GE Oil & Gas

Basics of
Thermodynamics
Product Overview
Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 The concept of System ................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 The concept of State ................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 The concept of Equilibrium ......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 The concept of Process ............................................................................................................... 3
1.5 The Equation of State.................................................................................................................. 4
2 Exchanges of Heat and Work ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Heat..................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Work ............................................................................................................................................ 5
3 Laws of Thermodynamics .......................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics .......................................................................................... 7
3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy....................................................... 7
3.2.1 Work done in an adiabatic process and Enthalpy...................................................... 8
3.3 Thermodynamic Cycles ............................................................................................................... 9
3.3.1 The Carnot Cycle ...................................................................................................... 11
3.3.2 The Ideal Brayton Cycle ........................................................................................... 12
3.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics ....................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Representation of Thermodynamic Processes in T-s coordinates ......................... 14
3.4.2 Irreversibility, entropy changes and lost work. ....................................................... 14
4 Compression with intercooling ................................................................................................................ 16
5 Euler Turbomachinery Equation .............................................................................................................. 18
6 Recommended Books .............................................................................................................................. 20
 Basics of Thermodynamics
This document is not intended to substitute a book on Thermodynamics; it recalls some thermodynamic
concepts that could be useful deepening in order to better understand some aspects of
Turbomachineries and their operation mode.

At the end of the document are listed some Books you can use as guidelines for this topic; you can
download them directly from Knovel (http://why.knovel.com).
Knovel is a cloud-based application integrating technical information with analytical and search tools to
drive innovation and deliver answers engineers can trust; you can register for free using your company
email.

1 Introduction
Thermodynamics basically deals with transformations of energy and relationships between heat and
work.

The focus of Thermodynamics in some sectors of engineering could be the production of work, often in
the form of kinetic energy or shaft power, from different sources of heat.
Here below there is a sort of chain in which is showed how an energy source can be transformed into
useful work.

Energy Source: Heat (e.g. from

Chemical, combustion Useful Work
Nuclear, etc. process)

In Thermodynamics applied to engineering a macroscopic description of matter is used, avoiding the

microscopic one; this mainly because microscopic quantities are generally not so useful for determining
how macroscopic systems act or react.

1.1 The concept of System

A thermodynamic system could be considered as a quantity of matter of fixed identity.
It is possible to draw boundaries (fixed or moveable) around it; work and/or heat can be transferred
across these boundaries. Everything outside the boundary is the external environment or surroundings.

Fig. 1.1: Piston (boundary) and gas (system) Fig. 1.2: Boundary around an electric motor
An isolated system is a system whose boundaries cannot be crossed overall; on the other hand a closed
system is able to exchange energy (heat and work) but not matter with the external environment. These
concepts will help to understand the principle of the conservation of mass for these systems.

1.2 The concept of State

The thermodynamic state of a system is defined by specifying a set of measurable properties sufficient
to determine all other properties of the system in that condition.
For most part of systems, typical properties are:
- Pressure
- Volume
- Temperature
Properties may be extensive or intensive; extensive properties are additive (volume).
Intensive properties (temperature and pressure) don’t depend on the quantity of matter present.
Another important definition is related to specific quantities; specific properties are intensive, so per
unit mass, because they are divided by the mass. They are denoted by lower case letters.

1.3 The concept of Equilibrium

A system is in an equilibrium state if its properties have definite, unchanged values as long as external
conditions are unchanged.
It is possible to talk about two form of equilibrium above all:
- Mechanical Equilibrium: no unbalanced forces
- Thermal Equilibrium: no temperature differences

1.4 The concept of Process

If the state of a system changes, it means a process is undergoing. The succession of states through
which the system passes defines the path of the process.
If, at the end of the process, the properties have returned to their original values, the system has
undergone a cyclic process or a cycle.
Note that even if a system has returned to its original state and completed a cycle, the state of the
external environment may have changed.
1.5 The Equation of State
To define the state of a pure substance (we are talking about single phase substance) in equilibrium, two
properties are needed; if we consider a gas, properties we have to take into account are:

𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑣, 𝑇) ; 𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑃, 𝑇); 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑃, 𝑣)

1
𝑣: volume per unit mass =
𝜌

If we know two of these properties, the third is determined; from this concept is derived the equation of
state:

𝑓 = (𝑃, 𝑣, 𝑇) = 0

For an ideal gas it is: 𝑃𝑣̅ = 𝑅𝑇

𝑣̅ : volume per mole of gas

𝑘𝐽
𝑅: Universal Gas Constant = 8,31
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic
and in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces.
2 Exchanges of Heat and Work
A system can change its state thanks to interactions with the environment (surroundings) through two
different modes of energy transfer: heat and work.

2.1 Heat
Heat can be simply defined as the energy transferred due to temperature differences; this is true only if
we consider sensible heat.
In general sensible heat is the heat exchanged by a body that changes its temperature; on the other
hand the latent heat is the energy released or absorbed by a body during a process at constant
temperature. A typical example is a change of state of matter, meaning a phase transition such as the
melting of ice or the boiling of water

Talking about sensible heat there are some important concepts to remember:
- Adiabatic processes are processes in which no heat is transferred
- Heat needed to go from one state to another is dependent from the path (single phase)
- Heat is identified as it comes across the boundaries of the body

2.2 Work
Starting from the definition of heat it’s easy to say that any other way for changing the energy of a
system is called work.
There can be different works:
- Push work (e.g. in a piston-cylinder, lifting a weight)
- Electric and magnetic work (e.g. an electric motor)
- Chemical work
- Surface tension work
- Elastic work etc.
The work 𝑊 is positive when the system does it on surroundings (energy leaves the system); it is
negative if done on the system (energy added to the system).

Let’s consider as our system a compressible substance, a gas for example; we apply a force on the
surroundings using a piston that during its movement goes through a distance𝑙, the work done on the
surroundings will be, in differential form:

Fig. 2.1: System (gas into a cylinder) pushed by a piston going through a distance l
 𝑑𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ∗ 𝑑𝑙

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟.
𝑑𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = ∗ area ∗ 𝑑𝑙
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑑𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟. ∗ dV

𝑑𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝 ∗ dV

So, integrating we’ll have:

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑑𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑝 ∗ dV
𝑉1 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 𝑉1

About exchanges of heat and work we can have one, the other, or both: it depends on what crosses the
system boundary (and thus, on how we define our system).
Let’s consider a resistor that is heating a volume of water:

Fig. 2.2: Resistor heating water

- If the water is the system, then the state of the system will be changed by heat transferred from the
resistor.
- If the system is the water and the resistor combined, then the state of the system will be changed by
electrical work.
3 Laws of Thermodynamics

3.1 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics introduces the concept of thermal equilibrium and temperature
stating that every system has a certain temperature and when two systems are in thermal equilibrium,
their temperatures are equal.
Another way of stating this law is that two systems which are individually in thermal equilibrium with a
third one, are also in thermal equilibrium with each other; in these conditions all three systems have the
same value of the property called temperature.

In conclusion for every thermodynamic system in equilibrium exists a property called temperature.
Equality of temperature is a necessary and sufficient condition for thermal equilibrium between two or
more objects.

3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy

For every system exists a property called energy 𝐸; it can be considered as the sum of internal energy,
kinetic energy, potential energy, and chemical energy.
As the Zeroth Law, which defines a useful property, the temperature, the First Law defines a useful
property called Energy; it has several components, such as kinetic, chemical, internal energy U.
Internal Energy arises from the random or disorganized motion of molecules in the system; since this
molecular motion is primarily a function of temperature, the internal energy is sometimes called
thermal energy.

Fig.3.1: Internal energy is based on random motions

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that the energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be
changed from one form to another.
The internal energy is a function of the state of the system so, as just said in paragraph 1.5, we can write
(single phase):

𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑝, 𝑣); 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑣, 𝑇); 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑝, 𝑇)

The First Law states that the change in energy of a system is equal to the difference between the heat
added to the system and the work done by the system itself.
 ∆𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 or ∆𝑒 = 𝑞 − 𝑤 per mass unit

𝑊: Work done on the system

𝑄: Heat input to the system

𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 +..

If we consider the variation of these quantities: ∆𝑬 = ∆𝑼 because in many cases the other components
don’t vary or are less important.
Remember that 𝑈 is a function of state while 𝑊 and 𝑄 aren’t.
The First law can also be written in differential form:

𝑑𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 or 𝑑𝑒 = 𝛿𝑞 − 𝛿𝑤 per mass unit

Note: Here we won’t explain the difference between exact (𝑑) and inexact (𝛿) differentials in
thermodynamics; in a very simplistic way it is possible to say that when a function has exact differentials, it is a
state function of the system.

3.2.1 Work done in an adiabatic process and Enthalpy

In an adiabatic process 𝑄 = 0 and the first law can be written as:

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

Let’s consider a generic adiabatic process 1-2.

∆𝑈 = −𝑊

𝑊 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 (Paragraph 2.2)

𝑈2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑈1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1

The initial and the final state of the system have the same value of the quantity 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉; this quantity
depends on the state and from now on will be called enthalpy, denoted by 𝐻.

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 or ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 per mass unit

Once introduced the concept of enthalpy, coming back to the First Law (we are not considering an
adiabatic process now) it is possible to express it in differential form in terms of enthalpy:

𝑑𝐻 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 + 𝑝𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑝

Here we won’t investigate on physical considerations that lead to this form of the First Law.
3.3 Thermodynamic Cycles
Here are exposed some concepts useful to understand how different heat engines work.
A heat engine is a device that uses heat to produce work, or alternatively uses work to move around
heat; refrigerators, internal combustion engines (diesel engine, jet engine, etc.) are different types of
heat engines.
Considering these engines and applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to their cycles, it’s possible to
estimate thermal efficiency and work output as a function of pressures and temperatures at various
points in the cycle (Paragraph 1.4)
The ideal cycle analysis (ideal gas as working fluid and ideal components of the machine that operates
the cycle) represents the best achievable performance that may be obtained from a heat engine; the
real performance of these systems will be somewhat less than the estimates obtained from ideal cycle
analysis.

In the preliminary analysis of a thermodynamic cycle we make some approximations:

- Use a standard-air cycle: air is the working fluid

- Combustion is represented by heat transfer from an external thermal source, without losses

- All processes are internally reversible

- Air is considered as an ideal gas

There are two types of processes that concern interactions between heat and work. The first is the
conversion of work into heat; the second concerns the conversion of heat into work.
The problem is how efficient can the conversion be in the two cases.

Fig. 3.2: Examples of conversion of work into heat

Fig. 3.3: Example of conversion of heat into work

In the first three cases there is a total conversion of work into heat.
The figure 3.3 shows an example of a process in which heat is converted to work; it is the isothermal
(constant temperature) expansion of an ideal gas.
The system is the gas inside the chamber; as the gas expands, the piston does work on some external
devices.
For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of temperature only, so that if the temperature is
constant the internal energy change is zero. To keep the temperature constant during the expansion,
heat must be supplied.
Because ∆𝑈 = 0 the first law takes the form 𝑄 = 𝑊. This is a process that has 100% conversion of heat
into work.

Let’s consider a device that is able to provide power as long as fuel is added to it; in order to guarantee
this operation is needed a series of processes in which the system (our device) does not progress
through a one-way transition from an initial state to a different final state, but rather can cycle back to
the initial state. This is the description of a Thermodynamic Cycle.

Once defined the cycle is possible to define some important quantities related to it:

- 𝑄𝐻 : is the heat adsorbed by the system

- 𝑄𝐿 : is the heat rejected by the system

- 𝑊: is the net work done by the system

Stand on the definition of cycle, the variation of internal energy is zero, so:
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿

The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is defined as the ratio between the work done to the heat
absorbed. In terms of the heat absorbed and rejected, the thermal efficiency is:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝜂 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = = =1−
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

The thermodynamic efficiency can be 100% only if 𝑄𝐿 = 0 that occurs only in ideal cycles.
3.3.1 The Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle, constituted by four processes:
- 2 adiabatic reversible transformations (𝑄 = 0; ∆𝑆 = 0  we’ll see it later)
- 2 isothermal reversible transformations (∆𝑇 = 0; ∆𝑆 = 0)
A system that operates a Carnot Cycle can be a chamber enclosed by a piston and filled with air,
considered as an ideal gas.

Fig.3.4: Gas-piston model for Carnot Cycle

Fig. 3.5: pV diagram and Ts diagram of a system operating a Carnot Cycle

Let’s see in depth the four processes:

1-2 The system goes from the state 1, temperature 𝑇1 and pressure 𝑝1 , to the state 2, temperature
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 and pressure 𝑝2 . The process 1-2 is an isothermal expansion, during which the system receives
heat from an external source at constant temperature 𝑄𝐻 , and does work on the surroundings.
𝛥𝑇 = 0 → 𝛥𝑈 = 0

2-3 The system continues to expand, moving from pressure 𝑝2 to pressure 𝑝3 , lower than the first one.
This process is adiabatic, so thermally insulated; during the expansion the system cools down to 𝑇3 .
𝑄=0
3-4 The system through an isothermal compression increase its pressure; system is compressed and it
receive work from the exit (negative work) and there is a loss of heat, 𝑄𝐿 .
𝛥𝑇 = 0 → 𝛥𝑈 = 0

4-1 The last transformation is an adiabatic compression; surroundings continue to do work on the
system.
𝑄=0

3.3.2 The Ideal Brayton Cycle

The Brayton cycle, also called Joule cycle, represents the operation cycle of a Gas Turbine engines.

Fig. 3.6: Brayton cycle pV diagram and Ts diagram

The cycle consists of four processes:

1-2 Adiabatic reversible compression of the gas from the suction pressure and temperature, 𝑝1 ; 𝑇1 to
𝑝2 ; 𝑇2 .

2-3 Isobaric combustion which lead the flue gases (air+fuel) to 𝑇3 that is the Turbine Inlet Temperature
TIT. This transformation is idealized as constant pressure heat addition.

3-4 Adiabatic reversible expansion in the turbine section; this has two effects:
- take some work to drive the axial compressor of the turbine itself
- take the remaining work out and use it to drive the load

4-1 Cool the gases at constant pressure back to its initial conditions
There exist two solutions for this cycle: open Brayton cycle and closed Bayton cycle. In the first case the
working fluid enters and then exits the device; in the second one the working fluid is recirculated, heat
exchangers.

Fig.3.7: Open Brayton cycle and Closed Brayton cycle

3.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Up to now ideal processes have been considered; these processes are defined as reversible.
If we consider a real process, we have to take into account losses related to the process itself. An
irreversible process is defined as a process for which there is no way to undo the changes occurred,
leaving no mark on the surroundings.
The measurement and characterization of this type of changes, that basically is losing the ability to do
work, is the subject of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
In addition to conservation laws, any physical system also satisfies the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
which is based on the concept of entropy.
There are many ways to define entropy; for example, in traditional thermodynamics, entropy is defined
as the ratio of reversible heat transfer to temperature.

𝑄 𝛿𝑄
𝑆= or in differential form 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇 𝑇

Beyond this definition, more intuitively, entropy could be considered as disorder or loss of information
about the considered system.
More specifically, for a given thermodynamic state, entropy measures how much is known about the
positions, velocities, rotations, vibrations, and all the other quantities of the system.
In few words if the thermodynamic state describes the average state of the microscopic particles of a
system, we can say that entropy measures deviations from the average.
Zero entropy corresponds to perfect knowledge of the microscopic states of the gas particles whereas
increasing entropy corresponds to increasing uncertainty about the microscopic states of the gas
particles.
The entropy change of a system during any process depends only upon its initial and final states and not
upon the path of the process by which it proceeds from its initial to its final state. One can devise a
reversible idealized process to restore a system to its initial state following a change and thereby
determine:

∆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆𝑖

3.4.1 Representation of Thermodynamic Processes in T-s coordinates

It is often useful to plot the thermodynamic state transitions and the cycles in terms of temperature (or
enthalpy) and entropy, T-s diagram, rather than P-v diagram.
This method is useful because it permits to highlight some important concepts; the maximum
temperature is often the constraint on the process and the enthalpy changes show the work done or
heat received directly, so that plotting in terms of these variables provides insight into the process.
A Carnot cycle, we have already seen, is shown below in these coordinates; it is a rectangle, with two
horizontal, constant temperature legs. The other two legs are reversible and adiabatic, hence isentropic
𝑑𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣
(𝑑𝑆 = = 0 ) transformations, and therefore vertical in T-s coordinates.
𝑇

In the same way is showed the ideal Brayton cycle; it is constituted by two isentropic transformation (a
compression and an expansion) and two transformations at constant pressure (adding and losing of
heat).

Fig. 3.8: representation on T-s diagram of Carnot cycle and Brayton cycle

3.4.2 Irreversibility, entropy changes and lost work.

In the real life there could be big differences between the ideal path and the real one you can follow to
reach a certain point.
These differences exist also in thermodynamics; in particular for each type of transformation it is
possible to consider the ideal and the real (or irreversibile) one.
Let’s consider a compression and an expansion; these are also two of the four processes that compose
the Brayton cycle.

𝚫𝒔

Fig. 3.9 Ideal and real compression on T-s diagram

The ideal compression is a reversible process characterized by no increase of entropy; considering that
the work is equal to the variation of enthalpy (we are considering an adiabatic process) we can write the
work absorbed by the compressor the ideal and real case as follow:

- Work absorbed by compressor in the ideal case; it is negative because is a work done on the system
(our system is the gas)
𝑊𝑐𝑖𝑑 = ℎ2𝑖𝑑 − ℎ1

- Work absorbed by compressor in real case; it is negative because is a work done on the system (our
system is the gas)
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ℎ2𝑖𝑟𝑟 − ℎ1

As it is showed in the diagram 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 > 𝑊𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 and it is possible to define an isentropic efficiency for the
compressor that relates the two transformations:

𝑊𝑐𝑖𝑑
𝜂𝐶𝑖𝑠 =
𝑊𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑟

Same considerations can be done about an expansion in a turbine wheel; the work is now positive
because it is done by the system.

𝑊𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑖𝑑
 𝑊𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑟 = ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑖𝑟𝑟

𝑊𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑟
𝜂𝑇𝑖𝑠 =
𝑊𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

4 Compression with intercooling

Before starting to discuss about this methods let’s list some useful thermodynamic equations; here we
won’t demonstrate why these equation have this form.
1−𝑘
Adiabatic process: 𝑝𝑣 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 ; 𝑇𝑣 𝑘−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 ; 𝑇𝑝 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 with 𝑘 that can be
approximately defined as isentropic exponent.

If we consider an isentropic compression process from 1 to 2 (fig. 4.1), the temperature increases due to
an isotropic compression:

Fig. 4.1: Compression 1-2 in T-s diagram

𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑘
=� �
𝑇1 𝑃1

where:

𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟

𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟

𝑝1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟

𝑝2 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑘 = 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
If a real compression occurs, the increase of temperature is bigger than the ideal one; referring to the
definition of isentropic efficiency we can write:

𝑊𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2𝑖𝑑 − 𝑇1 ) (𝑇2𝑖𝑑 − 𝑇1 )

𝜂𝑖𝑠 𝐶 = = 𝑖𝑑 = =
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 ℎ2𝑖𝑟𝑟 − ℎ1 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 − 𝑇1 ) (𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 − 𝑇1 )

(𝑇2𝑖𝑑 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇1 −
𝜂𝑖𝑠 𝐶

The work absorbed by the compressor is:

𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑝 𝑅𝑇1 𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑝 𝑅𝑇1 𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟

𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ℎ2𝑖𝑟𝑟 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 �𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 − 𝑇1 � = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 � − 1� = � − 1� = � − 1� =
𝑇1 𝑅 𝑇1 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 𝑇1

𝑐𝑝 𝑘−1
𝑐𝑣 𝑅𝑇1 𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑇2𝑖𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑝2 𝑘
= 𝑐 −𝑐 � − 1� = � − 1� = �� � − 1�
𝑝 𝑣 𝑇1 𝑘 − 1 𝑇1 𝑘 − 1 𝑝1
𝑐𝑣

𝑘−1
𝑘𝑅𝑇1 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = �� � − 1�
𝑘 − 1 𝑝1

From the equation above it’s clear that the work absorbed by the compressor is proportional to the
suction temperature 𝑇1 ; this means that the lower is 𝑇1 , the lower will be the work absorbed by the
machine. Intercooled compression is a method that, dividing the entire process into two or more
processes of compression and using one or more cooler, allows reducing the suction temperature of
each sub-process, reducing the total expanse of work.
5 Euler’s Turbomachinery Equation
The Euler Equation regulates the exchange of work between a Turbomachine and the fluid handled by it.
The equation is based on the concepts of conservation of angular momentum and conservation of
energy.

Let’s consider a generic Turbomachinery; it can be an engine, a gas turbine, or a machine that adsorbs
work, a compressor or a pump.

Fig. 5.1: Model of generic rotating equipment

Let’s suppose that a generic fluid enters the rotating part of the machine at radius 𝑟1 with absolute
velocity 𝑐1 and leaves it at radius 𝑟2 with absolute velocity 𝑐2 .

The inlet velocity and the outlet one have respectively these components:

- Meridian inlet 𝑐1𝑚

- Tangential inlet 𝑐1𝑢
- Axial inlet 𝑐1𝑎
- Meridian outlet 𝑐2𝑚
- Tangential outlet 𝑐2𝑢
- Axial outlet 𝑐2𝑎

Axial components of the velocity generate forces absorbed by thrust bearings, while meridian
components generate forces that tend to bend the shaft and that are dumped down by journal bearings;
the only components whose variation generate forces responsible of work exchange between fluid and
machine are the tangential ones: 𝑐1𝑢 and 𝑐2𝑢 .

If we apply the conservation of angular momentum equation (here we won’t deepen this argument), we
note that:

𝑑𝑚�𝑟1 𝑐1𝑢 − 𝑟2 𝑐2𝑢 � = 𝑇𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑚
�𝑟 𝑐 − 𝑟2 𝑐2𝑢 � = 𝑇
𝑑𝑡 1 1𝑢

𝑚̇�𝑟1 𝑐1𝑢 − 𝑟2 𝑐2𝑢 � = 𝑇

This means:

𝑃
𝑚̇�𝑟1 𝑐1𝑢 − 𝑟2 𝑐2𝑢 � =
𝜔

𝑚̇𝜔�𝑟1 𝑐1𝑢 − 𝑟2 𝑐2𝑢 � = 𝑃

Considering that peripheral velocity of the machine is 𝑢 = 𝜔𝑟, it is:

𝑃 = 𝑚̇�𝑢1 𝑐1𝑢 − 𝑢2 𝑐2𝑢 �

𝐿 = 𝑚�𝑢1 𝑐1𝑢 − 𝑢2 𝑐2𝑢 �

This equation includes parameters responsible of the exchange of work between a fluid and a
Turbomachinery.
Starting from the above equation and considering some geometrical relations between absolute,
peripheral and relative velocity (triangles of velocity), it is possible to write:
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 𝑤2 − 𝑤1
𝑃 = 𝑚̇ � + + �
2 2 2
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 𝑤2 − 𝑤1
𝐿 = 𝑚� + + �
2 2 2

This equation, with opportune modifications, can be used to describe the exchange of work between a
fluid and a generic Turbomachinery.

6 Recommended Books

- Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery (6th Edition); Dixon, Hall

- Thermodynamics; Fermi, Enrico

- Understanding Thermodynamics; Van Ness, H. C.

- Thermodynamics – Foundations and Applications; Gyftopoulos, Elias P; Beretta, Gian Paolo