voyage, wife.

Exercise 4. Analyse the meaning of the italicised words.

1. Leah is a nice girl, to be sure. (Ch.B.) 2. He starved vis when he had the sole
superintendence of the provision department. (Ch.B.) 3. Who would ever have supposed that the
comfortable, well-satisfied, happily married Robert Newlands of a week or two back would now
be racing about England in search of a wife? (Pr.) 4. «You are getting out of hand,» his wife said
to him. (Aldr.) 5. They talk together constantly, and sit long at meals, asking much of their meat
and drink. (D.) 6. Trust him to see on which side his bread is buttered. (D.)

Exercise 5. Trace the process of changing the meaning in the following words. State the
way of changing the meaning.
Fiction — вигадка → белетристика;
Follow — іти слідом → шпигувати;
Producer — виробник → продюсер фільму;
Rival — той, хто живе на другому березі ріки → суперник;
Stock — запас дров → запас будь-яких товарів.

Exercise 6. Comment on the elevation of meaning in the following words.

Adore, fame, handsome, knight, marshal, minister, nice.

Exercise 7. Analyse the meaning of the word «nice» in the following sentences.
1. We admired the cup for its nice workmanship. 2 He was sure she was a nice girl. 3.
You are very nice in this dress. 4. Your wife has a nice smile. 5. This is a nice state of affairs. 6.
My mother has a nice taste in literature 7. It was nice of them to invite us for bridge. 8. Did you
have a nice time? 9. She has a nice ear for music. 10. She always wears nice clothes. 11. This
silk is very nice to the touch 12. It’s very important to establish all the nice shades of meaning.
13. It’s nice to be important, but it’s more important to be nice. 14. We’ve just nice time for the
train. (Wl.) 15. He ventured to tell her in his clumsy way that if her heart were more warm
towards him she would not be so nice about his handwriting and spelling. (Ln.)

Exercise 8. Trace the process of degradation of meaning of the following words.

Boor, gossip, idiot, silly, vulgar.

Exercise 9. Comment on the development of meaning of the italicised words.

1. «I know it — the idiots!» said Jimmy, with both tears and anger in his voice. (Tw.) 2.
He would put an end to that sort of thing once and for all. (G.) 3. When she took a thing into her
head there was no stopping her. (G.) 4. She has got some silly bee in her bonnet about Eliza.
(B.Sh.) 5. Little things please little minds. 6. He always dances well to whom fortune pipes. 7.
No longer pipe, no longer dance. 8. He hired a young man, a smart Irish boy of his
neighbourhood, Jimmy Sheehan, to be his assistant, superintendent, stableman, book-keeper and
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what not. (Dr.) 9. She hated that expression «The grey mare is the better horse;» it was vulgar,
and she never would recognise its truth in her own case. (Th.) 10. The boy is not handsome: he is
plain. (Ch.B.) 11. You say you never heard of Mrs. Rochester at the house up yonder, Wood; but
I daresay you have many a time inclined your ear to gossip about the mysterious lunatic kept
there under watch and ward. (Ch.B.) 12. I am ashamed of you! It will ruin me! A miserable
boor! A churl!. A clown! It will degrade me in the eyes of all the gentlemen of England! (Hd.)
13. The knight has left the field abruptly when the victory was achieved, and when he was called
upon to receive the reward of his valour, he was nowhere to be found. (Sc.) 14. The paper
frontpages the news.

IV.2. SEMANTIC TRANSPOSITION OF WORDS

Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of metaphor. State on what signs of
resemblance the following cases of metaphor are based.
Ann (рукоятка), bridge (перенісся), boat (посудина для підливи), ear (вушко), egg
(бомба), elephantine (величезний), еуe (очко, отвір), face (фасад), finger (стрілкa), foot
(підніжжя), hand (стрілка), heart (центр), leg (ніжка), mouth (отвір), nose (носик), tube
(метро).

Exercise 2. Comment on metaphoric extension in the use of adjectives of colour.

Black: black art, black book, black curse, black deed, black despair, black envy, black
frost, black hands, black heart, black ingratitude, black injustice, black judgement, black list,
black look, black market, black moment. Black Monday, black morality, black sheep.
Green: green cheese, green finger, green hand, green man, green room, green winter,
green wound, green years, green with envy, green with jealousy.
White: white crow, white feather, white lie, white light, white man, white night, white
witch, white from pain.
Yellow: yellow dog, yellow earth, yellow metal, yellow plague.

Exercise 3. Translate the following phrases. Pick out those in which the word is used in
the transferred meaning.
To beat somebody badly; to beat somebody at chess; to shoot a bird; to shoot a film; to
drink milk; to drink one’s health; to spread butter; to spread propaganda; to spread rumours
(gossip, epidemic); man’s foot; mountain’s foot; man’s eye; an eye of a needle; man's head; the
head of the family; a branch of a tree; a branch of linguistics; seeds of a plant; seeds of evil; the
root of a tree; the root of a word; the wings of a bird; the wings of a mill; the neck of a man; the
neck of a bottle; a hand of a man; a hand of a watch; somebody's mouth; the mouth of a river;
somebody's ear; the ear of a cup.

Exercise 4. Explain the logic of the transfer, of meaning in the following cases.
The wings of an aeroplane; on the wings of joy; tongues of flame; the heart of the
country; the mouth of a cave; grains of truth; lion’s share; blooming girls; the head of the
procession; the teeth of a saw; iron will; wooden manners; the train of thought; the back of a
chair; the foot of a page; the face of a book; the face of a clock.

Exercise 5. Comment on the metaphoric use of «move and change» class of verbs.
To break silence; to catch the meaning; to come to a conclusion (an agreement), to fall in
love; to fall a victim; to fly high; to fly into a rage; to go hot and cold; to grasp an idea; to run
into debt; to run too far, the verse runs; sink or swim; one’s heart sinks; to take a hint; to throw
light upon; thoughts wander; to worm one’s way.

Exercise 6. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following metaphors. Use them in the
sentences of your own.
Bitter cold (disappointment, dispute, enemy, feeling, fighting, grief, moment, tears,
thoughts, truth);
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 burning desire (disgrace, question, shame, wish);
cold blood (comfort, heart, look, reason, truth, war, welcome, words);
dull book (colours, day, face, film, light, mood, music);
naked facts (faith, promise, truth);
new baby (man, milk, potatoes, soldier, wine);
sour look (smile);
straight answer (blow, course, eye, fight, man, question, talk);
sweet girl (manners, melody, sleep, smile, temper, voice, words);
warm colours (friends, heart, reception, support, temper, thanks, welcome).

Exercise 7. Comment on zoozemy. Say what we mean when we call a person:

an ass, a bear, a chicken, a cock, a dog, a donkey, an elephant, a fox, a giraffe, a goose, a
hen, a kitten, a lion, a monkey, a mule, a parrot, a pig, a sheep, a snake, a tiger, a wolf.

Exercise 8. Mind the following proverbial sayings containing the names of animals, birds
and insects used metaphorically. Give Ukrainian equivalents. Supply situations in which they
can be used.
1. Bull in a china-shop. 2. Can the leopard change his spots? 3. A dog in the monger. 4. A
frog in the throat. 5. A snake in the grass. 6. It’s raining cats and dogs. 7. To take a bee line. 8.
As a crow flies. 9. Donkey work. 10. To cherish a viper in one’s bosom. 11. Hare may pull dead
lions by the bear. 12. Cat-and-dog existence. 13. Fox is not taken twice in the same snare. 14.
Wolf in sheep’s clothing.

Exercise 9. Comment on a special group of metaphors comprising transitions of proper

names into common ones. State what we mean when we call a person:
Adonis, Cicero, Don Juan, Don Quixot, Othello, Vandal.

Exercise 10. Comment on the following cases of metonymy.

1. The hall was listening with attention. 2. The street was singing and rejoicing. 3. Our
group will go on on excursion. 4. The whole town was afoot. 5. The larger part of the auditorium
stood up. 6. Don't play with the silver while sitting at the table. 7. Have you ever read
Shakespeare in the original? 8. I've never read Dickens. 9. The pit loudly applauded. 10. Have
you had your cup? 11. He kept the fable amused. 12. The kettle has boiled over. 13. This
restaurant keeps a good table. 14. They have been together from the very cradle to the very
grave. 15. The pen is stronger than the sword. 16. My daughter has a perfect ear for music. 17.
Take it easy, don’t lose your head. 18. Their elder son was the hope of the family. 19. She has a
lot of old china.

Exercise 11. Comment on the phenomenon of synecdoche. State whether in the

following examples the singular stands for the plural, the part for the whole, the individual for
the class, the concrete for the abstract, the name of the material for the thing made.
1. The cat is a domestic animal. 2. Do you know ABC? 3. She is wearing a mink. 4. Your
silver fox perfectly goes with this evening gown. 5. Be careful, the iron is very hot. 6. Having
emptied his glass he put it on the table. 7. An excellent statue, the marble speaks. 8. Her
character is a mixture of the fox and the mouse.

Exercise 12. Comment on the etymology and meaning of the following cases of
metonymy.
Bikini, boston, boycott, bordeaux, cardigan, champagne, cheviot, china, colt, electricity,
Downing Street, Fleet Street, Wall Street, the White House, the Pentagon, mackintosh, madeira,
malaga, sardines, cheviot, sandwich, silhouette, tweed, raglan, Mocco, hooligan.

Exercise 13. State the cause of the change in meaning of the italicised words.
1. I have been green, too, Miss Eyre. (Ch.B.) 2. I took him for a man of other metal. (Sc.)
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3. Silence on both sides. «Have you lost your tongue, Jack? Have you found yours, Ned?» (D.) 4.
It was the first blustering breath of winter. (Ln.) 5. But when his eyes fell on the picture of Anne,
his face fell too, and she looked quickly at Fleur. (G.) 6. In his cousin's face, with its unseizable
family likeness to himself and its chinny, narrow, concentrated look, Jolyon saw that and he
thought: «That chap could never forget anything — nor give himself away». (G.) 7. Lady Alison
fell into a train of thought. (G.) 8. I was ready for my knife and fork. (D.) 9. Whenever the
House votes, the duty of the MP is to vote with his party. 10. At bottom, I thought, his tastes
were simpler than mine. (Sn.) 11. She was trying to sound warm. (Sn.) 12. «That's what I
thought, Doctor», he went on in a low voice. (Cr.) 13. It will be a black day for me. (G.) 14.
They wanted to nail her white lie. (Hm.)

Exercise 14. Trace the way of changing the meaning in the following words.
Ampere — французький фізик → одиниця сили струму;
cockney — лондонець із низів → просторіччя;
fork — виделка → розвилка;
glass — скло → склянка;
glove — долоня → рукавичка;
iron — залізо → праска;
knit — в'язати вузли → в'язати спицями;
root — корінь рослини → корінь слова;
tower — вежа → вежа на Темзі, побудована в XI ст.;
tube — трубка → тунель → метро;
win — боротися → боротися і перемагати → перемагати.

Exercise 15. Comment on the phenomenon of hyperbole. Point out the hyperbole in the
following sentences.
1. It was ages since we had seen last. (G.) 2. I am for a sleep. (Cr.) 3. This is a world of
effort, you know, Fanny. (D.) 4. I’d give the world to see her. (Mg.) 5. «How is Fleur?» «Thank
you, awfully well». (G.) 6. He always had millions of reasons. 7. I was unutterably astonished by
his coming. 8. It'll be the death for him, believe me. 9. I have told you fifty times that It’s a
magnificent idea. 10. She was thunder-struck. 11. Don’t shed floods of tears! 12. I was horribly
amazed.
Exercise 16. Comment on the phenomenon of litotes. Point out the litotes in the
following sentences.
1. «How do you like it?» «Not bad, rather decent.» 2. «I’d like to know your opinion of
him.» «He is no conjurer.» 3. «It’s splendid!» «Yes, It’s not dusty.» 4. «I think, his acting will be
highly praised.» «Yes, It’s really far from bad.» 5. «The soup is delicious!» «Yes, It’s quite
decent.» 6. «He was fighting courageously.» «Yes, he was not a coward.»

Exercise 17. Remember the following euphemisms. Comment on the reasons for their
using: a) taboos, b) the need to soften painful news, c) to use a learned word which sounds less
familiar, but less offensive.
1) to die: to breathe one’s last; to depart his life; to pay one’s debt to nature; to go to
one’s last home; to go the way of all flesh; to join the majority; to go to one’s last reckoning; to
depart to the world of shadows; to kick the bucket; to drop off the hook; to yield up the ghost; to
pass away; to go west; to go hence; to expire; to hop the twig;
2) dead: the deceased; the departed; the written off; he who has gone; the late Mr. Smith;
the retired;
3) coffin, grave: long home; narrow house;
4) cemetery: memorial park; necropolis;
5) to kill: to finish; to make away with; to remove; to settle;
6) mad: insane; queer; deranged;
7) foolish: unwise;
8) to lie: to distort the facts; to distort the truth; to misrepresent;
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 9) drunk: intoxicated; elevated; inebriated; flustered;
10) to eat: to partake of food; to partake of refreshment; to refresh oneself;
11) sweat: perspiration;
12) God: Dear me! Good gracious! Golly! Gosh!;
13) trousers: inexpressibles; inexplicables; indescribables; unmentionables;
unwhisperables; one’s mustn't-mention-thems; one’s sit-upons; drawers; pants;
14) pregnant: in the family way; in an interesting condition; in a delicate position;
15. toilet: water-closet; retiring room; public comfort station;
16) devil: deuce, dickens, zounds; confound it!

Exercise 18. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out euphemisms.
State what unpleasant or offensive things or notions they denote.
1. Don’t draw that chair further off, Miss Eyre, sit down exactly where I placed it — if
you please, that is. Confound these civilities! I continually forget them. (Ch.B.) 2. Her father
wrote a letter to Miss Pinkerton recommending the orphan child to her protection, and so
descended to the grave. (Th.) 3. He is the comfort of my life, and he is the image of — of him
that is gone. (Th.) 4. Old Timothy; he might go off the hooks at any moment. (G.) 5. I hope I
shall kick the bucket long before I’m as old as grandfather. (G.) 6. Mr Reed breathed his last nine
years ago. (Ch.B.) 7. Many years after her ladyship's demise Sir Pitt led to the altar Rose. (Th.) 8.
They won't date. Won’t they? My gum! (G.) 9. The driver was stationed thus early in hopes that
some young buck might need the aid of his vehicle and pay him with the generosity of
intoxication. (Th.) 10. Mr. Forsyte has passed away, sir- — in his sleep the doctor says. (G.)

Exercise 19. Discuss the following cases of similes.

1. As large as life. 2. As swift as thought. 3. As soft as butter. 4. As cunning as a fox. 5.
As fine as silk. 6. As black as midnight. 7. As like as peas. 8. As fit as a fiddle. 9. As good as
gold. 10. As clever as a bagful of monkeys. 11. As cool as a cucumber. 12. As weak as water. 13.
As light as air. 14. As hard as a stone. 15. As black as ink. 16. As dead as a doornail. 17. As dead
as mutton. 18. As clear as mud. 19. As bold as brass. 20. As clear as daylight.

Exercise 20. Complete the following similes, using the words from the list below.
1. As dull as ... . 2. As merry as ... . 3. As green as ... . 4. As wide as ... . 5. As sharp as
... . 6. As open as ... . 7. As greedy as ... . 8. As silent as ... . 9. As true as ... . 10. As tender as ... .
11. As wise as ... . 12. As false as ... . 13. As thick as ... . 14. As busy as ... . 15. As bold as ... .
(Thieves, a bee/a squirrel, ditch water, a wolf, a lion, a gooseberry, a knife, blackberries,
the poles apart, the grave, a chicken, an old crow/a serpant, a needle, the day.)

Exercise 21. Fill in the blanks with the names of animals or birds.
1. To sing like a ... . 2. To watch somebody like ... . 3. To work like a ... . 4. To follow
like a ... . 5. To breed like ... . 6. Fleet as a ... . 7. Tiicky as a ... . 8. Gruff as a ... . 9. Harmless as
a ... . 10. Obstinate as a ... . 11. Mild as a .,. . 12. Cunning as a ... .
(Bear, fox, deer, dove, hawk, horse, lamb, sheep, lark, monkey, mule, rabbits.)

Exercise 22. Translate the following sentences. Pick out similes.

1. Every thing went as merrily as a marriage bell. (Mg.) 2. She was as clever as a
monkey. (Mg.) 3. They were both as mad as battel’s in those days. (Mg.) 4. Just for a moment
you were as white as a sheet. (Mg.) 5. He is as obstinate as a mule. (Mg.) 6. You’re as sound as a
bell, really. (Gd.) 7. You ought to shut up, Larry. You’re as crazy as a loon. (Mg.) 8. She thinks I
am as mild as a kitten. (Ln.) 9. You are as sleepery as an eel. (Sh.) 10. The America of George
Washington is as dead as Queen Anne. (Sh.) 11. His hand was as cold as ice. (G.) 12. He was as
drunk as a lord last night. (G.) 13. No man knows better than you when to make scenes and when
to be as cool as a cucumber. (Sh.). 14. She was as lively as a squirrel. (Ln.) 15. He is as mad as a
March hare. (D.) 16. We are as cross as two sticks. (D.) 17. But can I help people seeing what is
as plain as the sun in the heavens? (Sh.) 18. You gave me books to read. But could I read them:
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they are as dull as ditch water. (Sh.) 19. I will be silent as the grave, I swear it. (Sh.) 20. She was
as obstinate as a mule. (G.)

Exercise 23. Translate the following sentences. Comment on cases of transfer of

meaning.
1. Her almost pretty, not too clever face was dimpled with kittenish glee. (Ch.B.) 2. He
sat to work, smoothing the metal’s surface with the hammer's highly polished face. (Sn.) 3. And
he still does not admit the facts are firm? (Sn.) 4. At the head of the table, Philip and Mr March
were talking about expectations for the Budget. (Sn.) 5. Always in front of that blank-blank
minor to arrange her hair. (Dr.) 6. He reminded James, as he said afterwards, of a hungry cat.
(G.)

IV.3. POLYSEMY

Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of polysemy. Remember the meanings of the

noun face: 1) the front part of the head; 2) look, expression; 3) facade, front; 4) surface of
something. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian commenting on the different
meaning of the noun «face».
1. Do you like the face of this building? 2. Don’t make faces in company. 3. The face is
the index of the mind. 4. He lost his face. 5. The value of a coin is shown on its face. 6. They
disappeared from the face of the earth. 7. A diamond crystal had six faces. 8. Death stared him in
his face. (D.) 9. He was being matter-of-fact in the face of the excitement. (Sn.) 10. It was an
ugly, amiable, precocious face. (Sn.)

Exercise 2. Remember the meaning of the noun foot: 1) the lower end of the leg; 2) step,
pace; 3) bottom; 4) measure of length (equal to 12 inches); 5) division of unit of verse; 6)
infantry.
1. Foot and horse attacked the enemy. 2. I didn’t believe he would recover. He had one
foot in the grave. 3. George is very tall, about six feet. 4. «How did you get here?» «On foot.» 5.
I have been on my feet all day. 6. Dog’s feet are called paws. 7. He saw the print of a man's foot
on the sand. 8. She stood at the foot of the twisted old bed. 9. Find Exercise 5 at the foot of page
120. 10. She waited at the foot of the stairs. (G.)
Exercise 3. Remember the meaning of the noun hand: 1) a part of the human arm; 2)
power, possession, responsibility; 3) skill; 4) person who does something, performer; 5)
workman, member of a ship's crew; 6) share in something; 7) indicator on the dial of a watch; 8)
position, direction; 9) handwriting; 10) signature; 11) applause.
1. Would you set your hand to this document? 2. He writes a legible hand. 3. The
property is no longer in my hand. 4. All hands on deck! 5. He is an old hand in this sort of work.
6. Do you think we have a hand in it? 7. The street was tree-lined on either hand. 8. A young
woman in a red sweater stood with one hand on the mantel-piece. (Sn.) 9. When we saw a
farmhouse that looked promising we stopped to ask if they wanted a couple of hands. (Mg.) 10.
Was he just not ready to show his hand? (Sn.) 11. His watch had gilt hands. 12. A trawler hand
died in a fire on board the Irish trawler yesterday. 13. All hands of the works were dismissed.
(MS) 14. It would be like trying to make the hands of a clock move backwards to its ticking. (G.)
15. Everything's got into the hands of those awful old men ... . (Sn.) 16. They never overplayed
their hands; ... . (Sn.) 17. His hand came to a pause on the cat's back, and he glared at me. (G.)

Exercise 4. Remember the meaning of the noun head: 1) a part of the human body; 2)
person, intellect; 3) talent; 4) the top something; 5) ruler, chief; 6) the front part of something.
1. Mr. Dombey put his hand on the child's head. (D.) 2. In the centre of the room stood
the head of the family, old Jolyon himself. (G.) 3. He might readily fit into some department as
head or assistant. (Dr.) 4. Under a two-column head was the full story that had happened. (Dr.) 5.
Oliver was walking at the head of the procession. (D.) 6. He shook his head. (Mg.) 7. He lost his
head completely. (Sn.) 8. He took for granted his position as head of the family. (Sn.) 9. The
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chains of lives — odd glimmers ran through my head. (Sn.) 10. Fine, cool heads you lawyers
have. (Sn.) 11. «It was a bit above my head», said Dawson-Hill. (Sn.) 12. Something else must
have happened to bring all this to a head. (Mg.)

Exercise 5. Remember the meanings of the noun line: 1) piece or length of thread, string,
rope or wire; 2) long narrow mark made on a surface; 3) mark made to limit a court (in games);
4) outline, contour; 5) row of persons or things; 6) direction, course, track; 7) row of words on a
paper; 8) way of behaviour; 9) conditions of life.
1. It must have cost him a lot of money to run the place on these lines. (Mg.) 2. But are
you sure It’s your line? (Sn.) 3. Charles did not answer. He hesitated. He was embarrassed.
Sharply he went to a new line: «I’ve told you There’s a perfectly good practical reason.» (Sn.) 4.
They did not read my lines, but they took the trouble to send me the questions they would ask,
together with a note saying: «We thought you might like to consider your answers a little in
advance.» (P.St.) 5. Telephone cables, water pipes and gas lines have been seriously damaged.
(MS) 6. I can't see the line of demarcation between these two phenomena. 7. It’s time to draw the
line, I suppose. 8. The ball crossed the line and was out. 9. The train was passing by a line of low
hills. 10. Hold the line! Go ahead! 11. There is no air line between Kiev and Delhi. 12. To
understand it one must read between lines. 13. «What is his line?» «He studies the Humanities.»
14. Send me a few lines, just to say that everything goes well.

Exercise 6. Comment on the meanings of the noun thing as used in the following
sentences.
1. He likes to make things with his hands. 2. Have you finished packing your things? 3.
He composed popular things for jazz-bands. 4. There is one more thing I’d like to ask you. 5. It’s
the best thing I have ever read. 6. Tell me how things go. 7. Things have changed greatly since
that time. 8. I have several things to attend to. 9. Not a thing escaped him. 10. Sir Barnet was
proud of making people acquainted with people. He liked the thing for its own sake, and it
advanced him. (D.) 11. This is very bad, for fog is the only thing that can spoil my plan. (CD.)
12. When he wanted a thing, a fresh obstacle only rendered him the more resolute. (Th.) 13.
«Don’t cry, Miss Dombey,» said Sir Walter, in a transport of enthusiasm. «What a wonderful
thing for me that I am here ... .» (D.) 14. He was satisfied with most things, and, above all other
things, with himself. (D.) 15. Delia Caruthers did things in six octaves so promisingly. (Hn.) 16.
«What is the use of making things worse?» (Kp.)

Exercise 7. Comment on the polysemy of the noun bottom as used in the following
sentences.
1. The steamer touched the bottom of the river. 2. He emptied the glass to the very
bottom. 3. Let's meet at the bottom of the stairs. 4. He has always been at the bottom of the class.
5. It is my bottom penny. 6. He examined me from top to bottom. 7. At last we got to the bottom
of the problem. 8. At the bottom of her heart she was sorry for him. 9. I got to the bottom of the
ladder. (Mg.) 10. I think, a special copy should have been sent to me. What? Initialled at the
bottom by «F.E.G.» (Sn.) 11. He was wondering how the fact that the bottom was going to drop
out of local street-railways would affect Cowperwood so seriously. (Dr.)

Exercise 8. Remember the meanings of the verb to get: 1) become, pass from one state to
another; 2) bring to a certain condition; 3) cause to, persuade; 4) receive, obtain; 5) catch; 6)
understand; 7) must, be compelled; 8) be able.
1. But you know, when I really want a thing I get it. (G.) 2. I might have got a job when I
got to London. (Mg.) 3. Tom got us sitting in armchairs on opposite sides of the fire, ordered
drinks, dumped himself on the sofa between us. (Sn.) 4. I thought Laura would start on him again
as soon as she got him alone. (Sn.) 5. Then, having got through the window, the burglar
discovers with amazement that the door is locked on the other side. (Sn.) 6. I got tired of this.
(Sn.) 7. You have got over the fatigues of the journey, have you? (D.) 8. I turned my head
around; «Mam», I called out, «get my lawyer on the blower, will you?» (SI.) 9. «And so,» Mr
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Raynor assumed that he was getting somewhere at last, «who was Aaron?» (SI.) 10. He spent all
he got (Mg.) 11. They got chairs and sat down. (Aldr.) 12. When did you get in the army? (Aldr.)
13. I have got to be at H.Q. at one o'clock. (Aldr.)

Exercise 9. Remember the meaning of the verb to go: 1) to move from one place to
another; 2) to be placed; 3) to reach, extend, last; 4) to become; 5) to work, operate; 6) to die; 7)
to intend.
1. This machine goes by electricity. 2. Where do you want this picture to go? 3.
Differences go deep. 4. Children went wild with hunger. (D.) 5. Sitting here, watching him, I
thought he was pretty far gone. (Sn.) 6. I’ve just told you things have been going rather ill with
me. (Cr.) 7. He went hot and cold but he said nothing. (Cr.) 8. After Clark had said that he was
going to play us some Berlios, I left. (Sn.) 9. He was earning, so my old legal friends told me,
about - 9,000 a year at the Common Law bar, and they thought he’d gone as far as he was likely
to. (Sn.) 10. The people that read books and go to the theatre could not tell genuine slang from
stuttered Sanscrit. (P.St.) 11. «A man to see you,» she said. «Hurry up, or he'll be gone.» (SI.)
12. That young friend of yours will go a long way. (Sn.)

Exercise 10. Remember the meaning of the verb to draw: 1) to move by pulling; 2) to
take out by pulling; 3) to obtain; 4) to attract; 5) to stretch, become longer.
1. They drew the boat out of the water. 2. The wagon was being drawn by two horses. 3.
He tried to draw some information from witnesses. 4. Street accidents always draw crowds. 5.
I'm going to draw some money from the bank. 6. Could you draw the curtain across the window?
7. He drew a book towards me. 8. «But that’s at night,» said Mr. Dombey, drawing his own chair
closer to his son's. (D.) 9. They seized the empty ears of corn, drew out the straw, gathered it
under their arms, and cut off the ears. (Ln.) 10. He wrote from morning till night, and late at
night, except when he broke off to go to the reading room, draw books from the library, or to call
on Ruth. (Ln.) 11. She was nervously drawing on her tight gloves. (Mg.)

Exercise 11. Make distinction between polysemy and homonymy.

1. Draw your chair nearer to the table and take part in the conversation. 2. He drew the
rein and stopped the horse. 3. Help me to draw a straight line. 4. He drew the blanket over his
head and tried to fall asleep. 5. The teacher was trying to draw our attention to what he was
speaking. 6. Let's draw a comparison between these two phenomena. 7. Draw yourself straight,
Don’t stoop. 8. His play continues to draw the audience. 9. It’s rather true-to-life. It has been
draw from life, believe me. 10. He is not a man to be drawn. 11. We must draw a conclusion
from this story. 12. He is good at drawing cartoons. 13. I wrote some letters to her but drew no
reply. 14. I couldn’t draw the bolt to open the door. 15. He has drawn this information from a
number of sources.

Exercise 12. Remember the meaning of the verb to take: 1) to get with hands, teeth or
some instrument; 2) to catch, capture (town, fortress, prisoners); 3) to use without permission; 4)
to carry something, to accompany somebody; 5) to eat, drink; 6) to accept, receive; 7) to need,
require; 8) to treat, regard in a specified way; 9) to suppose, consider to be; 10) make records of.
1. Take the initiative in your hands. 2. He took a sheet of paper out of the drawer and
began to write. 3. Don’t try to take me at my word. 4. The fortress was taken by storm. 5. My
daughter takes music lessons twice a week. 6. You must take a holiday and have a good rest. 7. I
usually take tickets in advance. 8. I can’t take his words seriously. 9. I Don’t take your hint.
Where are you driving at? 10. We were very much taken with the idea of spending the week-end
in the open air. 11. Do you take sugar in your tea? 12. I had taken two small rooms at the top of a
lodging-house in Conway street. (Sn.) 13. I make it a principle to take people like you. 14. It was
on one of those visits that I first met Tom, just after he had taken his degree in history. (Sn.) 15.
«I expect I can take it that your father's right,» said Phillip. (Sn.) 16. But I Don’t intend to take
advantage of you, my dear Eliot. (Sn.) 17. I wanted to take the chance. (Sn.) 18. I went on taking
those three ham and two cheese sandwiches. (P.St.) 19. The smart world has taken him into
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themselves. (Sn.) 20. I had forgotten that this club, like a good many others, had taken to letting
women in to dine. (Sn.)

Exercise 13. Comment on the polysemy of the verb to run.

1. «What distance have you ran?» «I have ran a mile.» 2. Every morning he ran his cattle
to the pasture. 3. After that attack the enemy ran. 4. Life runs smoothly for her. 5. This route runs
every three minutes. 6. The traffic does not run today. 7. Time runs fast. 8. Thoughts ran in his
head. 9. This tune is constantly running in my ear. 10. The news ran like lightning. 11. The
rumour ran through the town. 12. I felt the blood running to my head. 13. This law runs for five
years. 14. The road ran up to the hill. 15. The scar runs across his left cheek. 16. The wine ran all
over the table. 17. This agreement has two years to run. 18. Rivers run into the sea. 19. Most
British rivers ran eastwards. 20. Tears were running across her cheeks. 21. His face was running
with sweat. 22. My pen Won’t write, the ink Won’t run. 23. Our conversation was running on the
latest events. 24. The proverb runs: To run one’s head into the lion’s mouth. 25. Who runs the
house in your family? 26. Have you run the car into the garage? 27. The motor runs smoothly.
28. This film has been running since Monday. 29. Trams run on rails. 30. Your ice-cream is
beginning to run. 31. She always runs to me in case of trouble. 32. Don’t forget that water is
running into the bath-tub. 33. His mind was running on that problem.

Exercise 14. Remember the meanings of the adjective hard: 1) not soft, firm, solid; 2)
not easy, difficult; 3) causing pain, discomfort; 4) severe, harsh; 5) strenuous, needing much
effort or force.
1. Press the central part of your tongue to the hard palate. 2. The bread has got hard. 3.
This material is rather hard to the touch. 4. It’s hard to make up my mind. 5. Stop using hard
words. 6. Such things are hard to imagine. 7. Hard times have passed. 8. He is a hard-hearted
person. 9. She is hard to please. 10. Last winter was rather hard. 11. How can you stand this hard
drinker? 12. He has had hard luck of late. 13. Frost happens to be rather hard in this region. 14.
Prices are not hard lately. 15. Have you got any hard money? 16. He is a hard student. 17. This
disease is hard to cure. 18. I can’t return home so late, my mother is very hard, you know. 19.
Tennis is played on hard-covered courts. 20. He is hard to deal with.

Exercise 15. Remember the meanings of the adjective free: 1) not in the power of
another person; 2) not controlled by (of states, citizens, institutions); 3) not fixed, able to move;
4) without; 5) costing nothing; 6) not occupied, not engaged (of place, time); 7) without
constraint.
1. Let's set this bird freer. 2. Our native country is free at last. 3. You are free to choose,
you are free to go or stay. 4. This region is said to be a free zone. 5. Leave one end of the rope
free, Don’t fix it. 6. Her gestures are always so free, aren’t they? 7. Are you free in the
afternoon? 8. Have you got any free rooms? 9. It was impossible to move on, they had to make
the road free. 10. He is an experienced master of free translation. 11. Children have free board
and lodging here. 12. I have little free time today. 13. On Sundays admission is free. 14. This
treatment is free of pain. 15. You are very free with your money. 16. Behave yourself! Your
manners are too free. 17. Running through my pocket-book I said that I hadn't three consecutive
days free until the end of June. (Sn.) 18. The meal also included free wine. (Mg.) 19. After the
noisy children's day, we, who were both paternal men, breathed comfortably at being out in the
free air. (Sn) 20. I am free and easy. (D.) 21. Can you imagine taking them up if you had a free
choice?

Exercise 16. Remember the meanings of the adjective high : 1) extending far upwards; 2)
chief; 3) shrill, sharp (of sounds); 4) extreme, tense, great; 5) noble; 6) slightly tainted (of food);
7) intoxicated (colloq); 8) under the influence of dings (slang).
1. He has a high calling — to cure people. 2. All high officials were present. 3. It was
high day when this happened. 4. The heat was high last summer. 5. It’s high time you started. 6.
Why are you speaking in such a high tone? 7. What is the highest peak of this mountain range?
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8. He deserves high praise. 9. The violin is not high enough. 10. He might be an old-fashioned
Edwardian liberal, but he wasn't above being soothed by a breath from the high life. (Sn.) 11. His
eyes peered down the high table. (Sn.) 12. I felt the room was revolving round me at high speed.
(Gd.) 13. I had hardly spoken to him before, because he was far too occupied with the higher
problems of academic surgery ... (Gd.) 14. He is about the most posh G.P. in England — high
class stuff, you know. (Gd.) 15. I have the highest regard for your friendship and integrity. (Gd.)

Exercise 17. Remember the meanings of the adjective low: 1) not high; 2) below the
usual or normal level or intensity; 3) not loud, not high in pitch (of sounds); 4) of inferior rank or
social class; 5) vulgar, little civilized; 6) feeble; 7) of small amount; 8) nearly exhausted (of
supplies); 9) not highly developed.
1. He is in a low state of health now. 2. A tenor can’t get so low as a baritone. 3. I never
fell as low as that. 4. Our stock of coal is running low. 5. Rivers are low during dry summers. 6.
His parents were of low birth. 7. The moon was low in the sky. 8. It seemed to be a windless day
with a cloud-cap very low. (Sn.) 9. When it got dark me and Mike were in our parlour with a low
light on and telly off. (SI.) 10. «That’s what I thought, Doctor,» he went on in a low voice. (Gd.)
11. Weak tea had a low caffeine content. (Gd.) 12. The four of us sat round the fireplace with the
coffee jug on a low table close by. (Sn.)

Exercise 18. Remember the meanings of the adjective sharp: 1) not blunt, with a fine
cutting edge; 2) well-defined, distinct; 3) abrupt (of curves, slopes, bends); 4) shrill, piercing (of
sounds); 5) acute; 6) producing a physical sensation like cutting or pricking (of feelings); 7)
harsh, severe; 8) quick, brisk, lively; 9) unscrupulous; 10) above the normal pitch (of music).
1. Her nose was little and sharp. 2. The road made a sharp turn to the left. 3. Her figure
was sharp against the light. 4. He made some very sharp remarks on my report. 5. This sauce is
too sharp for me. 6. He has a sharp ear for music. 7. His manner was restless, sometimes
diffident, sometimes sharp and ruthless. (Sn.) 8. With her face on one side, the line between dark
hair and temple was sharp, the skin paper-white under the bright sun. (Sn.) 9. «Why,» said
Charles, with his sharpest smile, «You must know what intuition is.» (Sn.) 10. His attack was
sharp enough to hold them out, awake, alert. (Sn.) 11. He was sharp all right. So sharp you'd
have cut yourself if you touched him. (Stn.) 12. Whatever answers I gave never seemed to be the
right ones; there was always a sharp silence, a slight «Oh!» from somewhere and the chairman
was thanking me very much and saying they would let me know in due course. (Dn.) 13. He had
a good memory and a sharp ear. (Mg.) 14. It was a sharp turn to the left. (D.)

Exercise 19. Remember the meanings of the adjective solid: 1) not in the form of a liquid
or gas; 2) compact, heavy; 3) without holes or spaces; 4) of strong or firm material; 5) what can
be depended on; 6) of the same substance; 7) unanimous, undivided; 8) continuous, without a
break.
1. He has been sleeping ten solid hours. 2. When water freezes and becomes solid we call
it ice. 3. His arguments are not solid. 4. This word has a solid spelling. 5. He is a man of solid
build. 6. It’s a solid firm, one can rely upon it. 7. This politician is a man of solid sense. 8. I’ve
been waiting for you a solid hour. 9. He looked prosperous and solid, like a banker. (H.) 10. You
can’t miss it, It’s solid gold all the way through. (D.) 11. Sometimes, when he had little money,
he filled his empty stomach with a cup of tea while Alma and Joan satisfied themselves on five
shillings worth of more solid food. (SI.) 12. These two were the solid core of the college, I
thought. (Sn.) 13. Brown, the most solid of men, was asking for support. (Sn.) 14. The whole
college was absolutely solid about it. (Sn.) 15. Success in the world of his father and uncles
means multiplying one’s fortune and adding to one’s influence among solid men. (Sn.)

Exercise 20. Comment on the meanings of the adjective loose in the following sentences.
1. One can buy milk loose or in packets. 2. I’m afraid I'll have to have my loose tooth
out. 3. I find this translation to be very loose. 4. Try to fix the loose end of the rope to the wall. 5.
My shoe lace got loose. 6. I’ve got some loose change in my pocket, but nothing else. 7. I Don’t
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like his manners, they are rather loose. 8. The dog is too dangerous to be left loose. 9. The jacket
is too loose in shoulders. 10. Does she always wear her hair loose? 11. He had been leading a
loose life since he got married. 12. Calculations must be exact, not loose. 13. I can’t make out
anything, your handwriting is very loose. 14. This material is very loose, I Don’t like it. 15. Be
careful with this book, some of its pages have become loose. 16. To say so would be loose
grammar. 17. What are you busy with at loose hours? 18. His cheeks are so loose after his
illness. 19. She often has a loose tongue. 20. I hate tight clothes, I prefer loose ones.

Exercise 21. Comment on the meanings of the following adjectives in the given phrases.
Bitter taste (medicine, fighting, attack on somebody, dispute over something).
Fine day (woman, future, linen, skin, sand, rain, gold, distinction, point/question,
manners, slice of bread, mistake).
Fresh eggs (water, air, fish, shoots of a plant, weight, idea, faces, colours, shirt).
Naked body (room, cable, trees, sword, facts, truth, child, promise; with a naked eye; to
fight with naked fists; as naked as one’s mother bore).
New house (baby, information, ground, fashion, soldier, milk, wine, potatoes; to become
a new man).
Rough surface (road, skin, cloth, food, hands, leather, hair, draft, copy, weight, answer,
manners, customer, child, anecdote, sea, wind, voice, wine, blow, luck, time).
Stiff brush (smile, face, dough, battle, resistance, offensive, bow, manners, wind, wine,
medicine, prices, punishment; to be stiff with cold; my legs feel stiff).
Thick slice (fingers, skin, man, soup, fog, clouds, darkness, crowd, hair, liquid).
Thin blanket (fingers, lips, soup, milk, story, table, soil, forest, audience, rain, fabric,
mist, argument, excuse; to be on thin ice; as thin as a rail).
Tough meat (leather, rubber, metal, spirit, policy, fight, resistance, job, life, problem).

Exercise 22. Write simple definitions to illustrate the meanings of the following
polysemantic words.
Bright (adj), smart (adj), paper (n), point (n), board (n), do (v), make (v).

IV.4. HOMONYMS & PARONYMS

Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of homonymy. Arrange the following
homonyms into three groups: a) perfect homonyms, b) homographs, c) homophones.
Air (n), heir (n); ball (n), ball (n); be (v), bee (n); bear (n), bear (v); bow (n), bow (v); can
(v), can (n); capital (n), capital (adj); dear (adj), deer (n); ear (n), ear (n); fir (n), fur (n); flat (n),
flat (adj); hare (n), hair (n); heel (n), heal (v); here (adv), hear (v); I (pr), eye (n); lead (v), lead
(v); lie (v), lie (v); minute (n), minute (adj); night (n), knight (n); pale (adj), pail (n); peace (n),
piece (n); plant (n), plant (v); rain (n), reign (n); right (adj), write (v); row (n), row (v); sale (n),
sail (n); sea (n), see (v); seal (n), seal (n); so (adv), sew (v); some (pr), sum (n); son (n), sun (n);
tear (n), tear (v); week (n), weak (adj); well (n), well (adv); wind (n), wind (v); won (v), one
(num); work (n), work (v).

Exercise 2. Give the main nominative meanings of the following homonyms.

Father (n), farther (adv); firm (n), firm (adj); horse (n), hoarse (adj); hole (n), whole (pr);
host (n), host (n); match (n), match (v); meat (n), meet (v); new (adj), knew (v); no (pr), know
(v); pair (n), pear (n); paw (n), pour (v); rose (n), rose (v); saw (n), saw (v); sweet (adj), suite (n);
to (prep), two (num).

Exercise 3. The following words are homographs. How are they pronounced and what do
they mean?
Ball (n), ball (n); bear (n), bear (n); bow (n), bow (v); lead (v), lead (n); minute (n),
minute (adj); row (n), row (v); tear (n), tear (v); wind (n), wind (v).

Exercise 4. Give words homophonous with the following.

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 Fare, flour, hair, heel, here, eye, night, peace, reign, pear, plain, right, soul, sum, sun,
week.

Exercise 5. Choose appropriate homophones.

1. My (sole, soul) is dark. 2. Honey is (sweet, suite). 3. Don’t (sale, sail) the (bear’s,
bears) skin before you have (court, caught) it. 4. After (reign, rain) comes fine (whether,
weather). 5. (No, know) living man all things can. 6. Make hay while the (sun, son) shines. 7.
(To, two) heads are better than (one, won). 8. Out of (site, sight) out of mind. 9. (Too, two) many
cooks spoil the broth. 10. (New, knew) wine in old bottles. 11. One can (here, hear) the grass
grow. 12. One’s (hart, heart) goes into (once, one’s) boots. 13. Like (father, farther) like (sun,
son). 14. It never (reigns, rains) but it (paws, pours).

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Point out homonyms and
comment on them.
1. a) They were camping on a sand bank. b) He held a senior post in a bank. 2. a) The
girl's white bare feet were on a rag. b) She complained that she could bear it no longer. 3. a)
Beside the iron bridge, three poplars stood up like frozen brooms. b) He played golf, tennis and
bridge. 4) a) Go right ahead, but leave me my fair share or all is over between us. b) The tips of
Anna's long fair hair brushed on the page. 5. a) He caught a chill. b) As we picked up our gowns
and went downstairs into the court, Francis was saying: «But There’s no mystery why Howard
did it.» (Sn.) 6. a) She had a room for about five pupils like this. b) In his eyes the pupils were
large. (Sn) 7. a) I can’t bear this roar. b) The breath of raw air perished on the warmth of the hall.
8. a) Charles March is the heir to one of these families. b) The air is so fresh after the
thunderstorm. 9. a) Soon the play started, and his face was alive with attention; but for a second I
thought that he, whom і had so much envied a few hours before, looked careworn and sad. (Sn.)
b) To punish himself by not seeing us became second nature with him. (Mg.) 10. a) And then
came the great idea. He would write. b) As a matter of fact you are right. 11. a) I felt some blood
on my neck, and a great pain. (Ch.B.) b) Against the pane was a face, the forehead pressed
against the glass. (G.) 12. a) In the reign of the emperor Claudius, that is to say, in the middle of
the first century of our era the Romans invaded and occupied a part of Britain. b) There is too
much rain and too little sunshine all over Ireland for wheat to grow well.

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences. Pick-out homonyms and define their type.
1. a) Well, It’s not the first time a man has loved the human race so much he’s left his
own family to starve. (Mg.) b) He was breathing as if he had just run a race. 2. a) Look here,
would it be a bore for you if we had tea somewhere? (Sn.) b) The picture of those early nights
which remained in my memory bore no resemblance to the dinners and shows much as I gloated
in them. (Sn.) 3. a) We had just left a coffee stall. b) I sat on Mr March's left opposite Katherine.
(Sn.) 4. a) He told his mother countless stories every night about his school companions. b)
There are now large apartment houses, several storeys high. 5. a) The old dog looked up and
wagged his tail. (G.) b) I Don’t believe a word of it, It’s some old woman’s tale. (G.) 6. a) He
went to the dining-room to wait for dinner. (G.) b) He lost seven pounds in weight. (D.) 7. a) Old
Jolyon stepped out and, in paying the cab-fare, gave the driver a sovereign in mistake for a
shilling. (G.) b) «Vanity Fair» is a novel without a hero. 8. a) I hope my dress will be ready in
time for the ball. b) They were amusing themselves by throwing the ball carelessly from hand to
hand. (D.) 9. a) Could you give a box of matches? b) This match demonstrated a change in
football ratings.

Exercise 8. Translate the following sentences. Give homonyms to the italicised words.
1. It appeared that he had done well in the air corps. (Mg.) 2. That means that I have to
miss our fine feast for the Commemoration of Benefactors. (Sn.) 3. He was wearing a new
butterfly bow, red with white spots. (Sn.) 4. I’ll go to see them in the morning and get the details.
(Chi.) 5. She was a big woman with a plain white, anxious face. (Sn.) 6. I have never seen him.
(Mg.) 7. After all, darling, she is a human soul. (St.) 8. What made you come here? (G.) 9. I
185
thought I should die of cold. (D.) 10. But I suggest to you that it wouldn’t be unreasonable if
we're to get this place back on an even heels. (Sn.) 11. I found both him and Martin agreeing that
whatever the old man was like, most of his scientific work was sound. (Sn.) 12. We had to walk
about fifty yards. 13. Still waters have deep bottoms. 14. He thought it would be no crime to
steal. (Mg.) 15. It is no business of mine. (D.) 16. What a mean rogue he is. (Ln.) 17. He was
worried by the perfect storm of wildcat money which was floating about and which was
constantly coming to his bank. (Dr.) 18. He saw the sun sink beyond the horizon. (Sc.) 19. All is
well that ends well. 20. Having typed it out, he flung it under the table, for there had been
nothing left from the five dollars with which to buy stamps. (Ln.) 21. «The horse,» said the man,
«belongs to a person who will make your honour, or any of your honourable friends, most
welcome to him, flesh and fell.» (Sc.) 22. The rest of the bridegroom's friends left the castle.
(Sc.) 23. To their great joy they found a tolerably good fire in the grate. (Sc.) 24. «That will
bring you into trouble, Master,» said Bucklaw. «Not a whit: I have nothing to fear.» (Sc.) 25.
Then he awoke in pain from his stiffened muscles and chilled by the mountain wind. (Ln.) 26.
«Your merits are so great,» says the nation, «that your children shall be allowed to reign over us.
It does not matter that your eldest son be a fool.» (Th.) 27. Did they want to buy for immediate
delivery six hundred barrels of prime flour? (Dr.)

Exercise 9. Comment on the phenomenon of paronymy. Make distinctions between the

following paronyms.
Bear — beer; bare — beer; canal — channel; career — carrier; cause — course; collar —
colour; company — campaign; conscience — conscious; contents — context — contest; courage
— carnage; coips — corpse; cost — coast; crash — crush; dairy — diaiy; draught — draughts;
draught — drought; hare — heir; hair — hear; human — humane; lay — lie; law — low; lawyer
— lower; major — mayor; modal — model; Paul — poll; pair — pier; pear — pier; personal —
personnel; petrol — patrol; pour — poor; price — prize; quay — queue; quiet — quite; raise —
rise; seize — cease; sell — sail; skirt — shirt; sergeant — surgeon; soil — soul; suit — suite;
veiy — vaiy.

Exercise 10. Fill in the blanks with appropriate paronyms.

Campaign, company
1. The election ... in England lasts about a month. 2. It was Napoleon's last ... . 3. Misery
loves ... . 4. Don’t talk about your diseases in ... .
Canal, channel
1. The Great Lakes are connected with ... . 2. The English ... washes Great Britain in the
south. 3. This film is devoted to the builders of the Suez ... . 4. The North ... separates Scotland
from Ireland.
Cause, course
1. Let tilings take their ... . 2. All of them are devoted to their common ... . 3. In the ... of
time he will realise everything. 4. There is no ... to worry.
Context, contents, contest
1. I Don’t remember the ___ of the letter. 2. The ___ can change the meaning of the
word. 3. Who won this ___? 4. I have never come across the word in this ___ . 5. Look it up in
the table of ___ . 6. Have you tested the ___ of this bottle?

V. SEMANTIC GROUPS OF WORDS

V.1. SYNONYMS
Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of synonymy. In column «B» find synonyms
to the words in column «A».
A В

186
 absurd dread ability magnificence
air fortitude angle manner
amiable general awkward matted
capacity grandeur belief pair
checks lonely bucket preposterous
clumsy pail courage solitary
corner tangled fear squares
couple trust improbable universal
dissimilar unlikely lovely unlike

Exercise 2. Comment on the phenomenon of synоnymіс dominant. In the following groups of

synonyms find the synonymic dominant. Give your reasons for the choice.
1. Able, capable, clever, competent, fitted, powerful, qualified, skilful, vigorous.
1. Bold, brave, chivalric, chivalrous, courageous, daring, dashing, dauntless, fearless, gallant,
heroic, manful, unafraid, undaunted, valiant, venturesome.
2. Common, customary, frequent, habitual, ordinary, usual, vulgar.
4. Dangerous, insecure, perilous, risky, threatening, treacherous.
4. Admirable, attractive, beautiful, delicate, elegant, excellent, exquisite, fine, handsome,
keen, nice, splendid.
5. Quake, quiver, shake, shiver, shudder, tremble, vibrate, waver.
6. Add, broaden, enlarge, expand, extend, increase, heighten, lengthen, spread, widen.
7. Accept, admit, agree, approve, consent.
8. Affirm, approve, assure, conform, establish, prove, ratify, sanction, settle, support, uphold.
10. Achieve, acquire, attain, earn, gain, get, obtain, procure, receive, win.
10. Cheer, cheerfulness, festivity, fun, gaiety, glee, joy, joyfulness, liveliness, merriment.
10. Effort, employment, labour, toil, undertaking, work.
11. Dividend, division, part, portion, quantity, share.
14. Description, diorama, illustration, image, landscape, painting, panorama, picture, portrait,
representation, scene, scenery, view.
14. Blow, crash, impact, shock, stroke.

Exercise 3. Make a distinction between a synonymic dominant and a general term. State whether
the italicised word is a synonymic dominant or the general term.
1. Victory, triumph, conquest.
1. Complain, grumble, mutter.
2. Sound, clatter, creak, clang, patter.
3. Smell, fragrance, scent, perfume, odour.
4. Colour, olive, pink, brown, red.
5. Red, scarlet, crimson, cherry, purple.
6. Footwear, shoes, rubbers, slippers.
7. Dog, fox-terrier, hound, borzoi, collie.
8. Courage, braveiy, gallantly, valour, fortitude.
10. Take, accept, pocket, seize, capture, grab.

Exercise 4. Give synonyms of Germanic origin to the following words.

Beverage, cease, educate, enemy, envisage, error, faith, inquire, reply, vital, vocation.

Exercise 5. Give synonyms of Romanic origin.

Book, corner, deem, end, freedom, friendship, happiness, home, holy, king, speech, thoughtful,
wood.

Exercise 6. Give synonyms of Scandinavian origin.

Elevate, heaven, mate, present, sick, shine, throw, uneven, weep.
 Exercise 7. Arrange the following ideographic synonyms according to the degree of intensity.
1. Ask, beg, implore.
1. Desire, long, wish.
2. Decay, fade, wither.
3. Beautiful, handsome, lovely, pretty.
4. Annoy, irritate, vex.
5. Alarmed, frightened, terrified.
6. Delight, happiness, pleasure.
7. Affliction, despair, sadness.
8. Astonishment, consternation, surprise.
9. Excuse, forgive, pardon.
10. Accident, disaster, misfortune.
11. Capability, genius, talent.

Exercise 8. Comment on stylistic synonyms. Point out archaic, poetical, euphemistic and dialectal
synonyms.
Girl — lass, pretty — bonny, learned — erudite, stomach — belly, foolish — unwise, lodger —
paying guest, also — eke, lake — mere, fighting-man — warrior, toothpowder — dentifrice, good-bye —
farewell, yes — aye, musician — minstrel.

Exercise 9. State in what respect the following synonyms differ.

1. Bobby, cop (per), policeman.
1. Head, master, owner, possessor, proprietor.
2. Hand, labourer, toiler, worker.
3. Habitation, house, mansion, residence.
4. Construct, fabricate, forge, frame, invent, manufacture.
5. Affair, business, concern, matter, thing.
6. Chance, occasion, opportunity.
7. Glance, glimpse, look, sight, view.
8. Blank, empty, vacant.
10. Acute, keen, sharp.
10. Answer, reply, respond, retort.
11. Bear, endure, stand, suffer, tolerate.
12. Begin, commence, start.
13. Dwell, live, lodge, put up, stay, stop.
14. Demonstrate, display, exhibit, manifest, show.
15. Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, plain, visible.
16. Awful, dreadful, fearful, horrible, terrible.
17. Calm, peaceful, quiet, still, tranquil.
18. Cry, scream, screech, about, shriek, yell.
19. Grin, smile, smirk.

Exercise 10. Translate the following sentences. Pick out synonyms and comment on them.
1. Coldly the man stared at him, looked him up and down. (Mg.) 2. We soon came to a very pretty
little cottage, with a small garden full of flowers in front of it. 3. It seemed to wave and fluctuate before
me as though I saw it reflected in an unsteady looking-glass. (D.) 4. Nothing was concealed or hidden
from my view, and eveiy piece of information that I sought was openly and frankly given. (Mg.) 5. She
was a bit quieter, and more womanly-like; more gentle, and more blushing, and not so riotous and noisy.
(Gl.) 6. These Austral; do not understand, they Don’t realise it. (Aldr.) 7. He was not sure of anything
more. He was not certain about what he was to do. (Aldr.) 8. The calm, cool water seems to me to
murmur an invitation to repose and rest. (D.) 9. It was too terrible and awful to be true. (Ln.) 10. They
might comfort and console each other. (D.) 11. He is so foolish and stupid. (Dr.) 12. His voice grew
steadier and firmer as he repeated these words. (D.) 13. People down the village heard shouts and shrieks.
(Wl.) 14. About the time of twilight Mr. Dombey, grieyously afflicted with aches and pains, was helped
into his carriage. (D.) 15. Without listening to excuse and apology... though unconscious of anything save
the support which it gave, she was urging, and almost dragging him forward. (Sc.) 16. Her cleanliness and
purity had reacted upon him, and he felt in his being a ciying need to be clean. (Ln.) 17. He has nothing
but roughness and coarseness to offer you in exchange for all that is refined and delicate in you. (Th.) 18.
Now you see she is high and mighty an empress couldn’t be grander. (Th.)

Exercise 11. Translate the following sentences. Pick out the synonyms. Comment on their stylistic
colouring.
1. With that Mr. Dombey stalked to his own dressing-room, and Mrs. Dombey went upstairs to
here. Mrs. Skewton and Florence repaired to the drawing-room. (D.) 2. They sat in silence for a long
time, she thinking desperately and he pondering upon his love which had departed. (Ln.) 3. Along with
this welcome gift for her kinsman she sent a little doll for a present to my Lord's little daughter Beatrix.
(Th.) 4. He asked me if it would suit my convenience to have the light put out, and on my answering
«yes», instantly extinguished it. (Ch.B.) 5. They were exactly unlike. They were utterly dissimilar in all
respects. (Ch.B.)

Exercise 12. Pick out synonyms. State whether there is any difference between them.
1. He was a gay, merry man, who took nothing very solemnly and he was constantly laughing. He
made her laugh too. (Mg.) 2. He went into his bedroom and looked round. It was neat and tidy. (Chr.) 3.
Her affaire were no business of mine. (Mg.) 4. She was a jolly merry woman and quite prepared to joke
and laugh with him. (Mg.) 5. I Don’t believe she took their curses and graces any more seriously than she
took the aches and pains of characters in a novel, which she knew from the beginning (otherwise she
wouldn't have read it) would end happily. (Mg.) 6. He soon ceased to choose every morning from his
wardrobe the tie he wanted, for he found that she put out for him without fail the one he would have
himself selected. (Mg.) 7. Today all would be plain and clear again. (Ln.) 8. The chauffeur had mounted
the steps and pressed the bell. He looked inquiringly at the woman as she ascended the steps. (Chr.) 9.
Oh, dear, It’s so difficult, isn’t it? All the names, I mean. They have so many z's and k's. Most peciliar,
and so hard to spell. (Chr.) 10. She likes to stay at home, I love travelling. (Sn.) 11. Waters on a starry
night are beautiful and fair. (Wl.) 12. Dorchester is a delightfully peaceful place, nestling in stillness and
silence and drowsiness. (J.K.J.) 13. I did indeed propose a personal interview, my dear Master, but I
ought to have begged, entreated, beseeched it. (Sc.) 14. I shrieked, Harris roared; George waved his hat,
and yelled back. (J.K.J.) 15. It is not only your skill and dexterity that fascinates me. (J.K.J.)

Exercise 13. Translate the following sentences. Pick out synonyms and make up synonymous
groups having a common denotational component.
1. a) «Well!» he said, «I got a letter. I’m back.» (G.) b) She had received his telegram while at
breakfast. (G.) c) His own knowledge of French had been obtained years ago. (Mg.)
2. a) Erik looked at his watch. (Aldr.) b) She glanced about her for some likely door at which to
apply. (Dr.) c) He eyes us curiously. (Lw.) d) Mr. Pickwick stopped and gazed on each of his friends in
turn. (D.) e) Once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading. (C.) f) Mr. Tupman
advanced a step or two and glared at Mr. Pickwick. (D.) g) He stared at him with astonishment. (Wl.)
3. a) Mr. Pickwick’s eyes sparkled with delight. (D.) b) His white hair, still fairly thick, glistened
in the lamplight. (G.) c) Their eyes shine. (G.) d) Icicles glittered in the sun. (Mg.)
4. a) And she began to shake with silent laughter because it was so funny. (Mg.) b) She shivered
and moved towards the fireplace. (D.) c) Her mouth was quivering and she was on the verge of panic.
(D.) d) She was trembling with cold. (D.) e) It makes me shudder to think of that. (Mg.) f) His voice
wavered. (Mg.)
5. a) It was a horrible evening, I shall never forget it. That awful party at the Greek Park, or
whatever the hotel was called. (M.) b) It was the most terrible tragedy. (M.) c) It’s a dreadful feeling, I
can’t explain it. (M.) d) That’s a frightful thing. (M.)
6. a) One day, however, very shortly after he had connected himself with the Green-Davidson, he
had come in rather earlier than usual in the afternoon and found his mother bending over a letter which
evidently had just arrived and which appeared to interest her greatly. (Dr.) b) On seeing him, she stopped
reading at once, and, flustered and apparently nervous, arose and put the letter awav without commenting
in any way upon what she had been reading. (Dr) c) He expected his mother would be as astonished and
puzzled as he was — quick and curious for details. Instead, she appeared to him to be obviously confused
and taken aback by this information as though she was hearing about something that she already knew
and was puzzled as to just what her attitude should be. (Dr.)
7. a) It was clear that he had the capacity and inclination to leam. (D.) b) «Gee, you look well
tonight,» he went on forcing himself to talk and surprising himself a little with his ability to do so. (Dr.)
8. a) He proceeded to question him as to his parentage; he was proud and so ashamed to admit that
his parents conducted a mission and preached on the street. (Dr.) b) I was obliged to confess to myself
that I was getting uneasy (Tw.)
9. a) Lucy commenced some apology for the long delay but conscience struck, became confused
as she proceeded (Sc.) b) «How are you, Jane?» he said. But the child only stared at him with the baffled,
bewildered pained eyes of a child who lives with hostile parents. (D.) c) No man had ever affected her
before as this one had, who shocked her from moment to moment with his awful grammar. (Ln.) d) She
laughed at him, delighting in his confusion, and as he looked into her frank eyes and knew that she had
divined nothing of what he felt, he became abashed. (Ln.) e) The cub reporter was a trifle perplexed by
his talking over him and around him and at him. f) Their vexed and emban-assed looks frightened me.
(Mg.)

Exercise 14. Give synonyms to the italicised words.

1. Once her plan had become clear she started at once to put it into execution. (Md.) 2. He’s been
very sweet to his father. (Mg.) 3. He returned to his lodging where Piero was waiting for him. (Mg.) 4.
She must in her youth have been very handsome. (Mg.) 5. It was astonishing how amusing life could be if
you exercised a little ingenuity. (Mg.) 6. With a sigh he tossed the programme back on the table. (Chr.) 7.
She turned round with a gay smile on her lips. (Mg.) 8. They had always been very alike. A strong family
resem-blence. (Chr.) 9. He was very calm. (Mg.) 10. I asked him how he was getting on. (Mg.) 11. His
whole body was shaking and shivering dangerously. (Aldr.) 12. On the staircase, there lingered a great
number of people, who came there, some because their rooms were empty and lonesome. (D.) 13. Mrs.
Gamp’s apartment was not a spacious one. (D.) 14. His shirt was wet with sweat from the exertion of
doing so many unaccustomed things at once. (Ln.) 15. The man at the desk in the library had seen Martin
there so often that he had become quite cordial, always greeting him with a smile and nod when he
entered. (Ln.) 16. A little hard-headed man was conversing with a fat old gentleman. (D.) 17. But I
observed that during his oration the gentlemen who report for the daily papers were occupied with their
wine instead of their note-books. (Th.) 18. He endeayoured to amuse his master by anecdote and
conversation. (D.) 19. «Her hair curls naturally,» answered Miss Temple. (Ch.B.) 20. A rude fellow,
treating on Miss Sharp’s foot caused her to fall back with a little shriek into the arms of Mr. Sedley. (Th.)
21. I desire to be your friend. (Ch.B.) 22. He just sat here all evening and scarcely uttered a word. (Ln.)
23. I wish you luck. (G.) 24. In Trafalgar Square he became aware of some special commotion travelling
towards him out of the mouth of the Strand. (G.) 25. They left this disconsolate apartment, and went
upstairs. (Sc.) 26. Cousin Jolyon’s got an awfully jolly place. (G.) 27. Managing to obtain the addresses
of two newspaper syndicates, he deluged them with storiettes. (Ln.)

Exercise 15. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

To say, to tell, to speak, to talk
1. «Well, good-bye, Mr. Kipps,» she ___ . He shook her hand and ___ «Good-bye.» (Wl.) 2. «I
bought you a ring to-day.» he ___ bending the book and ...ing for the sake of ___ing something. (WI.) 3. I
could ___ nothing in reply. (D.) 4. And now ___ me who is the lady about whom he is ___ing. (Ch.B.) 5.
I ___ her all the story about my sad childhood. (Ch.B.) 6. «You ___ French well,» Lady Grizel ___, who
herself ___ the tongue in an Edinburg accent. (Th.) 7. They returned to the room where the company was
___ing loudly. (D.).
To wear, to carry, to bear
1. A very handsome man of fifty, ___ing a rather dandified curly-brimmed hat, and ___ing an
elaborate walking stick, comes into the room. (Sh.) 2. «Would you mind to ___ this sack of flour for me
to market?» (Mr.) 3. This bearded man also ___ moustache. (G. ) 4. I can’t ___ this scent. (G.) 5. I really
cannot ___ the whole burden of our family affairs any longer. 6. Please, Sir, can you tell me which
gentleman of your party ___ a bright blue dress-coat? (D.)
Bad, ill, wicked, evil
1. Working on a newspaper one does not leam the way to break ___ news. (Cr.) 2. Nessie fiddled
with her tea-spoon, dropped it, then blushed shamefully as though discovered in a ___ act. (Cr.) 3. It is
not a ___ plan.(J.K.J.) 4. He could see the little ___ eyes. (H.) 5. A pretty face may cover a ___ heart.
(Cr.) 6. I know how cruel and ___ my temper can be. (Cr.) 7. I thought it was ___ news you were going to
tell me. (Cr.)
High, tall, lofty
1. He looked ahead at the ___ glass with the flat-topped trees behind. (H.) 20. «Women upset,»
said Wilson to the ___ man. (M.) 3. Oh, one’s mode of life might be ___ and scrupulous. (G.) 4. The
captain was a ___ man of about forty. (M.) 5. Her drawing room has three windows looking on the river,
and the ceiling is not so ___ as it would be in an older house of the same pretension. (Sh.) 6. She said in a
very ___ way, «Do you mind following me into the drawing room?» (M.) 7. He wore a ___ hat. (Dr.) 8.
The ___ polish of his boots shone even in the dimness of the tent. (Hni.)
Firm, hard, solid
1. His sister, who was a ___ rather practical person, used to complain that there were too many
scents at Manderley. (Mr.) 2. The stones were ___ and ___ under my feet. (Mr.) 3. She looked veiy ___
and grim. (Mr.) 4. It was ___ to give in while I still had some fight in me. (Mg.) 5. He uttered a ___
laugh. (G.) 6. These orders that are coming now are turned into ___ business. (Pi.) 7. He felt triumphant,
proud, ___ and successful man among a lot of failures. (Pr.) 8. «Well,» she said, her voice dry and ___,
not the voice she would have used to him. (Mr.)
Rough, harsh, uneven, rugged
1. He wore ___ clothes that smacked of the sea. (Ln.) 2. Her greyish blouse was worn and old, her
shoes were split, her little hands ___ and red, her neck browned. (G.) 3. A ___ surface of sand was
blowing and settling on the maps though there was no wind. (Aldr.) 4. They were in the car again,
Macomber and Wilson hanging on the sides and rocketing swayingly over the ___ ground. (H.) 5. His
voice was ___, not his voice at all. (Mr.) 6. It’s kind of you to bother, Evie. I’ve had a rather ___ passage,
but at all events I know where I am now. (Mg.) 7. It was a long, ___ struggle. (Cr.) 8. He took her hands,
small, ..., brown. (G.) 9. The mountainous road was ___ . (Mr.).
Blank, empty, vacant
1. Her seat beneath the birch tree was ___, though the day was pleasant and the sun was high.
(Sc.) 2. There was only a bare yard to be seen, and the ___ side of the brick house. (Hn.) 3. Their rooms
were ___ and lonesome. (D.) 4. The coach was ___ of passengers by this time. (Mg.)
Exercise 16. From the words given in brackets, choose English counterparts of the following
Ukrainian synonyms.
1. Подія, інцидент, випадок, факт, казус, аварія. (event, incident, fact, accident, happening,
occurrence).
1. Працювати, творити, виробляти, робити, трудитися. (work, labour, toil, produce, make,
manufacture).
2. Наполегливий, цілеспрямований, вольовий, впертий. (persistent, stubborn, tenacious,
wilful, hardy).
3. Гарний, чудовий, прекрасний, чарівний, миловидний, дивний, привабливий,
захоплюючий. (lovely, beautiful, delightful, charming, enchanting, winning, admirable, bewitching,
fascinating, wonderful).
5. Швидкий, проворний, меткий, стрімкий, різкий. (quick, nimble, alert, brisk, rapid,
swift, fast, dexterous).
5. Щастя, радість, веселощі. (happiness, joyfulness, gaiety, merriment, merry-making).

Exercise 17. Discuss the shades of meaning in the following groups of synonyms. Give their
English equivalents.
1.Великий, величезний, непомірний, здоровенний, неосяжний, грандіозний, велетенський,
величний, колосальний, гігантський.
2. Відомий, видатний, славетний, знаменитий, славнозвісний, популярний, неабиякий.
2. Сміливий, хоробрий, безстрашний, відважний, доблесний.
 3. Боятися, полошитися, побоюватися, лякатися, жахатися, ніяковіти, тріпотіти.
4. Спритність, моторність, вправність, жвавість, заповзятливість, шпаркість.
5. Професія, фах, покликання, нахил, схильність, робота, служба, посада, спеціальність.
6. Здивувати, вразити, спантеличити, приголомшити.
7. Картина, вигляд, панорама, пейзаж, ландшафт, краєвид.
8. Обговорювати, дискутувати, аргументувати, спорити, переконувати, обмірковувати.
10. Світ, всесвіт, космос, простір.

V.2. ANTONYMS
Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of antonymy. Give derivational antonyms to the
following words.
Equal, fortunate, grateful, gratitude, just, justice, like (adv), lively, movable, moved, radical,
rational, regular, related, relative, reproachful, reserved, restored, rhymed, ripe, safe, salted, satisfactory,
selfish, systematic, symmetrical, timely, true, worthy.

Exercise 2. Give antonyms to the following words. Arrange them into three columns: a)
derivational antonyms, b) absolute antonyms, c) mixed antonyms.
Active, alert, alive, amity, appearance, arrange, artless, attentive, aware, bad, big, begin, brave,
busy, careful, comfortable, competent, consistent, continue, convenient, correct, courage, descend,
discord, distinct, employed, enemy, expensive, faithful, faulty, final, free, frequent, gay, hostile, kind,
legal, low, misfortune, normal, painful, polite, post-war, preceding, progressive, rational, revolutionary,
rough, safety, sane, slow, sufficient, temporary, timidity, underestimate, uniformity, wet, white, wrong.

Exercise 3. Express the contrary meaning by using antonyms. State whether they are absolute or
derivational.
1. All the seats were occupied. 2. The room was lighted by the strong rays of the sun. 3. A lamp is
a necessary thing in this room. 4. The little boy was outside the car. 5. He drew a crooked line. 6. The
lesson seemed to be long and difficult. 7. On the tray there was a jug of cold water. 8. The coach was
empty of passengers. 9. Around the garden ran a high wall. 10. The book looked dull. 12. They chose a
cheap restaurant. 13. He was tall. 14. He opened the door. 15. He was sad again.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out antonyms. Comment on the
relations between these antonyms.
1. Fortune, good or ill, as I take it, does not change men and women. It but develops their
character. (Th.) 2. The wide room seemed narrow for his rolling gait. (Ln.) 3. His forehead was broad, not
high. (Ln.) 4. For years she had kissed him only when he returned from voyages or departed on voyages.
(Ln.) 5. There were two figures walking in a side path; one was rather short and stout; the other tall and
slim. (D.) 6. They were very different — one tall and blond, the other small and dark. (Aldr.) 7. He took
his seat in a far comer of the dining-room whence he could see all entrances and exits. (G.) 8. Between
him end the other four brothers there was much difference, much similarity. (G.) 9. And June stood
before him, her resolute small face raised from her little height to his great height. (G.) 10. Am I so thin,
Tony? I do so want to get fat. (G.) 11. I’d nothing to gain and everything to lose. (G.) 12. Who should sit
on her right, and who on her left? (G.) 13. She avoided unnecessary greetings and farewells. (G.) 14.
Every day is a day of adventure with its cold and heat, its light and darkness. (G.) 15. He’s come and
vanished. (Ch.B.) 16. The two so very much alike, and yet so monstrously contrasted. (G.) 17. She was
not with him in his despair and his delight. (G.) 18. This state of things is not uncommon between two
sisters, where one is plain and the other is pretty. (Ch.B.) 19. She was on his knees and had examined all
the points of his dress and all the good or bad features of his homely face. (Th.) 20. You cannot have
power for good without having power for evil too. (Sh.) 21. I cannot proceed without some investigation
into what has been asserted, an evidence of its truth and falsehood. (Ch.B.) 22. He was always eager to
welcome and unwilling to lose his friends. (Th.) 23. He struggled in the dark, without advice, without
encouragement; and in the teeth of discouragement. (Ln.)

Exercise 5. Fill in the blanks with words antonymous to those in italics.

 1. Why do you reject my offer and ___ his? 2. He may be dexterous at football, but he is very ___
on the dance floor. 3. I enjoy the climate that is rigorous in winter and ___ in summer. 4. Some of the
books were excluded from the list but those that were ___ were obligatory. 5. I’m afraid the sweet cream
will get ___ if you keep it in the warm. 6. Most exercises were correct, but several were ___ . 7. Near the
bank the river was shallow, but in the middle it was ___ enough to swim. 8. The basket was disposed on a
low settee beside the ___ cupboard.

Exercise 6. Analyse the following proverbs from the point of view of antonymy.
1. After a storm comes a calm. 2. A good beginning makes a good ending. 3. Be swift to hear,
slow to speak. 4. Better a glorious death than a shameful life. 5. Better a witty fool than a foolish wit. 6.
Drunkenness reveals what soberness conceals. 7. Every white has its black and every sweet its sour. 8.
Faults are thick when love is thin. 9. Keep your mouth shut and your ears open. 10. One law for the rich
and another for the poor. 11. Hope is a good breakfast, but a bad supper. 12. A living dog is better that a
dead lion. 13. Better die standing than live kneeling. 14. Use soft words and hard arguments.

Exercise 7. From the following sentences pick out synonyms and antonyms and comment on
them.
1. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the
season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us,
we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way —
in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its
being received for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. (D.) 2. He threw open
and shut the latticed windows with violence, as if alike impatient of the admission and exclusion of free
air. (Sc.) 3. Martin was extraordinary receptive and responsive, while his imagination, pitched high, was
ever at work establishing relations of likeness and difference (Ln.) 4. The general character of her
conversation that evening, whether serious or sprightly, grave or gay, was as something untaught,
unstudied, intuitive, fitful. (Ch. B.) 5. «Is he fair or dark?» «Neither.» «Is he tall or short?» «Average, I
should say.» «Are you trying to irritate me?» «No, He’s just ordinary. There’s nothing in him to attract
your attention. He’s neither plain nor good-looking.» (Mg.) 6. My thoughts were much occupied with ups
and downs, the fortunes and misfortunes of married life. (Mg.) 7. My whole system insisted that it was
time to finish work now, not to start. (D.) 8. Young man who objects to hard work and who would like an
easy life would be glad to undertake a job that would suit him. (Chr. ) 9. But we are not mad. We are
sane. (Chr.) 10. The fact remains that she is poor and he is rich. (Mg.) 11. Whether he was innocent or
guilty is no matter. (Mg.) 12. The room was tiny. The furniture was large and glossy. (Mg.) 13. Taking
gruel at night keeps your lordship’s head cool for play, whilst my patron’s is hot and flustered with drink.
(Th.) 14. At this touch of warm feeling and cold iron, Mr. Dombey shivered all over. (D.) 15. She was not
grateful or ungrateful, or unkind, or ill humoured. She was only stupid; and pen was madly in love with
her. (Th.) 16. He strode backwards and forwards through the little garden with a hasty pace. (Sc.) 17.
There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They were neither large nor small, while their
colour was nondescript brown. (Ln.) 18. Her heart melted, I suppose, at the notion that she should do
anything unkind to any mortal, great or small. (Th.)

Exercise 8. Give antonyms to the italicised words. Mind the meanings these words have in the
given context.
1. He was as pleasant, attentive and gay as usual. (Sn.) 2. He had a pale fleshy face with broad
short nose and a big mouth. (Mg.) 3. He was so hard to wake. (Mg.) 4. It was so pleasant to discover that
he was very glad to see me. He seemed to be in great spirits and extremely happy. (Mg.) 5. Catridge
looked tired and old. (Mg.) 6. She was very quick at learning. (Mg.) 7. The light was dim because the
blinds were drawn to keep out the heat. (Mg.) 8. The weather was dry and hot. (Mg.) 9. She stood in the
middle of the lofty studio. (Mg.) 10. Black thoughts about Soames mingled with the faintest hopes. (G.)
11. My traveller’s cheques were in an inner pocket. (Chr.) 12. Here and there in the mug were fragments
of some hard white substance. (Mg.) 13. She was dressed as on the day before, in white frock and her
shiny white boots with their high heels. (Mg.) 14. She was rich and good-natured. (Mg.) 15. She’s been
veiy sweet to her father. (Mg.) 16. After that I saw much of her. (Mg.) 17. She was wearing her black
trousers and a loose red overall on top. (Md.) 18. She was pulling her gloves on in a very slow way. (Md.)
19. The stream was very shallow. (Md.) 20. «Well,» he said with a smile, good-natured, cunning and
wise, «That’s what I’ve been thinking.» (Sn.) 21. The room was full of the very bright and clear but
shadowed light of a southern interier. (Md.)

Exercise 9. Give antonymous word-combinations.

A light-blue dress, a light box; an old man, an old house; a hard task, a hard bed; a soft voice, a
soft cushion; fresh bread, fresh flowers; wild birds, wild flowers; a rough surface, a rough person; to lose
a book, to lose a battle.

VI. STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ENGLISH WORDS

Exercise 1. Comment on the opposition of stylistically marked and stylistically neutral words.
Arrange the following words into stylistically marked and stylistically neutral.
Accommodation, beautiful, chap, deem, domestic, eve, evening, fair, fattier, forenoon, get, girl,
home, fellow, horse, kill, labial, lip, maiden, main, mental, mind, morning, naught, nothing, obtain,
parent, room, sea, slay, solar, steed, sunny, think.

Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out colloquialisms.
1. I feel like the first man because I have hardly got a stitch on and am sent against the frozen
fields in a shimmy and shorts. (Sl.) 2. Don’t I come out three mornings a week on my long-distance
running, which is fifty times better than boozing. (Sl.) 3. But anyhow we were all kids then. (Sl.) 4. It’s a
good job I can only think of these things as fast as I can write with this stub of pencil That’s clunched in
my paw, otherwise I’d have dropped the whole thing weeks ago. (Sl.) 5. The time was autumn and the
night foggy enough to set me and my mate Mike roaming the streets when we should have been rooted in
front of the telly or stuck into a plush posh seat at the pictures, but I was restless after six weeks away
from any sort of work and well you might ask me why I’d been bone-idle for so long. (Sl.) 6. And when
the dough ran out I didn’t think about anything much, but just roamed the streets looking for another job.
(Sl.)

Exercise 3. Comment on special terms. Pick out special terms from the extracts below. State what
branch of science or sphere of life they belong to.
I. Acute leuchaemia is more indolent than has been thought. There is good precedence for it in
other haematology disorders.
II. The word plays such a crucial part in the structure of language that we need a special branch of
linguistics to examine it in all its aspects. This branch is called Lexicology and it forms, next to
Phonology, the second basic division of linguistic science.
III. A fraction is a part of some thing which is treated as a whole or a unit. In arithmetic, a proper
fraction is a number which represents a part, that is, a number which is less than 1. In writing a common
fraction, two numbers are used, called the numerator and denominator.
IV. The most important combinations of sulphur and oxygen are sulphur dioxide SO 2 and sulphur
trioxide SO3, which form with water sulphurous acid H2SO3 and sulphuric acid H2SO4.

Exercise 4. Comment on archaisms. Arrange the following archaic words into lexical and
grammatical archaisms.
Aught, belike, didst, dost, eke, ere, hast, hath, maiden, naught, quoth, shalt, steed, thee, thou, wert,
woe.

Exercise 5. Substitute modern forms and neutral synonyms for the following archaic words.
Aught, agrestic, didst, dost, eke, ere, hast, hath, rin, naught, quoth, shalt, steed, thee, thou, wert,
woe, ye.

Exercise 6. Comment on the difference between archaic words and obsolete words. Pick out
archaic and obsolete words from the following extract.
 Come hither, hither, my stanch yeoman,
Why dost thou look so pale?
Or dost thou dread a French foeman?
Or shiver at the gale?
Deem’st thou I tremble for my life? (Byr.)

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences. Pick out obsolete words and comment on them.
1. De Bracy blew his horn three times, and the archers who stood along the wall hastened to lower
the dragbridge and admit them. (Sc.) 2. Locksley, for such was the name of this yeoman, readily took part
in the archery contest and won the prize. (Sc.) 3. Their triumph was announced by the heralds, the
trumpeters and shouts of the spectators. (Sc.) 4. Each touched with the reverse of his lance the shield of
the antagonist whom he wished to oppose. (Sc.) 5. A narrow space between these galleries and the lists
was occupied chiefly by the yeomanry and the burghers. (Sc.) 6. On the platform beyond the southern
entrance were placed the five magnificent pavilions of the five knights who were the challengers. (Sc.) 7.
At each of these gates stood two heralds, attended by six trumpets and a strong body of men-at-arms.
(Sc.) 8. He looked like a strolling minstrel, for he canied a harp in his hand, which he played, while his
sweet tenor voice sang a merry love-song. (Sc.)

Exercise 8. Comment on the ways of formation of the following groups of neologisms.

1. Hot spot, chat show, air door, air private, black money, orbit line, wonder
boy, waterless cooker, dependency culture, food card.
2. Acidhead, bad-mouth, bedspace, bioplasma, box-bed, calendar-clock, videotelephone, war-
game, low-life, microcomputer, pare-book, half-stuff, erotology.
3. Z-car, V-agent.
4. Mouth-to-mouth, two-by-four.
5. Battlesome, airy-fairy, holidaver, biathlete, blusher.
6. Biro.

Exercise 9. Group the following neologisms as to the ways of their formation. Give their
Ukrainian equivalents.
Agro-industrial, audio-lingual, backpacker, beach wagon, biotelemetry, black bluster, black shirt,
by-time, chauffeuse, ecocide, ecogeography, epoxy, ethnoscience, facepack, hairstylist, halfday, listen-in,
microcopy, microcomputer, vitaminize, wonder, boy, work-fellow.

Exercise 10. Make distinction between neologisms and occasional words. Pick out occasional
words from the following sentences.
1. The theory is getting less and less defensible. 2. I can’t speak on TV, I’m camera shy. 3. They
accused the Administration spokesman of trying to sloganize the country out of the economic decline. 4.
There are many men in London who have no wish for the company of others. It is for the convenience of
such people that the Diogenes Club was started, and it now contains the most unsociable and unclubbable
men in town. (CD.) 5. He was wived in Texas, and mot-her-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted.

Exercise 11. Comment on the concept «Slang». The following are somme slang words and
phrases. Mind their vulgar, cynical and harsh sounding.
Face: mug, phiz.
Head: attic, brain-pan, hat peg, upper storey.
Girl, woman: baby, baggage, chick(en), doll, mouse, witch.
Money: beans, brass, buttons, dibs, dough, chink.
Drunk: boozy, cock-eyed, high.
To have a drink: to crack a bottle, to wet one’s whistle, to be on the booze.

Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences. Comment on slang words and phrases in bold
type.
 1. Tell the old bag to mind her own business. 2. I need some dough to buy some groceries. 3. I
need to get some bread to live on. 4. Who’s the doll I saw you with last night? 5. Let’s go out and booze
up! 6. I am too muggy to drive. 7. Wipe that smile off your mug! 8. He’s been drinking since noon and is
pretty wet. 9. Hard liquor makes people soft.

VII. PHRASEOLOGY
Exercise 1. Comment on the difference between phraseological fusions, phraseological unities
and word combinations. Arrange the following phraseological units into three groups: 1) word
combinations, 2) phraseological units, 3) phraseological fusions.
1. To see the world through rosy spectacles. 2. To show the white feather. 3. To kiss the hare’s
foot. 4. To call a spade a spade. 5. To make friends. 6. To take revenge. 7. A house of cards. 8. To make
up one’s mind. 9. To shed crocodile tears. 10. To commit suicide. 11. Judas kiss. 12. To play the first
fiddle. 13. To find faults with somebody. 14. The apple of one’s eye. 15. To get in touch with somebody.
16. True to fact. 17. To dot the I’s and cross the T’s. 18. I am fed up with it! 19. A pretty kettle of fish. 20.
To give way. 21. To nip in the bud. 22. To wash one’s hands. 23. To rest on one’s oars. 24. Let sleeping
dogs lie. 25. To have all the trumps in one hand. 26. Between wind and water. 27. To lose one’s way
(temper). 28. To go a long way. 29. A slip of the tongue (pen). 30. Blank verse. 31. To establish control.
32. A hard nut to crack.

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the following phraseological units. Arrange them into groups
according to their origin: 1) expressions associated with some customs; 2) expressions associated with
some historical events; 3) expressions borrowed from some literary sources; 4) expressions borrowed
from the Bible.
1. The land of promise. 2. Baker’s dozen. 3. New wine in old bottles. 4. Ask for bread and be
given a stone. 5. To beat the air. 6. To give the devil his due. 7. Vanity fair 8. Daily bread. 9. Forbidden
fruit is sweet. 10. It rains cats and dogs. 11. To rob Peter to pay Paul. 12. Thirty pieces of silver. 13. To
wash one’s hands of something. 14. A prodigal son. 15. Something is rotten in the state of Denmark. 16.
A thorn in the flesh of somebody. 17. To catch somebody red-handed. 18. Marriage is a lottery. 19. To
fight the windmills. 20. Judas kiss.

Exercise 3. Comment on the etymology of the following phraseological units.

1. To cany coals to Newcastle. 2. A black sheep. 3. When queen Anne was alive. 4. To cut the
Gordian knot. 5. Solomon’s judgement. 6. A crooked sixpence. 7. To be born under a lucky star. 8. From
the bottom of one’s heart. 9. A peeping Tom. 10. To dance attendance on.

Exercise 4. State from what languages the following phraseological units were borrowed.
1. The hom of plenty. 2. Blue blood. 3. Through thick and thin. 4. Achilles’ heel. 5. The apple of
discord. 6. It goes without saying. 7. A storm in a tea-cup. 8. The fifth column. 9. A marriage of
convenience. 10. Snake in the grass. 11. To lead somebody by the nose. 12. One’s place in the sun. 13. То
burn the candle at both ends. 14. The bed of Procrustes. 15. The game is not worth the candle. 16. To pull
the devil by the tail.

Exercise 5. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following phraseological units. Mind their
association with human activities.
1. To fish in troubled waters. 2. To rise to the fly. 3. To swallow the bait. 4. To join the colours. 5.
To mask one’s batteries. 6. To hunt the wrong hare. 7. To hunt with the hounds and run with the hare. 8.
To kill two birds with one stone. 9. To feel one’s pulse. 10. To take the law into one’s own hands. 11. To
play first fiddle. 12. In tune. 13. Out of tune. 14. To touch the right cord. 15. To go through the mill. 16.
Spade work. 17. To be in the limelight. 18. To be out of limelight.

Exercise 6. Comment on structural classification of phraseological units. Arrange the following

phraseological units functioning like nouns into groups reflecting the most typical patterns of their
formation: 1) N + N; 2) N’s + N; 3) N + prep + N; 4) N + and + N; 5) Adj + N.
 Cold reason; black ingratitude; lord and master; the last straw; old bird; a new broom; a mare’s
nest; the early bird; old song; snake in the grass; bag and baggage; a slip of the pen; queer bird; a piece of
somebody’s mind; Judas kiss; wolf in sheep’s clothing; maiden name; the apple of somebody’s eye; blank
verse; Hercules’ labour; the sword of Damocles; Solomon’s judgement.

Exercise 7. Arrange the following phraseological units functioning like verbs into groups in
accordance with the most typical patterns of their formation: 1) V + N; 2) V + prep + N; 3) V + (one’s) +
N + (prep); 4) V + and + V; 5) V + or + V; 6) V + subordinate clause; 7) V + postpositive.
To cross the Rubicon; to catch cold; to Jose the game; to render a service; to come to one’s sense;
to come into fashion; to fall into disrepute; to make a mistake; to grasp the shadow; to have a finger in the
pie; to be at a loss; to hit below the belt; to fall into a rage; to break ground; to lose one’s heart; to play the
fool with; to beat the air; to play a trick; to sink or swim; to run into debt; to pick and choose; to take a
walk; to see how the land lies; to make one’s way; to make friends with; to make a fool of somebody; to
play a wrong card; to take revenge; to know what is what; to see which way the wind blows; to go
through fire and water; to turn one’s coat; to open the ball.

Exercise 8. Arrange the following phraseological units functioning like adjectives into groups in
accordance with the patterns after which they are formed: 1) Adj + Adj; 2) (as) + Adj + as + N.
As old as the hills; high and mighty; mild as a kitten; as slippery as an eel; hungry as a wolf; silent
as the grave; as cool as a cucumber; safe and sound; as busy as a bee; as cold as ice; as hard as nails.

Exercise 9. Arrange the following phraseological units functioning like adverbs into groups in
accordance with the patterns after which they are formed: 1) N + N; 2) prep + N; 3) adv + prep + N; 4)
prep + N + or + N; 5) conj + subordinate clause.
By heart, once upon a time; once in a blue moon; tooth and nail; by hook or by crook; within
reach; under one’s nose; before one can say Jack Robinson; at a stroke, by slow degrees; at all costs; for
love or money; of course; at one jump; within a stone’s throw.

Exercise 10. Classify the following phraseological units into: a) nominative, b) verbal, c)
adjectival, d) adverbial.
To try one’s hand at something; a great deal; a stony heart; to the last drop of blood; not to lift a
finger; as brave as a lion; at long last; a bull in a china shop; a fish out of water; out of a clear sky; Indian
summer; a dog in the manger; to hang in the balance; to live from hand to mouth; to the bitter end; the
evil spirit; with all one’s heart; a bed of roses; the king of beasts; by fits and starts; next door; to show
one’s true colours; flesh and blood; far and wide; to die a dog’s death; in the long run; jack of all trades;
to stir up a nest of hornets; odd fish; shed crocodile tears; to cause pain; blank wall; Dutch courage; like a
shot; to know on which side one’s; bread is buttered; at sixes and sevens; at one’s feet; from top to toe; to
milk the ram; double dealing; German silver; by all means; in fact; inch by inch; at hand; sit like statue;
soft as wax; melt as wax; hot as fire; live like a king; to ran to extremes; to run on the rocks; well and
good; heads or tails; a great deal; to be in full swing; to fly low; over head and ears; free and easy.

Exercise 11. Paraphrase the following phraseological units.

I. 1. To make a decisive step. 2. To throw away the scabbard. 3. To take the bull by the horns. 4.
To set one’s heart upon. 5. To go all lengths. 6. To go through fire and water.
II. 1. An ass between two bundles of hay. 2. To hang in suspense. 3. To think twice about
something. 4. Not to know one’s own mind. 5. To blow hot and cold.
III. 1. To beat the air. 2. To fish in the air. 3. To sow the sand. 4. To speak to the winds. 5. To
lock the stable door when the steed is stolen. 6. To cast pearls before the swine. 7. To cany coals to
Newcastle.
IV. 1. From first to last. 2. From beginning to end. 3. From end to end. 4. From one end to the
other. 5. From head to foot. 6. From top to toe. 7. From top to bottom. 8. Up to the ears. 9. Up to the eyes.
10. Over head and ears. 11. In all respects. 12. Through thick and thin. 13. From the crown of the head to
the sole of the foot.
 V. 1. To be in two places at once. 2. To prove that black is white and white is black. 3. To square
the circle. 4. To set the Thames on fire.
VI. 1. Next door. 2. Within reach. 3. Within hearing. 4. At one’s door. 5. At one’s feet. 6. Under
one’s nose. 7. At one’s elbow. 8. Within a stone’s throw.
VII. 1. To unite one’s efforts. 2. To stand shoulder to shoulder. 3. To cling to one another. 4. To
go hand in hand with. 5. To take sides with. 6. To make common cause. 7. To be in the same boat.
VIII. 1. At sixes and sevens. 2. At high words. 3. At issue. 4. At odds. 5. At cross purposes.
IX. 1. To see one’s way. 2. To know what is what. 3. To see which way the wind blows. 4. To sail
near the wind.
X. 1. To begin at the wrong end. 2. To put the cart before the horse. 3. To aim at a pigeon and kill
a crow. 4. To take the dirty end of the stick. 5. To put the saddle on the wrong horse. 6. To put a square
thing into a round hole. 7. To have many eggs in one’s basket. 8. To put new wine into old bottles.
XI. 1. At once. 2. In no time. 3. At a stroke. 4. Like a shot. 5. In the twinkling of an eye. 6. Before
you can say Jack Robinson. 7. At one jump.
XII. 1. Step by step. 2. Bit by bit. 3. Little by little. 4. Inch by inch. 5. Drop by drop. 6. By (slow)
degrees.
XIII. 1. To think too much of. 2. To attach too much importance to. 3. To make mountains of
molehills. 4. All his geese are swans.
XIV. 1. Judas kiss. 2. Double dealing. 3. Crocodile tears. 4. Wolf in sheep’s clothing. 5. German
silver. 6. Man of straw. 7. Borrowed plumes.
XV. 1. To play a trick. 2. To play a joke. 3. To make a fool of. 4. To make an ass of. 5. To play a
false game.

Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences. Pick out synonymous phraseological units.
1. a) She had decided to leam something at all costs. (G.) b) That is what you always contrive to
do, by hook or by crook. (Sh.) 2. a) I have no reason to feel everything you have just said to the very
marrow of my bones. (Sh.) b) I dislike him to the very roots of me. (G.) 3. a) The road wound back and
forth. (Aldr.) b) She began swiftly walking to and fro. (G.) 4. a) After surveying Mr. Winkle from head to
foot he said ... . (D.) b) Our organization will be closely looked at from top to bottom and efforts made to
improve it. 5. a) Tom was at his wit’s end what to say. (D.) b) Mr. Dombey was so surprised and so
perfectly at a loss how to continue the conversation that he could only sit looking at his son by the light of
the fire. (D.) c) Many things he had said which I had been at a loss to understand. (D.) d) At the twelfth
round the latter champion was all abroad, as the saying is, and had lost all presence of mind and power of
attack and defence. (Th.) 6. a) He did not care a pin about his master. (G.) b) We don’t care a fig for her.
(Th.) 7. a) But don’t forget, Dinny, that Snubby’s a deuced clever fellow, and knows his world to a T.
(G.) b) «He knows a thing or two!» said he. (Mg.) 8. a) Derek tightened his belt and took a bee-line down
over the slippery grass. (G.) b) It’s about six miles from here, as the crow flies (Th.) 9. a) Now, do,
Lawson, just finish up this job, and I’ll pay you down, right on the spot; and you need the money. (St.) b)
«Well,» he said, trying to invent an excuse on the spur of the moment. (Wl.)

Exercise 13. Translate the following sentences. Pick out phraseological units. From the list below,
choose phraseological units which correspond to the italicised ones. State if there is any difference
between them (in meaning, style, etc.).
1. For one thing, I have no father or mother, brother or sister ... (Ch.B.) 2. Laying all these faults
at my door you are putting the saddle on the wrong horse. (H.) 3. «I am not going to run with the hare
and hunt with the hounds,» he thought. (G.) 4. «Never mind,» returned the Captain, ... «all’s fish that
come to your net, I suppose?» «Certainly,» said Mr Brogley. «But sprats ain’t whales, you know». (D.) 5.
It’s quite another pair of shoes, my darling. (G.) 6. «We have to keep our friendship anyhow.» «That
goes without saying.» (Wl.) 7. It may look hard now but you are going to feel better about it in the long
run. (Dr.) 8. It was a timely spur to Soames’s intense and rooted distaste for the washing of dirty linen in
public. (G.) 9. «Misfortunes never come singly,» said Phelps, smiling, though it was evident that his
adventure had somewhat shaken him. (CD.) 10. «So,» said Tom comforting himself, «It’s very nearly as
broad as it’s long.» (D.) 11. He tiled easily now. No longer could he do a fast twenty rounds, hammer
and tongs, fight, fight, fight, from gong to gong. (Ln.)
 1. To cry stinking fish. 2. To be on both sides of the fence. 3. Six of one and half a dozen of the
other. 4. It is a matter of course. 5. After all. 6. First of all. 7. It never rains but it pours. 8. To take the
wrong sow by the ear. 9. Tooth and nail. 10. All is grits that comes to his mill. 11. That’s a horse of
another colour.

Exercise 14. Of the following pairs of sentences pick out the phraseological units opposite in
meaning.
1. a) ... in Soames there was some common pride, not sufficient to make him do a really generous
action, but enough to prevent his indulging in an extremely mean one, except, perhaps, in very hot blood.
(G.) b) «You’ve succeeded in rather damping my enthusiasm for that subject,» he said. «I’d find it
difficult to begin now, in cold blood.» (Th.). 2. a) I grew by degrees cold as a stone and then my courage
sank. (Ch.B.) b) My cheeks were as hot as fire. (G.) 3. a) But to those remonstrances Mr. Quilp turned a
deaf ear. (D.) b) ... hoping that Molly would not be such as goose as to lend a willing ear to a youth. (Gl.)
4. a) Mind your own business. b) I don’t see what Soames wants with a young man like that. I shouldn’t
be surprised if Irene had put her oar in. (G.) 5. a) Off with you, Molly. Make haste, or Lady Harriet may
come and ask for you. (Gl.) b) «Sit down!» said Jolly. «Take your time! Think it over well.» (Gl.) 6. a)
I’ve got no home, your worship. I’m living from hand to mouth. I’ve got no work. (G.) b) He hated this
place. People at home would think him lucky to be living safely on the fat of the land with the army of
occupation, ... (Th.) 7. a) The girl made light of hardships. (HI.) b) They talk together constantly, and sit
long at meals, making much of their meat and drink. (D.) 8. a) He saw her at close quarters for the first
time. (Ln.) b) It is difficult sometimes to keep people at arm’s length when one is travelling. (Chr.)

Exercise 15. Of the following sentences pick out phraseological units with the word hand. Give
Ukrainian equivalents to them.
1. Cowperwood had no hand in this. (Dr.) 2. On the other hand the old lady, as she was compelled
to admit, was good-natured and good-hearted. (Ch.B.) 3. I find you rather alarming, when I examine you
close at hand .... (Ch.B.) 4. I was distressed on all hands. (Ln.) 5. Finally, the reports were that the
governers had «come round» everybody, wrote Sir Pitt’s letters, did his business, managed his accounts
— had the upper hand of the whole house .... (Th.) 6. Will it be good for Marjorie to know of your
urgency? Won’t she have the whip hand of you for ever after? (Pr.) 7. «You are getting out of hand,» his
wife said to him. (Aldr.) 8. In ten minutes they were hand in glove. (Dr.) 9. Again, if not to have a
confident became too wearing. Uncle Adrian was the obvious choice; partly because he knew at first hand
something of the East, but chiefly because he was Uncle Adrian. (G.) 10. As his daughter’s nearest friend,
he demanded with a high hand a statement of the late captain’s accounts. (Th.) 11. That lady had a hand
in most pies, I fancy. (G.) 12. Why, would you like to try your hand at something? (Pr.) 13. She was of
those women in whom utter devotion can still go hand in hand with a doubting soul. (G.) 14. I think we
can win hands down.

Exercise 16. Paraphrase the following phraseological units.

1. To hit below the belt. 2. To go beyond the mark. 3. To turn one’s coat. 4. To open the ball. 5.
To beat about the bush. 6. Touch and go. 7. To add fuel to the flame. 8. To throw dust into the eyes. 9. To
have a firm seat in the saddle. 10. The bird is flown. 11. A day after (before) the fair. 12. An Irish bull.
13. Skeleton in the cupboard (closet). 14. To smell a rat. 15. To go heart and soul into something.

Exercise 17. Comment on similes. Pick out the similes from the following sentences.
1. The boy’s got a temper, of course, but he’s as straight as a die. (G.) 2. The matter was clear as
daylight. (G.) 3. Worst of all, he had no hope of shaking her resolution; she was as ostinate as a mule,
always had been from a child. (Th.) 4. He is as thin as a rail. (Mg.) 5. How elegant he looks! My brother
Molly Malony is as like him as two peas. (Th.) 6. Marley was as dead as a door-nail. (D.) 7. «How are
you feeling, Tom?» he asked. «Fit as a fiddle.» (Ln.) 8. The fingers that met his own were hard as horn,
with split and yellowish nails. (Cr.) 9. «You’re as bold as brass in general,» he said. (D.) 10. She had no
sooner done this, than off she was again; and there she stood once more, as brisk and busy as a bee. (D.)
11. He was silent as a mute at a funeral, and, he told himself, as dismal. (Cr.) 12. «It was as true,» said
Mr. Barkis, «as turnips is.» (D.) 13. Here, then, we lay for an hour or two, aching from head to foot, as
weak as water. (Stv.) 14. And waving her hand, white as a lily, and fine as a fairy’s, she vanished within
the porch ... (Ch.B.) 15. Both these Forsytes, wide asunder, as the poles in many respects, possessed in
their different ways — to greater degree than the rest of the family — that essential quality of tenacious
and prudent insight into «affairs» which is the high-water mark of their great class. (G.) 16. That he loved
her, on the other hand, was as clear as day. (Ln.) 17. «I never dreamed of such a thing,» Mr. Asmunsen
said. «And yet it does seem clear as print.» (Ln.) 18. «As clear as mud you’ve forgotten me,» he said.
(Kp.) 19. «I have been as blind as a bat!» he cried, a ring of vexation in his voice. (Ln.) 20. It’s as plain as
the nose on your face. (Dr.)

Exercise 18. Translate the following zoosemic idioms.

1. The black dog. 2. Clever dog. 3. Dead dog. 4. Dirty dog. 5. Gay dog. 6. Hot dog. 7. Lazy dog.
8. Lucky dog. 9. Red dog. 10. Sea dog. 11. Spotted dog.
1. The golden calf. 2. Lost sheep. 3. Fighting cock. 4. Milk cow. 5. Old bird. 6. Dark horse.

Exercise 19. Translate the following sentences. Pick out phraseological units and comment on
them.
1. The advocates are men who have taken a doctor’s degree at college. (D.) 2. Jane is putting the
finishing touches to her appearance. (Mg.) 3. I thought it useless to beat about the bush. The fact is, his
people aren’t keen on his lunching with you. (Mg.) 4. Yates didn’t take the hint. (Hm.) 5. June saw she
had played a wrong card and broke down. (G.) 6. She has got some silly bee in her bonnet about Eliza.
(Sh.) 7. Then he heard the rattle of the night watch man going his rounds. It broke upon the silence of the
night so harshly that it made him jump out of his skin. (Mg.) 8. I’m a person who likes to cross a «t» and
dot an «i». (Mg.) 9. She was only too inclined to take advantage of his weakness. (G.) 10. Little Jon could
see that he played the second fiddle to her in his father’s heart. (G.) 11. And with his poor brain he was
trying desperately to make head or tail of the wonderful things he heard. (Mg.) 12. I couldn’t forget it and
I took revenge. (Ch.B.) 13. I think I should have gone mad. (Mg.) 14. A fine solicitor he is, not the man to
let the grass grow under his feet. (Sn.) 15. «Are you very rich?» «No, living from hand to mouth.» (Sh.)
16. He had let the cat out of the bag. (G.) 17. She was the life and soul of the party. (Mg.) 18. As soon as I
said it, I knew it was a false step. (Sn.) 19. Martin is a dark horse. I should like to know what he wants for
the college. (Sn.) 20. Either complete frankness, or complete ignoring — and that meant living with the
sword of Damocles above his head. (G.) 21. «I perceive,» said Jolyon, «that you are trying to kill two
birds with one stone.» (G.) 22. I don’t see how I can avoid putting my foot into my mouth without you,
do you? (G.) 23. I’ve put my foot into it with him. (G.) 24. You fool, why do you catch at a straw? (Th.)
25. He was catching at shadows. (Mg.) 26. He’d be a fish out of water in England. (Mg.) 27. After all,
what’s eight pounds? A drop in the ocean. (Mg.) 28. There was a time when the black sheep of the family
was sent from my country to America; now apparently he’s sent from your country to Europe. (Mg.) 29.
Don’t be a dog in the manger, Sheppey! (Mg.) 30. And he’s bound to kick the bucket any day now. (Gd.)
31. His second impulse therefore was to let the sleeping dogs lie. (D.)

Exercise 20. Pick out phraseological units. Comment on their meaning, type and structure.
1. Was his story of photographs to develop a lie invented upon the spur of the moment? (Chr.) 2.
Of these four, I was thinking, Martin was by a long way the most realistic. (Sn.) 3. I was reading when
Kosti said to me out of a blue sky: «I’m getting out of here. D’you want to come with me? (Mg.) 4. After
all he is a nice boy, and it wouldn’t help to give him the cold shoulder. (Mg.) 5. Then I can publish a
paper or two by hook or by crook. (Sn.) 6. We are going forward by leaps and bounds. (Mg.) 7. ... he said
he’d give me board and lodging. (Mg.) 8. I slept like a log. (Mg.) 9. Elliott told me that, without stirring a
finger, he was nearly twice as rich in 1926 as he had been in 1918. (Mg.) 10. Well, to cut a long story
short, Isable asked her to come to the apartment one day at three so that they could go together for the
final fitting. (Mg.) 11. «Are you quite comfortable in that chair?» asked Larry. «As comfortably as I can
be when my head is giving me hell.» «Well, let yourself go quite slack. Take it easy.» (Mg.) 12. In the
long run, you decided it really was a fraud. (Sn.) 13. I regard it as desirable to strike while the iron’s hot.
(Sn.) 14. I don’t know how George has been making both ends meet. (Mg.) 15. «They’re making money
hand over fist, my dear fellow,» Elliott told me. (Mg.) 16. It’s extremely inconvenient. It’s just red type.
(Mg.) 17. You can’t let him play ducks and drakes with our money like that. (Mg.) 18. She was not on
easy terms with Tim Burke. (Md.) 19. He was not at a loss. (Sn.) 20. He was in debt up to his ears. (D.)

Exercise 21. Pick out phraseological units. Explain their meaning and comment on their structure.
1. No man could tell what he would do if he were in the shoes of another man. (G.) 2. «Is that
young man a snake in the grass or a worm in the bud?» «A very nice boy.» (G.) 3. Look at him, Amelia
dear. Such a bull in a china shop I never saw. (Th.) 4. Heur — so far as he knew — cut her coat according
to her cloth. (G.) 5. They were almost Forsytes. They would never grasp a shadow and miss a substance.
(G.) 6. Secrecy, precaution went by the board. Bowing his head against her breast, he poured it all out.
(G.) 7. Ten to one he isn’t in. (G.) 8. The meeting was in full swing when he arrived. (G.) 9. George knew
that his papa was about to take a nap. (Th.) 10. All the wind was out of her sails, she muttered something
and went off. (Th.) 11. He seemed to lose heart in the business after that. (J.K.J.) 12. You’ll have to be
looking out for a nice safe investment then. Don’t put too many eggs into one basket, that’s all. (Mg.) 13.
I was at my wit’s end. (Mg.) 14. My common sense told me that I was making a mountain out of a
molehill. (Mg.) 15. I would have been a pretty kettle of fish if nurse Wayland had seen me like this. (Mg.)
16. I want to stay and talk shop with him. (Md.) 17. Do you think one might just sip some sherry before
our guests arrive to try it? I must confess, I need some Dutch courage. (Md.) 18. Freddy was a quick-
tempered man, unused to opposition and he gave George the rough side of his tongue. (Mg.) 19. Had
Fleur cooked her own goose by trying to make too sure? (G.) 20. He well knew more sharply today than
ever before that he was treading on dangerous ground. (Dr.) 21. And actually plays the big drum for her
in public because he has fallen head over ears in love with her. (Sh.)

Exercise 22. Comment on the phenomenon of a proverb. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the
following proverbs.
1. Actions speak louder than words. 2. After death the doctor. 3. All cats are grey in the dark. 4.
All is not the gold that glitters. 5. Appearances are deceptive. 6 . The appetite comes with eating. 7. Ait is
long, life is short. 8. As the call, so the echo. 9. Barking dogs seldom bite. 10. Beauty lies in lover’s eyes.
11. Best defence is attack. 12. Better to do well than to say well. 13. Birds of a feather flock together. 14.
Business before pleasure. 15. Caution is the parent of safety. 16. Cheats never prosper. 17. The child is
father of a man. 18. Clothes do not make a man. 19. Curiosity killed the cat. 20. The devil is not so black
as he is painted. 21. Dog does not eat dog. 22. Don’t strike a man when he is down. 23. Don’t teach fishes
to swim. 24. Easier said than done. 25. Easy come, easy go. 26. The end justifies the means. 27. Every
cloud has a silver lining. 28. Every man to his taste. 29. Face is the index of the mind. 30. False friends
are worse than open enemies. 31. Fear has a quick ear. 32. First think, then speak. 33. Fortune fayours the
brave. 34. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 35. A good dog deserves a good bone. 36. Great talkers are
little doers. 37. Habit is a second nature. 38. Haste makes waste. 39. He laughs best who laughs last. 40.
He that dies pays all debts. 41. If the cap fits, wear it. 42. If you run after two hare, you will catch none.
43. All news travels fast. 44. Life is not a bed of roses. 45. Like father, like son. 46. Love cannot be
forced. 47. Love is blind. 48. Love me, love my dog. 49. Lucky at cards, unlucky in love. 50. A man can
die but once. 51. Marriages are made in heaven. 52. Measure twice and cut once. 53. Money makes
money. 54. The more you have, the more you want. 55. New lords, new laws. 56. One hand washes the
other. 57. One man, no man. 58. Out of sight, out of mind. 59. Over shoes, over boots. 60. Rome was not
built in a day. 61. Still waters run deep. 62. There is no smoke without fire. 63. Time works wonders. 64.
Walls have ears.

Exercise 23. Pick out synonymous proverbs.

1. There is no place like home. 2. Accidents will happen in the best regulated families. 3. After
death the doctor. 4. Appearances are deceptive. 5. The apples on the other side of the wall are the
sweetest. 6. As a man lives, so shall he die. 7. East or West, but home is best. 8. As a man sows, shall he
reap. 9. Good health is above wealth. 10. Well begun is half done. 11. A good beginning makes a good
ending. 12. As you brew, so must you drink. 13. Beggares cannot be choosers. 14. Four eyes see more
than two. 15. Two heads are better than one. 16. Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow. 17. Wealth is
nothing without health. 18. Better a small fish than an empty dish. 19. As you make your bed, so you
must lie on it. 20. A bird in the hand is better than two in the bush. 21. Catch the bear before you sell his
skin. 22. Death ends all things. 23. Every dog has his day. 24. Death is the great leveller. 25. Deeds, not
words. 26. Everything is good in its season. 27. Doing is better than saying. 28. Don’t boast until you see
the enemy dead. 29. Let sleeping dogs lie. 30. Don’t touble trouble till trouble troubles you. 31. Dry bread
at home is better than roast meat abroad. 32. Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth. 33. No cross, no
crown. 34. He that would eat the fruit must climb the tree. 35. Every family has a black sheep. 36. A fair
face may hide a foul heart (soul). 37. First catch your hare, then cook him. 38. Forbidden fruit is sweet.
39. Half a loaf is better than no bread. 40. In the evening one may praise the day. 41. It is no use crying
over spilt milk.

Exercise 24. Give proverbs synonymous to the following ones. Suggest Ukrainian equivalents.
1. Don’t count your chicken before they are hatched. 2. Strike while the sun shines. 3. So many
man, so many minds. 4. Misfortunes never come singly. 5. Between two stools one falls to the ground. 6.
Business first, pleasure afterwards. 7. Every man has his taste.

Exercise 25. Classify the following proverbs into: a) simple sentences; b) compound sentences; c)
complex sentences.
1. Love is blind. 2. Hope is a good breakfast, but a bad supper. 3. Never put off till tomorrow what
you can do today. 4. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 5. When guns speak it’s too late to argue. 6. All cats
are grey in dark. 7. When the cat is away, the mice will play. 8. It never rains, but it pours. 9. It is an ill
bird that fouls his own nest. 10. Live and learn. 11. Look before you leap. 12. Man does not live by bread
alone. 13. No news is good news. 14. So many countries, so many customs. 15. They that have got good
store of butter may lay it thick on their bread. 16. Time is a great healer. 17. United we stand, divided we
fall. 18. What can’t be cured must be endured. 19. What will be, will be. 20. While there is life, there is
hope.

Exercise 26. Give English equivalents of the following proverbs and phraseological units.
1. В чуже просо не пхай носа. 2. На смак товариш не всяк. 3. У кожної медалі є зворотний
бік. 4. Не кажи «гоп», поки не перескочиш. 5.Чия відвага, того й перемога. 6. Скупий два рази
платить. 7. Голод не свій брат. 8. Погані вісті не лежать на місці. 9. Чи пан, чи пропав — двічі не
вмирати. 10. Слово — срібло, мовчання — золото. 11. Багато знатимеш, скоро постарієш. 12. Не
по словах судять, а по ділах. 13. Наскочила коса на камінь. 14. Хто рано встає, тому Бог дає. 15.
Легко прийде, прахом піде. 16. Мій дім — моя фортеця. 17. Терпи козаче, отаманом будеш. 18.
Любиш поганяти, люби й коня годувати. 19. Щоб рибу їсти, треба в воду лізти. 20. Не чіпай лиха,
коли воно спить. 21. Хто рідніший, той і цінніший. 22. Котрий собака багато бреше, той мало
кусає. 23. Напад — найкраща оборона. 24. Краще щось, ніж нічого. 25. З двох лих вибирай менше.
26. Краше пізно, ніж ніколи. 27. Полохливий заєць і пенька боїться.

Exercise 27. Comment on the etymology of the following sayings.

Alpha and Omega
Alpha and Omega are two letters of the Greek alphabet. Alpha is the first letter and Omega the last
one. When people refer to the Alpha and Omega of anything, they mean the beginning and the end, the
whole of it.
In the arms of Morpheus
In classical mythology, Morpheus was the god of dreams and the son of Hypnos, the god of sleep.
To be in the arms of Morpheus is to be asleep or dreaming.
The corner-stone
The corner-stone is the stone which lies at the corner of two walls, and unites them; hence it is
used figuratively to denote something of great importance.
Crocodile tears
The phrase is applied to a person who falsely puts on an appearance of grief, in fact crocodiles do
shed tears while swallowing their prey, but they do it for purely biological reasons.
To cross the Rubicon: the die is cast
To cross the Rubicon means to take a final step which may have dangerous consequences. The
phrase was used by Julius Caesar, a famous Roman general, statesman and writer.
 The Rubicon was a small stream in Northern Italy which separated the province in which Caesar
was the governor, from Italy proper. Caesar’s political rivals at Rome had passed a law ordering him to
disband his army. Caesar marched to the river and stood at the bank undecided whether to cross it and
thereby precipitate civil war. Then he exclaimed: «The die is cast» and dashed across the river.
A doubting Thomas
The phrase denotes a sceptic, a person who is not easy to convince. The story of the doubting
Thomas appears in the Gospel. Thomas was one of the Twelve Apostles. He doubted the fact of the
resurrection of Christ after the crucifixion.
The horn of plenty
The hornof plenty is the symbol of abundance. According to the myth, when Jupiter was a baby he
was nursed by nymphs with the milk of Amalthea, the goat. Once Amalthea broke her horn One of the
nymphs found it and filled it with fruits and flowers and brought to Jupiter. Jupiter presented the horn to
the nymphs promising that it would become filled with whatever they wished. On this account it was
called the horn of plenty.
The hub of the Universe
The phrase is used to denote any centre considered to be very important. It is also said, ironically,
of a man, who imagines himself the central figure. The metaphor is derived from the Talmudic concept of
the structure of the universe: the centre of Jerusalem is the temple, the centre of the temple — the Holy of
Holies, and the centre of that — the sacred stone, the hub of the universe. According to the legend, it was
the first stone with which God began creating the world.
Judas kiss: thirty pieces of silver
These phrases come from the Gospel story about the betrayal of Jesus by one of his disciples,
Judas. He was the twelfth apostle. The story runs thus: Judas was present with the other apostles in the
room of the Last Supper. But he left the room and hurried to the chief priests and offered them his
assistance in arresting his master. The chief priests promised Judas to pay him thirty pieces of silver. They
went through the dark streets of Jerusalem. «Whomsoever I shall kiss,» said Judas, «that same is Jesus.»
When they came up to the place in the garden where Jesus was standing, Judas ran to Jesus and kissed
him. The guardsmen took Jesus and led him away.
So the expression «A Judas kiss» denotes a treacherous action and the words «thirty pieces of
silver» symbolise a payment for an act of betrayal.
To be in the seventh heaven
This phrase means to be supremely happy. The phrase takes its origin in the belief of the
Mohammedans (recorded in the Koran) that there are seven heavens around the earth, each more blissful
than its immediate inferior, the seventh heaven containing God himself and his angels.
Swan song
According to an old legend, a swan at the very end of its life sings his last and very sweet song.
Brehm, a German scholar, writes that the legend is founded on the real fact for the last sounds uttered by
a mortally wounded swan really resemble a song.
An unwritten law
The Romans divided their law into unwritten law and written law. By unwritten law they meant
custom, popular practice, by written law, that derived from legislation.
To wash one’s hands (of)
«To wash one’s hands» means «to refuse all responsibilit for a matter or person». The phrase
comes from the Bible story of the trial of Jesus. Pilate, the Roman procurator of Judea, found no fault in
Jesus, but yet yielded to the clamour of the mob for his crucifixion. He took water and washed his hands,
saying that he was innocent of the blood of that just person.

Exercise 28. Classify the following sayings into: a) Statements, b) Questions, c) Exclamations,
d) Imperatives.
1. Carry me out! 2. The world is a small place. 3. Queen Anne is dead! 4. Whose dog is dead? 5.
Do you see any green in my eye? 6. May your shadow never grow less! 7. A lot of water has flown under
the bridge since ... 8. One’s cup is full. 9. What’s up? 10. Draw it mild! 11. Damn your eyes! 12. One’s
mouth waters after/at/for something. 13. One’s days are numbered. 14. Where do you hail from? 15. Hold
your horses!
 VIII. DIALECTS AND VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Exercise 1. Read the following excerpt and point out typical features of Cockney.
THE MOTHER. How do you know that my son’s name is Freddy, pray?
THE FLOWER GIRL. Ow, eez ye-ooa son, is e? Wal, fewd dan y’ de-ooty bawmz a mather
should, eed now bettern to spawl a pore gel’s flahrzn than ran awy athaht pyin. Will ye-oo py me f’them?
THE DAUGHTER. Do nothing of the sort, mother. The idea!
THE MOTHER. Please allow me, Clara. Have you any pennies?
THE DAUGHTER. No. I’ve nothing smaller than sixpence.
THE FLOWER GIRL. I can give you change for a tanner, kind lady.
THE MOTHER. (to Clara). Give it to me. (Clara parts reluctantly.) Now. (To the girl) This is for
your flowers.
THE FLOWER GIRL. Thank you kindly, lady.

Exercise 2. Transcribe the following words according to British and American norms of
pronunciation.
Fast, new, laugh, clerk, aunt, mobile, half, collar, minor, plant, liter, person, path, bird, fur, home,
go, neither, boat, ear, deer, tour, poor, jury, bath.

Exercise 3. Write the words below according to American spelling norms.

Modernise, catalogue, defence, travelling, metre, skilful, colour, analogue, behaviour, archaelogy,
colonise, honour, omelette, theatre, neighbour, spectre, woollen.

Exercise 4. Match the British words given in the left-hand column with the American English
words given in the right-hand column.

1) antenna a) tights
2) elevator b) nappy
3) eraser c) aerial
4) apartment d) lift
5) closet e) rubbish
6) drapes f) rubber
7) faucet g) sweets
8) kerosene h) flat
9) cookie i) wardrobe
10) diaper j) biscuit
11) Scotch tqape k) garden
12) candy l) curtains
13) panti-hose m) sellotape
14) garbage n) tap
15) yard o) paraffin

Exercise 5. Give the British equivalents for the following Americanisms.

Battery, antenna, fall, check, cookie, apartment, drugstore, rooster, stove, movie, to broil, grade,
corn, mail, garbage, rest room, elevator.

Exercise 6. Sort out the following definitions of one and the same words according to their use in
British and American English.

bill – a) Money, which is made of paper. b) A list of things that you have bought or eaten in a
restaurant and the sum of money you have to pay.
chips – a) Long sticks of potato, which you cook in deep, oil and eat hot with meat. b) Very thin
slices of fried potato, which you eat cold before a meal or as a snack.
 the first floor – a) The ground floor. b) The second floor.
gas – a) Something that you burn for heating and cooking. b) Something that you put in your car
to make it go.
purse – a) A handbag. b) A wallet.
subway – a) An underpass. b) An underground railway.
vest – a) waistcoat. b) An undershirt.
wash up – a) Wash the dishes. b) Wash your hands.

Exercise 7. Translate the following words giving both the British and American variant.
Aптека, банкнота, бензин, вагон, канікули, консервна банка, лікар, ліфт, метро, осінь.

Exercise 8. Translate the following into British English.

1. We are leaving in the fall. 2. Pass me the cookie. 3. Open the drapes. 4. It’s in the trunk. 5. We
have run out of gas. 6. It’s in the closet. 7. I hate waiting in line. 8. One-way or round trip?

Exercise 9. Read the following sentences, translate them into Ukrainian and comment on spelling,
lexical and grammatical peculiarities of American English.
1. “I used to be getting up now,” the man thought to himself. “I used to be getting up to a hot
breakfast and walk down to the trolley car.” 2. Each evening when she came out of the dark alley I met
her and together we walked down the street to the corner where there was a drugstore. 3. Did you see the
movie about the man who kidnaped a salesclerk? 4. She saw it for a minute from the sidewalk before she
was in a taxi moving into the middle of it. 5. Upstairs in the elevator, and the key fit the door. 6. A friend
with an apartment went on a convenient vacation, there was enough money in the bank to make a trip to
New York compatible with new snow suits for the children. 7. They traveled only in taxis the first few
days, and one taxi had a door held on with a piece of string; they pointed to it and laughed silently at each
other. 8. In the dining-car she ate roastbeef, as she would have done in a restaurant at home, reluctant to
change over too quickly to the new, tantalizing food of a vacation.

Exercise 10. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following American phraseologocal units.
About time, abra-cadabra, ants in one’s pants, at sixes and sevens, babe in the woods, ball game,
beat about the bush, catch some Zets, cold turkey, dead duck, fast talker, get away with things, hit the
bull’s eye, in two shakes of lamb’s tail, kick the bucket, let it lay, make waves, nut house, on pins and
needles, polish the apple, rat race, show one’s colors, tail between one’s legs, use one’s bean.

IX. ENGLISH LEXICOGRAPHY

Exercise 1. Analyse Appendix 4. Comment on the types of dictionaries suggested.

Exercise 2. Classify the dictionaries suggested in Appendix 4 into unilingual and bilingual.
Comment on the difference in the structure of dictionary entries.

Exercise 3. Classify the dictionaries suggested in Appendix 4 into general and special. Comment
on their differences.

Exercise 4. Pick out special dictionaries. Classify them into slang dictionaries, dictionaries of new
words, synonyms, scientific terms.

Exercise 5. Pick out learmer’s dictionaries. Comment on your arguments. What are the main
characteristic features of learner’s dictionaries?

Exercise 6. Pick out the dictionaries which contain the entry dedicated to the noun music.
Comment on the differences in the structure of these entries.
 Exercise 7. Pick out etymological dictionaries. Comment on the information which can be
deduced from the dictionary entry.

Exercise 8. Are there any frequency dictionaries among the dictionaries listed in Appendix 4?
What are the specific features of this type of dictionary?

ЗРАЗКИ МОДУЛЬНИХ ТЕСТІВ

Test 1
ETYMOLOGY

I. Arrange the borrowings given below into: A Latin; B French; C Greek.

1. alphabet; 2. calculate; 3. chaos; 4. enjoy; 5. flower; 6. history; 7. honour; 8. marble; 9.

minimum; 10. office; 11. phenomenon; 12. synonym.

KEYS: A – 2, 6, 8, 9; B – 4, 5, 7, 10; C – 1, 3, 11, 12.

II. Arrange the borrowings given below into: A Scandinavian; B French; C Anglo-Saxon.

1. army; 2.both; 3. call; 4. chic; 5. fellow; 6. get; 7. I; 8. justice; 9. skin; 10. soldier; 11. till;
12. tragedy.

KEYS: A – 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11; B – 1, 4, 8, 10, 12; C – 7.

III. Arrange the borrowings given below into: A native; B classical borrowings; C Slavonic
borrowings.

1. analysis; 2. archaic; 3. bird; 4. boy; 5. brown; 6. character; 7. cold; 8. earth; 9. metaphor;

10. polka; 11. sable; 12. system.

KEYS: A – 3, 4, 5, 7, 8; B – 1, 2, 6, 9, 12; C – 10, 11.

IV. Arrange the borrowings given below into: A French; B Anglo-Saxon; C Italian.

1. balcony; 2. branch; 3. daughter; 4. degree; 5. duke; 6. finger; 7. fish; 8. house; 9. milk; 10.
mutton; 11. place; 12. studio.

KEYS: A – 2, 4, 5, 10, 11; B – 3, 6, 7, 8, 9; C – 1, 12.

Test 2
MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE. WORD-FORMATION.

I. Arrange the words given below according to the degree of their segmentability of their stems into
three groups: A – complete, B – conditional, C - defective

1. amoral; 2. contain; 3. cranberry; 4. exclaim; 5. hopelessly; 6. introduce; 7. obtain; 8.

perceive; 9. proclaim; 10. raspberry; 11. receive; 12. retain; 13. ringlet; 14. uncomfortable; 15.
unemployment.

KEYS: A – 1, 5, 13, 14, 15; B – 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12; C – 3, 10.

II. Arrange the following words into three groups: A – devived; B – compounds; C – derivational
componds.

1. bare-legged; 2. biggish; 3. darkness; 4. deaf-mute; 5. everything; 6. handful; 7. honey-

mooner; 8. mistress; 9. narrowminded; 10. open-hearted; 11. sharpen; 12. teenager; 13. three-
coloured; 14. timesaving; 15. whatever.

KEYS: A – 2, 3, 6, 8, 10; B – 4, 5, 13, 15; C – 1, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12.

III. Arrange the following words into three groups: A – those having free stems; B – those having
bound stems; C – those having semi-bound stems.

1. annual; 2. boyish; 3. cloudless; 4. experience; 5. freedom; 6. half-done; 7. ill-mannered; 8.

manly; 9. patience; 10. personal; 11. pleasant; 12. policeman; 13. relevant; 14. speechless; 15.
well-known.

KEYS: A – 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 14; B – 1, 4, 9, 11, 13; C – 6, 7, 12, 15.

IV.Arrange the following noun-forming suffixes into three groups: A – diminutive suffixes, B –
agent-forming suffixes, C – suffixes forning nouns denoting state or condition.

1. –ant/-ent; 2. –ar; 3. –ast; 4. –cy; 5. –dom; 6. –eer; 7. –er; 8. –ery/-ry; 9. –ess; 10. –et; 11. –
ette; 12. –hood; 13. –ie; 14. –ist; 15. –(i)ty; 16. –kin; 17. –let; 
18. –ling; 19. –ment; 20. –ness; 21. –or; 22. –ship; 23. –y.

KEYS: A – 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 23; ; B – 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 14, 21; C – 4, 5, 8, 12, 15, 19, 20,
22.

Test 3
SEMASIOLOGY

I. Arrange the words given below according to the types of homonyms into three groups: A – perfect
homonyms, B – homographs, C – homophones.

1. air, heir; 2. be, bee; 3. bearn bearv; 4. cann, canv; 5. capitaln, capitaladj; 6. deern, dearadj; 7. firn,
furn; 8. haren, hairn; 9. heeln, healv; 10. hearv, hereadv; 11. minuten, minuteadj; 12. pailn, paleadj;
13. rainn, reignv; 14. somepr, sumn; 15.welln, welladv.

KEYS: A – 3, 4, 5, 15; B –11; C – 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.

II. Arrange the word-groups given below into three groups: A – those in which there is no transfer of
meaning; B – those in which metaphoric extension takes place; C – those in which metonymic
extension takes place.

1. to drink milk; 2. tongues of flame; 3. I was ready for my knife and fork; 4. An excellent
statue, the marble speaks. 5. man’s eye; 6. a branch of a tree; 7. The whole town was afoot. 8.
the foot of a page; 9. The pit loudly applauded. 10. The pen is stronger than the sword. 11.
cold welcome; 12. to take a bee line; 13. Don Juan; 14. to fly into a rage; 15. somebody’s
mouth.

KEYS: A – 1, 5, 6, 15; B –2, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14; C – 3, 4, 7, 9, 10.

III. Arrange the words into four groups: A – those in which the extension of meaning has taken place;
B – those in which the narrowing of meaning has taken place; C – those in which the elevation of
meaning has taken place; D - those in which the degradation of meaning has taken place.

1. minister; 2. fame; 3. knight; 4. season; 5. nice; 6. idiot; 7. adore; 8. cattle; 9. girl; 10.
marshal; 11. box; 12. hospital; 13. picture; 14. wife; 15. gossip.

KEYS: A – 4, 11, 13; B – 8, 9, 12, 14; C – 1, 2, 5, 7, 10; D – 3, 6, 15.

IV. Arrange the following explanations into three groups: A – those which express the meaning of the
verb to go; B – those which express the meaning of the verb to get; C – those which express the
meaning of the verb to take.

1. to pass from one state to another; 2. to understand; 3. to get with hands, teeth or some
instrument; 4. to work, to operate; 5. to catch, to capture; 6. to use without permission; 7. to
cause to, to persuade; 8. to reach, to extend; 9. to accompany smb.; 10. must, to be compelled;
11. to eat, to drink; 12. to accept, to receive; 13. to die; 14. to bring to a certain condition; 15.
to move from one place to another.

KEYS: A – 4, 8, 13, 15; B – 1, 2, 7, 10, 14; C – 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12.

Test 4
ENGLISH VOCABULARY AS A SYSTEM

I. Arrange the following synonyms into three groups: A – synonyms to the word able; B – synonyms
to the word brave; C – synonyms to the word nice.

1. able; 2. bold; 3. fine; 4. admirable; 5. undaunted; 6. dashing; 7. qualified; 8. skilful; 9.

attractive; 10. beautiful; 11. fearless; 12. competent; 13. powerful; 14. brave; 15. nice; 17.
handsome; 18. vigorous, 19. daring; 20. exquisite; 21. splendid.
KEYS: A – 1, 7, 8, 12, 13, 18; B –2, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 19; C – 3, 4, 9, 10, 15, 17, 20, 21.

II. Arrange the following synonyms into three groups: A – synonyms to the word to shake; B –
synonyms to the word to add; C – synonyms to the word to achieve.

1. attain; 2. quiver; 3. broaden; 4. acquire; 5. quake; 6. waver; 7. spread; 8. earn; 9. obtain; 10.
increase; 11. shiver; 12. receive; 13. enlarge; 14. shudder; 15.get; 16. extend; 17. heighten; 18.
lengthen; 19. tremble; 20. gain; 21. vibrate; 22. expand; 23. procure; 24. widen.
KEYS: A – 2, 5, 6, 11, 14, 19, 21; B – 3, 7, 10, 13. 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24; C – 1, 4, 8, 9, 12,
15, 20.

III. Arrange the following antonyms into three groups: A – absolute/root antonyms; B – derivational
antonyms; C – complex/mixed antonyms.

1. active - passive; 2. alert - peace; 3. sharp – dull, bright; 4. appearance - disappearance; 5.

arrange - disarrange; 6. artless - artful; 7. attentive - unattentive; 8. aware - unaware; 9. bad -
good; 10. big - small; 11. begin - finish; 12. dull – interesting, amusing, entertaining; clever,
bright, capable; 13. careful - careless; 14. comfortable - uncomfortable; 15. continue - stop; 16.
convenient - inconvenient; 17. correct - wrong; 18. courage - fear; 19. discord - accord; 20.
enemy - friend; 21. expensive - cheep; 22. faulty - right; 23. final - initial; 24; correct –
incorrect, wrong; 25. gay - sad; 26. hostile - friendly; 27. legal - illegal; 28. low - high; 29.
misfortune - fortune; 30. painful - painless; 31. progressive - regressive; 32. rough - smooth;
33. temporary - constant.
 KEYS: A – 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 32, 33; B – 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16,
19, 27, 29, 30, 31; C – 3, 12, 24.

IV. Arrange the following euphemisms into three groups according to the reasons for their using: A –
taboos; B – the need to soften painful news; C – to use a learned word which sounds less familiar,
but less offensive.

1. confound it; 2. deuce; 3. dickens; 4. insane; 5. narrow house; 6. one’s mustn’t-mention-

thems; 7. one’s sit-upons; 8. perspiration; 9. public comfort station; 10. retiring room; 11. the
deceased; 12. the departed; 13. the written off; 14. to join the majority; 15. to misrepresent; 16.
to pay one’s debt to nature; 17. unmentionables; 18. unwise.
KEYS: A – 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 17; B – 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16; C – 4, 8, 9, 10, 15, 18.

Test 5
ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY
I. Arrange the following phraseological units into three groups: A – word combinations; B –
phraseological units; C – phraseological fusions

1. to see the world through rosy spectacles; 2. to show the white feather; 3. to kiss the hare’s foot;
4. to call a spade a spade; 5. to make friends; 6. to take revenge; 7. to shed crocodile tears; 8. to
commit suicide; 9. Juda’s kiss; 10. to find faults with smb; 11. to dot the I’s and cross the T’s; 12.
between wind and water; 13. baker’s dozen; 14. a queer bird; 15. maiden name.

KEYS: A – 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15; B – 1, 4, 7, 10, ; C – 2, 3, 9, .11, 12.

II. Arrange the following phraseological units into three groups according to their origin: A –
expressions borrowed from the Bible; B – expressions borrowed from literary sources or fairy
tales; C – expressions associated with some customs or historical events.

1. the land of promise; 2. baker’s dozen; 3. new wine in old bottles; 4. ask for bread and be given a
stone; 5. to beat the air; 6. vanity fair; 7. daily bread; 8. to rob Peter to pay Paul; 9. a prodigal son;
10. something is wrong in the state of Denmark; 11. a peeping Tom; 12. the bed of Procrustes; 13.
to cross the Rubicon; 14. a dog in the monger; 15. wolf in sheep’s clothing.

KEYS: A – 1, 3, 4, 7, 9; B – 6, 10, 12, 14, 15; C – 2, 5, 8, 11, 13.

III. Arrange the following synonymous phraseological units into three groups (A, B, C) according to
their meaning.

1. an ass between two bundles of hay; 2. to beat the air; 3. to make a decisive step; 4. to think
twice about smth; 5. to cast pearls before the swine; 6. to sow the sand; 7. to hang in suspense; 8.
to speak to the winds; 9. to throw the scabbard; 10. not to know one’s own mind; 11. to lock the
stable door when the steed is stolen; 12. to blow hot and cold; 13. to take the bull by the horn; 14.
to go all length; 15. to through fire and water.

KEYS: A – 1, 4, 7, 10, 12; B – 2, 5, 6, 8, 11; C – 3, 9, 13, 14, 15.

IV. Arrange the following synonymous proverbs into three groups (A, B, C) according to their
meaning.
1. there is no place like home; 2. as a man sows, so shall he reap; 3. East or West, but home is
best; 4. as you brow, so must you drink; 5. as you make your bed so must you lie on it; 6. dry bread at
home is better than roast meat abroad; 7. better an egg today than a hen tomorrow; 8. half a loaf is better
than no bread; 9. as a man lives so must he die; 10. better a small fish than an empty dish; 11. a bird in the
hand is better than two in the bush; 12..

KEYS: A – 2, 4, 5, 9; B – 1, 3, 6; C – 7, 8, 10, 11.

 FINAL TEST

I. Arrange the borrowings given below into: A Latin; B French; C Greek.

a.alphabet; 2. calculate; 3. chaos; 4. enjoy; 5. flower; 6. history; 7. honour; 8. marble; 9.

minimum; 10. office; 11. phenomenon; 12. synonym.

KEYS: A – 2, 6, 8, 9; B – 4, 5, 7, 10; C – 1, 3, 11, 12.

II. Arrange the words given below according to the degree of their segmentability of their stems into
three groups: A – complete, B – conditional, C - defective

1. amoral; 2. contain; 3. cranberry; 4. exclaim; 5. hopelessly; 6. introduce; 7. obtain; 8.

perceive; 9. proclaim; 10. raspberry; 11. receive; 12. retain; 13. ringlet; 14. uncomfortable; 15.
unemployment.

KEYS: A – 1, 5, 13, 14, 15; B – 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12; C – 3, 10.

III. Arrange the word-groups given below into three groups: A – those in which there is no transfer of
meaning; B – those in which metaphoric extension takes place; C – those in which metonymic
extension takes place.

1. to drink milk; 2. tongues of flame; 3. I was ready for my knife and fork; 4. An excellent
statue, the marble speaks. 5. man’s eye; 6. a branch of a tree; 7. The whole town was afoot. 8.
the foot of a page; 9. The pit loudly applauded. 10. The pen is stronger than the sword. 11.
cold welcome; 12. to take a bee line; 13. Don Juan; 14. to fly into a rage; 15. somebody’s
mouth.

KEYS: A – 1, 5, 6, 15; B –2, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14; C – 3, 4, 7, 9, 10.

IV. Arrange the following synonyms into three groups: A – synonyms to the word able; B –
synonyms to the word brave; C – synonyms to the word nice.

1. able; 2. bold; 3. fine; 4. admirable; 5. undaunted; 6. dashing; 7. qualified; 8. skilful; 9.

attractive; 10. beautiful; 11. fearless; 12. competent; 13. powerful; 14. brave; 15. nice; 17.
handsome; 18. vigorous, 19. daring; 20. exquisite; 21. splendid.
KEYS: A – 1, 7, 8, 12, 13, 18; B –2, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 19; C – 3, 4, 9, 10, 15, 17, 20, 21.
V. Arrange the following phraseological units into three groups: A – word combinations; B –
phraseological units; C – phraseological fusions.

1. to see the world through rosy spectacles; 2. to show the white feather; 3. to kiss the hare’s foot;
4. to call a spade a spade; 5. to make friends; 6. to take revenge; 7. to shed crocodile tears; 8. to
commit suicide; 9. Juda’s kiss; 10. to find faults with smb; 11. to dot the I’s and cross the T’s; 12.
between wind and water; 13. baker’s dozen; 14. a queer bird; 15. maiden name.

KEYS: A – 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15; B – 1, 4, 7, 10; C – 2, 3, 9, .11, 12.

 GLOSSARУ
Absolute antonyms are root antonyms; they express contrary notions (beautiful - ugly).
Acronym is shortening from the initial letters.
Affixation is the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems.
Affixes are non-root morphemes used for the formation of word-forms. They are classified into prefixes
and suffixes and possess a generalized lexical meaning and the part-of-speech meaning.
Allomorph is a positional morpheme variant.
Antonyms are two or rarely more words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style and
nearly identical in distribution the denotative meaning of which render contrary or contradictory
notions.
Aphesis is initial clipping (van < caravan)
Apocope is final clipping (gym < gymnasium)
Archaisms are obsolete words for existing objects. They are divided into lexical (fair, slay) and
grammatical (thou, thee, thy, hast, dost, shalt, wilt)
Assimilation is a partial or total conformation of a borrowed word to the phonetical, grammatical and
morphological standards of the receiving language
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into English. Most of
them have English synonyms but are preferred for certain stylistic purposes (bon mot = a witty saying,
de facto = in fact).
Blending (telescoping) is a special type of compounding by means of merging parts of words into one
new word (smog < smoke + fog).
Borrowing is 1) the process of adopting foreign words; 2) the result of this process.
Bound morpheme jccurs only as a constituent part of a word.
Change of stress is a type of lexical opposition in which words are differentiated due to a stress pattern:
nouns are forestressed and verbs have a stress on the second syllable ('recordn : re'cordv)
Comparative method studies the correspondences between languages that have a common origin.
Complementary distribution takes place when two variants cant appear in the same environment.
Complete morphemic segmentability is characteristic of words the morphemic structure of which is
transparent enough and their constituent morphemes recur with the same meaning in a number of other
words.
Compounding (word-composition) is a type of word-building in which new words are produced by
combining two or more stems.
Compound word consists of two or more stems.
Concatination is one of the two processes of semantic development of a word (the central meaning
stands at the beginning of a chain and all the secondary meanings develop from the previous meaning).
Conceptual analysis is aimed at studying the associative connections of the lexical item designating the
concept.
Conditional morphemic segmentability characterizes words whose segmentation into constituent
morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons.
Connotation is the pragmatic communicative value the word receives depending on where, when, how,
by whom, for what purpose, in what contexts it may be used. There are four main types of connotations:
stylistic, emotional, evaluative, expressive/intensifying.
Contextual method is based on the assumption that difference in meaning of linguistic units is indicated
by a difference in environment.
Contrastive method is aimed at finding out similarities and differences in both related and non-related
languages
Conversion is the process of coining new words without adding derivative elements, through changes in
the paradigm
Defective morphemic segmentability is the property of words whose component morphemes seldom or
never recur in other words.
Degradation (pejorative development) of meaning is the semantic process of the pejorative
development of the connotational aspect of the meaning of the word; the word acquires some
derogatory emotive charge (e.g.: the word boor was originally used to denote ‘a villager’, but then
 acquired a derogatory, contemptuous connotational meaning ‘a clumsy, ill-bred fellow, a rude person, a
scoundrel’).
Denotational antonyms are antonyms formed by negative affixes (un-, in-, non-, dis-, pre-, post-, -ful,
-less). They express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other (active - inactive).
Denotational meaning is that component of the lexical meaning which serves to identify and name the
notion and makes communication possible.
Derivational compounds are words in which components are joined together by neans of compounding
and affixation.
Derived word consists of a root and one or more affixes.
Descriptive method envisages making an inventory list of language units and explaining the peculiarities
of their structure and functioning in synchrony.
Dialectal words are words which remain beyond its literay bounderies; their use is generally confined to
a definite locality.
Dispheisms are vulgar substitutions of neutral words (to die – to go off the hooks, to kick the bucket).
Distributional analysis is one of structural methods which is used to denote the immediate lexical,
grammatical and phonetical environment of a lexical unit.
Elevation (amelioration) of meaning is the semantic process of the improvement of the connotational
component of meaning (e.g.: the word minister originally meant ‘a servant, an attendant’ and now it
means ‘a civil servant of high rank’).
Etymological doublets (triplets) are two or three words of the same language which were derived by
different routes from the same basic word (e.g.: the verbs drag and draw both came from OE dragan).
Etymology is the branch of linguistics which deals with the origin of a word.
Euphemisms are milder substitutions of unpleasant or offensive words or expressions (to die – to pass
away, stupid – simple-minded, drunk - merry).
Extension (broadening) of meaning is the semantic process of changing the denotational meaning of the
word which results in the application of the word to a wider variety of referents (e.g.: the word ready
originally meant ‘prepared for ride’ and now the meaning is generalized).
Folk/false etymology is mistaken motivation.
Frame analysis is aimed at establishing frames – unified frameworks of knowledge, cognitive models
which represent knowledge.
Free morpheme coincides with the stem or a word-form.
Grammatical homonyms are homonymic word-forms differing in grammatical meaning only (rowv
[rqV] гребти rown [rqV] ряд).
Historical words are names of some objects, special relations, institutions, customs, which are no longer
in use (yeoman).
Homographs (heteronyms) are words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning (bown
[baV] поклін – bown [bqV] лук)
Homonyms are words identical in sound-form or spelling, or both in sound-form or spelling, but different
in meaning.
Homophones are words identical in sound-form but different in spelling and meaning (sunn [sAn] сонце
– sonn [sAn] син).
Ideographic synonyms denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
Immediate constituents (IC) analysis is aimed at revealing the hierarchial structure of a polymorphic
word.
Interchange is a type of lexical opposition in which words are differentiated due to an alternation in the
phonemic composition of the root.
International words are words borrowed from one language into several others simultaneously or
successively.
Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them to preserve secrecy
within one or another social group (grease = money).
Lexical homonyms are words identical in sound-form and spelling, belong to the same part of speech;
the difference is confined to the lexical meaning only (sealn [sJl] тюлень – sealn [sJl] печатка,
клеймо).
Lexical meaning is the realization of concept or emotiom by means of a definite language system.
Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of
words as the main units of language.
Lexico-grammatical homonyms (homoforms) are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents,
both lexical and grammatical meanings differ (sealn [sJl] тюлень – seav [sJl] ставити печатку,
клеймо).
Lexico-semantic variant of the word is one of the meanings of this word.
Metaphor is the transfer of meaning based on similarity.
Method is a planned way of analyzing linguistic data.
Method of componential analysis attempts to reduce meaning to its smallest components. The semantic
structure of a word is represented as a combination of elementary senses.
Method of oppositional relations (Oppositional analysis) is one of structural methods of analysis. It is
based on opposition which is defined as a relationship of partial difference between two partially similar
elements of language.
Metonymy is the transfer of meaning based on contiguity.
Morpheme is the smallest indivisible two-facet language unit.
Motivation of meaning is the relationship between the morphemic or phonemic composition and
structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other.
Narrowing (specialisation) of meaning is the semantic process of changing the denotational meaning of
the word which results in the restriction of the range of referents (e.g.: the word wife originally meant
‘woman’ and now it means ‘a married woman’).
Neologims are new words or new meanings of the word, the novelty of which is still felt.
Onomasiology is the study of the principles and regularities of the signification of things and notions by
lexical and phraseological means of a given language.
Onomatopoeia is sound imitation, i. e. naming the action or object by more or less exact reproduction or
a sound associated with it.
Paronyms are words that are kindred both in sound-form and meaning and therefore are often confused
because of their phonetic and semantic proximity though in fact they are different in meaning and usage
(affect – effect, precede – proceed).
Partial homonyms are words in which some word-forms are homonymous, but the whole paradigm is
not identical (sealn [sJl] тюлень – sealn [sJl] печатка, клеймо).
Patterned homonyms are homonyms formed either by means of conversion or by leveling of grammar
inflexion (warmadj [wLm] теплий – warmv [wLm] гріти).
Perfect (full, absolute) homophones are homonyms identical both in pronunciation and in spelling but
different in meaning (bearn [bFq] ведмідь – bearn [bFq] носити).
Poetic words are a set of words having poetic connotations. They have neutral synonyms but their
denotative meaning is more lofty and abstract (array – clothes, main – sea, steed – horse, woe -
sorrow).
Polysemy is plurality of meanings of a word.
Phraseological combinations are clearly motivated word-groups with a partially changed meaning (to
make a mistake).
Phraseological fusions are demotivated word-groups with a completely changed meaning (at sixes and
sevens = in confusion).
Phraseological synonyms are synonyms which differ in valency. The difference in distribution may be
morphological (many - much), syntactical (bare – naked, bare in reference to persons is used only
predicatively while naked occurs both predicatively and attributively) and lexical (begin – commence,
begin is generalized in its lexical meaning and becomes a semi-auxiliary when used with an infinitive).
Phraseological unities are partially motivated word-groups with a completely changed meaning (to lose
one’s head = to be at a loss).
Phraseological units (set-phrases) are non-motivated ready-made units which cannot be freely made up
in speech.
Prefix is an affixational morpheme which precedes the root-morpheme (див. тж affix).
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade by people connected by common interests both at
home and at home (tin-fish = submarine).
Proverb is a short familiar epigrammic saying expressing popular wisdom in a concise way.
Pseudo-morpheme (quasi-morpheme) are morphemes which have only a differential or distributional
meaning, e.g retain, contain.
Radiation is one of the two processes of semantic development of a word (the primary meaning stands in
the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays).
Reversion (back-formation) is inferring of a short word from a long one (e,g. to baby-sit f< baby-sitter).
Root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of a word, it has an individual meaning shared by no other
morpheme of the language.
Semantic borrowing is the appearance of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in
another language (e.g.: the word bureau entered political vocabulary under the influence of Russian:
political bureau)
Semantic structure (semantic paradigm) of a word is all the lexico-semantic variants of this word
taken together.
Semasiology is the branch of linguistics whose subject-matter is the study of word-meaning and the
classification of changes in the signification of words.
Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes can function in a morphemic sequence both as an affix and as a
free morpheme.
Shortening (clipping, curtailment) is the reduction of a word to one of its parts.
Simple word consists only of a root morpheme.
Slang words are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are
frequent topics of discourse (cock-eyed = drunk).
Statistical analysis embraces such statistical methods as chi-square (x2), contingency coefficient,
correlation analysis, coefficient of concordance, etc. application of which make the investigation more
rigorous.
Stylistic synonyms are synonyms which differ not so much in meaning but in emotive and stylistic
sphere of application.
Suffix is an affixational morpheme which follows the root-morpheme (див. тж affix).
Suffixation is the formation of words by adding derivational suffixes to stems.
Syncope is medial clipping (maths < mathematics)
Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy when the part is used for the whole, or vice versa.
Synonymic dominant is the most general term containing the specific features rendered by all the other
members of the synonymic group.
Synonyms are two or more words of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and
possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable, at least in
some contexts, without any considerable alteration in denotational neaning, but differing in morphemic
composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style, valency and idiomatic use.
Terms are special words which express certain concepts of science, engineering, politics, diplomacy,
philosophy, linguistics, etc. They are the names of different phenomena, processes, qualities peculiar to
a certain branch of science, art, etc.
Transformational analysis is repatterning of distributional structures in order to discover difference or
sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns.
Translation-loans (calques) are words and expressions formed from the material available in the
language after the patterns characteristic of the given language, but under the influence of some foreign
words (e.g.: mother tongue < Lat. lingua maternal).
Vocabulary is the system formed by the sum total of all the words, word-groups and phraseological
units.
Vulgarisms are expletive and swear words of an abusive character (damn, etc. and the so-called four-
letter words).
Word is the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a given meaning with a given
group of sounds susceptible of a given grammatical employment.
Word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from
the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.
Zoosemy is a case of metaphor when names of animals, birds or insects are used metaphorically.
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
AFFIXATION
PREFIXATION
a-1 Germanic, semi-productive. It comes from the Old English preposition on. It occurs in
adjectives and the words of the category of state. It means «of», «on»: asleep, ashore,
anew.
a-2 Greek, non-productive. It has the negative meaning: amoral, anomalous.
ab- Romanic, non-productive. It means «from», «away»: absent. Before m, p, v it’s shortened
to a-; before c, t — abs-, e.g.: abstract.
ad Romanic, non-productive. It has positional variants ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, at-,
a-. It means «motion forward», «addition to»: admit, adjoin.
afler- Germanic, productive. It means «after»: afternoon.
amphi- Greek, non-productive. It means «on both ends», «of both kinds»: amphitheatre.
ante- Latin, non-productive. It means «prior to»: antedeluvian.
anti- Greek, productive. It means «against», «opposed»: anti-aircraft, anti-war.
arch- Greek, semiproductive. It means «chief», «extreme»: archbishop, arch-father.
be- Old English, semi-productive. It means «around», «completely», «away», «making»,
«furnish with»: beset, bedeck, betake, bepretty, befriend, becloud, bedew.
bi- Latin, productive. It means «two»: bilabial.
by- Old English, semi-productive. It means «near», «close», «secondary»: by-stander, by-
product.
circum- Latin, non-productive. It means «around», «about»: circumfluent, circumscribe.
com- Latin, semi-productive. It means «with». It has positional variants: col- (before l), cor-
(before r), con- (before c, d, g, j, n, q, s, t, v), co- (before vowels and h, w): collaborate,
correct, cooperate.
contra- Latin, productive. It means «against», «contrary», «opposite»: contradict.
de- Latin, productive. It means: 1) «away», «off»: detrain; 2) «to do the reverse»: decode,
demobilize.
di-/dis-1 Greek, non-productive. It means «twice», «double»: dissyllabic.
dia- Greek, non-productive. It means «through», «across»: diagram, diameter.
dis-2 French or Latin, productive. It may denote: 1) negation: dissimilar; 2) opposition: disroot;
3) to deprive of: discrown.
en- French from Latin–Greek, non-productive. It means: 1) «to put into or on»: enthrone; 2)
«to make, to cause to be»: endanger. It has a positional variant em-: embody.
ex-1 Latin–Greek, productive. It means: 1) «from», «out of»: expel; 2) «beyond»: excess; 3)
«thoroughly»: exterminate. It has positional variants ef-, e-: efferent, emerge.
ex-2 It means «former»: ex-president, ex-champion.
extra- Latin, productive. It means «outside», «beyond»: extraordinary.
fore- Old English, semi-productive. It means «before»: forefather, foretell.
forth- Old English, non-productive. It means «forth»: forthcoming.
hyper- Greek, non-productive. It means «over», «above»: hypersensitive.
hypo- Greek, non-productive. It means: 1) «under», «beneath»: hypodermic; 2) «less than»:
hypothyroid.
in-1 Old English, non-productive. It means «in»: insight.
in-2 Latin, productive. It means «not»: inactive. It has positional variants: im- (before p, b, m,
e.g.: impossible), il- (before l, e. g.: illegal), ir- (before r, e. g.: irregular).
inter- French or Latin, productive. It means «mutual», «between» : international.
intra- Latin, semi-productive. It means «on the inside», «within»: intraspesiac.
intro- Latin, dead. It means «in», «into», «inwards»: introduce.
mid- Old English, semi-productive. It means «middle»: midday.
mis- Old English, productive. It means «wrong(ly)», «bad(ly)»: misunderstand, mishear.
non- French from Latin, productive. It means «not»: non-effective, non-aggressive.
ob- Latin, non-productive. It means «to», «toward», «before»: object; «opposed to», «against»:
obnoxious; «upon», «over»: obfuscate; «completely», «totally»: obsolete. It has positional
variants о-, ос-, of-, op-, e.g.: occur, offer, oppress.
off- Old English, non-productive. It means «off»: offspring.
on- Old English, non-productive. It means «on»: onset.
out- Old English, productive. It means «out», «exceeding»: outside, outsleep.
over- Old English, productive. It means «more than necessary»: overwork.
per- Latin, non-productive. It means «throughout», «away», «over»: perceive, persuade.
poly- Greek, non-productive. It means «many»: polyglot.
post- Latin, semi-productive. It means «after», «behind»: post-war.
pre- Latin, semi-prociuctive. It means «preceding»: pre-school, pre-war.
pro-1 Greek, non-productive. It means «before»: prostrate.
pro-2 Latin, semi-productive. It means «moving toward»: progress; «substituting»: pronoun;
«acting in behalf of»: pro-fascist.
re- Latin, ptoductive. It means: 1) «back»: repay; 2) «again», «anew»: re-count.
retro- Latin, productive. It means «back», «backward»: retrospective.
semi- French or Latin, semi-productive. It means: 1) «half»: semi-final; 2) «partly», «not fully»:
semiskilled.
sub- Latin, ptoductive. It means: 1) «under»: subsoil; 2) «lower in rank or position», «of a lesser
degree»: subordinate; 3) «forming a dicision, into smaller parts»: sub-title, subgroup. It has
positional variants: sac- (before c), suf- (before f), sug- (belore g), sum- (before m), sup-
(before p), sar- (before r), sus- (before c, p, t): suspect.
super- Latin, ptoductive. It means «above», «over»: super-natural; «higher in rank»: supervisor.
trans- Latin, semi-productive. It means «across», «over», «on the other side», «beyond»:
transatlantic.
ultra- Latin, productive. It means «beyond», «exceeding»: ultra-modern.
un- Old English, productive. It means: 1) «not»: unhappy; 2) «back»: unfasten.
under- Old English, semi-productive. It means: 1) «below»: undershirt; 2) «in a subordinate
position»: undergraduate; 3) «below standard»: underdeveloped.
up- Old English, semi-productive. It means «upward»: uplift.
vice- Latin, semi-productive. It means «second in rank»: vice president.
with- Old English, non-productive. It means «away», «against»: withdraw, withstand.

SUFFIXATION
Noun suffixes
-ade Latin, non-productive. It means: 1) «the act of»: blocade; 2) «the result or product of»:
lemonade.
-age Old French → Latin, non-productive. Nouns in -age denote «process», «action», «the
result of the action» or have a collective meaning: passage, pilotage, postage, leakage,
leafage.
-al Middle English → Old French, semi-productive. Nouns in -al denote the act of doing:
arrival, refusal.
-an1 Latin, non-productive. It means «belonging to», «following a system or doctrine»:
republican.
-an2 Latin, productive. It means «born in», «living in»: American.
-ance, -ence Middle English from French → Latin, non-productive. They form nouns of action and
nouns indicating state or quality: guidance, assistance, obedience.
-ancy, -ency Latin, non-productive. They form nouns of action and nouns denoting state or quality:
brilliancy, vacancy, emergency.
-ant, -ent French from Latin, non-productive. They are used to form agent-nouns: servant, merchant,
student.
-ar Latin, non-productive, forms agent-nouns: beggar.
-ard Old French from German, non-productive, forms nouns meaning «one who does
something not admirable»: drunkard, coward.
-asm Greek, non-productive, forms abstract nouns: enthusiasm.
-ast Greek, non-productive, forms agent-nouns: gymnast, enthusiast.
-ate, -at Latin, non-productive, form nouns denoting function or person: mandate, advocate,
diplomat.
-су Romanic, non-productive, forms nouns denoting state, condition, office: diplomacy,
bankruptcy, curacy.
-dom Old English, productive, forms nouns denoting state, condition, rank, dominion of:
freedom, wisdom, kingdom, dukedom, Christiandom.
-ee French from Latin, productive, forms nouns designating the recipient of the action: payee,
employee.
-eer French from Latin, non-productive, forms agent-nouns: engineer.
-er Old English, productive, forms nouns denoting: 1) persons following some trade or
occupation: baker, driver; 2) persons doing some action: bather, believer; 3) persons living
in some locality: Londoner, foreigner; 4) things which do what the stem denotes: cutter.
-ery, -ry Middle English from Old French, productive, forms nouns denoting state, condition, a
general collective sense: slavery, husbandry, poetry, pottery, jewelry, surgery.
-ess French from Latin → Greek, productive, forms feminine nouns: actress, poetess, lioness,
Jewess.
-ette, -et French, semi-productive, forms diminutive nouns: kitchenette, cigarette.
-hood Germanic, semi-productive, forms nouns denoting state, quality, condition: childhood
falsehood.
-ic Greek or Latin, non-productive, forms nouns having the meaning «of the nature of»: cynic,
sceptic.
-ice Old French from Latin, non-productive, forms nouns denoting act, quality, condition:
service, justice.
-ics Latin, non-productive, forms nouns denoting art, science or a specified activities or
practice: phonetics, statistics.
-ie, -y Germanic, productive, form diminutives: birdie, girlie, auntie, granny, Billy.
-ier, -yer French from Latin, non-productive, equivalent to -eer: cashier, grenadier, lawyer.
-ine1, -ina Greek, non-productive, it’s used to form feminine nouns: heroine, zarina.
-ine2, -in Romanic, non-productive, forms abstract nouns and nouns indicating derivative products:
medicine, doctrine, bulletin.
-ing1 Old English, non-productive. It meaas «belonging to», «of the kind of», «descended from»:
shilling.
-ing2 Old English, productive. It is used to form verbal nouns denoting: 1) process, actioas:
bleeding, breathing; 2) the result of the action: building; 3) the place where some action
happens: dwelling, lodging.
-ion Latin, non-productive, forms abstract nouns: union, opinion, session.
-ism Greek, productive. Nouns in -ism denote: 1) theories, teachings, dogmas: Darvinism,
fatalism; 2) social trends and formations: capitalism, nationalism; 3) trends in arts and
literature: modernism, futurism; 4) policies: radicalism; 5) human qualities: egoism,
dandyism.
-ist Greek, productive. It forms nouns denoting a person who practices some method or art or
who adheres to some doctrine, system: artist, dramatist, economist, communist, fascist,
reformist, modernist.
-ite Greek, semi-productive. It forms nouns denoting: 1) followers of different persons,
inherents of different parties, trends, religions: laborite, Islamite; 2) inhabitants of some
locality or persons occupying certain seats: kyivite, pittite.
-kin Middle English, non-productive. It forms diminutive nouns: lambkin, catkin.
-let Latin, productive, forms diminutive nouns: booklet.
-ling Old English, productive, forms diminutive nouns: duckling, firstling, princeling.
-ment French from Latin, non-productive. It forms nouns denoting state, quality, condition,
action, process or the result of the action: development, pavement, judgement, agreement.
-ness Germanic, productive. Nouns in -ness denote some abstract quality, state or condition:
kindness, darkness, oneness, sameness, forgiveness.
-oid Greek, productive. It meaas «like», «in the form of»: metalloid, spheroid.
-or Latin, non-productive. It forms nouns denoting: 1) professions occupations: actor, doctor;
2) persons performing some actions: narrator; 3) things connected with the actions
expressed by the stem: elevator, ventilator.
-ory Latin, non-productive. Nouns in -ory denote «a place or tiling for»: dormitory, directoiy.
-o(u)r, -eur French from Latin, non-productive. It forms nouns denoting agents, persons, qualities or
some state: amateur, fayour, behaviour.
-ship Middle English from Germanic, semi-productive. It forms nouns denoting state, condition,
quality, one’s social position or dignity: friendship, authorship, professorship.
-ster Middle Low German, non-productive. Nouns in -ster denote «a person who is, does or
creates»: songster, spinster, roadster, gangster, youngster.
-stress Old French from Latin, non-productive, forms feminine nouns: songstress, seamstress.
-th Old English, non-productive, forms nouns of state or quality from adjectives: length,
width, strength.
-tion Latin, productive. Also, -ation, -cion, -ion, -sion, -xion. It forms nouns from verbs and
denotes action, state or result: dictation, resolution, revolution, organization, conversion.
-(i)tude French from Latin, non-productive. It forms abstract nouns: gratitude, attitude, fortitude.
-(i)ty Old French from Latin, non-productive. It form nouns denoting state, quality, condition:
safety, activity, liberty, poverty, cruelty.
-ure French and Latin, non productive. Nouns in -ure denote act, process, state, result of an
action or rank: culture, picture, seizure, figure.
-y Latin, Greek, French, Germanic; non-productive. It forms nouns denoting the result of an
action: augury, perjury.
Adjective suffixes
-able, -(i)ble Latin, productive. Adjectives in -able mean: «capable», «able to be ...-ed»: eatable;
«characterized by», «fit for», «causing»: comfortable, honourable.
-acious Latin, non-productive. Adjectives in -acious mean «full of»: audacious.
-al French, non-productive. Adjectives in -al mean «of the nature of», «typical of»:
professional, horizontal.
-an, -ean, Old French from Latin, non-productive. Adjectives in these suffixes denote «belonging or
-ian, -ane pertaining to», «typical of», «following some teaching»: Roman, European, Shakespearian,
humane.
-ant, -ent French from Latin, non productive. Adjectives in -ant/ent mean «busy with»,
«characterized by»: radiant.
-ary, -ory Latin, non productive. They form adjectives meaning «belonging to», «connected with»:
reactionary, legendary, contradictory.
-ate, -ete, Latin, non-productive. They form adjectives having the meaning «of or characteristic of»,
-ile, -ute, -t «having or filled with»: accurate, complete, exquisite, absolute, abject.
-ed Old English, very productive. Adjectives in -ed mean «having», «characterized by»: gifted,
bearded long-legged.
-en Old English, non productive. It forms relative adjectives meaning «made of»: silken,
wooden.
-ern Middle and old English, non-productive, it is met only in four words: eastern, western,
northern, southern.
-ese Old French from Latin, non-productive. Adjectives in -ese signify «of», «pertaining to»,
«originating in»: Chinese, Japanese.
-esque French and Italian of Germanic origin, non-productive. It forms adjectives denoting «in the
manner or style of», «like»: picturesque, grotesque.
-fold Middle English from Germanic, non-productive. It is used with numerals to form
adjectives, denoting multiplication: twofold, manifold.
-ful Middle and Old English, productive. Adjectives in -ful mean «full of», «abounding in»:
hopeful, powetful.
-ic, -(ic)al Greek, Latin and French, non-productive. Adjectives in -ic denote «of», «of the nature of»,
«pertaining to», «belonging to»: Celtic, gigantic, titanic. The suffix -ic is often coupled
with the suffix -al, thus forming one semantic unit (the form in -ical sounds more
conversational): classic - classical, poetic - poetical.
-ine Latin from Greek, non-productive. It forms adjectives denoting «of», «like», «pertaining-
to», «characterized by»: infantine.
-ish Middle English from Greek, productive. Being added to adjectives it means «somewhat»,
that is it denotes a weaker de giee of the quality expressed by (he stem: greyish, whitish,
fattish. When added to nouns it means «having the nature of», «looking like»: boyish,
womanish.
-ive, -ative Latin, non-productive. Adjectives in -ive denote «having a ten dency to», «having the
nature, character or quality of»: native, declarative, restrictive, talkalive.
-less Middle English from Old English, productive. It means «without», «not having», «free
from»: hopeless, senseless.
-like Middle and old English from Gothic, productive. Adjectives in -like mean «looking like»,
«inherent to», «characteristic of»: businesslike, womanlike.
-ly Germanic, productive. Adjectives in -ly denote: 1) «like», «characteristic of», «suitable
to»: manly; 2) «rather»: cleanly, sickly, poorly; 3) «happening everу…»: weekly, monthly.
-ose Latin, non-productive. It means «full of»: bellicose, morose.
-ous Middle English from old French → Latin → Greek, nonproductive. It means «full of»,
«possessing the quality of», «like»: joyous, envious, religious.
-some Middle English from Germanic, non productive. It means «like», «possessing the quality
of»: bothersome.
-ward Old English, semi-productive. It denotes direction: eastward, inward.
-y Old English, highly productive. It has two meanings. When added to nouns and, rarely, to
verbs, it means «looking like», «characterized by», «having the colour of»: windy, chatty,
bloody. When added to adjectives it means «lacking some quality»: pinky, baldy, greeny.
Also, -ey.
Verb suffixes
-ate Latin, non-productive. Its meaning is ill-defined. It forms causative verbs: agitate,
graduate, vaccinate, navigate, advocate.
-en Old English, productive. It forms verbs from nouns and adjectives. It means «to make», «to
make like»: brighten, broaden, darken, moisten, strengthen.
-er Germanic, non-productive, e.g.: glimmer, twitter.
-(i)fy French from Latin, non-productive. It has the following senses: «to make», «to produce»,
«to bring to a certain state»: electrify, specify, terrify, simplify, intensify.
-ish Old English from Germanic and Greek, non-productive, e.g.: establish; finish.
-ize, -ise Greek, as well as French and Germanic; productive. Verbs in -ize/ise mean «to make», «to
conform to», «to provide with», «to cover with», e.g.: organize, materialize, generalize,
symmetrize, jargonize.
-ute, -ite Latin, non-productive, e.g.: attribute, execute, contribute, unite, expedite.
Adverb suffixes
-fold Old English, semi-productive. It means «times»: tenfold.
-long Germanic, non-productive. It is added to the stems of nouns, e.g.: headlong, sidelong.
-ly Germanic, productive. It forms adverbs of manner and time, and adverbs denoting
repetition: idly, carefully, daily, weekly.
-s, -ce Middle and Old English, non-productive. оnce, twice, besides.
-ward(s) Old English, semi-productive. It denotes the direction: forward(s), backward(s), upward,
inward.
-wise, -ways Germanic, non-productive. It’s added to noun and adjective stems: crosswise, clockwise,
crabways.
 APPENDIX 2
COMMON ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS
A
'A-bomb atomic bomb Afr Africa(n)
'A-level advanced level (examination) a.m. (ante meridiem) before noon
"A 'В Bachelor of Arts (US) amp ampere
"A В 'С American Broadcasting Apr April
Corporation Arab Arabic
"A В 'S American Broadcasting System arr arrival
а/с account Aug August
ad(vt) advertisement "A 'V Audio Visual; Authorized Version
"A 'D (Anno Domini) in the year of the (of the Bible)
Lord Av(e) Avenue
B
b & b bed and breakfast "В M 'A British Medical Association
"В 'A Bachelor of Arts Brit Britain, British
"B B 'C British Broadcasting Corporation "B 'S Bachelor of Science (US)
"В 'С Before Christ; British Council В Sc [bi: es 'si:] Bachelor of Science (GB)
"В 'D Bachelor of Divinity "В S 'T British Summer Time
bk book
"B 'M British Museum
C
c Centigrade; (Roman) 100 Co Company
c cent; century; cubic c/o care of
Capt Captain "C О 'D Cash on Delivery
Cath Catholic "C of 'E ["si: @v'i:] Church of England
"C B 'C Canadian Broadcasting "C O 'I Central Office of Information
Corporation (GB)
"C 'D (Corps Diplomatique) Diplomatic Col Colonel
Service; compact disk Coll College
Cert certificate Cons Conservative (Political party in GB)
cf (confer) compare with Corp Corporation
ch(ap) chapter cp compare with
"C I 'A Central Intelligence Agency (US) "C 'S Civil Service
"C I 'D Criminal Investigation Department "C S 'E Certificate of Secondary
"C-in-'C Commander-in-Chief Education (GB)
cl class "C S 'T Central Standard Time (US)
cm centimetre(s) cu cubic
D
D (Roman) 500 Dir Director
d (denarius) penny; dead D Litt [di: 'lit] Doctor of Letters/Literature
"D A 'F Department of the Air Force (US) D M Deutschmark (German currency)
dbl double dol dollar
Dec December doz dozen
deg degree D Phil ['di: 'fil] Doctor of Philosophy
Dept Department Dr Doctor; Drive
diag diagram D Sc ['di: es 'si] Doctor of Science
Dip Diploma
E
E East e.g. (exempli gratia) for example, for
Ed Editor; edited instance
"E E 'C European Economic Community Eng England, English
(The Common Market) Esq Esquire
etc. et setr and the rest; and the others
et seq [et 'sek] (et sequens) and the eve evening
following excl excluding
F
F Fahrenheit fl floor
f foot; feet; female; feminine "F 'O Foreign Office (GB)
"F 'A Football Association for foreign
"F В ‘I Federal Bureau of Investigation Fr France, French
(US) Fri Friday
Feb February "F S 'U Former Soviet Union
Fed Federation ft foot; feet
fem female; feminine fwd forward
fig figurative; figure
G
g gram(s) Gk Greek
gal(l) gallon(s) gm gram(s)
G A T T [g{t] General Agreement on "G 'M General Manager
Tariffs and Trade "G M 'T Greenwich Mean Time
"G 'B Great Britain gov government
"G C ‘E General Certificate of Education "G 'P General Practitioner (Medical
(GB) Doctor)
Gdn(s) Gardens "G P 'О General Post Office
Gen General gr great; group
Ger German(y) gt great
"G H 'Q General Headquarters
H
h height; hour H of C House of Commons
ha hectarc(s) H of L House of Lords
h & c hot and cold (water) hosp hospital
"H-bomb Hydrogen bomb "H 'Q Headquaeters
H M his/her Majesty hr hour
"H 'О Home Office
I
i/c in charge Inst Institute
i. e. (id est) in other words; which is to say "I O 'U I owe you
"I M 'F International Monetary Fund Ire Ireland
in inch(es) Is Islands
Inc Incorporated It Italy, Italian
Ind India(n)
J
Jan January Jul July
J C Jesus Christ Jun June
Jnr; Jr Junior
K
kg kilogram(s) "k p 'h kilometres per hour
km kiloinetrc(s) kw kilowatt(s)
L
L Lake; little; Roman 50; Liberal (polilical Ld Lord
party in GB) "L L 'B Bachelor of Laws
l left "L M 'T Local Mean Time (US)
"L 'A Los Angeles "L S 'T Local Standard Time (US)
Lab Labour (political party in GB) Lt Lieutenant
lang language Ltd Limited
Lat Latin lux luxury
M
M Member "M C 'C Marylebonc Cricket Club (GB)
m male; married; metre(s); mile(s); million "M 'D Doctor of Medicine
M A Master of Arts min minimum
Maj Major Mon Monday
Mar March "M 'P Member of Parliament (House of
masc masculine Commons); Military Police
math mathematics (US) "m p 'h miles per hour
maths mathematics (GB) Mr, Mrs, Ms Mister, Mistress, Miss
max maximum M S manuscript
"M 'B Bachelor of Medicine M Sc [em es 'si:] Master of Science
"M 'C Marine Corps (US); Master of Mt Mount
Ceremonies; Member of Congress (US);
Military Cross
N
N North "N. 'B (nota bene) take special note
N A A F I ['n{fi] Navy, Army and Air "N В 'U National Bank of Ukraine
Force Institute (GB) "N H 'S National Health Service (GB)
nat national; native; natural Nov November
N A T O ['neitou] North Atlantic Treaty N Y New York
Organization N Z New Zealand
O
Oct October op. cit. [op 'sit] (opere citato) in the work
"O E 'D Oxford English Dictionary mentioned
"O-level Ordinary level (examination in opp opposite
Great Britain) oz ounce

P
P Parking pop popular
p page; penny; pence; per Port Portuguese
p. a. (Per annum) per year "P 'О Box Post Office Box
para(s) paragraph(s) "P О ‘W Prisoner of War
"P 'C Police Constable; Privy Councillor "P P 'S (Post Postscriptum) additional
(GB) postscriptum
P E N [pen] International Association of pr pair; price
Writers Pres President
Pers Persian Prof Professor
"P 'G paying guest Prov Province
Ph D Doctor of Philosophy Ps Psalm
Pk Park "P 'S Postscript
"P 'M Prime Minister P T О Please turn over
p. m. (post meridiem) after noon Pvt Private soldier (US)
Q
qt quart Qu Queen; Question R
R
R River; Royal Rep Repertory; Representative;
r right Republic(an)
"R 'A Royal Academy resp respectively
R A F [r{f] Royal Air Force rm room
"R 'C Red Cross; Roman Catholic "R 'M Roval Marines
Rd Road "R 'N Royal Navy
"r p 'm revolutions per minute
S
S South Sat Saturday
s second(s); shilling(s) sc (scilicet) namely
Sch School sp special; spelling
sci science Sp Spain
sec secondary; secretary Sq Square
Sen Senate; Senator; Senior "S 'S Steamship
Sept September St Saint; Street
"S 'F Science Fiction Sun Sunday
Soc Society
T
T temperature Thurs Thursday
t time; ton(s) "T 'U Trade Uuion
"T ‘B tuberculosis Tues Tuesday
Tech [tek] technical (College) "T 'V television
tel telephone
U
U Union; Upper; upper class; fashionable U N E S C O [ju'neskou] United Nations
U F O ['jufou] unidentified flying object Educational, Scientific and Cultural
"U ‘K United Kingdom Organization
Ukr Ukraine, Ukrainian Univ University
"U 'S United States
"U S 'A United States of America
V
V Roman 5; Victory; Volt viz viz (videlicet) namely
V A Vice-Admiral vol volume
"V 'D Venereal Disease V P(res) Vice-President
"V I 'P very important person vs versus
W
W West W H O [hu:] World Health Organization
w c water closet wt weight
X
X Roman 10; a kiss; something unknown Xmas Christinas
Y
Y Yen (Japanese currency) "Y W C 'A Young Women’s Christian
"Y H 'A Youth Hostels Association Association
"Y M C 'A Young Men’s Christian
Association

APPENDIX 3
ORIGINAL SOURCES OF SELECTED WORDS
Abbreviations
Afr – африканська Du – голландська
Arab – арабська Eng – англійська
Austr – мова австралійських Eg – єгипетська
аборигенів Fr – французька
C – кельтська Gael – гальська
Ger – німецька Pol – польська
Gk – грецька Port - португальська
Gmc – германська Russ – російська
Heb – гебрайська Sc – скандинавська
Hind – хінді Skr – санскрит
Hung – угорська Sp – іспанська
Ir – ірландська Tat – татарська
It – італійська Turk – турецька
Lat – латинська Ukr – українська
Mex – мексиканська ? – невідоме або сумнівне походження
Pers – персидська

A
absolute (Lat) animal (Lat)
acacia (Lat - Gk) anticipate (Lat)
account (Fr - Lat) appear (Fr - Lat)
act (Fr - Lat) apple (Eng)
advice (Fr - Lat) apricot (Spor Port - Arab – Gk & Lat)
afternoon (Eng + Lat) architect (Fr - It or Lat - Gk)
aim (Fr - Lat) arm (weapon) (Fr - Lat)
album (Lat) art (Fr - Lat)
algebra (It, Sp, Lat - Arab) artel (Russ - Tat)
allow (Fr Lat) as (Flip)
allude (Lat) ash (Eng)
a. m. (Lat) ask (Eng)
ampere (after the name of the French asp (Fr or Lat - Gk)
physicist) ass (Gael - Lat)
anchor (Fr & Eng - Lat & Gk) atmosphere (Lat - Gk)
ancient (Fr - Lat) autobiography (Gk)
and (Eng) autumn (Fr - Lat)

В
bacon (Fr - Gmc) becloud (Eng)
bake (Eng) beech (Eng)
ball (Fr) beef (Fr - Lat)
banana (Spor Port - Aft) begin (Eng)
bank (establishment) (Fr - It) behind (Eng)
baobab (Lat - Aft) berry (Eng)
bar (piece of material, line or obstacle) bind (ling)
(Fr) birch (Eng)
bare (Eng) bird (Eng)
barometer (Gk) biscuit (Fr - Lat)
baron (Fr - Lat) Blitzkrieg (Ger)
bath (Eng) board (Eng)
be (Eng) bon mot (Fr)
bear (Eng) boor (Du)
beast (Fr - Lat) borsch (Ukr)
beat (Eng) boy (Eng)
beau monde (Fr) boycott (after Boycott, the name of an
beauty (Fr - Lat) Irish landowner who was the first to be
beaver (rodent) (Eng) subjected to boycott)
branch (Fr - Lat) brown (Eng)
bread (Eng) bull (Eng)
break (Eng) busy (Eng)
breakfast (Eng) but (Eng)
brilliant (Fr – It) butcher (Fr)
brother (Eng) by (Eng)

C
caftan (Turk) clown (Anglo - French)
calculate (Lat) coach (Fr - Hung)
calf (young of ox, or of elephan whole, cobalt (Ger)
deer, etc.) (Eng) cock (Eng & Fr)
call (Old Eng, old Norse) cocoa (Sp)
camel (Eng Lat - Gk) coffee (Turk - Arab)
can (Eng) cold (Eng)
canoe (Sp & Haitian) colleague (Fr - Lat)
capital (Fr - Lat) come (Eng)
captain (Fr - Lat) command (Fr - Lat)
caravan (Fr - Pers) commence (Fr - Lat)
care (Eng) compare (Fr - Lat)
cashmere (after Cashmere, the name of concrete (Fr or Lat)
the geographical place) conscious (Lat)
cat (Eng - Anglo-French – Lat) contemporary (Lat)
catholic (Fr or Lat - Gk) continuous (Fr - Lat)
cattle (Anglo-French) corps (Fr - Lat)
cedar (Fr - Lat - Gk) coup d’état (Fr)
century (Lat) count (Fr - Lat)
certain (Fr - Lat) courage (Fr - Lat)
chancel (Fr - Lat) cow (Eng)
change (Fr - Lat) cranberry (Ger)
chap (boy) (Eng) crane (Eng)
character (Fr - Lat - Gk) crayfish (Fr)
chase (Fr - Lat) create (Lat)
chauffeur (Fr) crime (Fr - Lat)
cherry (Fr - Lat - Gk) crisis (Lat - Gk)
chick (Eng) crocodile (Fr - Lat - Gk)
child (Eng) crow (Eng)
chocolate (Fr/Sp - Aztec) cry (Fr - Lat)
church (Eng - Gmc - Gk) cuckoo (Fr)
cigar (Fr/Sp) cunning (Eng)
city (Fr - Lat) cupboard (Lat + Eng)
clan (Yael) curate (Lat)
clock (Low Dutch - Lat) curriculum (Fr - Lat)
close (Fr - Lat) cut (Eng)

D
daisy (Eng) deer (Eng)
damp (Low German) degree (Fr - Lat)
danger (Fr - Lat) delicate (Fr or Lat)
daughter (Eng) delight (Fr - Lat)
day (Eng) dense (Fr or Lat)
death (Eng) depress (Fr - Lat)
decay (Fr - Lat) design (Fr - Lat)
decide (Fr or Laf) devil (Eng - Lat - Gk)
die (cease to live) (Old Norse) door (Eng)
disaster (Fr or It - Lat) doubt (Fr - It - Lat)
disciple (Eng - Lat) down (Eng)
dismay (Fr - Gmc) draw (Eng)
divan (Fr or It - Turk - Arab - Pers) dream (Eng)
dog (Eng) duck (Eng)
dollar (Low Ger - Ger) duke (Fr - Lat)

E
eagle (Fr - Lat) emotion (Fr)
earth (Eng) emperor (Fr - Lat)
cat (Eng) end (Eng)
edict (Lat) enfant terrible (Fr)
e.g. (Lat) (exempli gratia) enjoy (Fr Lat)
egg (Old Norse) equal (Lat)
elbow (Eng) etc. (Lat)
elder (Eng) excite (Fr Lat)
elk (Eng) expect (Lat)
elm (Eng) expert (Fr Lat)

F
face (Fr Lat) fish (Eng)
fair (Fr - Lat) fit (Eng)
fall (Eng) flower (Fr - Lat)
father (Eng) follow (Eng)
favour (Fr - Lat) for (Eng)
fellow (Eng - Old Norse) foul (Eng)
few (Eng) four (Eng)
field (Eng) fowl (Eng)
finance (Fr - Lat) fox (Eng)
finger (Eng) from (Eng)
fir (Old Norse) fruit (Fr - Lat)
first (Eng)
G
gander (Eng) goose (Eng)
genius (Lat) gorilla (Gk - (?) Afr)
get (Old Noise) grand (Fr)
girl (Eng) grape (Fr)
give (Fug) great (Eng)
go (Eng) green (Eng)
goat (Eng) grow (Eng)
gold (Eng)

H
habit (Fr - Lat) hen (Eng)
hair (Eng) herb (Fr- Lat)
hall (Eng) high (Eng)
hand (Eng) hippopotamus (Lat - Gk)
happen (Old Norse) history (Lat - Gk)
hare (Eng) home (Eng)
hazel nut (Eng) honour (Fr - Lat)
he (Eng) horse (Eng)
head (Eng) hound (Eng)
hear (Eng) hour (Fr - Lat - Gk)
house (Eng) husband (Eng)
humiliate (Lat)

I
I (Eng) ink (Fr - Lat - Gk)
idiot (Fr - Lat - Gk) intellect (Fr or Lat)
if (Eng) intelligence (Fr Lat)
in (Eng) it (Eng)

J
jug (?) juvenile (Fr - Lat)
jungle (Hind - Skr)
K
kangaroo (Austr) knave (Eng)
keep (Eng) knight (Eng)
khaki (Urdu) knock (Eng)
kill (Eng) know (Eng)
kind (Eng) Kremlin (Fr - Old Russ)
kindergarten (Ger)

L
lady (Eng) light (Eng)
land (Eng) lilac (Sp - Arab - Pers)
large (Fr - Lat) lime (Eng)
lark (Eng) lion (Anglo - French - Lat - Gk)
law (Eng - Old Norse) little (Eng)
leaf (Eng) live (Eng)
legal (Fr or Lat) long(Eng)
leitmotiv (Ger) look (Eng)
lemon (Fr - Arab) lord (Eng)
let (Eng) lose (Eng)
life (Eng) loud (Eng)

M
ma cher (Fr) mazurka (Fr or Ger - Pol)
machine (Fr - Lat - Gk) mean (Eng)
madam (Fr) measure (Fr)
magazine (Fr - It - Arab) meat (Eng)
Madeira (sp: after the geographical melodrama (Fr - Gk)
place) melon (Fr - Lat - Gk)
maize (Fr or Sp) mile (Lat)
majesty (Fr - Lat) milk (Eng)
man (Eng) minister (Fr - Lat)
mango (Port - Malay - Tamil) miserable (Fr - Lat)
manuscript (Lat) moan (Eng)
many (Eng) moment (Fr - Lat)
maple (Eng) Monday (Eng)
mare (Eng) monkey (Low Ger - Lat?)
margarine (Fr - Gk) monsieur (Fr)
marine (Fr - Lat) mood (Eng)
marshal (Fr) mother (Eng)
master (Fr - Lat) much (Eng)
match (Eng) mule (Fr - Lat)
may (Eng) mutton (Fr - Lat)
 N
naked (Eng) nightingale (Eng)
nation (Fr - Lat) noon (Lat)
nazi (Ger) not (Eng)
Negro (Sp & Port - Lat) number (Anglo - French - Lat)
neighbour (Eng) nun (Eng & Fr - Lat)
nice (Fr - Lat) nurse (Fr - Lat)
nickel (Ger) nut (Eng)

О
oak (Eng) opera (It - Lat)
ocean (Fr - Lat - Gk) operetta (It - Lat)
of (Eng) orange (Fr - Arab - Pers)
office (Fr - Lat) organization (Fr - Lat - Gk)
ohm (after the name of the German orthography (Fr - Lat - Gk)
physicist Ohm) owl (Eng)
oil (Fr Lat - Gk) ox (Eng)
old (Eng)

P
paint (Fr - Lat) pil (Lat)
palm (Fr - Eng - Lat) pily (Fr - Lat)
panic (Fr - Lat - Gk) place (Fr - Lat - Gk)
panther (Fr - Lat - Gk) plum (Eng - Lat)
paper (Anglo - French - Lat) p.m. (Lat)
pass (Fr - Lat) poet (Fr - Lat - Gk)
passion (Fr - Lat) polka (Fr & Ger - Czech)
past (Fr - Lat) ponder (Lat)
pay (Fr - Lat) poor (Fr - Lat)
pear (Eng - Lat) poplar (Fr - Lat)
pearl (Fr - Lat) pound (Eng - Lat)
pen (Fr - Lat) power (Fr - Lat)
penalty (Fr - Lat - Ger) practice (Fr - Lat - Gk)
people (Anglo - French - Lat) prelude (Fr or Lat)
perhaps (Lat + Sc) prepare (Fr - Lat)
persona grata (Lat) present (Fr - Lat)
piano (It - Lat) pressure (Fr - Lat)
pie (magpie) (Fr - Lat) prima donna (It)
pig (Eng) primitive (Fr - Lat)
pigeon (Fr - Lat) profound (Fr - Lat)
ріііат (Fr - Lat) propaganda (Lat)
pine (Eng - Lat) propose (Fr - Lat)
pipe (Lat) publish (Fr - Lat)

Q
quarter (Fr - Lat) quick (Eng)
queen (Eng)

R
rabbit (Du ?) rascal (Fr - Gmc)
rain (Eng) rat (Eng)
raise (Old Norse) raven (Eng)
rank (Fr) read (Eng)
recognize (Fr - Lat) resolute (Lat)
recommend (Fr - Lat) resolve (Lat)
rector (Fr or Lat) restore (Fr - Lat)
red (Eng) restrain (Fr - Lat)
reduce (Lat) rice (Fr - It - Lat - Gk)
regard (Fr - Lat) ride (Eng)
regenerate (Lat) right (Eng)
regret (Fr - Lat) romance (Fr - Lat)
remedy (Fr - Lat) room (Eng)
represent (Fr - Lat) rucksack (Ger)
rescue (Fr - Lat)

S
sable (Russ) society (Fr - Lat)
saint (Fr - Lat) solid (Fr - Lat)
sandwich (after the Earl of Sandwich) song (Eng)
say (Eng) soon (Eng)
scandal (Fr - Lat - Gk) soprano (It)
school (Fr - Lat - Gk) sorrow (Eng)
season (Fr - Lat) south (Eng)
see (Eng) sparrow (Eng)
self (Eng) speak (Eng)
sentence (Fr - Lat) spell (Eng)
sentiment (Fr - Lat) spinster (Eng)
serpent (Fr - Lat) spoon (Eng)
sewruga (Russ) spot (Eng)
shall (Eng) spring (Eng)
shawl (Urdu - Pers) square (Fr - Lat)
sheep (Eng) squirrel (Anglo - French - Lat - Gk)
sheet (Eng) staircase (Eng + Fr - Lat)
shepherd (Eng) standard (Fr - Lat)
sheriff (Eng) starve (Eng)
shoemaker (Eng) state (Fr - Lat)
shore (Eng) steppe (Russ)
short (Eng) stimulus (Lat)
sign (Fr - Lat) still (Eng)
signify (Fr - Lat) stone (Eng)
silhouette (Fr) straw (Eng)
silly (Eng) strong (Eng)
sing (Eng) subject (Fr - Lat)
sink (Eng) suit (Anglo - French - Lat)
sir (Fr - Lat) summer (Eng)
situate (Lat) Sunday (Eng)
six (Eng) surround (Anglo - French - Lat)
skin (Old Norse) swan-song (Eng)
sky (Old Norse) sweetmeat (Eng)
small (Eng) swine (Eng)
smile (Sc ?) sympathy (Fr - Lat - Gk)
social (Lat) system (Lat - Gk)

T
tailor (Anglo - French) taste (Fr - Lat)
take (Eng - Old Norse) tea (Du? - Chinese)
talent (Fr - Lat - Gk) teach (Eng)
telephone (Gk) tiger (Fr - Lat - Gk)
tell (Eng) to (Eng)
term (It - Lat) tobacco (Sp - American Indian)
tête-à-tête (Fr) Tory (Ir)
they (Old Norse) town (Eng)
thing (Eng) tragedy (Fr - Lat - Gk)
think (Eng) tree (Eng)
this (Eng) try (Fr)
three (Eng) turkey (after the geographical place:
through (Eng) Turkey)

U
ukase (Russ) understand (Eng)
umbrella (It - Lat) unique (Fr - Lat)
under (Eng)

V
vanilla (Sp - Lat) verste, verst (Russ)
vanity (Fr - Lat) vigour (Fr - Lat)
vase (Fr - Lat) vinegar (Fr - Lat)
veal (Fr - Lat) vodka (Russ)
verandah (Port - Sp)

W
wall (Eng -Lat) wind (Eng)
waltz (Ger) window (Old Norse)
water (Eng) wine (Lat)
way (Eng) winter (Eng)
wc (Eng) wish (Eng)
well (Eng) with (Eng)
what (Eng) wolf (Eng)
when (Eng) work (Eng)
wide (Eng) world (Eng)
wife (Eng) write (Eng)
willow (Eng)
Y
you (Eng) yet (Eng)
yesterday (Eng)

Z
zebra (It or Port - Congolese)
zink (Ger)
 APPENDIX 4
FRAGMENTS TAKEN FROM DICTIONARIES AND REFERENCE-BOOKS

I. The New Roger’s Thesaurus of the English Language in dictionary form by Norman
Lewis. Revised, Updated 1978 Edition. – G. P. Putnam’s sons, New York.
MUSIC. I. Nouns, music, melody, harmony; polyphony, contrapuntal composition; strain, tune,
air, measure; minstrelsy; piece of music, morceau (F.)\ rondo, rondeau, caprice, capriccio (//.),
nocturne, serenade, serenata, pastorale (//.), pastoral; cavatina, fantasia, toccata (//.); fugue,
canon; incidental music, medley, potpourri.
[instrumental music] orchestral score, full score; composition, opus (L.), concert piece;
concerto (//.); symphony, sonata, symphonic poem, tone poem; program music, chamber
music; movement; overture, prelude, Vorspiel (Ger.) / voluntary, accompaniment, lively
music, polka, reel, jig, hornpipe, mazurka, bolero, galop, gavot or gavotte, cotillion, cotillon
(F.); fox trot, two-step, blues, martial music, pibroch, march; allegro (//.). jazz, syncopation,
ragtime; jive, swing, bop, bebop, rock-'n-roll, boogie-woogie (all slang or colloq.); calypso; hit
parade, slow music, Lydian measures; largo (//.), adagio, andante (//.), lullaby, cradlesong,
berceuse (F.); dirge, coronach (Scot, and Irish), dead march; minuet, waltz. [vocal music]
psalmody, hymnology, hymnody; opera, grand opera, music drama, operetta.
solo, duet, duo (It.), trio, quartet, quintet, sestet or sextet, septet, double quartet, chorus; part
song, descant, glee, madrigal, catch, round, chorale; antiphon; inside part, second, alto, tenor,
bass; score, vocal score.
concert, musicale, musical (colloq.), entertainment, recital, chamber concert, popular concert
or pop (colloq.), singsong (colloq.), sing (colloq.), open-air concert; morning concert, aubade
(F.).
[musical terms] pitch, timbre, intonation, tone, tonality, overtone; harmonization,
orchestration, modulation, figuration' phrasing, syncopation, resolution, suspension; colorature,
coloratura (//.), variations, roulade, run, cadenza, cadence, bravura, trill, turn, arpeggio (//.);
staff or stave, line, space, brace, bar, rest; slur; scale, gamut, key, clef, chord; keynote, tonic;
passage, phrase, theme, note, symbol, character, musical note; sharp, flat, natural; grace, grace
note, appoggiatura (//.), acciaccatura (It.). breve, semibreve or whole note, minim or half note,
crotchet or quarter note, quaver or eighth note, semiquaver or sixteenth note, demisemiquaver
or thirty-second note; sustained note, undertone, drone, burden (of a bagpipe), bourdon,
interval, step; half step, half tone, semitone; harmonic interval, melodic interval, solmization,
solfeggio, sol-fa, tonic sol-fa.
II. Adjectives, musical, melodious, melodic, tuneful, canorous, euphonious, harmonious,
symphonic, symphonious, contrapuntal; orchestral, instrumental; classical, popular, modern;
vocal, choral, lyric, operatic, dramatic; philharmonic, music-loving.
florid, embellished, brilliant, flowery, elaborate, ornate, figurate, figural, figured.
See also HARMONY, MELODY, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, MUSICIAN, SINGING, SWEETNESS,
VOICE.

II. Pronunciation Dictionary / Compiled by J. C. Wells. – Longman House, Burnt Mill,

Harlow 1995.
music ['mju:zIk]

III. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. New Edition. – Pearson Education

Limited, 2003.
mu-sic ['mju:zIk] n [U]
1 a series of sounds made by instruments a way that is pleasant or exciting
listen to music
play music
write/compose music
pop/rock/jazz/classical/country music
live music (=music that is played by stage)
recorded music
background music
piece of music
music lover
I often listen to music when I'm in the car. | What’s your favourite kind of music? |
a record featuring the music of George Harrison | The band was playing music from the show
“South Pacific”. | Nyman writes the music for most of Peter Greenaway's films. | A country
music radio station | A lot of the bars round here have live music at weekends. | A new piece of
music was specially written for the occasion. | He was a keen music lover.
2 the art of writing or playing music: Peter’s studing music at college. | music lessons | music
business/industry etc a career in the music business
3 a set of written marks representing music, or paper with the written marks on it: I left my music
at home. | McCartney never learned to read music.  sheet music
4 be music to your ears if someone's words are music to your ears, they make you very happy
or pleased
5 set/put sth to music to write music so that the words of a poem, play etc can be sung  face
the music
GRAMMAR
 Do not say “musics” or “a music”. Music is an uncountable noun: I love listening to music
 Do not say “music band” or “music group”. Say band or group: Why don't we form a band?
You can also use a word that describes a type of music before band or group: a jazz band | a
rock group
 Do not say “music concert”. Say concert: It was the first time I'd been to a concert. You can
also use a word that describes a type of music before concert: pop concert | a classical music
concert

IV. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. – Oxford University Press, 2008.
music noun
1 arrangement of sounds for singing/playing
•ADJ. beautiful, good, great, wonderful | loud | quiet, soft, sweet The soft background music
made her feel sleepy. | heavy Heavy music thundered from the basement. | light | serious |
tonal | atonal, twelve-note | contrapuntal, polyphonic | original | live | recorded, taped |
background | piped | band, choral, instrumental, orchestral, symphonic | guitar,
keyboard, organ, piano, vocal, etc. | chamber | church, liturgical, religious, sacred |
secular | ballet, film, incidental, theme the incidental music for a radio play | computer,
electronic | Western | traditional | period Appropriate period music can be played on visits
to a historic building. | experimental | avant-garde, Baroque, classical, contemporary,
early, medieval, modern | black, calypso, country, dance, disco, ethnic, folk, gospel, indie,
jazz, pop/popular, rap, rave, reggae, rock, soul, underground, world
• QUANT. piece I bar, line
• VERB + MUSIC listen to Listening to music is a gret way to relax. | hear She could hear
music coming from the upstairs flat. / make, perform, play We love to make music as a
family | play, put on Put some music on, would you? (= play a CD/cassette) | turn down/up
Could you turn that music down? | compose, write | arrange | put/set sth to Schubert set
several poems by Goethe to music. | create, produce With the guidance of the conductor, an
orchestra creates music and harmonies. The city has produced a lot of good music. | provide
a beach party with music provided by a local band | broadcast | record | be into, enjoy, like,
 love She’s really into rock music. | get into He got into music (= became involved in the music
business) by chance.
•MUSIC + VERB play Calypso music played faintly inthe distance. | blare, thunder disco music
blaring out of the open windows of a car | come, drift The music was coming from next door.
•MUSIC + NOUN business, industry | scene Birmingham's live music scene | world She is a
rising star in the music world. | press The album has been praised in the music press. | charts
The band are number one in the music charts. | festival | appreciation | fan, lover |critic,
director, teacher the choir's music director | group | centre We bought a new television and
music centre at the weekend. | video | room
• PREP. to (the) ~ to dance to the music
• PHRASES in time to (the) music They did their exercises in time to the music. music and song
an evening of Scottish music and song the sound of music The sound of pop musk drifted
through the open window. A stale of music, taste in music Her taste in music was wide.
Words and music He made up the words and music for the song.
2 written signs that represent musical sounds
• ADJ. printed, sheet
• QUANT. bar, line, sheet
• VERB + MUSIC read Can you read music?
• MUSIC + NOUN score / stand Put your music on the music stand. / publisher, publishing
• PREP. ~for music for piano, cello and voice
• PHRASES play/sing, etc. with/without (the) music

V. РУССКО-АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ОБЪЯСНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ СЛОВАРЬ: СЛОВАРЬ РУССКО-

АНГЛИЙСКИХ СООТВЕТСТВИЙ / С. С. Хидекель, М. Р. Кауль. – М.: АСТ: Астрель:
Хранитель, 2007.
ЖУРНАЛ, сущ. – 1. magazine 2. journal

Русское существительное журнал относится ко всем типам журналов и

cоответствует двум английским существительным, которые различаются по
характеру печатаемого в них материала.
1. magazine [mxg'zJn] – журнал (периодическое издание общего типа, освещающее
разные стороны повседневной деятельности, жизни человека):
a weekly (monthly) magazine – еженедельный (ежемесячный) журнал; a fashion magazine
– журнал мод; a garden magazine – журнал по садоводству; a magazine article – журнальная
статья; a new weekly magazine program – программа теле-/радиопередач на неделю
2. journal [GWn(q)l]- журнал, труды (журнал, печатающий научные и общественно-
политические материалы):
a scientific journal – научный журнал; the British Medical Journal – журнал Британского
медицинского общества; the Wall Street Journal – финансовая газета Америки

VI. Business English: Словник-довідник з ділової англійської мови / Уклад.:

К. Заплішна. – Х.: ВД «Школа», 2010.
завантажувати (дані, файли) інформаційні технології, IT
download information technology, IT
запам'ятовувальний пристрій інформація
(машини) data, information
memory, storage, store картридж (касета)
запис cartridge
record, register кишеньковий комп'ютер
запит (інформації) personal digital assistant, PDA
query кібернетика
зареєстрований користувач cybernetics
named user кіберпростір
захист cyberspace
security клавіатура
захист даних keyboard
data protection клієнт-сервер
зашифровані дані client server

VII. Баранцев К. Т. Словник синонімів англійської мови. – Київ: Радянська школа,

1064.
become, v.: fit, match, suit
У значенні “підходити” ці синоніми розрізняються за додатковою характеристикою
поняття, яке вони передають.
То become вказує на те, що річ або дія має приємний вигляд, личить комусь або
підходить до чогось, є гідною когось або чогось (this style of dress becomes you very well —
цей фасон плаття вам дуже до лиця; it does not become you to say it — не вам це казати).
То fit підкреслює, що дві речі підходять одна до одної, що щось добре підігнано до
чогось (the key fits the lock — ключ підходить до замка; to fit like a glove — бути якраз,
дуже щільно облягати).
То match має відтінок значення “бути одного або майже одного розміру, кольору,
одної форми тощо; підходити, відповідати” (the trimming does not match the hat —
прикраса не підходить до капелюха), а також “сполучати, сполучатися” (they are well
matched — з них гарна пара).
То suit має відтінок значення “відповідати призначенню чи вимогам; бути до смаку
або зручним для когось; підходити, ставати у пригоді; личити” (red suits her complexion —
червоне їй личить).
Mrs. Lodge was by this time close to the door — not in her silk...but in a morning hat, and
gown of common light material, which became her better than silk (Th. Hardy, 2, p. 58).
Her dress was gray and plain, but it fitted her figure with fidelity and discretion (O. Henry,
p. 17).
You lent one of your handkerchiefs to my lieutenant when . you robbed him... [He looks at
the two handkerchiefs).
They match one another (B. Shaw, lip. 113).
Ail her features seemed to have taken a more definite line. And it did not suit her, really
(K.S. Prichard, 1, p. 120).

VIII. Семотюк О. П. Сучасний словник іншомовних слів. – Х.: Веста: Видавництво

«Ранок», 2008.
розетка [фр. rosette, зменш. від rose — троянда]
1) тех. пристрій для під'єднання електроприладів до мережі; 2) блюдечко для варення,
меду; 3) нашивка зі стрічок, тасьми у формі квітки на жіночих капелюшках, одязі,
взутті; 4) заст. орденський бант; 5) орнаментальний мотив у вигляді круглої квітки з
однаковими пелюстками (у мистецтві архітектури); 6) назва деяких побутових речей
(напр., абажура), що за формою нагадують квітку.

IX. Англо-український словник / Уклад.: Є. І. Гороть, Л. К. Коцюк, Л. К. Малімон,

А. Б. Павлюк. – Вінниця: Нова книга, 2006.
music ['mju:zIk] п 1. музика; folk ~ народна музика; light ~ легка музика; modern ~
сучасна музика; serious ~ серйозна музика; а ~ school музична школа; the ~ to a
film музика до фільму; the ~ to a play музика до п'єси; set to ~ покладений на
музику; to appreciate ~ цінувати музику; to compose ~ писати музику; to enjoy ~
насолоджуватися музикою; to love ~ любити музику; to understand ~ розуміти
музику; to dance to ~ танцювати під музику; to listen to ~ слухати музику; 2.
музичний твір; orchestral ~ оркестровий твір; оркестрова музика; 3. ноти; to play
without ~ грати без нот; 4. спів птахів; шелест листя; дзюрчання струмка; 5. музичний
інструмент; 6. заст. оркестр; хор; 7. амер. розм. схвильованість; 8. амер. розвага.
X. NTC’s Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions / Richard A. Spears. –
National Textbook Company, a division of NTC Publishing Group. Lincolnwood, Illinois
USA, 1989.
mush 1. n. NONSENSE. □ What mush! Come on, talk straight! □ That's just mush. Don't believe
it. 2. n. ROMANCE; LOVEMAKING; KISSING. □ I can't stand movies with lots of mush in them.
□ When an actor looks at an actress like that, you just know that there's gonna be some
mush. 3. n. ONE'S FACE. (CRUDE.) □ Put some paint on your mush, and let's get going. □
With a mush like that, you ought to be in pictures. Maybe another King Kong remake.
mushhead n. A STUPID PERSON. □ Oh, good grief, I'm such a mushhead! □ Who is the
mushhead in the cowboy boots?
mushmouth n. A PERSON WHO DOES NOT OR CANNOT SPEAK CLEARLY. □ Don't be a
mushmouth. Talk plainly. □ How can a mushmouth like that get a job reading news on
network television?

XI. Інновації у словниковому складі англійської мови ХХІ століття: англо-

український словник неологізмів / Уклад.: Ю. А. Зацний, А. В. Янков. – Вінниця:
Нова книга, 2008.
OPPO GUY, n політичний ділок, який спеціалізується на чорному піарі, компрометуючих
матеріалах проти політичних опонентів
There will be knowing looks all around this town if you proffer a spin about White House
oppo guys who dug up dish and Borked political opponents to counter the right-wing hitmen
who are sliming the president. (The Arizona Republic, Sept. 17, 2004).
OPPOSITION RESEARCH, v “розкопувати”, добувати компрометуючу інформацію про
політичного опонента
ORANGE REVOLUTION помаранчева революція в Україні у 2004 році
...began with the Iranian evening news before switching to a 50-minute documentary alleging
U.S. plots to foment revolution in Iran. The program showed scenes from Ukraine's Orange
Revolution, then flashed images of President Bush pledging to spread freedom worldwide.
(The Washington Post, July 19, 2007).

XII. Хидекель С. С., Кауль М. Р. Англо-русский словарь наиболее употребительной

лексики. – М.: Форкис, 1994.
play v играть; to ~ football (chess, games) играть в футбол (шахматы, игры); to ~ the
piano (violin) играть на рояле (скрипке); to ~ with smb играть с кем-л.; to ~ with a doll
играть в куклы; to ~ ball играть в мяч; to ~ well (badly) играть хорошо (плохо); to ~ а joke
on smb подшутить над кем-л., сыграть с кем-л. шутку.
U S A G Е: В отличие от русского играть на чем-либо, во что-либо английское play употребляется без
предлога. С названиями игр существительное употребляется без артикля play chess (hide and seek,
dominoes, cards, football, etc.); с названиями музыкальных инструментов с определенным артиклем
play the violin (the piano, the cello, etc.).

XIII. Українсько-англійський словник / Уклад.: Є. І. Гороть, С. В. Бєлова,

Л. К. Малімон. – Вінниця: Нова книга, 2009.
нов||ина news (sg); (звістка) tidings (pl); цікава ~ина an interesting piece of news; titbit;
амер. tidbit; це не ~ина that is no news; повний ~ин full of news; розм. newsy; ♦ добра
~ина, коли новин нема присл. по news is good news (особл коли чекають чогось
поганого).
ПРИМІТКА: Українському новина, звістка в англійській мові відповідають news, tidings. Ці
синоніми розрізняються додатковими характеристиками поняття, яке вони передають, та
стилістичним забарвленням. News – стилістично нейтральне слово, воно означає новину, яка може
або цікавити нас, або ні. Tidings – це новина, чутка, яку чекають (як правило, це звістка від
родичів, друзів, знайомих, які зараз відсутні); вважається літературним та поетичним словом.
 Іменник news відноситься до групи іменників, які мають форму множини, але значення однини. До
них відносяться назви деяких ігор і хвороб: billiards, dominoes, cards, measles, etc. Вони
узгоджуються з дієсловом в однині: Here is the news. Слухайте останні вісті.
Іменник news не може вживатися з неозначеним артиклем. Якщо хочуть підкреслити, що йдеться про
якусь одну новину, вживається вираз a piece (a bit, an item) of news (див. коментар до слова advice),
новинка novelty.

XIV Morphology of the English Verb: System and Functioning: Reference-book /Ред.
В. И. Перебейнос. – М.: РГГУ, 2008.
CROSS 1176/34: F 718/29; D 327/10; S 67/10; P 64/12
F- (we) CROSSED45.96 CROSSING12.12 TO CROSS11.14 (P II) CROSSED6.69
D - CROSSES67.58
S - TO CROSS46.27 CROSSING22.39 (WE) CROSS7.46
P - (we) CROSSED34.38 TO CROSS23.44 CROSSING18.75
F - SIR LAWRENCE TOOK A CHAIR, CROSSED HIS KNEES AND THREADED HIS FINGER-TIPS (G). SOAMES SAT DOWN, CROSSING HIS KNEES IN HIS ACCUSTOMED MANNER

(G). HE MADE A MOVEMENT TO CROSS INTO TRAFFIC (G). AFTERWARDS HE SAT AWAY FROM THE TABLE WITH HIS LEGS OUTSTRETCHED AND CROSSED (CP).
D - He takes his guitar and crosses to the 4oor (AP).
S - To be able to cross from one side of the gravity incline to the other it is necessary to
make a connection below or above it (EM). It should be noted that with either of these
systems, crossing traffic presents no more problem than it does today (JN). The moment
we cross C we switch off the map display from the dead reconing computer (JN).
P - According to the school board, only 2.447 teachers crossed picket lines yesterday (DW1).
We We drawn our line here, it's up to the federal government to cross it (CT). Five of the
seven were charged with crossing state lines to incite a riot (DW1).
F - had crossed5.57 (may) cross5.01(we) cross2.51 was crossing1.81
D - crossing23.85
S - crosses5.97
P - (may) cross6.25
F - SOAMES LED TILL THEY HAD CROSSED TO THE FAR SIDE, AND THERE HE STOPPED (G).
COME ALONG, LET'S CROSS (G). OUR TRACKS CROSS, THAT'S ALL (GR). I WAVED TO
AYMO WHO WAS CROSSING AND TO THE OTHERS TO COME ON (H).
D - He avoids Alison's eyes, crossing to the window (MEP).
S - One need only be able to detect the number of times the signal crosses the zero axis (the
carrier signal) in a given period of time (El).
P - We'll cross that bridge when we come to it (MS).

XV. Ukrainian-English Dictionary: Economics * Finance * Banking * Investments * Banl

Loans /Compiled by S. Ya. Yermolenko, V. I. Yermolenko. – К.: Школаб 2003.
податок на корпорації corporation tax
податок на надприбуток excess profit(s) tax; windfall tax
податок на непередбачені windfall tax
прибутки
податок на нерухомість real estate tax; property tax
податок на особисту власність wealth tax
податок на перевищення фонду excess wage tax
заробітної плати
XVI. Eric Partridge. A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. – UK:
Routledge, 2008.
cactus
 c.1600, from L. cactus "cardoon," from Gk. kaktos, name of a type of prickly
plant of Sicily (the Spanish artichoke), perhaps of pre-Hellenic origin. Modern
meaning is 18c., because Linnaeus gave the name to a group of plants he thought
were related to this but are not.

XVII. Britannica, 2009. Ultimate Reference Suite.

Introduction

Music is art concerned with combining vocal or instrumental sounds for beauty of form or
emotional expression, usually according to cultural standards of rhythm, melody, and, in most
Western music, harmony.

Both the simple folk song and the complex electronic composition belong to the same activity,
music. Both are humanly engineered; both are conceptual and auditory, and these factors have
been present in music of all styles and in all periods of history, Eastern and Western.

Music is an art that, in one guise or another, permeates every human society. Modern music is
heard in a bewildering profusion of styles, many of them contemporary, others engendered in
past eras. Music is a protean art; it lends itself easily to alliances with words, as in song, and with
physical movement, as in dance. Throughout history, music has been an important adjunct to
ritual and drama and has been credited with the capacity to reflect and influence human emotion.
Popular culture has consistently exploited these possibilities, most conspicuously today by
means of radio, film, television, and the musical theatre. The implications of the uses of music in
psychotherapy, geriatrics, and advertising testify to a faith in its power to affect human
behaviour. Publications and recordings have effectively internationalized music in its most
significant, as well as its most trivial, manifestations. Beyond all this, the teaching of music in
primary and secondary schools has now attained virtually worldwide acceptance.

But the prevalence of music is nothing new, and its human importance has often been
acknowledged. What seems curious is that, despite the universality of the art, no one until recent
times has argued for its necessity. The ancient Greek philosopher Democritus explicitly denied
any fundamental need for music: “For it was not necessity that separated it off, but it arose from
the existing superfluity.” The view that music and the other arts are mere graces is still
widespread, although the growth of psychological understanding of play and other symbolic
activities has begun to weaken this tenacious belief.

Music is treated in a number of articles. For the history of music in different regions, see music,
African; music and dance, Oceanic; music, Western; arts, Central Asian; arts, East Asian; arts,
Islamic; arts, Native American; arts, South Asian; and arts, Southeast Asian. Folk music is
covered within folk art. Other aspects of music are treated in counterpoint, harmony,
instrumentation, mode, musical criticism, musical composition, musical performance, music
recording, musical sound, musical notation, rhythm, scale, and tuning and temperament. See also
such articles as blues, chamber music, choral music, concerto, electronic music, fugue, jazz,
opera, rhythm and blues, rock, rock and roll, symphony, sonata, theatre music, and vocal music.
Musical instruments are treated in electronic instrument, keyboard instrument, percussion
instrument, stringed instrument, and wind instrument, as well as in separate articles on individual
instruments, such as clarinet, drum, guitar, piano, and theremin. ….

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